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change taking place at one temperature e.g., in pure metals or over a range of temperature e.g., in binary alloys. Instead of explicitly tracking the liquid-solid front as the phase change occurs, which requires a moving mesh methodology, an enthalpy-porosity formulation is used where the ow and enthalpy equations are solved with extra source terms on the xed grid. Marangoni shear, due to the variation of surface tension with temperature, is important in many industrial uid ow situations involving phase change. The phase change model in FLUENT provides the ability to specify the Marangoni gradient at a sloping surface, as well as an arbitrary shear at a boundary coinciding with one of the curvilinear grid lines. The model also allows you to specify the convective heat transfer, radiation, and heat ux at a wall as piecewise linear pro les, polynomials, or harmonic functions. FLUENT provides the following phase change modeling options: Calculation of liquid-solid phase change in pure metals as well as in binary alloys. Modeling of continuous casting processes i.e., pulling" of solid material out of the domain.
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These modeling capabilities allow FLUENT to simulate a wide range of phase change problems including melting, solidi cation, crystal growth and continuous casting. The physical equations used for these phase change calculations are described in the following sections. Limitations of the As mentioned above, the phase change formulation in FLUENT Phase Change can be used to model the melting freezing of pure materials, as Model well as alloys. The liquid fraction versus temperature relationship used in FLUENT is the lever rule|i.e., a linear relationship Equation 8.2-3. Other relationships are possible 124 , but not available in FLUENT. The following FLUENT features cannot be used in conjunction with the phase change model: Radiation Combustion Speci ed periodic mass ow Cylindrical velocities
Overview of Phase In order for you to enable the phase change model, the energy equaChange Modeling tion must be active. You are then required to supply additional Procedures physical constants pertaining to the phase change problem liquidus
and solidus temperature, latent heat of freezing, etc.. You may invoke one of the enhanced boundary conditions that are available
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in the phase change model applied shear, free surface with surface tension gradient, or mixed heat transfer. Before solving the coupled uid ow and heat transfer problem, you should patch an initial temperature and latent heat distribution or solve the steady conduction problem as an initial condition. The coupled problem can then be solved as either steady or unsteady. Because of the nonlinear nature of these problems, however, in most cases an unsteady solution approach is preferred.
h = href +
where href = reference enthalpy Tref = reference temperature c = speci c heat at constant pressure The total enthalpy, H , is therefore
p
Tref
c dT
p
8.2-1
8.2-2 where H is the latent heat content. The latent heat content may vary between zero solid and L liquid, the latent heat of the material. Thus, the liquid fraction, , can be de ned as = H = 0
H = h + H
if T
Tsolidus
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if T
if Tsolidus
For phase change problems, the energy equation is written in terms of the total enthalpy as
@ h + @ H + @ u h + @ u H = @ krT + S @t @t @x @x @x
i i i i i
8.2-4
= density = uid velocity = Cartesian coordinate directions = thermal conductivity = source term Note that there are two extra terms containing H on the left-hand side. The rst is an unsteady latent heat content term; the second results in latent heat release when there is steady advection, as in continuous casting. There are two unknowns in Equation 8.2-4: h and H or, alternately, the liquid fraction, . The value of H depends on the temperature, as shown by Equation 8.2-3; H , in turn, changes the temperature through Equation 8.2-4. Thus, the additional equation required to obtain H is the H T relation given in Equation 8.2-3. Note that the H T relationship is di erent for di erent alloy systems. Equation 8.2-3 is the lever" rule. Solution Procedure The solution for temperature is essentially an iteration between Equations 8.2-3 and 8.2-4. FLUENT uses the iterative procedure outlined in 137 . First, a guess is made for the temperature and liquid fraction or the previously-calculated values are used. These values will, in general, be inconsistent in that both Equations 8.2-3 and 8.2-4 will not simultaneously be satis ed. The solution technique employed is then to alternate between Equations 8.2-3 and 8.2-4, manipulating the liquid fraction according to
where
u x k S
H
+1
= H +
n
c T , T
p
c
8.2-5
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= current solution for latent heat content = latent heat content from previous iteration = underrelaxation factor T = Tliquidus , Tsolidus + Tsolidus Essentially, Equation 8.2-5 nudges H in the right direction, making H and the temperature consistent. You have control over the underrelaxation factor, , used in Equation 8.2-5. The label for this underrelaxation factor appears as DELH in the EXPERT UNDERRELAX-1 table or the Underrelaxation panel. The implementation in the enthalpy-porosity technique in FLUENT applies Equation 8.2-5 to each control volume many times during an iteration. The uid ow and temperature are solved over the domain, assuming a certain value of the liquid fraction. Then several inner iterations of Equation 8.2-5 are performed for each point in the domain, and the liquid fraction is updated. An update of properties completes one outer iteration. Velocity Treatment The procedure described above yields the temperature eld and the liquid fraction. When the liquid fraction in a control volume is less than unity, as in the mushy zone, a large sink is applied to each of the momentum equations to damp the velocity. The sink in the momentum equations takes the form
+1
n H
1 , 2 A u , u 3 + mush
i p;i p;i
8.2-6
where Amush = mushy zone constant u = pull velocity = small number to prevent division by zero Amush is a constant that measures the amplitude of the damping; values between 104 and 107 are recommended for most computations. The higher this value, the steeper the damping curve becomes, and the faster u drops to zero as the material freezes. Very large values may cause the solution to oscillate as control volumes alternately freeze and thaw with minor perturbations in liquid fraction. The term u is the pull velocity vector and it appears when continuous casting processes are being modeled. The presence of this term in Equation 8.2-6 allows newly solidi ed material to move at the pull velocity. A description of this feature is given in the next section.
i p;i
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Model
MODELING OPTIONS NO ALLOW LINK SETTING NO ALLOW PROFILE SETTING NO ALLOW HEAT FLUX BOUNDARY CONDITIONS NO ALLOW EXTERNAL HEAT TRANSFER WALLS NO ALLOW WALL CONDUCTION NO ENABLE CONVECTION IN CONDUCTING WALLS NO ALLOW HEAT CONDUCTION FOR INLETS NO INCLUDE EXTERNAL RADIATION BC NO SET EMISSIVITY FOR INLETS OUTLET NO ENABLE NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW MODEL NO ENABLE POROUS FLOW MODEL NO ENABLE MOLE FRACTION INPUTS OTHERWISE MASS FRACTION NO ENABLE FAN RADIATOR MODEL NO ALLOW FIXED PRESSURE BOUNDARIES NO ALLOW SETTING FLOW ANGLES FOR PRESSURE-INLETS NO ENABLE STEADY CORIOLIS FORCE NO ENABLE MULTIPLE ROTATING REFERENCE FRAMES NO ENABLE SLIDING MESH CALCULATION YES ACTIVATE PHASE CHANGE MODELLING NO ENABLE DEFORMING MESH CALCULATION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Note that the energy equation must be active i.e., you must have enabled calculation of temperature in the Models panel or in the DEFINE-MODELS menu. Physical Constants The physical constants for the phase change problem are set in the SETUP-1 PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS menu. When the phase change model is active, you will notice the following additional choices in this menu: SURFACE-TENSION-GRADIENT, CONTACT-RESISTANCE and PHASE-CHANGE. These options are described below.
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Surface Tension The menu selection SURFACE-TENSION-GRADIENT de nes the variGradient for ation of surface tension with temperature, d =dT . This paramMarangoni Flow eter is used to compute the surface-tension-gradient-driven shear
Marangoni shear on a boundary. For example, if the temperature gradient along an arc, s, is dT=ds, the applied shear stress is taken to be = d =dT dT
This shear stress is then decomposed into its Cartesian components and applied to the momentum equations. The example table below shows the input of the surface tension gradient
ds
8.3-1
@ = ,3:6 10,4 @T
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS: DENSITY VISCOSITY THERMAL-CONDUCTIVITY CP-SPECIFIC-HEAT OPERATING-PRESSURE SURFACE-TENSION-GRADIENT CONTACT-RESISTANCE PHASE-CHANGE QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHYSICAL-CONSTANTSSTG R- ENTER SURFACE-TENSION GRADIENT R- UNITS= N M K ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ -3.6E-04
8.3-2
The Marangoni shear boundary condition may be applied to any bounding face of the computational domain, both for external boundaries and interior regions. However, the face must be a free surface i.e., a Z-WALL with slip|see Z-WALL boundary conditions below. Contact Resistance The menu selection CONTACT-RESISTANCE de nes an additional heat transfer resistance between walls and cells with liquid fraction less than unity. This accounts for the presence of an air gap between the walls and the frozen solid. Thus, the wall heat ux, as shown in Figure 8.3.1, is written as
T q = l=k, T +R
I w c
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8.3-3
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TI
TW
q q
TI
q
l/k
RC
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Phase Change The phase change properties for the melting solidi cation problem Properties are speci ed through the PHASE-CHANGE command: MAIN ,! SETUP-1 ,! PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS ,! PHASE-CHANGE
FLUENT rst asks you to de ne the SOLIDUS
in Equation 8.2-3:
TEMPERATURE, Tsolidus
R- ENTER SOLIDUS TEMPERATURE R- UNITS= K ++DEFAULT 1.1000E+03++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
TEMPERATURE, Tliquidus
in Equation 8.2-3:
HEAT OF FREEZING
Finally, enter the MUSHY ZONE CONSTANT, Amush in Equation 8.2-6, which determines the damping of velocities in the mushy zone.
R- ENTER MUSHY ZONE CONSTANT R- UNITS= KG M3 S ++DEFAULT 1.0000E+04++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
Enhanced One important concept to note is the de nition and use of the Boundary Z-WALL cells. When the phase change model is enabled, these are no Conditions longer ordinary wall cells like W-WALL cells, but are used for speci-
fying the enhanced boundary conditions: applied shear, mixed heat transfer and Marangoni surface tension gradient shear boundary
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SETUP1BC Z 1 L- CUT VELOCITY LINKS TO MUSHY CELLS ? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-YES++ YES L- ACTIVATE NO-SLIP CONDITION ? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ NO L- ACTIVATE SPECIFIED-TEMPERATURE BOUNDARY ? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ NO COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: Z-WALL-BC QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS-
| The response to this question determines how the wall in uences the motion of adjacent solid cells and mushy cells. The default response is YES; that is, the wall is frictionless. An answer of NO will cause the velocity of the solidi ed material to be retarded accelerated by the wall velocity. ACTIVATE NO-SLIP CONDITION ? | The default NO is a slip condition, which allows you to specify a free surface if desired. An answer of YES will allow you to input Cartesian velocity components at the wall. ACTIVATE SPECIFIED-TEMPERATURE BOUNDARY ? | The default is NO which enables the mixed combined convection, radiation and speci ed heat ux heat transfer boundary condition. An answer of YES will allow you to specify a xed temperature at the boundary. In this case, the only option available in
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the Z-WALL-BC command see below will be applied shear, and the xed temperature will be requested in the Z-WALL ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS menu.
Mixed Heat The mixed heat transfer boundary condition is governed by the Transfer and Shear following equation: Stress Boundary 4 qnet = h T , Tenv + T 4 , Trad , qapplied 8.3-4 Conditions at
c
Z-WALLS
where qnet is the total heat ux at the boundary. You may toggle" on and o the various contributions to the right side of this equation by specifying nonzero or zero values for the convection heat transfer coe cient h , the wall emissivity , and the applied heat ux qapplied . In the following dialog, only the constants for convection heat transfer at the boundary are speci ed. In addition, the applied shear at the boundary is set to zero default.
c
Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONSZ-WALL-BC R- HEAT TRANS. COEFF. R- UNITS= WATTS M.SQ-K ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 1. R- CONVECTIVE ENV. TEMP. R- UNITS= KELVIN ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 295. R- EMISSIVITY R- UNITS= DIMENSIONLESS ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. R- RADIATIVE ENV. TEMP. R- UNITS= KELVIN ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. R- HEAT FLUX R- UNITS= WATTS M.SQ. ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. R- SHEAR-STRESS R- UNITS= PASCALS ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: Z-WALL-BC QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS-
Note that the enhanced boundary conditions can also be speci ed as piecewise linear or polynomial pro les. This option is enabled
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EXPERT ,!PHASE-CHANGE-OPTIONS
L- TURN ON THE DEL.RHO U DELH TERM IN THE H-EQN? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++
tails are given below. By default, the boundary conditions are such that the solid will slide past all walls and will be pulled with a velocity equal to the inlet velocity to which the solid is attached. You may choose to attach the solid to a wall by not cutting the links to mushy cells. The pull rate may be speci ed by creating an inlet where the temperature is below the solidus temperature. The inlet may have a normal velocity pointing into or out of the domain i.e., either pushing" or pulling" is possible. Multiple pull rates may be speci ed by using more than one such inlet. Rotation of the pulled material can also be included by input of an angular velocity de ning the rotation. To determine which pull rate is to be associated with which newlysolidi ed material and with what velocity the solid should move, a Laplace equation is solved for the pull velocity:
r ru = 0
p;i
8.3-5
The coe cient is similar to viscosity and determines whether the solid slips along a boundary. As mentioned above, by default all walls are slip; therefore, is 0. At inlets, the default is no-slip and FLUENT sets to 1. Thus, it is possible to pull the solid at a pull velocity, V , as shown in Figure 8.3.2, without having it retarded by the stationary walls.
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Mushy Zone
Solid
Wall
Figure 8.3.2: Pulling" a Solid in Continuous Casting Equation 8.3-5 is a vector equation; the pull rate may have all three components. Thus, three Laplace equations are solved in three dimensions. These equations are not underrelaxed. They are solved using the line-by-line solver in FLUENT. To activate the solution of the pull velocities, you must set a nonzero number of sweeps in the SWEEPS-OF-LGS-SOLVER menu or in the Line Gauss Parameters panel:
Solve ,! Controls ,!Line Gauss...
,! SWEEPS-OF-LGS-
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LINEAR-EQN.-SOLVERSW NUMBER OF SWEEPS SWEEP DIRECTION 5 PRESSURE-CORRECTION 1 U-VELOCITY 1 V-VELOCITY 10 LATENT-HEAT-ITERATIONS 0 PULL-U-VELOCITY 0 PULL-V-VELOCITY 1 ENTHALPY 1 SWEEP DIRECTION I=1, J=2 YES ALTERNATE SWEEP DIRECTION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Energy Source
When the number of sweeps is set equal to zero, FLUENT will not calculate the corresponding component of the pull velocity vector. In this case, you may specify the desired value of the pull vector using the PATCH command. The pull velocities are PULL-U-VELOCITY, PULL-V-VELOCITY and PULL-W-VELOCITY. Angular velocity can also be patched. It is possible to specify additional sources of momentum and heat within the domain. For example, the simulation of a plasma melting process may require the speci cation of a force eld and heat generation in the domain. Another example is the use of magnetic force elds to damp the velocities in crystal growth processes. You can specify additional momentum sources in each control volume for each momentum equation by patching the values SOURCE-XMOM, SOURCE-Y-MOM and SOURCE-Z-MOM. The patched values remain in e ect throughout the simulation. These momentum sources have the units force volume. Thus, patching of these quantities is to be distinguished from patching of the absolute force quantities using EXCHANGE-X, EXCHANGE-Y, and EXCHANGE-Z. You can specify an additional energy source in each control volume by patching the values of SOURCE-HEAT. The patched values remain in e ect throughout the simulation. The sign convention is that a positive value of SOURCE-HEAT represents heat added to the uid. This source has the units energy volume-time and so is analogous to patching of EXCHANGE-HEAT. Note the di erence in sign convention, however.
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8-16
NUMBER OF SWEEPS SWEEP DIRECTION 10 PRESSURE-CORRECTION 1 U-VELOCITY 1 V-VELOCITY 1 W-VELOCITY 10 LATENT-HEAT-ITERATIONS 20 PULL-U-VELOCITY 20 PULL-V-VELOCITY 20 PULL-W-VELOCITY 5 ENTHALPY 1 SWEEP DIRECTION I=1, J=2 YES ALTERNATE SWEEP DIRECTION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
The suggested value for the underrelaxation factor for Equation 8.2-5 and the enthalpy equation is 0.5.
Chapter 9.
The Eulerian multiphase model in FLUENT allows for the modeling of multiple separate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids, gases, or solids in nearly any combination. An Eulerian treatment is used for each phase, in contrast to the Eulerian-Lagrangian treatment that is used for the dispersed phase model. Information about the Eulerian multiphase model is divided into the following sections: Section 9.1: Overview of Multiphase Modeling in FLUENT Section 9.2: Features of the Eulerian Multiphase Model Section 9.3: Examples of Eulerian Multiphase Capabilities Section 9.4: Eulerian Multiphase Theory Section 9.5: Solution Method in FLUENT Section 9.6: Eulerian Multiphase Flow Modeling Strategies Section 9.7: Using the Eulerian Multiphase Model in FLUENT Section 9.8: Postprocessing Eulerian Multiphase Results
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Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model Examples of Some examples of complex multiphase systems are listed below: Multiphase Systems Fluid- uid multiphase systems
Gas-liquid droplet systems: atomizers, scrubbers, dryers, absorbers, combustors, gas cooling, evaporation, cryogenic pumping Liquid-gas bubble systems: absorbers, evaporators, scrubbers, air lift pumps, cavitation, otation, aeration, nuclear reactors Liquid-gas systems: boiling and nuclear reactor safety, surface waves of air over water Liquid-liquid systems: extraction, emulsi cation, separators, homogenization Fluid-solid multiphase systems Gas-solid particle systems: cyclones, pneumatic conveyors, dust collectors, uidized bed reactors, circulating bed reactors, uid catalytic cracking, metallized propellant rockets, xerography, air classiers, biomedical and physiochemical uid systems, silos, dust-laden environmental ows Liquid-solid particle systems: slurry transport, sedimentation, otation, suspension, and some powder milling
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The particle or droplet trajectories are computed individually at speci ed intervals during the uid phase calculation. This makes the model appropriate for the modeling of spray dryers, coal and liquid fuel combustion, and some particle-laden ows, but inappropriate for the modeling of liquid-liquid mixtures, uidized beds, or any application where the volume fraction of the second phase is not negligible. In the Euler-Euler approach, the di erent phases are treated mathematically as interpenetrating continua. Since the volume of a phase cannot be occupied by the other phases, the concept of phasic volume fraction is introduced. These volume fractions are assumed to be continuous functions of space and time and their sum is equal to one. Conservation equations for each phase are derived to obtain a set of equations which have similar structure for all phases. These equations are closed by providing constitutive relations which are obtained from empirical information, or, in the case of granular ows, by application of kinetic theory. In FLUENT, two di erent Euler-Euler multiphase models are available: the VOF Volume of Fluid Model and the Eulerian Multiphase Model. In the VOF model described in Chapter 10 a single set of transport equations is solved, and the phases do not mix. The interface between phases is de ned by solution of a transport equation and di usion across the interface is prevented. Applications of the VOF model include strati ed ows, free-surface ows, lling, sloshing, and jet breakup surface tension. The Eulerian multiphase model solves a set of n momentum, enthalpy, continuity and m species for each phase. Coupling is achieved through the pressure and interphase exchange coe cients. The manner in which this coupling is handled depends upon the type of phases involved; granular uid-solid ows are handled di erently than nongranular uid- uid ows. For granular ows, the properties are obtained from application of kinetic theory. Momentum exchange between the phases is also dependent upon the type of mixture being modeled. FLUENT's user-de ned subroutine capability allows customization of the calculation of the momentum exchange and heat exchange.
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Granular If one phase is a uid and one or more of the phases is a solid, Fluid-Solid Flows the ow is characterized as granular. For this class of ows, the
FLUENT solution is based on the following:
The uid is represented by the primary phase. All secondary phases are solids i.e., you cannot model a granular ow that involves more than one uid phase. The uid pressure eld is shared by all phases. A solids pressure eld is calculated for each solid phase.
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Momentum, enthalpy, and continuity equations are solved for each phase. The gas law can be used for the primary phase. Granular temperature solids uctuating energy can be calculated for each solid phase. Solid-phase shear and bulk viscosities are obtained from application of kinetic theory to granular ows. Simple and uid-solid granular interphase drag coe cients are used for spherical particles. You can modify the interphase drag coe cient through user-de ned subroutines see Chapter 20. m species can be solved for each phase. Homogeneous reactions are allowed for each phase. Mass transfer is allowed between the phases. The k- turbulence model is available for each phase.
with the Eulerian multiphase model, except for the following limitations: The RNG k- and Reynolds Stress models for turbulence cannot be used. Particle tracking using the Lagrangian dispersed phase model interacts only with the primary phase. Speci ed periodic mass ow is not allowed. Compressible ow is not allowed. The Eulerian multiphase model cannot be used with sliding or deforming meshes. Phase change melting, freezing is not allowed. Heterogeneous reactions i.e., reactions between phases are not allowed, except via user-de ned subroutines.
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Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model Stability and The process of solving a multiphase system is inherently di cult, Convergence and you may encounter stability or convergence di culties. In gen-
eral, mixtures involving phases with large density di erences e.g., water and air may require more computational e ort than mixtures where the densities are closer in magnitude. There are physical limitations when the volume fraction of a secondary phase increases to its maximum possible value i.e., the packing limit for a solid phase or 1.0 for a uid phase. In such cases the momentum exchange law may not be valid and convergence problems may appear. Strati ed ows of immiscible uids can be solved more e ciently with the VOF model see Chapter 10. Some problems involving small volume fractions can be solved more e ciently with the Lagrangian dispersed phase model see Chapter 11. Granular ows, solved in a transient manner, are usually stable and well behaved, whether in combination with a liquid or a gas. Many stability and convergence problems can be minimized if care is taken during the setup and solution processes see Section 9.6. Below are two examples of problems that have been solved using FLUENT. Brief problem descriptions are followed by gures illustrating the results. A tutorial that illustrates the setup and solution process in more detail is included in the FLUENT Tutorial Guide.
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lower momentum of the air causes it to collect in the recirculating region just downstream of the junction. Figure 9.3.5 shows the volume fraction of air in the duct.
Y Z X
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Y Z X
Figure 9.3.2: Grid for the Tee-Junction, Showing the Junction Area
2.52E+00 2.43E+00 2.34E+00 2.26E+00 2.17E+00 2.08E+00 2.00E+00 1.91E+00 1.82E+00 1.74E+00 1.65E+00 1.56E+00 1.48E+00 1.39E+00 1.30E+00 1.22E+00 1.13E+00 1.04E+00 9.57E-01 8.70E-01 7.83E-01 6.97E-01 6.10E-01 5.23E-01 4.37E-01 3.50E-01 2.64E-01 1.77E-01 9.02E-02 3.53E-03
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Water Velocity Vectors (M/S) Max = 2.517E+00 Min = 3.533E-03
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3.22E-06 -1.15E-04 -2.34E-04 -3.52E-04 -4.71E-04 -5.89E-04 -7.08E-04 -8.26E-04 -9.45E-04 -1.06E-03 -1.18E-03 -1.30E-03 -1.42E-03 -1.54E-03 -1.66E-03 -1.77E-03 -1.89E-03 -2.01E-03 -2.13E-03 -2.25E-03 -2.37E-03 -2.48E-03 -2.60E-03 -2.72E-03 -2.84E-03 -2.96E-03 -3.08E-03 -3.20E-03 -3.31E-03 -3.43E-03 -3.55E-03
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Air Stream Function (M2/S) Max = 3.222E-06 Min = -3.551E-03
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Air Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 9.859E-01 Min = 1.000E-06
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3.00E-01
1.00E-06
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Grid (left) and Solids Volume Fraction (right) Lmax = 5.999E-01 Lmin = 1.000E-06 Time = 0.000E+00
Figure 9.3.6: Grid and Initial Bed Con guration in white At t = 0, a uniform vertical air ow of 0.284 m s passes from the lower boundary through the bed. At t 0, a narrow, vertical jet of air, 0.03 m wide, is injected at the center of the bottom boundary. The velocity of the jet is 3.55 m sec. A laminar solution is performed, using a time step of 10,3 sec. As the jet begins to penetrate the bed, it displaces the solids. This is illustrated in Figures 9.3.7a and 9.3.7b, where the air and solids velocities, respectively, are displayed at t = 0:1 sec.
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3.73E+00 3.62E+00 3.50E+00 3.38E+00 3.26E+00 3.14E+00 3.02E+00 2.91E+00 2.79E+00 2.67E+00 2.55E+00 2.43E+00 2.32E+00 2.20E+00 2.08E+00 1.96E+00 1.84E+00 1.73E+00 1.61E+00 1.49E+00 1.37E+00 1.25E+00 1.13E+00 1.02E+00 8.98E-01 7.80E-01 6.62E-01 5.44E-01 4.26E-01 3.07E-01
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Air Velocity Vectors (M/S) Lmax = 3.734E+00 Lmin = 3.074E-01 Time = 1.000E-01
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Solids Velocity Vectors (M/S) Lmax = 5.208E-01 Lmin = 0.000E+00 Time = 1.000E-01
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Bubble formation at (clockwise from upper left) t=0.05,0.1,0.2, and 0.3 sec Dec 06 1994 Air Volume Fraction (Dim) Fluent 4.30 Lmax = 1.000E+00 Lmin = 4.001E-01 Fluent Inc.
Figure 9.3.8: Bubble Formation in a Fluidized Bed The e ect of the bed on the air jet is evidenced by the time it takes for the top of the bubble to reach the top of the bed roughly 0.3 sec. An unimpeded uid element in the air jet would take 0.3 m 3.55 m sec or 0.0845 seconds to reach the same height. The work required to displace the solids in the bed slows the air jet, which in turn leads to the spreading of the jet which can be seen in Figure 9.3.8.
9.4 Theory
To change from a single-phase model, where a single set of conservation equations for momentum and continuity is solved, to a multiphase model, additional sets of conservation equations must be introduced. In the process of introducing additional sets of conservation equations, the original set must also be modi ed. The modi cations involve, among other things, the introduction of the
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9.4 Theory
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volume fractions 1; 2; : : : n for the multiple phases, as well as a mechanism for the exchange of momentum between the phases.
Vq =
where
n X q=1
q dV
9.4-1
=1
9.4-2
9.4-3
where q is the physical density of phase q, which, in the case of a gas, can obey the local gas law.
Mass
@ @t
q +r
u q~ q =
n X p=1
mpq _
9.4-4
9-14
mpq = ,mqp _ _
and mpp = 0 _ Conservation of The momentum balance for phase q yields
9.4-5
Momentum
@ @t
u u q q~ q + r q q~ q
~ q = , q rp + r q + u n X~ Rpq + mpq~ pq _ u
p=1
~ q q Fq +
9.4-6
where q is the qth phase stress-strain tensor q = 2 q q S q + q q , 2 q r ~ q I u 3 and S q = 1 r~ q + r~ q T u 2 u 9.4-7 9.4-8
~ Here q and q are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q, Fq is an ~ external body force, Rpq is an interaction force between phases, is a dyadic product, and p is the pressure shared by all phases. ~ pq is the interphase velocity, de ned as follows. If mpq 0 i.e., u _ phase p mass is being transferred to phase q, ~ pq = ~ p; if mpq 0 u u _ i.e., phase q mass is being transferred to phase p, ~ pq = ~ q ; and u u ~ pq = ~ qp. u u Equation 9.4-6 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the ~ interphase force Rpq . This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion, and other e ects, and is subject to the conditions that ~ ~ ~ Rpq = ,Rqp and Rqq = 0. FLUENT uses a simple interaction term of the form
p=1 n n X~ X Rpq = Kpq ~ p , ~ q u u p=1
9.4-9
9.4 Theory
9-15
where Kpq = Kqp is the interphase momentum exchange coe cient described in Sections 9.4.3 and 9.4.4. Conservation of To describe the conservation of energy in multiphase applications, Energy a separate enthalpy equation can be written for each phase:
@ @t
u q q hq + r q q ~ q hq
where hq is the speci c enthalpy of the qth phase, ~q is the heat ux, q Sq is a source term that includes sources of enthalpy e.g., due to chemical reaction or radiation, Qpq is the intensity of heat exchange between the pth and qth phases, and hpq is the interphase enthalpy e.g., the enthalpy of the vapor at the temperature of the droplets, in the case of evaporation. The heat exchange between phases must comply with the local balance conditions Qpq = ,Qqp and Qqq = 0. Conservation of the The closure of the equation set is completed by conservation equaith Species in the tions for the prediction of the mass fraction of the ith species in the qth Phase qth phase:
@ @t
i i i u i _i q q mq + r q q ~ q mq = r q q Dq rmq + mq 9.4-11
i where miq is the mass fraction of the ith species in the qth phase, Dq th species in the mixture of the q th phase, is the di usivity of the i and miq is the rate of production destruction of the ith species. In _ addition, an equation of state for the uid mixture and expressions for the thermodynamic properties are needed.
9-16
@ @t
u u q q~ q + r q q~ q
~ q = , q rp + r q + q q ~ + u g n X Kpq ~ p , ~ q + mpq~ pq + u u _ u
p=1
~ Fq
9.4-12
~ Here ~ is the acceleration due to gravity and Fq represents additional g momentum sources. The stress-strain tensor q ij in component form is given by
q;ij
The Volume The momentum equations are subject to the constraint that the Fraction volume fractions add to unity:
n X q=1 q
=1
9.4-13
9.4-14
where rq = q = q;ref and q;ref is a constant reference density. The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the condition given by Equation 9.4-13, allows for the calculation of the primary-phase volume fraction. This treatment is common to uid- uid and granular ows. The Exchange It can be seen in Equation 9.4-12 that momentum exchange between Coe cient the phases is based on the value of the exchange coe cient, Kpq . For uid- uid ows, each secondary phase is assumed to form droplets or bubbles. This has an impact on how each of the uids is assigned to a particular phase. For example, in ows where there are unequal amounts of two uids, the predominant uid should be modeled as the primary uid, since the sparser uid is more likely to form droplets or bubbles. The exchange coe cient for these types of bubbly liquid-liquid or gas-liquid mixtures is 13 :
9.4 Theory
3 Kpq = 4 CD
9-17
u u p q j~ p , ~ q j dp
9.4-15
where q is the density of the primary phase q, dp is the droplet or bubble diameter of the secondary phase p, j~ p , ~ q j is the relative u u phase velocity, and CD is a drag function based on the relative Reynolds number. The drag function is obtained from
for Re 1000, and CD = 0:44 for Re 1000, where the relative Reynolds number for the primary phase q and secondary phase p is obtained from
24
CD = Re 1 + 0:15Re0:687
9.4-16
u ,u Re = q j~ p ~ q jdp q
9.4-17
The exchange coe cient for secondary phases p and r is assumed to be symmetric, with the following form: 3 u u Krp = 4 CD rpj~dr , ~ pj rp 9.4-18
where rp = p p + r r is the mixture density of the two secondary phases, drp = 1 dr + dp is the averaged particle diameter, and 2 j~ p , ~ r j is the relative velocity. The drag coe cient is obtained u u from Equation 9.4-16 but with a relative Reynolds number of the form
Re =
u u rp j~ r , ~ pjdrp rp
9.4-19
where rp = pp + r r is the mixture viscosity of the phases p and r. These exchange coe cients are suited for the bubbly or droplet ow regimes, in which the primary phase dominates. Application of Equations 9.4-15 and 9.4-18 to slug or annular regimes, for example, reduces the accuracy of Eulerian multiphase simulations. For these ow regimes, the exchange coe cients must be modi ed or replaced. Numerous models for the exchange term are present in
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9-18
@ @t
u u f f~f + r f f~f
@ @t
u u s s~ s + r s s ~ s
~ s = , srp , rps + r s + u
c
g s s~ +
9.4 Theory
M X
9-19
~ Kls~ l , ~ s + mls~ ls + Fs + u u _ u
l=1 Kfs~ f u
, ~ s + mfs~ fs 9.4-21 u _ u
where ps is the sth solids pressure, Kfs = Ksf is the uid-solid momentum exchange coe cient, Kls is the solid-solid momentum exchange coe cient between solid phases l and s, and M is the total number of solid phases. The sth solids stress-strain tensor sij in component form is given by
s;ij
9.4-22
exchange coe cient Ksf = Kfs and the solid-solid exchange coefcient Kls. The Fluid-Solid The uid-solid exchange coe cient Ksf has a form derived by SyamExchange lal and O'Brien 126 127 , and is based on measurements of the Coe cient terminal velocities of particles in uidized or settling beds, with correlations that are a function of the volume fraction and relative Reynolds number 105
The Exchange It can be seen in Equations 9.4-20 and 9.4-21 that momentum exCoe cients change between the phases is based on the value of the uid-solid
u u Res = f dsj~ s , ~ f j 9.4-23 f where the subscript f is for the uid phase, s is for the sth solid phase, and ds is the diameter of the sth solid phase particles. The uid-solid exchange coe cient has the form 3 s f f C Res
j~ , ~ j Ksf = 4v2 d D v us uf 9.4-24 rs rs s
where vrs is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase s 35 :
0:06Res
9.4-25
9-20
with and for
f
0:85, and
B = 0:8 B=
for f 0:85. The drag coe cient has a form derived by Dalla Valle 26 :
2:65 f
9.4-29
The Solid-Solid The solid-solid exchange coe cient Kls has the following form 125 : Exchange Coe cient Kls =
3 1 + els
els is the coe cient of restitution described later in this section Cf;ls is the coe cient of friction between the lth and sth solid-phase particles Cf;ls = 0 dl is the diameter of the particles of solid l gols is the radial distribution coe cient described below The Solids Pressure For granular ows in the compressible regime i.e., where the solids volume fraction is less than its maximum allowed value, a solids pressure is calculated independently and used for the pressure gradient term, @Pjs , in the granular phase momentum equation. Because @x a Maxwellian velocity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids pressure and viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic term and a second term due to particle collisions: Ps =
2 s s s + 2 s 1 + ess s go ss s
where
9.4-31
where ess is the coe cient of restitution for particle collisions, goss is the radial distribution function, and s is the granular temperature. FLUENT uses a default value of 0.8 for ess, but the value can be
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9.4 Theory
9-21
adjusted to suit the particle type. The granular temperature s is proportional to the kinetic energy of the uctuating particle motion, and will be described later in this section. The function goss described below in more detail is a distribution function that governs the transition from the compressible" condition with s;max , where the spacing between the solid particles can continue to decrease, to the incompressible" condition with = s;max, where no further decrease in the spacing can occur. A value of 0.6 is the default for s;max. This can be changed by the user. Radial Distribution The radial distribution function go is a correction factor that modiFunction es the probability of collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. This function may also be interpreted as the nondimensional distance between spheres:
go = s + dp s
9.4-32
where s is the distance between grains. From Equation 9.4-32 it can be observed that for a dilute solid phase s ! 1, and therefore go ! 1. In the limit when the solid phase compacts, s ! 0 and go ! 1. The radial distribution function is closely connected to the factor of Chapman and Cowling's 18 theory of nonuniform gases. is equal to unity for a rare gas, and increases and tends to in nity when the molecules are so close together that motion is not possible. In the literature there is no unique formulation for the radial distribution function. FLUENT employs Syamlal et al. 127 expressions when the number of solid phases is greater than or equal to 1. For collisions between grains of phase l and grains of phase m, the following expression is used:
golm = 1 +
f
9.4-33
9.4-34
These equations were derived theoretically by Lebowitz 73 and do not approach in nity near the packing limit. FLUENT can also use
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s s;max
! 3,1 5
1 3
9.4-35
This equation is that proposed in 92 and corrected by a factor of 3 5 to match the measured data of 2 . When the number of solid phases is greater than 1, Equation 9.4-35 is extended to 3 goll = 5 41 , with
l;max
l l;max
! 3,1 5
1 3
9.4-36
max ,
M X k=1;k6=l
9.4-37
and
l golm = dmgodll + ddgomm + m l
9.4-38
Shear Stresses for The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising the Granular Phase from particle momentum exchange due to translation and collision.
The collisional and kinetic parts are added to give the solids shear viscosity:
s = s;col + s;kin
4 d g 1 + e s
1=2 s;col = 5 s s s oss ss FLUENT uses two expressions for the kinetic part. The default, from Syamlal et al. 127 , is:
9.4-39
9.4 Theory
9-23
p 2 s s;kin = 6 3 , e 1 + 5 1 + ess 3ess , 1 sgoss 9.4-41 ss
s ds s
9.4-42
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular particles to compression and expansion. It has the following form:
1=2 dsgoss1 + ess s 9.4-43 s s The Granular The granular temperature for the sth solids phase is proportional Temperature to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. The transport equation derived from kinetic theory takes the form 30
4 s = 3 3 @ 2 @t
"
u s ss + r s s~ ss
= ,psI + s : r~ s u
r ks rs ,
fs + ls
s
+ 9.4-44
,psI + s : r~ s is the generation of energy by the u solid stress tensor ks rs is the di usion of energy ks is the di usion coe cient s is the collisional dissipation of energy fs is the energy exchange between the uid and the sth solid phase ls is the energy exchange between the lth and the sth solid phases Equation 9.4-44 contains the term ks rs describing the di usive ux of granular energy. When the default Syamlal et al. model 127 is used, the di usion coe cient for granular energy, ks is given by
where
9-24
ks
where
ks
2 150 sds 1 + 6 sgoss1 + es + = 3841 + essgoss 5 s 9.4-46 2 s s2ds1 + essgoss s
The collisional dissipation of energy, s , represents the rate of energy dissipation within the sth solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the expression derived by Lun et al. 80 121 ,pssgoss e m = d
2
2 3=2 s s s
9.4-47
= 31 , e2 ss
2 s
2 s 3 4 s , r ~ 5 us s go sss 4 ds
9.4-48
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random uctuations in particle velocity to the uid phase is represented by fs 40 :
fs
= ,3Kfss
9.4-49
The last term of Equation 9.4-44, ls, accounts for the transfer of energy between the lth and sth solids phases and has been neglected in FLUENT.
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9-25
The internal energy balance for phase q is written in terms of the phase enthalpy, Equation 9.4-10. In general, phase q can be a mixture of species i; i = 1; m and its enthalpy is de ned by
hq =
where
m X i=1
miq hiq
9.4-50
9.4-51
and cpiq is the speci c heat at constant pressure of species i in phase q. The thermal boundary conditions used with multiphase ows are the same as those for a single phase ow. See Chapter 14 for details. The Heat Exchange The rate of energy transfer between phases is assumed to be a funcCoe cient tion of the temperature di erence
9.4-52
where Hpq = Hqp is the heat transfer coe cient between the pth phase and the qth phase. The heat transfer coe cient is related to the pth phase Nusselt number Nup:
9.4-53
Here q is the thermal conductivity of the qth phase. The Nusselt number is typically determined from one of the many correlations reported in the literature. In the case of uid- uid multiphase FLUENT uses the correlation of Ranz and Marshall 102 103 :
1 3
9.4-54
where Rep is the relative Reynolds number based on the diameter of the pth phase and the relative velocity j~ p , ~ q j, Equation 9.4-17, u u th phase: and Pr is the Prandtl number of the q
9-26
In the case of granular ows where p = s, FLUENT uses a Nusseltnumber correlation by Gunn 43 , applicable to a porosity range of 0.35 1.0 and a Reynolds number of up to 105:
2 Nus = 7 , 10 f + 5 f 1 + 0:7Re0:2 Pr + s 2 Re0:7 Pr 1:33 , 2:4 f + 1:2 f s 9.4-56
1 3 1 3
The Prandtl number is de ned as above with q = f . Thermal The conductive heat ux for the qth phase is described by Fourier's Conductivity for law:
~q = , q q rTq q
et al. 66 , the solid phase conductivity s is as follows:
FLUENT uses a similar law for the granular model. Following Kuipers
p1 , s = f 1 , f !A + 1 , ! f
9.4-57
"
B = 1:25 1 ,
f f
10 9
! = 7:26 10,3
9.4 Theory
9-27
Here ! is the contact area fraction between the solid phase s and the primary phase f , and s;o is the physical thermal conductivity of the solid material. Solid Phase E ects As in the Euler-Lagrange approach see Chapter 11, it is possible to in the P-1 include the e ect of radiation between the uid and granular phases Radiation Model using the P-1 radiation model. This modi cation is limited to dilute ows only. When the P-1 model and the granular multiphase model are active, the equation for radiation temperature R for the uid has an extra source term of the following form:
SR = 1:5
m X p=1
emp pTp4 , 4 R
9.4-59
where emp is the particle emissivity. The enthalpy equation for the granular phase q also contains a source term of the form
Shq = 1:5emq
4 , Tq4 R
9.4-60
mpq _
which characterizes the amount of mass transfer from the pth to the qth phase per unit volume of mixture per unit time. A similar term appears in the momentum and enthalpy equations. There are numerous kinds of mass transfer processes and these can be modeled with user-de ned subroutines. FLUENT models are limited to two types: unidirectional mass transfer evaporation-condensation
Unidirectional The unidirectional mass transfer model de nes a positive mass ow Mass Transfer rate per unit volume from phase p to phase q:
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pq = r _
p q
9.4-62
and r is a constant rate of particle shrinking or swelling, such as _ the rate of burning of a uid droplet. In the case of granular ow, when mass transfer is from the solid phase s to the uid phase f , pq is modi ed as _ sf = r6d s
s s
9.4-63
and r can represent the rate of volatilization of a particle. _ The term appearing in the momentum equation is modi ed as
9.4-64
Evaporation- FLUENT also contains a simple phenomenological model for a mixCondensation ture of two phases liquid and vapor 75 . The evaporation rate mv _ Model and the condensation rate ml are determined from _
mv = rv _ = ml = rl _ =
l l Tl , Tsat =Tsat
9.4-65
v v Tsat , Tv =Tsat
9.4-66
where rv and rl are time relaxation parameters with default values of 0.1. The momentum equation for the liquid contains a term due to mass transfer, ml~ v , mv ~ l. In the momentum equation for the vapor, _ u _ u the negative of this term, mv ~ l , ml~ v , is used. _ u _ u The Shadow In multiphase with mass transfer, it is necessary to calculate the Method change of the size of the particulate phase. In many problems the size of the particles determines the interphase coe cients mass,
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9.4 Theory
9-29
momentum, enthalpy. FLUENT uses the Spalding 123 shadow" method to calculate the change in particle size. This method entails the calculation of a shadow" volume fraction. For the sth phase undergoing mass transfer, for example, the shadow volume fraction would be that of the sth phase had mass transfer not been included. Using this method, the diameter of a particle of this phase, ds, can be updated because of mass transfer according to the following expression:
ds = ds;o
s s;o
1 3
9.4-67
where ds;o is the initial diameter, s is the volume fraction of the sth phase calculated with mass transfer, and s;o is the volume fraction calculated without mass transfer. Multiphase- The mass balance equations for the prediction of the mass fracMulticomponent tion of species for each phase do not contain a mass transfer model between phases. Thus heterogeneous reactions involving multiple species and multiple phases are not permitted. Homogeneous reactions are allowed within each phase, however, so that the total contribution to the qth phase continuity equation is zero. With userde ned subroutines, you can expand the capabilities of interphase exchange, if desired.
The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the concentration of the secondary phase is dilute. In this case, interparticle collisions are negligible and the dominant process in the random motion of the secondary phase is the in uence of the primary-phase turbulence. Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phase can therefore be given in terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of the particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time. The conditions for which the dispersed turbulence model is valid are summarized below: The number of phases is limited to two: the continuous primary phase and the dispersed secondary phase. The secondary phase must be dilute. That is, the domain must not have large regions where the volume fraction for the secondary phase approaches its maximum value.
9.4 Theory
9-31
When the two-step averaging process is used with a phaseweighted average for the turbulence, however, turbulent uctuations in the volume fractions do not appear. FLUENT uses phase-weighted averaging, so no volume fraction uctuations are introduced into the continuity equations.
Turbulence in the The eddy viscosity model is used to calculate averaged uctuating Continuous Phase quantities. The Reynolds stress tensor takes the following form:
00 = , 2 q kq + t r Uq I + t rUq + rUq T ~ q ~ ~ 9.4-68 q q 3 The turbulent viscosity qt is written in terms of the turbulent kinetic energy of phase q:
qt = C
2 kq
9.4-69
3 = 2 C kq
q
9.4-70
where q is the dissipation rate. The length scale of the turbulent eddies is
Ltq
= 3 C kq 2 q
3 2
9.4-71
@ @t
and
q kq + r
q ~ q Uq kq = r q q rkq + k kq q q
t
q q P
, q +
9.4-72
9-32
@ @t
q q q + r q
~ q Uq q = r
q
q q q
r q + q q C1 P , C2 q + k
q q q
qt
9.4-73
Here kq and q represent the in uence of the dispersed phase p on the continuous phase q. All other terms have the same meaning as in the single-phase k- model. The term kq can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the continuous phase and takes the following form: kq = Kpq u00 u00 , u00 u00 +Up;i , Uq;iVdr;i 9.4-74 q;i p;i q;i q;i
q q
9.4-75
where kpq is the covariance of the continuous and dispersed phase ~ velocities calculated from Equation 9.4-83 below, Vpq is the relative ~ velocity, and Vdr is the drift velocity de ned by Equation 9.4-88 below. q is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. 32 : q = C3 kq kq q 9.4-76
where C3 = 1:2. Turbulence in the Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to Dispersed Phase evaluate dispersion coe cients, correlation functions, and the turbulent kinetic energy of the dispersed phase. The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial e ects acting on the particulate phase is de ned as
F pq
,1 p p p Kpq q
+ CV
9.4-77
9.4 Theory
9-33
The Lagrangian integral time scale calculated along particle trajectories, mainly a ected by the crossing-trajectory e ect 25 is de ned as
t pq
= qt 1 + C 2,
1 2
9.4-78
where
~ jVpq j t = Lt q q
and
9.4-79
9.4-80
and where is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean relative velocity. The ratio between these two characteristic times is written as
r =
t pq F pq
9.4-81
Following Simonin 117 FLUENT writes the turbulence quantities for the dispersed phase as follows:
kp = kpq =
t Dpq =
p = b =
and CV = 0:5 is the added-mass coe cient. Interphase The turbulent drag term in FLUENT in two-phase ows is modeled Turbulent as follows where p is the dispersed phase and q is the continuous Momentum phase:
Transfer
9-34
~ ~ Here Up and Uq are phase-weighted velocities, p and q are di usivities, and pq is a turbulent Schmidt number. When using Tchen t theory in two-phase ows, FLUENT assumes p = q = Dpq and the default value for pq is 0.67. The second term of the above equation contains the drift velocity: ~ Vdr = , p r p , q r q
pq p pq q
9.4-88
The drift velocity results from turbulent uctuations in the volume fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coe cient Kpq , it serves as a correction to the momentum exchange term for turbulent ows.
9-35
so as to satisfy the continuity constraint. In multiphase ow, this is further complicated by the following facts: i there are n continuity equations and usually a single pressure eld, ii phasic volume equations are a new unknown in the set of governing equations, and iii the momentum equations are strongly coupled through the interphase momentum exchange coe cient. The Pressure FLUENT uses an extension of the SIMPLE algorithm SIMPLECorrection PEA to solve for multiphase ow. The momentum equations are Equation decoupled by using the Partial Elimination Algorithm PEA 122 . Using SIMPLE-PEA, the variables for each phase are eliminated from the momentum equations for all other phases. For uid- uid ows, with a single pressure eld, the pressure correction equation is obtained from the sum of all the normalized n-phase continuity equations. For incompressible multiphase ow in Cartesian tensor notation, this equation takes the form
9.5-1 where rk = k = ref ;k , ~ 0k;i is the velocity correction and ~ is the u uk;i value of ~ k;i at the present iteration. The velocity corrections are u themselves expressed as functions of the pressure corrections. Volume Fractions The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations. In discretized form, the equation of the kth volume fraction is
ap;k k =
X
nb
anb;k
nb;k + bk
= Rk
9.5-2
In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to one,
n X k=1 k
=1
9.5-3
the solution of k is obtained from the coupling of all phase continuity equations. From Equation 9.5-2,
k
R =ak
p;k
9.5-4
9-36
so that
n X Ri =1 i=1 ap;i
9.5-5
It follows that the central coe cient ap;k can be expressed in terms of all of the other volume fraction equations:
ap;k = Rk + ap;k
n X Ri i 6= k i=1 ap;i
9.5-6
The resulting equation for k implicitly satis es Equation 9.5-3. In granular multiphase ows, the shared pressure correction is obtained from the uid continuity equation, as described above. When s s;max 0.6 by default, the solid is treated as a compressible uid and the solids pressure is obtained as a direct function of the solid-phase volume fraction. In the incompressible regime where s = s;max , the solids pressure is obtained from a pressure correction equation in the same way that the uid pressure is obtained. The solution algorithms followed by FLUENT for uid- uid ows and for granular ows are summarized below: Fluid-Fluid Multiphase Algorithm 1. Get initial conditions and boundary conditions. 2. Perform time-step iteration. 3. Calculate primary uid velocity use PEA. 4. Calculate secondary uid velocities use PEA. 5. Calculate pressure correction from all normalized continuity equations. 6. Correct all velocities and uxes. 7. Calculate phasic volume fractions and update properties. 8. Calculate other scalar quantities. If not converged, go to 3. 9. Advance time step and go to 2. Granular Multiphase Algorithm 1. Get initial conditions and boundary conditions. 2. Perform time-step iteration.
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3. Calculate primary uid velocity use PEA. 4. Calculate pressure correction from uid continuity equation and correct uid velocity, pressure, and uid uxes. 5. Calculate phasic volume fractions. 6. Calculate solid velocities. 7. Calculate solid pressure corrections and correct solid velocities, uxes, and solid volume fractions. Update properties and calculate granular temperature. 8. Calculate other scalar quantities. If not converged, go to 3. 9. Advance time step and go to 2.
9.6.1 Problem Setup Model Selection Before you begin to solve a problem using the Eulerian multiphase
Computational E ort
model, you should determine that this model is appropriate for your particular problem. Remember that for strati ed or free surface ows you should use the VOF model, and for ows in which particle volume fractions are less than or equal to 10 you should use the Lagrangian dispersed phase model. When phases mix and or particle volume fractions exceed 10 you should use the Eulerian multiphase model. The required computational e ort depends strongly on the number of transport equations being solved and the degree of coupling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a large number of highly coupled transport equations, computational expense will be high. Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem statement to the simplest form possible. Instead of trying to solve your multiphase ow in all of its complexity on your rst solution attempt, you should start with simple approximations and work your way up to the nal form of the problem de nition. Some suggestions for simplifying a multiphase ow problem are listed below: Use a simpli ed geometry. Begin with a 2D approximation. Solve a single-phase problem, using a composite density.
9-38
9-39
Section 9.7.5: Models for Granular Flows Section 9.7.6: Time-Dependent Simulations Section 9.7.7: Modeling Turbulence Section 9.7.8: Species Transport Section 9.7.9: Modeling Interphase Heat Transfer Section 9.7.10: Modeling Interphase Mass Transfer Section 9.7.11: Solution Strategies for Eulerian Multiphase Calculations Section 9.7.12: Starting from a Case File Created by an Earlier Release of FLUENT Section 9.7.13: Eulerian Multiphase Options
9-40
Using the Text In the SETUP-1 text menu, select DEFINE-MODELS. Then select MULInterface TIPLE-PHASES and turn on EULERIAN-EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW
for uid- uid ows or uid-solid ows.
EULERIAN-EULERIAN GRANULAR FLOW SETUP-1 ,! DEFINE-MODELS
for
,!MULTIPLE-PHASES
SETUP1DEFINE-MODELS
9-41
If you have already turned on the Eulerian multiphase model for uid- uid ows, it is possible to enable granular ow in the EXPERT SOLUTION-PARAMETERS table.
,! MULTIPLE-PHASES
9-42
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM MULTIPHASE: DEFINE-PHASES MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. MULTIPHASEDP I- NUMBER OF SECONDARY PHASES I- ++DEFAULT 1++ 1 PHASE NAMES WATER SAND D NOTE : PHASE NAMES CANNOT CONSIST OF A SINGLE CHARACTER C OR X PRIMARY PHASE PHASE 2 ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
QUIT
9-43
Select a phase from this list, set the appropriate boundary conditions, and then click Apply and go on to the next phase. In the text interface, a PHASE-SELECTION menu will appear when you select a variable for which you wish to set boundary conditions.
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COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: NORMAL-VELOCITY U-VELOCITY V-VELOCITY VOLUME-FRACTION QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONSUV COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: SAND WATER QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
Note that you will only be asked for the secondary phase volume fractions. FLUENT will compute the volume fraction of the primary phase based on your input for the secondary phases. Also, a normal velocity can be speci ed only for the primary phase. For example, consider an inlet supplying a slurry consisting of 25 sand to a domain. Both sand and water have an x-directed velocity of 5 m s. The appropriate boundary condition inputs are as shown below. Note that the uid phase must be modeled as the primary phase in all granular ows, as discussed in more detail in Section 9.7.4 below. First, enter the U velocity for WATER, as shown in the panel below, and click Apply.
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Then select SAND in the Phase drop-down list, enter the sand U velocity and Volume Fraction, and click Apply again.
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It is not necessary to set the volume fractions for both phases; FLUENT will compute the volume fraction of the primary phase based on your input for the secondary phase. If your problem includes more than two phases, a PHASE-SELECTION menu for volume fraction will appear when you select the VOLUME-FRACTION command in the text interface, and you will specify the fractions for all phases except the primary phase. In the GUI, the Volume Fraction will be grayed out for the primary phase, but available for all secondary phases. If you de ne any volume fractions as pro le functions, you must be sure that the sum of all volume fractions will not exceed 1.0 at any position in the domain or at any time during the calculation. FLUENT will not rescale the volume fractions if the fractional sum
to set them for the secondary phases. Listing Boundary The boundary conditions can be checked using the LIST-BOUNDARIES Conditions command. The FLOW-VARIABLES command lists the velocities of both phases:
Limitations on Note that wall boundary conditions for secondary phases cannot Wall Boundary be set using the GUI. You can use the GUI to set wall boundary Condition Inputs conditions for the primary phase, but you must use the text interface
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VOLUME-FRACTIONS
Other properties will appear in the menu, depending upon the overall problem scope. Note that for granular ows the solids viscosity is obtained from application of kinetic theory. You can disable
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After you input the densities, FLUENT will ask for the mean diameter of the secondary phase. This input should be the average size of a particle of the secondary phase in the primary uid sand in water in this example, to be used in the momentum exchange term. In the dialog below, a diameter of 1 mm is chosen.
R- MEAN DIAMETER FOR SAND R- UNITS= M ++DEFAULT 2.0000E-04++ 1e-3
If you are calculating changes in particle diameter due to mass transfer as described in Section 9.7.10, you will be prompted for the INITIAL DIAMETER rather than the MEAN DIAMETER. For a granular phase, you must also specify the coe cient of restitution. In this case, the default value for the RESTITUTION COEFFICIENT
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FOR SAND
R- RESTITUTION COEFFICIENT FOR SAND R- UNITS= DIM ++DEFAULT 8.0000E-01++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
Multicomponent For multicomponent multiphase ows, you will specify the densities Constant-Density for each species in each phase: Flows
PHYSICAL-CONSTANTSDE COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR WATER QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONWAT L- USE GAS LAW FOR WATER? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ N COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM SPECIES-SELECTION: SPECIES-1 SPECIES-2 QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. SPECIES-SELECTIONHELP
HELP
Setting Constant Viscosities Fluid-Fluid Flows In the absence of temperature or species dependence, the setting of
the viscosities is straightforward. You can select each uid from the PHASE-SELECTION menu and enter its viscosity. Granular Flows For granular ows, the viscosity is input only for the primary phase.
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The solids bulk and shear viscosities are computed by Equations 9.4-40 9.4-43. However, when you turn o the Kinetic Theory Viscosity option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or answer NO to the option USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13, FLUENT will ask you to input constant solids viscosities, as described above for uids.
,!PROPERTY-OPTIONS
PROPERTY CALCULATION OPTIONS YES COMPOSITION DEPENDENT VISCOSITY FOR AIR NO COMPOSITION DEPENDENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR AIR NO COMPOSITION DEPENDENT SPECIFIC HEAT FOR AIR NO IS ANY PROPERTY TO BE COMPUTED USING KINETIC THEORY NO ENABLE THERMALLY DRIVEN MASS DIFFUSION SORET EFFECT D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
If you have enabled the multicomponent multiphase model in order to de ne multiple species for secondary phases, additional lines will appear in the table to allow you to enable composition-dependent properties for the secondary phases. When the viscosity is set, FLUENT will prompt you for the viscosity of each species in each multicomponent phase and, for nongranular ows, for the viscosity of each single-component secondary phase.
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SELECT VARIABLES YES PHASE 1 U-VELOCITY YES PHASE 1 V-VELOCITY YES PHASE 1 W-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 U-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 V-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 W-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 VOL. FRAC. YES PRESSURE NO GRANULAR TEMPERATURE YES PROPERTIES TEMPERATURE D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Then set the appropriate value for Granular Temperature in the Multiphase Parameters panel opened from the Models panel or GRANULAR TEMPERATURE in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table:
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EXPERT ,!EULERIAN-MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS
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EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS NO ENABLE MASS TRANSFER YES STABILITY TERM IN P.D.E 1.0000E-01 FALSE TIME STEP FOR UNDER-RELAXATION DIM YES ENABLE EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT 1.0000E-07 LOWER LIMIT FOR ALL VOFs DIM NO ENABLE GIDASPOW MODEL YES USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY NO USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION 6.0000E-01 PACKING LIMIT FOR SOLID FRACTION DIM 1.0000E-04 GRANULAR TEMPERATURE M2 S2 D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Note that the default value for granular temperature is 110,5 m2 s2 . Drag-Cluster Cluster formation i.e., the formation of large, dense regions of Correction maximally-packed granular phase particles has been observed in circulating uidized beds. When a cluster appears, it grows larger and denser and then sinks. Wall clusters join together creating a down ow region core-annular" regime. FLUENT can include a modi cation to the gas-particle drag correlation, introduced by O'Brien and Syamlal 91 , to account for this phenomenon. When the drag-cluster correction option is enabled, the computed drag will be modi ed to account for the size of the cluster rather than the size of the individual particles. To enable this option, turn on Drag-Cluster Correction in the Multiphase Parameters panel or USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13.
in the special case of granular ows, a time-dependent simulation is strongly recommended. In some cases, the steady-state solution is all that is of interest, while in others, it is the evolution of the process that is important. A choice between these two solution techniques should be made at the start of the problem so as to govern the time-dependent model parameters. To enable time dependence, open the Models panel and turn on the Time Dependent Flow option: De ne ,!Models...
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Click Apply, and then click on Time Parameters... to open the Time Dependent Flow Parameters panel:
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Here you can enter the time-dependent solution parameters. The transient model performs a certain number of iterations at each time step, and then moves to the next time step, and so on. The criterion that causes the code to advance to the next time step is either that a level of convergence has been reached, based upon your input to the Minimum Residual Sum value, or that the Max Iterations per Time Step maximum number of iterations has been performed. See Section 6.9 for details about time-dependent simulations. For problems in which a steady-state solution is of primary importance, it is not necessary to obtain a converged solution for each time step. Progression to the next time step can be accelerated by choosing fewer iterations per time step than are required to get a well converged result. Alternatively, the size of the time step can be increased. As a rule of thumb, if the anticipated time for a process to reach steady state can be approximated, a time step that is 1 100th of this value might be chosen. The number of iterations selected should result in a partially converged solution where the residuals are in the 1 10,2 to 1 10,3 range and decreasing. In cases where the details of the transient process are important, a converged solution for each step should be obtained. It may be necessary to compute the rst time step several times, trying di erent inputs for the time step and the number of iterations per time step for each trial. Solution parameters such as underrelaxation factors and sweeps of the solver can also be adjusted in the trial runs of the rst time step so as to obtain a converged solution in the fewest number of iterations. In some instances, the pressure residual at the end of the rst time step may not meet the convergence
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criterion, even though the remaining ow variables do. This occurs when there are very low ow rates, because the normalization of the pressure residual is related to the mass ow at the start of the time step. In some cases, the calculation can continue nonetheless, and the convergence criterion for pressure will be met within the next few time steps. When solving any transient analysis, data les can be saved periodically by turning on the Auto Save Data Files option. When you turn on this option, the Time Steps Between Saves can be speci ed:
The Autosave Files are ordinary Data Files containing ow- eld and other data for both of the phases. By default, the Autosave Files are unformatted binary les, but you can request formatted text les by enabling Formatted Auto Saves. Note that the time-dependence parameters can also be set with the EXPERT TIME-DEPENDENCE command.
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transport equations for each phase. See Section 9.4.7 for details about these two turbulence modeling options, including inherent assumptions and limitations. When the default dispersed turbulence model is used, it is possible to modify the value of pq in Equation 9.4-87 DISPERSION PRANDTL in the EXPERT PHYSICAL-MODELS table and the value of C3 in Equation 9.4-76 C3M TWO-PHASE TERM in the same table, but this is generally not recommended.
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Then you can specify the species names for each phase with the DEFINE-SPECIES command:
SPECIES NAMES NOTE : SPECIES NAMES CANNOT CONSIST OF A SINGLE CHARACTER C OR X SPECIES 1 SPECIES 1 IN WATER SPECIES 2 SPECIES 2 IN WATER SSPEC 11 SPECIES 1 IN AIR SSPEC 12 SPECIES 2 IN AIR ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
,!MULTIPLE-PHASES
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DEFINE-MODELSMP
MULTIPHASE MODEL SELECT ONLY ONE YES EULERIAN-EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW NO EULERIAN-EULERIAN GRANULAR FLOW NO VOF FREE SURFACE D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM MULTIPHASE: DEFINE-PHASES MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. MULTIPHASEMT
MASS-TRANSFER
Choosing the Mass First you will choose which of the two mass transfer models deTransfer Model scribed in Section 9.4.6 you want to use. The unidirectional mass
transfer model computes a mass ow rate from the primary phase to each secondary phase and from each secondary phase to subsequent secondary phases. The evaporation-condensation model computes evaporation and condensation rates between the primary and secondary phases. The evaporation-condensation model can compute mass transfer for only two uid phases. To use the unidirectional mass transfer model select CONSTANT MASS FLOW RATE TRANSFER, and to use the evaporation-condensation model select TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION.
MASS-TRANSFER: SELECT ONE OPTION ONLY NO CONSTANT MASS FLOW RATE TRANSFER NO TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Note that the TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION option will not appear if granular ow is active or if you have not enabled heat transfer calculations. Enabling Particle As discussed in Section 9.4.6, FLUENT uses the shadow" method Diameter to calculate the change in the size of the secondary-phase particles Calculations due to mass transfer for either mass transfer model. If you wish to include these particle size calculations, answer YES to the question CALCULATE PARTICULATE DIAMETER? that appears after you choose the mass transfer model:
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where ds;o is your input for the INITIAL DIAMETER during the de nition of density see Section 9.7.4. If the diameter of the particles will not change during the mass transfer e.g., if you have particles of coal being converted to ash, answer NO to this question to suppress the particle diameter calculation. The secondary-phase particles will have a constant diameter equal to the MEAN DIAMETER you specify during the density de nition. Parameters for If you choose the CONSTANT MASS FLOW RATE TRANSFER option, you Unidirectional will next see the following table:
Mass Transfer
MASS TRANSFER FLOW RATE COEFFICIENTS 0.0000E+00 MASS FLOW RATE COEFFICIENT FROM WATER TO VAPOR S ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Your entry for MASS FLOW RATE COEFFICIENT speci es the rate of shrinking or swelling of the particle due to mass transfer r in Equa_ tion 9.4-62 or 9.4-63. For example, this value may be the rate of burning of a uid droplet or the rate of volatilization of a particle. FLUENT will compute the mass ow rate from the primary phase to the secondary phase or from one secondary phase to another using Equations 9.4-61 and 9.4-62 for uid- uid ows, or Equations 9.4-61 and 9.4-63 for granular ows. Parameters for If you choose the TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION option, Evaporation- you will next see the following table:
Condensation
EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION COEFFICIENTS 1.0000E-01 EVAPORATION TIME RELAXATION S 1.0000E-01 CONDENSATION TIME RELAXATION S 3.7300E+02 SATURATION TEMPERATURE K ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
EVAPORATION TIME RELAXATION, CONDENSATION TIME RELAXATION are the relaxation parameters rv and rl in Equations 9.4-65
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The volume fraction for the secondary phases can be underrelaxed. Based on the updated value for the secondary-phase volume fractions, a complementary value will be used for the primary-phase volume fraction. A recommended modi cation to the default solver settings is an increase in the number of sweeps of the LGS solver for the variables for all phases. This is accomplished in the SWEEPS-OF-LGSSOLVER table, accessed in the EXPERT LINEAR-EQN.-SOLVER menu. The default inputs for this table are shown below.
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For the pressure-correction equation, the number of sweeps should be increased to 20 or 30, depending upon the problem size. Sweeps on the velocities for each phase can be increased to 5. Patching an Initial Supplying an initial guess for the ow eld and volume fractions is Guess recommended for all multiphase calculations. This can be accomplished with the PATCH command in the MAIN menu. For transient simulations, the PATCH facility can be used to supply the initial conditions. For steady-state problems, an initial guess will lead to added stability in the early stages of the solution. As an example, consider the uidized bed example presented in Section 9.3.2. In this example, air is the primary phase, and the solids constitute the secondary phase. The solids occupy the lower half of the 42 42 grid, with a maximum packing fraction of 0.6. At the start of the problem, there is a uniform vertical velocity of air at 0.284 m sec throughout the domain. To patch the air velocity, the entire domain is selected, and a velocity value for the primary phase is set. In the y direction, this corresponds to the V-VELOCITY.
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*MAIN*PA I- ENTER 1ST II- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND II- ++DEFAULT 42++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 1ST JI- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND JI- ++DEFAULT 42++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED VARIABLE-SELECTIONVV
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR SOLIDS QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONAIR R- ENTER VALUER- UNITS= M S ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ .284 VARIABLE-SELECTIONQ
HELP
To create the bed region, the lower half of the domain is selected, and the volume fraction for the secondary phase SOLIDS is set at 0.598. Note that patching an initial volume fraction of 0.6, which is the packing limit for the problem, is not recommended because this can cause some instability in the rst few time steps of a uidized bed calculation. A value of 0.598 is patched instead to eliminate this problem. In this example, since there is only one secondary phase, you will
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not need to specify the phase for which you are setting the VOLUMEFRACTION. The volume fraction speci ed is for the solids. If there were additional secondary phases, you would specify a volume fraction for each of them. FLUENT always determines the volume fraction of the primary phase based on your inputs for the secondary phases.
*MAIN*PA I- ENTER 1ST II- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND II- ++DEFAULT 44++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 1ST JI- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND JI- ++DEFAULT 62++ 31 VARIABLE-SELECTIONVF PATCHING VOLUME FRACTION OF SOLIDS R- ENTER VALUER- UNITS= DIM ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ .598 VARIABLE-SELECTIONQ
The results of these patches are shown in Figure 9.7.1. The highvelocity air jet is assumed to begin penetrating the bed at t 0. The velocity of the jet is set as a boundary condition, and will take e ect as soon as the calculation begins. There is no need for additional patching to incorporate the presence of the jet in the simulation.
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6.00E-01
3.00E-01
1.00E-06
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Air Velocity Vectors (left) and Solids Volume Fraction (right) Lmax = 5.999E-01 Lmin = 1.000E-06 Time = 0.000E+00
Figure 9.7.1: Patching Initial Conditions for Primary-Phase Velocity and Secondary-Phase Volume Fraction
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Copying Phase If you want to calculate a multiphase ow starting from a singleVelocities and phase ow solution, you can copy and patch the primary-phase veTemperature locities and temperature, if appropriate to the secondary phases
to be used as an initial guess. COPY-PHASE-VELOCITY command: To copy velocities, use the
*MAIN*PA X X X X X X VARIABLE-SELECTIONCOPY-PHASE-VELOCITY WHICH PHASE WILL VELOCITY BE COPIED FROM COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: PHASE-1 PHASE-2 PHASE-3 ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONP1 WHICH PHASE WILL VELOCITY BE COPIED TO COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: PHASE-1 PHASE-2 PHASE-3 ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONP2 QUIT HELP
QUIT
HELP
All velocity components of PHASE-1 will be copied and patched as an initial guess for PHASE-2. To copy the primary-phase velocities to the third phase, you would select the COPY-PHASE-VELOCITY command again. The COPY-PHASE-TEMPERATURE command works the same way as the COPY-PHASE-VELOCITY command. Disabling the Stability problems which sometimes occur in the early stages of Exchange steady-state simulations can be reduced by temporarily disabling Coe cient the calculation of the momentum exchange term. To do so, turn o the Exchange Coe cient option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or respond NO to the option ENABLE EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. Once the solution starts to converge, this term can be reintroduced to the calculation.
At an outlet, the uxes of the primary phase are corrected by performing a global continuity check for extra mass creation or destruction in the domain. In some multiphase systems there is no net out ow of primary phase going through the outlet of the domain, so this action will create some spurious results. For example, for a bubble column in which only gas passes through the outlet, you would disable the mass correction for the primary phase water. To disable the correction of the primary phase, turn o the Primary Phase Mass Correction option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or respond NO to the option INCLUDE PRIMARY PHASE MASS CORRECTION in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. Time-Dependent When FLUENT calculates an unsteady granular ow with only one Granular Flows solid phase, it will report the accumulated mass of solids inside the domain in the header for the residual report:
*- FLUID PHASE CALCULATION NTIME = 3 NITER = 125 MASS = 0.10E+00 TIME = 3.000E-03 S .................NORMALIZED RESIDUALS............... NTIME P U V H PH2 3 5.106E-01 2.216E-10 5.278E-09 2.359E-05 V2 0.000E+00 3 3.520E-01 4.310E-04 2.651E-03 4.000E+00VF2 4.520E-08
Interphase Mass For time-dependent problems in which a secondary phase is created Transfer solely due to interphase mass transfer and no other sources of that Calculations phase exist, you must ensure that some secondary-phase mass is cre-
ated within the rst time step. This can be accomplished either by manipulating the time step, or by patching a small secondary-phase volume fraction in the computational domain before beginning the calculation.
9.7.12 Starting From a Case File Created by an Earlier Release of FLUENT V4.3 Case Files If you wish to start your multiphase calculation from an existing
i cations that may a ect your solution:
FLUENT V4.3 Case File, you should be aware of the following mod-
The default dispersed turbulence model now contains in uence from the dispersed secondary phase. For this reason, turbulent multiphase solutions may di er from those obtained with Version 4.3.
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The calculation of turbulent viscosity for the secondary phase has been improved. The default value for the false time step described in Section 9.7.13 was the same as the real time step in Version 4.3. The default value is now 0.1 and this may have an e ect on the convergence rate. The default minimum value for phase volume fractions is now 1 10,7. In V4.3 it was 1 10,6.
V4.24 Case Files If you wish to start your multiphase calculation from an existing
modi cations that may a ect your solution:
The default coe cient of restitution in FLUENT V4.24 was 0.6111, and the current default is 0.8. To reproduce a V4.24 solution, you should set the coe cient of restitution to 0.6111. In V4.24, only the Gidaspow model was available for calculation of the radial distribution function, the kinetic part of the solids viscosity, and the exchange coe cient. Since the current default model is that of Syamlal et al., you will need to enable the Gidaspow model in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13 if you want to reproduce a V4.24 solution. In V4.24, the granular temperature was set to a xed value of 1 10,4. To reproduce a V4.24 solution, you must turn o the solution of the granular temperature and set the value yourself see Section 9.7.5.
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The EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table can be reached from the EXPERT menu or from the MULTIPHASE menu that appears after you select the multiphase model with the DEFINE-MODELS MULTIPLEPHASES command.
EXPERT ,!EULERIAN-MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS MULTIPHASE
,!MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS
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The contents of the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table and the accessible items in the Multiphase Parameters panel will depend on the current model settings. All items that may appear in this table panel are explained below:
ENABLE MASS TRANSFER
Mass Transfer allows you to model interphase mass transfer in the multiphase calculation, using the shadow" technique described in Section 9.4.6. See Section 9.7.10 for details. ENABLE SECONDARY TURBULENCE Secondary Turbulence enables or disables the solution of k and transport equations for each secondary phase. See Section 9.7.7 for details. This option appears in the table only for turbulent ows. ENABLE MULTICOMPONENT-MULTIPHASE Multicomponent-Multiphase Model enables disables the modeling of multiple species in secondary phases. When this option is turned o the default, only the primary phase can contain multiple species. When it is turned on, you can specify multiple species for any phase. See Section 9.7.8 for details. This option appears in the table only for ows involving species calculations. STABILITY TERM IN P.D.E. Stability Term in P.D.E. enables or disables extra underrelaxation in the momentum equations. In multiphase ows it is possible to get a singular matrix when solving the linear discretized equations for momentum. This is due to the fact that a phase volume fraction can have a zero or near-zero value in some region, making the coe cients of the matrix tend to zero. To avoid this problem FLUENT introduces extra underrelaxation using a false time step". This
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Kinetic Theory Viscosity, when turned o , allows you to specify constant viscosities for solid phases. By default, FLUENT calculates the solids viscosity from kinetic theory. If you want to set a constant viscosity instead e.g., if you are modeling inviscid granular ow and need to set viscosity to a xed small value, you can turn o the viscosity calculation by turning o the Kinetic Theory Viscosity check button or answering NO to USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY. This option appears in the table only for granular ows. USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION Drag-Cluster Correction allows you to turn on drag-cluster correction to account for the size of large, dense regions of maximally-packed granular phase particles. See Section 9.7.5 for details. This option appears in the table only for granular ows. PACKING LIMIT FOR SOLID FRACTION Packing Limit for Solid Fraction sets the maximum volume fraction for the solid phases s;max. For monodispersed spheres the packing limit is about 0.63, and FLUENT uses a default value of 0.6. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres can ll the small gaps between larger spheres, so the maximum packing limit may increase. This option appears in the table only for granular ows. GRANULAR TEMPERATURE Granular Temperature allows you to set a xed value for the granular temperature. This option will appear in the table only if you have turned o solution of the granular temperature equation in the SELECT-VARIABLES table or the Select Equations panel see Section 9.7.5. The default value for granular temperature is 1 10,5 m2 s2. REVERSE THE MOMENTUM EXCH. COEFFICIENT Reverse the Momentum Exch. Coe cient allows you to reverse the drag law, effectively switching the primary and secondary phases. This is useful if you want to use one of the models that is restricted to the primary phase e.g., gas law or non-Newtonian ow models for the secondary phase. This option appears in the table only for two-phase nongranular ows. INCLUDE PRIMARY PHASE MASS CORRECTION Primary Phase Mass Correction allows you to turn o the primary phase mass correction. At the outlet, the uxes of the primary phase are corrected by performing a global continuity check for extra mass creation or destruction in the domain. In some multiphase systems there is no net out ow of primary phase going through
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Select the phase for which you want to plot vectors in the Phase drop-down list located directly below the Scale Factor on the left side of the panel. The other Phase list on the right side of the panel, below the Color By drop-down list is used if you choose to color the vectors by a variable that can be plotted for more than one phase. For example, you could plot the primary-phase velocity vectors and color them by a secondary-phase volume fraction. By default, the Color By eld is set to be the velocity magnitude of the primary phase. If you choose to plot the secondary-phase velocity vectors and you would like them to be colored by the magnitude of the secondary-phase velocity, remember to change the phase selection in both Phase drop-down lists. Once you have speci ed the desired phases and options, click on Display to plot the velocity vectors. In the text interface, the VELOCITY-VECTORS command is available in the VIEW-GRAPHICS menu. When you select this command, you will be prompted in the PHASE-SELECTION menu to specify the phase for which you want to plot vectors.
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,!VELOCITY-VECTORS
VIEW-GRAPHICSVV COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: SAND AIR QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
If you have enabled the option to color the vectors by a scalar either in the VECTOR-PARAMETERS table or by modifying the default Color By selection in the Velocity Vectors panel, you will next be prompted to select a variable in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. If you select a variable that can be plotted for more than one phase, you will see yet another PHASE-SELECTION menu:
VARIABLE-SELECTIONVF COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR SAND QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
In Figure 9.8.1, velocity vectors for air top and sand bottom are plotted for an example in which an air-sand mixture enters a duct through an inlet centered on the left wall. On the right side of the gures, it can be seen that the air velocity vectors have a slight upward component, while the sand vectors have a slight downward component, as expected.
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1.50E+00 1.45E+00 1.39E+00 1.34E+00 1.29E+00 1.24E+00 1.19E+00 1.14E+00 1.08E+00 1.03E+00 9.82E-01 9.30E-01 8.78E-01 8.27E-01 7.75E-01 7.24E-01 6.72E-01 6.21E-01 5.69E-01 5.17E-01 4.66E-01 4.14E-01 3.63E-01 3.11E-01 2.60E-01 2.08E-01 1.56E-01 1.05E-01 5.33E-02 1.72E-03
Y Z X
Velocity Vectors for Air (top) and Sand (bottom) Time = 1.210E+00 Lmax = 1.497E+00 Lmin = 1.719E-03 Time = 1.210E+00
Figure 9.8.1: Velocity Vectors for Air top and Sand bottom
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Select Velocity... and Stream Function in the Contours Of drop-down lists, and choose the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. Click Display to plot the contours. In the text interface, the choice of phases is made in the PHASE-SELECTION menu when a plot of contours or pro les, or an alphanumeric display of stream function is requested from the VARIABLESELECTION menu, as shown below.
VIEW-GRAPHICS
,!CONTOURS
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Volume Fraction One of the most useful tools in the evaluation of a two phase ow
is the display of volume fraction for each of the uids. In the GUI, Volume Fraction is available in the Multiphase... category of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in the panels opened from the Display and Plot pull-down menus. In the Contours panel, for example, you can select Multiphase... and Volume Fraction, and then choose the phase for which you want to plot the volume fraction in the Phase drop-down list.
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COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM VARIABLE-SELECTION: DENSITY EXCHANGE-MASS EXCHANGE-X EXCHANGE-Y MACH-NUMBER MOLECULAR-VISCOSITY STATIC-PRESSURE-REL STATIC-PRESSURE-ABS STREAM-FUNCTION TOTAL-PRESSURE-REL TOTAL-PRESSURE-ABS U-VELOCITY V-VELOCITY VELOCITY-MAGNITUDE VOLUME-FRACTION MULTIPHASE-CONCENTRATION SOLIDS-PRESSURE GRANULAR-TEMP XMOM-SOURCE YMOM-SOURCE XTENDED-XOPTIONS QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. VARIABLE-SELECTIONVF
Figures 9.8.2 and 9.8.3 show volume fraction plots for the separationtee example of Section 9.3.1. In Figure 9.8.2, lled contours of the primary phase water volume fraction are presented, and mark the bubble region where very little water is present. In Figure 9.8.3, lled contours of the secondary phase air volume fraction are shown. This gure is the inverse of Figure 9.8.2, since the bubble region is now shown to be the region where the volume fraction is greatest. Solids Pressure For granular ows, the solids or granular pressure as well as the uid pressure can be displayed using graphics or alphanumerics. This is accomplished in the GUI by selecting Solids Pressure in the Multiphase... category of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in the panels opened from the Display or Plot pull-down menu. In the text interface, select the SOLIDS-PRESSURE command in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. As an example, consider a square tank with an inlet on the upper left wall and outlet on the upper right wall. The inlet mixture carries a 30 solids-water slurry into the domain, and the solids settle on the bottom of the tank as time increases. In Figure 9.8.4, 5 seconds after the start of the lling process, velocity vectors for the water phase are shown, indicating the general ow pattern for the slurry. The build-up of the granular phase on the tank bottom is shown in
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1.00E+00 9.67E-01 9.34E-01 9.01E-01 8.69E-01 8.36E-01 8.03E-01 7.70E-01 7.37E-01 7.04E-01 6.71E-01 6.39E-01 6.06E-01 5.73E-01 5.40E-01 5.07E-01 4.74E-01 4.41E-01 4.08E-01 3.76E-01 3.43E-01 3.10E-01 2.77E-01 2.44E-01 2.11E-01 1.78E-01 1.46E-01 1.13E-01 7.99E-02 4.70E-02 1.41E-02
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Water Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 1.000E+00 Min = 1.414E-02
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Air Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 9.859E-01 Min = 1.000E-06
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1.16E+00 1.12E+00 1.08E+00 1.04E+00 9.99E-01 9.59E-01 9.19E-01 8.79E-01 8.39E-01 7.99E-01 7.59E-01 7.20E-01 6.80E-01 6.40E-01 6.00E-01 5.60E-01 5.20E-01 4.80E-01 4.40E-01 4.00E-01 3.60E-01 3.20E-01 2.80E-01 2.40E-01 2.00E-01 1.60E-01 1.20E-01 8.00E-02 4.00E-02 3.72E-05
Y Z X
Transient Filling of a Tank with Solids Water Velocity Vectors (M/S) Max = 1.159E+00 Min = 3.721E-05 Time = 5.000E+00
Figure 9.8.4: Water Velocity Vectors for a Granular Settling Tank Figure 9.8.5. The solids pressure, having a maximum at the bottom of the tank where the concentration of solids is greatest, can be seen in Figure 9.8.6. Shear Viscosity for For granular ows, a bulk and shear viscosity are computed, acthe Solid Phase cording to the kinetic theory approach. For laminar ows, a report of the shear viscosity for the solid phase is available from both the alphanumerics and graphics menus. In the GUI graphics panels, select Molecular Viscosity in the Properties... category of the variable selection drop-down list. Then select the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. In the text interface, use the MOLECULAR-VISCOSITY command in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. FLUENT will ask you to specify the phase in the resulting PHASE-SELECTION menu. For the case of the uidized bed described in Section 9.3.2, the shear viscosity for the solid phase is plotted in Figure 9.8.7. Additional Features Additional postprocessing capabilities are available for alphanumeric and graphical reporting for the individual phases. Some of these are listed below. As mentioned earlier, when you select a variable that can be plotted or reported for more than one phase, FLUENT will prompt you to select a phase in the Phase drop-down list or the PHASE-SELECTION menu.
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6.00E-01 5.81E-01 5.61E-01 5.42E-01 5.22E-01 5.03E-01 4.84E-01 4.64E-01 4.45E-01 4.25E-01 4.06E-01 3.87E-01 3.67E-01 3.48E-01 3.29E-01 3.09E-01 2.90E-01 2.70E-01 2.51E-01 2.32E-01 2.12E-01 1.93E-01 1.73E-01 1.54E-01 1.35E-01 1.15E-01 9.60E-02 7.66E-02 5.72E-02 3.78E-02 1.84E-02
Y Z X
Transient Filling of a Tank with Solids Sand Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 5.999E-01 Min = 1.843E-02 Time = 5.000E+00
Transient Filling of a Tank with Solids Sand Solids Pressure (Pa) Max = 3.611E+02 Min = 3.878E-04 Time = 5.000E+00
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5.99E-02 5.79E-02 5.59E-02 5.39E-02 5.19E-02 4.99E-02 4.79E-02 4.59E-02 4.39E-02 4.19E-02 3.99E-02 3.79E-02 3.59E-02 3.39E-02 3.19E-02 2.99E-02 2.79E-02 2.59E-02 2.39E-02 2.20E-02 2.00E-02 1.80E-02 1.60E-02 1.40E-02 1.20E-02 9.98E-03 7.98E-03 5.99E-03 3.99E-03 2.00E-03 5.10E-10
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Molecular Viscosity Of Solids (Kg/M-S) Max = 5.987E-02 Min = 5.103E-10 Time = 2.000E-01
Figure 9.8.7: Shear Viscosity for the Solid Phase in a Fluidized Bed The following parameters are available in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu in the text interface. The category in which you will nd them in the GUI is listed in parentheses. Note that this is not a complete list of the parameters in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. See Section 18.1 for information about parameters not listed below.
VELOCITY-MAGNITUDE Velocity Magnitude in the Velocity...
egory: Velocity magnitudes for any phase. U-, V-, and W-VELOCITY U, V, and W Velocity in the Velocity... category: Velocity components for any phase. DENSITY Density in the Density... category: The density of any phase. MULTIPHASE-CONCENTRATION Multiphase Concentration in the Multiphase... category: E ective density density volume fraction for any phase. MOLECULAR-VISCOSITY Molecular Viscosity in the Properties... category: The molecular viscosity of any uid phase or the shear viscosity computed by FLUENT for any solid phase.
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Not available for turbulent ows. See e ective viscosity, below. EFFECTIVE-VISCOSITY E ective Viscosity in the Properties... or Turbulence... category: The e ective viscosity of any phase. The following parameters are found in the XTENDED-XOPTIONS text menu:
I-, J-,
and K-FACE-FLOW-RATE I, J, and K Face Flow Rate in the Mass Fluxes... category: Face uxes in SI units of kg s in the 3 grid directions for any phase.
SELECT-VARIABLE:
In VIEW-ALPHA
Integral reports based on either the primary phase, or one of the secondary phases. In the sample report below, the integrated quantities reported in the rst ve columns are described in Section 18.4. The nal column reports the volume of the speci ed phase in each cell, determined by multiplying the volume fraction by the cell volume. The sum at the end of the report gives the total volume of the speci ed phase.
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VARIABLE-SELECTIONINTEGRALS-I-DIRECTION
BOUNDS. L- PRINT CELL-BY-CELL INFO OTHERWISE SUMMARY ONLY? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-YES++ X L- DEFAULT ASSUMED *- SELECT PHASE FOR INTEGRALS COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: WATER SAND QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONWATER INTEGRATED QUANTITIES FOR CELL ZONE ' .' I-DIRECTION COMPONENTS, WATER AREA VELOCITY VOL. FLOW MASS FLOW DELTA P PH.- VOL. I, J, K M2 M S M3 S KG S PA M3 ----------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------2, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.959E-01 9.959E-03 7.030E+00 -2.527E+00 7.059E-05 3, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.940E-01 9.940E-03 7.106E+00 -5.267E+00 7.149E-05 4, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.932E-01 9.932E-03 7.197E+00 -3.381E+00 7.247E-05 5, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.921E-01 9.921E-03 7.290E+00 -2.615E+00 7.348E-05 6, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.908E-01 9.908E-03 7.380E+00 -1.935E+00 7.448E-05 7, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.893E-01 9.893E-03 7.467E+00 -1.520E+00 7.547E-05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -4.994E-01 -4.994E-03 -3.378E+00 4.075E+01 6.763E-05 48, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -4.503E-01 -4.503E-03 -3.064E+00 4.763E+01 6.805E-05 49, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -3.834E-01 -3.834E-03 -2.618E+00 4.944E+01 6.827E-05 50, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -2.819E-01 -2.819E-03 -1.931E+00 5.859E+01 6.852E-05 51, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -1.127E-01 -1.127E-03 -7.531E-01 7.742E+00 6.681E-05 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------TOTALS 2.500E+01 2.474E+00 1.923E+03 2.060E-01 HELP
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You can use the TOTAL-MASS command to compute the total mass of each phase:
VARIABLE-SELECTIONXX EXTENDED-OPTIONSTOTAL-MASS *** TOTAL MASS SUMMARY *** SOLIDS AIR : : 1.5593E-01 KG 2.1752E+03 KG
This command is useful for determining the mass accumulated at a given point in time for a time-dependent multiphase calculation. When you use the TOTAL-ZONE-INTEGRALS command described in detail in Section 18.1 for a multiphase calculation, all information in the report will be listed separately for each phase.
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