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CHAPTER 14 THIN AIRFOIL THEORY 14.

1 COMPRESSIBLE POTENTIAL FLOW


14.1.1 THE FULL POTENTIAL EQUATION

In compressible ow, both the lift and drag of a thin airfoil can be determined to a reasonable level of accuracy from an inviscid, irrotational model of the ow. Recall the equations developed in Chapter 6 governing steady, irrotational, homentropic ( ! s = 0 ) ow in the absence of body forces.

!("U ) = 0
UU !P ! % --------------& + ------- = 0 # 2 $ " .
(14.1)

" ' P ----- = % -----& #" $ P0 0


The gradient of the isentropic relation is

! P = a !" .
Recall from the development in Chapter 6 that P ' 1 !P ! % -- & = % -----------& ------# "$ # ' $ " Using (14.3) the momentum equation becomes

(14.2)

(14.3)

' P UU - ! % % -----------& -- + --------------& = 0 # # ' 1$ " 2 $

(14.4)

Substitute (14.2) into the continuity equation and use (14.3). The continuity equation becomes U ! a + ( ' 1 )a ! U = 0 . Equate the Bernoulli integral to free stream conditions.
2 2 (14.5)

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2 a( a( U( '1 2 a UU ----------- + -------------- = ----------- + ------- = ----------- % 1 + ----------- M (& = C p T t $ ' 1# 2 '1 2 '1 2

(14.6)

Note that the momentum equation is essentially equivalent to the statement that the stagnation temperature T t is constant throughout the ow. Using (14.6) we can write a UU % -----------& = h -------------t # ' 1$ 2 The continuity equation nally becomes UU UU ( ' 1 ) % h t --------------& ! U U ! % --------------& = 0 # 2 $ # 2 $
(14.8) 2 (14.7)

The equations governing compressible, steady, inviscid, irrotational motion reduce to a single equation for the velocity vector U . The irrotationality condition

! U = 0 permits the introduction of a velocity potential.


U = !) and (14.8) becomes
(14.9)

!) !) !) !) 2 ( ' 1 ) % h t ----------------------- & ! ) !) ! % ----------------------- & = 0 . # $ # $ 2 2

(14.10)

For complex body shapes numerical methods are normally used to solve for ) . However the equation is of relatively limited applicability. If the ow is over a thick airfoil or a bluff body for instance then the equation only applies to the subsonic Mach number regime at Mach numbers below the range where shocks begin to appear on the body. At high subsonic and supersonic Mach numbers where there are shocks then the homentropic assumption (14.2) breaks down. Equation (14.8) also applies to internal ows without shocks such as fully expanded nozzle ow.
14.1.2 THE NONLINEAR SMALL DISTURBANCE APPROXIMATION

In the case of a thin airfoil that only slightly disturbs the ow, equation (14.8) can be simplied using small disturbance theory.
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Compressible potential flow

Consider the ow past a thin 3-D airfoil shown below. v U( y z x U( + u y=f(x,z)

The velocity eld consists of a freestream ow plus a small disturbance U = U( + u V = v W = w where u U( 1 , v U( 1 , w U( 1 .


(14.12) (14.11)

Similarly the state variables deviate only slightly from freestream values. P = P ( + P' T = T ( + T'
(14.13)

" = " ( + "'


and a = a ( + a' .
(14.14)

This decomposition of variables is substituted into equation (14.8). Various terms are
U( UU -------------- = ------- + uU ( + 2 2
2

v w u ---- + ---- + ----2 2 2

(14.15)

! U = u x + v y + wz

and

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UU ! % --------------& = ( u x U ( + uu x + vv x + ww x, # 2 $ u y U ( + uu y + vv y + ww y, u z U ( + uu z + vv z + ww z ) as well as
(14.16)

UU ( ' 1 ) % h t -------------- & ! U = # 2 $ % %U( ( ' 1 ) * h t * ------- + uU ( + # # 2 % %U( ( ' 1 ) * h t * ------- + uU ( + # # 2


2 2 2 2 2 2 v w && u ---- + ---- + ----- + + u x + 2 2 2 $$

v w u ---- + ---- + ----- + + v y + 2 2 2 $$


2 2 2 v w && u ---- + ---- + ----- + + w z 2 2 2 $$

2& &

(14.17)

%U( % ( ' 1 ) * h t * ------- + uU ( + # 2 #

and, nally
2 UU U ! % --------------& = u x U ( + uu x U ( + vv x U ( + ww x U ( + # 2 $

uu x U ( + u u x + uvv x + uww x + vu y U ( + vuu y + v v y + vww y + wu z U ( + wuu z + wvv z + w w z


2 2

(14.18)

Neglect terms in (14.17) and (14.18) that are of third order in the disturbance velocities. Now

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UU UU ( ' 1 ) % h t --------------& ! U U ! % --------------& , # 2 $ # 2 $ %U( && % ( ' 1 ) * h t * ------- + uU (+ + u x + # 2 $$ # %U( && % ( ' 1 ) * h t * ------- + uU (+ + v y + # 2 $$ #
2 2 (14.19) 2

%U( && % 2 ( ' 1 ) * h t * ------- + uU (+ + w z ( u x U ( + uu x U ( + vv x U ( + ww x U ( ) # 2 $$ # uu x U ( vu y U ( wu z U ( or UU UU ( ' 1 ) % h t --------------& ! U U ! % --------------& , # # 2 $ 2 $ ( ' 1 ) ( h ( uU ( ) ( u x + v y + w z ) ( u x U ( + uu x U ( + vv x U ( + ww x U ( ) uu x U ( vu y U ( wu z U ( Recall that ( ' 1 )h ( = a ( . Equation (14.20) can be rearranged to read UU UU ( ' 1 ) % h t --------------& ! U U ! % --------------& , # 2 $ # $ 2 a ( ( u x + v y + w z ) U ( u x ( ' + 1 )uu x U ( ( vv x U ( + ww x U ( ) ( ' 1 ) ( uv y U ( + uw z U ( ) vu y U ( wu z U ( Divide through by a ( .
2 2 2 (14.21) 2 2 (14.20)

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UU UU ( ' 1 ) % h t --------------& ! U U ! % --------------& , # 2 $ # 2 $ ( ' + 1 )M ( 2 ( 1 M ( )u x + v y + w z ---------------------------uu x a( M( -------- ( ( ' 1 ) ( uv y + uw z ) + vu y + wu z + vv x + ww x ) a( This equation contains both linear and quadratic terms in the velocity disturbances and one might expect to be able to neglect the quadratic terms. But note that the rst term becomes very small near M ( = 1 . Thus in order to maintain the small disturbance approximation at transonic Mach numbers the uu x term must be retained. The remaining quadratic terms are small at all Mach numbers and can be dropped. Finally the small disturbance equation is ( ' + 1 )M ( 2 ( 1 M ( )u x + v y + w z ---------------------------uu x = 0 . a(
(14.23) (14.22)

The velocity potential is written in terms of a freestream potential and a disturbance potential

) = U ( x + - ( x, y, z ) .

(14.24)

The small disturbance equation in terms of the disturbance potential becomes M( 2 -------- - x - xx ( 1 M ( ) - xx + - yy + - zz = ( ' + 1 ) a(
(14.25)

Equation (14.25) is valid over the whole range of subsonic, transonic and supersonic Mach numbers.
14.1.3 LINEARIZED POTENTIAL FLOW

If we restrict our attention to subsonic and supersonic ow, staying away from Mach numbers close to one, the nonlinear term on the right side of (14.25) can be dropped and the small disturbance potential equation reduces to the linear wave equation.

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2 . . - xx ( - yy + - zz ) = 0

(14.26)

where . =

M ( 1 . In two dimensions

. - xx - yy = 0 .

(14.27)

The general solution of (14.27) can be expressed as a sum of two arbitrary functions

- ( x, y ) = F ( x . y ) + G ( x + . y ) .
2

(14.28)

Note that if M ( < 1 the 2-D linearized potential equation (14.27) is an elliptic equation that can be rescaled to form Laplaces equation and (14.28) expresses the solution in terms of conjugate complex variables. In this case the subsonic ow can be analyzed using the methods of complex analysis. Presently we will restrict our attention to the supersonic case. The subsonic case is treated later in the chapter. If M ( > 1 then (14.27) is the 2-D wave equation and has solutions of hyperbolic type. Supersonic ow is analyzed using the fact that the properties of the ow are constant along the characteristic lines x . y = cons tan t . The gure below illustrates supersonic ow past a thin airfoil with several characteristics shown. Notice that in the linear approximation the characteristics are all parallel to one another and lie at the Mach angle ( of the free stream. Information about the ow is carried in the value of the potential assigned to a given characteristic and in the spacing between characteristics for a given ow change. Right-leaning characteristics carry the information about the ow on the upper surface of the wing and left-leaning characteristics carry information about the ow on the lower surface.
2

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x . y = constant y

(
M( > 1

( = Sin-1(1/M()

x + . y = cons tan t

All properties of the ow, velocity, pressure, temperature, etc. are constant along the characteristics. Since disturbances only propagate along downstream running characteristics we can write the velocity potential for the upper and lower surfaces as

- ( x, y ) = F ( x . y ) - ( x, y ) = G ( x + . y )

y>0 y<0

(14.29)

Let y = f ( x ) dene the coordinates of the upper surface of the wing and y = g ( x ) dene the lower surface. The full nonlinear boundary condition on the upper surface is v --U df = ----- . dx
(14.30)

y= f

In the spirit of the thin airfoil approximation this boundary condition can be approximated by the linearized form v ------U( which we can write as
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y=0

df = ----dx

(14.31)

Compressible potential flow

/- ( x, y ) ------------------/y
or

y=0

df = U ( % -----& # dx$

(14.32)

U ( df - F' ( x ) = ------- % -----& . . # dx$ On the lower surface the boundary condition is U ( dg - G' ( x ) = ------- % ----- & . . # dx$

(14.33)

(14.34)

In the thin airfoil approximation the airfoil itself is, in effect, collapsed to a line along the x-axis, the velocity potential is extended to the line y = 0 and the surface boundary condition is applied at y = 0 instead of at the physical airfoil surface. The entire effect of the airfoil on the ow is accounted for by the vertical velocity perturbation generated by the local slope of the wing. The linearized boundary condition is valid on 2-D thin wings and on 3-D wings of that are of thin planar form. Recall that (14.26) is only valid for subsonic and supersonic ow and not for transonic ow where ( 1 M ( ) 1 .
14.1.4 THE PRESSURE COEFFICIENT 2

Lets work out the linearized pressure coefcient. The pressure coefcient is P P( 2 P - C P = ------------------ = ----------- % ------ 1& . $ 2 #P 2 1 ' M( ( -- " ( U ( 2 The stagnation enthalpy is constant throughout the ow thus
2 2 2 2 1 T ------ = 1 + ------------------ ( U ( ( U + v + w ) ) . 2C p T ( T( (14.36) (14.35)

Similarly the entropy is constant and thus the pressure and temperature are related by

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2 2 2 2 1 P ------ = % 1 + ------------------ ( U ( ( U + v + w ) )& # $ 2C P T ( P(

' ----------'1

(14.37)

and the pressure coefcient is


' 5 6 ----------'1 2 2 2 2 2 & 2 2% 1 1 4. C P = ----------- 3 1 + ------------------ ( U ( ( U + v + w ) ) $ 2 # 2C p T ( 2 ' M(2 0 1

(14.38)

The velocity term in (14.37) is small U ( ( U + v + w ) = ( 2uU ( + u + v + w ) .


n 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (14.39)

Now use the binomial expansion ( 1 7 ) , 1 n 7 + n ( n 1 ) 7 2 to expand the term in parentheses in (14.39). Note that the expansion has to be carried out to second order. The pressure coefcient is approximately
2 2 2 % 2u 2 u v +w & C P , * ------- + ( 1 M ( ) ------- + ------------------ + . 2 2 $ #U( U( U( (14.40)

Equation (14.40) is a valid approximation for small perturbations in subsonic or supersonic ow. For 2-D ows over planar bodies it is sufcient to retain only the rst term in (14.40) and we use the expression u C P , 2 ------- . U(
(14.41)

For 3-D ows over slender approximately axisymmetric bodies we must retain the last term and so % 2u v 2 + w 2& C P , * ------- + ------------------ + . 2 $ U( # U
(
(14.42)

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As was discussed above, if the airfoil is a 2-D shape dened by the function y = f ( x ) the boundary condition at the surface is df v ----- = ------------------ = tan 8 dx U( + u
(14.43)

where 8 is the angle between the airfoil surface and the horizontal. For a thin airfoil this is accurately approximated by

-y df ----- , ------- , 8 . dx U (
For a thin airfoil in supersonic ow the wall pressure coefcient is 2 df - C Pwall = ------------------------------- % -----& . 1 2 # dx$ 2 (M( 1) where dU U
2 2 2 12

(14.44)

(14.45)

= % 2 ( M ( 1 ) & d 8 , which is valid for M ( 9 1 , has # $ been used. In the thin airfoil approximation in supersonic ow the local pressure coefcient is determined by the local slope of the wing. The gure below shows the wall pressure coefcient on a thin, symmetric biconvex wing.

Cp (-) x (+)

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This airfoil will have shock waves at the leading and trailing edges and at rst sight this would seem to violate the isentropic assumption. But for small disturbances the shocks are weak and the entropy changes are negligible.
14.1.5 DRAG COEFFICIENT OF A THIN SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL

A thin, 2-D, symmetric airfoil is situated in a supersonic stream at Mach number M ( and zero angle of attack. The y-coordinate of the upper surface of the airfoil is given by the function :x y ( x ) = A Sin % ----- & # C$
(14.46)

where C is the airfoil chord. The airfoil thickness to chord ratio is small, 2 A C 1 . Determine the drag coefcient of the airfoil. Solution The drag integral is
C

D = 2

<

( P P ( )Sin ( ; ) dx

(14.47)

where the factor of 2 accounts for the drag of both the upper and lower surfaces and ; is the local angle formed by the upper surface tangent to the airfoil and the x-axis. Since the airfoil is thin the angle is small and we can write the drag coefcient as
1% P P & x D ( C D = ----------------------- = 2 * ------------------ + ( ; ) d% ---& *1 # C$ 2+ 2 1 0 # -- " U $ -- " ( U ( C 2 ( ( 2

<

(14.48)

The local tangent is determined by the local slope of the airfoil therefore Tan ( ; ) = dy dx and for small angles ; = dy dx . Now the drag coefcient is
1% P P & x D ( dy C D = ----------------------- = 2 * ------------------ + % -----& d% ---& *1 2 + # dx$ # C$ 2 1 0 # -- " U $ -- " ( U ( C 2 ( ( 2

<

(14.49)

The pressure coefcient on the airfoil is given by thin airfoil theory (14.45) as

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P P( 2 dy C P = ------------------ = ---------------------- % -----& # dx$ 2 1 2 -- " ( U ( M( 1 2 and so the drag coefcient becomes
2 2 2

(14.50)

1 dy 2 x : :x 4 4A : 2 :x 2A : C D = ---------------------- < % -----& d% ---& = ----------------------------- < Cos % ----- & d% ----- & = -----------------------------(14.51) # dx$ # C$ # C$ # C$ 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 M( 1 C M( 1 C M( 1

The drag coefcient is proportional to the square of the wing thickness-to-chord ratio.
14.1.6 THIN AIRFOIL WITH LIFT AND CAMBER AT A SMALL ANGLE OF ATTACK

A thin, cambered, 2-D, airfoil is situated in a supersonic stream at Mach number M ( and a small angle of attack as shown below.
y ?( y = => C

The y-coordinate of the upper surface of the airfoil is given by the function x x x >x f % ---& = A @ % ---& + B A % ---& ----# C$ # C$ C # C$ and the y-coordinate of the lower surface is x x x >x g % ---& = A @ % ---& + B A % ---& ----# C$ # C$ # C$ C
(14.53) (14.52)

where 2 A C 1 and > C 1 . The airfoil surface is dened by a dimensionless thickness function x @ % ---& # C$ ;

@(0) = @(1) = 0 ,

(14.54)

a dimensionless camber function


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x A % ---& # C$ and the angle of attack

A(0) = A(1) = 0

(14.55)

> Tan ( ; ) = --C


Determine the lift and drag coefcients of the airfoil. Let x B = --C Solution The lift integral is
L =

(14.56)

(14.57)

<0 ( P lower P ( )Cos ( ; lower ) dx <0 ( P upper P ( )Cos ( ; upper ) dx

(14.58)

where ; is the local angle formed by the tangent to the surface of the airfoil and the x-axis. Since the angle is everywhere small we can use Cos ( ; ) , 1 . The lift coefcient is D C L = ----------------------- = 2 1 -- " ( U ( C 2
1 1 P lower dB

<C
0

<C
0

P upper dB

(14.59)

The pressure coefcient on the upper surface is given by thin airfoil theory as
CP
upper

2 dA 2 df d@ - = -------------------------- % ----- & = -------------------------- % A ----- + B ------ >& # d B$ # dB $ dB 2 2 C M( 1 C M( 1

(14.60)

and on the lower surface the pressure coefcient is


CP
lower

dg d@ dA 2 2 - = -------------------------- % ----- & = -------------------------- % A ----- + B ------ >& . # d B$ # dB $ dB 2 2 C M( 1 C M( 1

(14.61)

Substitute into the lift integral

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1 df 1 dg > > 2 2 C L = -------------------------- % < ----- dB + < ----- dB& = -------------------------- % < df + < dg& # 0 dB # 0 $ 0 dB $ 0 2 2 C M( 1 C M( 1

(14.62)

In the thin airfoil approximation the lift is independent of the airfoil thickness. 4 > C L = ---------------------- % ---& # C$ 2 M( 1 The drag integral is
D = (14.63)

<0 ( P upper P ( )Sin ( ; upper ) dx + <0 ( P lower P ( )Sin ( ; lower ) dx

(14.64)

Since the airfoil is thin the angle is small and we can write the drag coefcient as
(14.65) D C D = ----------------------- = 1 2 -- " ( U ( C 2 %P & % & 1 P lower P ( upper P ( * ------------------------------+ ( ; * ------------------------------+ ( ; <0 * 1 2 -+ upper ) dB + <0 * 1 2 + lower ) dB # -- " ( U ( $ # -- " ( U ( $ 2 2
1

The local tangent is determined by the local slope of the airfoil therefore Tan ( ; ) = dy dx and for small angles ; = dy dx . Now the drag coefcient is
d y upper d y lower 1 1 1 D % ------------------ & dB % -------------------& dB + --- 1 C -< P C D = ----------------------- = --- < C P C 0 upper # d B $ C 0 lower # dB $ 1 2 -- " ( U ( C 2 (14.66)

The drag coefcient becomes


C 2 2 & 1 % 1 d@ 2 d@ dA dA = ------------------------------- * % A ------ + B ------ >& dB + % A ------ + B ------ >& dB+ D $ $ dB dB 2 0 # dB # 0 # dB $ 2 C M( 1

<

<

(14.67)

Note that most of the cross terms cancel. The drag coefcient breaks into several terms.
C % A 2 1 % d @& 2 B 2 1 % d A& 2 B > 1 dA > 2 1 & 4 ----- dB + % ---& ------ dB % ---& --- % ------& dB + % ---& - dB = ----------------------- * % ---& D # C$ 0 # d B $ # C$ C 0 # d B $ # C$ 0 + # # C$ 0 # d B$ $ 2 M 1 (

<

<

<

<

(14.68)

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The third term in (14.68) is B > % ---& --- # C$ C Finally


A 2 1 d@ 2 B 2 1 dA 2 > 2 4 C D = ----------------------- % % ---& < % ----- & dB + % ---& < % ------& dB + % ---& & . # C$ 0 # d B $ # # C$ 0 # d B$ # C$ $ 2 M( 1 (14.70) 1

<

B > B > % d A& dB = % ---& --- d A = % ---& --- [ A ( 1 ) A ( 0 ) ] = 0 ------ - # d B$ # C$ C # C$ C 0 0

<

(14.69)

In the thin airfoil approximation, the drag is a sum of the drag due to thickness, drag due to camber and drag due to lift.

14.2 SIMILARITY RULES FOR HIGH SPEED FLIGHT


The gure below shows the ow past a thin symmetric airfoil at zero angle of attack. The uid is assumed to be inviscid and the ow Mach number U ( 1 a ,
(

where a ( = ' P ( " ( is the speed of sound, is assumed to be much less than one. The airfoil chord is c and the maximum thickness is t 1 . The subscript one is applied in anticipation of the fact that we will shortly scale the airfoil to a new shape with subscript two and the same chord.
U c (1 t1 C
0.2 -2 -1 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 1

p 4x 1 -------2 c

Figure 14.1 Pressure variation over a thin symmetric airfoil in low speed ow.

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The surface pressure distribution is shown below the wing, expressed in terms of the pressure coefcient. Ps P( C P1 = --------------------- . 2 1 -- " ( U ( 1 2
(14.71)

The pressure and ow speed throughout the ow satisfy the Bernoulli relation, in particular, near the airfoil surface,
2 2 1 1 P ( + -- " ( U ( 1 = P s1 + -- " ( U s1 . 2 2 (14.72)

The pressure is high at the leading edge where the ow stagnates, then as the ow accelerates about the body, the pressure falls rapidly at rst, then more slowly reaching a minimum at the point of maximum thickness. From there the surface velocity decreases and the pressure increases continuously to the trailing edge. In the absence of viscosity, the ow is irrotational.

! u1 = 0
this permits the velocity to be described by a potential function. u 1 = !- 1

(14.73)

(14.74)

when this is combined with the condition of incompressibility, ! u 1 = 0 , the result is Laplaces equation.
2 2

/ -1 / -1 ----------- + ----------- = 0 . 2 2 / x1 / y1
Let the shape of the airfoil surface in ( x 1, y 1 ) be given by y1 ---- = @ 1 g [ x 1 c ] c

(14.75)

(14.76)

where @ 1 = t 1 c is the thickness to chord ratio of the airfoil. The boundary conditions that the velocity potential must satisfy are,

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dg [ x 1 c ] % /- 1& % d y 1& -------- + --------+ = U ( @ 1 ----------------------* x1 = U ( 1 * d x d ( x1 c ) / y 1$ y = c @ g % -----& # # 1$ body . 1 1 # $


c

(14.77)

-1

x1 C (

= U (1

Any number of methods of solving for the velocity potential are available including the use of complex variables. In the following we are going to restrict the airfoil to be thin, @ 1 1 . In this context we will take the velocity potential to be a perturbation potential so that. u 1 = U ( 1 + u 1' ; or v 1 = v 1'
(14.78)

/- 1 u 1 = U ( 1 + -------- ; /x
1

/- 1 v 1 = -------- . / y1

(14.79)

The boundary conditions on the perturbation potential in the thin airfoil approximation are, dg [ x 1 c ] 6 % /- 1& % d y 1& = U ( 1 * --------+ = U ( @ 1 ----------------------- 2 * -------- + / y 1$ y = 0 d x 1$ d ( x1 c ) 2 # # body 1 4. 2 -1 = 0 2 x1 C ( 1 The surface pressure coefcient in the thin airfoil approximation is, 2 % /- 1& . C P1 = ---------- * -------- + U ( 1 # / x 1$ y = 0 1
(14.81)

(14.80)

Note that the boundary condition on the vertical velocity is now applied on the line y 1 = 0 . In effect the airfoil has been replaced with a line of volume sources whose strength is proportional to the local slope of the actual airfoil. This sort of approximation is really unnecessary in the low Mach number limit but it is essen-

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Similarity rules for high speed flight

tial when the Mach number is increased and compressibility effects come in to play. Equally, it is essential in this example where we will map a compressible ow to the incompressible case.
14.2.1 SUBSONIC FLOW M ( < 1
2

Now imagine a second ow at a free stream velocity, U ( in a new space ( x 2, y 2 ) over a new airfoil of the same shape (dened by the function g [ x c ] ) but with a new thickness ratio @ 2 = t 2 c 1 . Part of what we need to do is to determine how @ 1 and @ 2 are related to one another. The boundary conditions that the new perturbation velocity potential must satisfy are, dg [ x 1 c ] % /- 2& % d y 2& = U ( 2 * --------+ = U ( 2 @ 2 ----------------------* -------- + d ( x1 c ) # / y 2$ y 2 = 0 # d x 2$ body .

(14.82)

-2

x2 C (

= 0

In this second ow the Mach number has been increased to the point where compressibility effects begin to occur: the density begins to vary signicantly and the pressure distribution begins to deviate from the incompressible case. As long as the Mach number is not too large and shock waves do not form, the ow will be nearly isentropic. In this instance the 2-D steady compressible ow equations are,

/ u2 / u2 1 / P - - u 2 -------- + v 2 -------- + -- -------- = 0 / x2 / y2 " / x2 / v2 / v2 1 / P u 2 -------- + v 2 -------- + -- -------- = 0 / x2 / y2 " / y2 / u2 / v2 /" /" u 2 -------- + v 2 -------- + " -------- + " -------- = 0 / x2 / y2 / x2 / y2 " ' P ------ = % ------& #" $ P( (
Let

(14.83)

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Similarity rules for high speed flight

u 2 = U ( 2 + u' 2 ;

v 2 = v' 2 ;

" = " ( + "' ;

P = P ( + P' (14.84)

where the primed quantities are assumed to be small compared to the free stream conditions. When quadratic terms in the equations of motion are neglected the equations (14.83) reduce to,
2 % " ( U & / u' 2 / v' 2 (2 * 1 ------------------+ --------- + --------- = 0 . * ' P( + / x2 / y2 # $

(14.85)

Introduce the perturbation velocity potential

/- 2 u' 2 = -------- ; / x2

/- 2 v' 2 = -------- . / y2

(14.86)

The equation governing the disturbance ow becomes,


2 2 2 / -2 / -2 ( 1 M ( 2 ) ----------- + ----------- = 0 . 2 2 / x2 / y2 (14.87)

Notice that (14.87) is valid for both sub and supersonic ow in the thin airfoil approximation. Since the ow is isentropic, the pressure and velocity disturbances are related to lowest order by, P' + " ( U ( 2 u 2' = 0
(14.88)

and the surface pressure coefcient retains the same basic form as in the incompressible case, 2 % /- 2& ---------- * -------- + C P2 = . U ( 2 # / x 2$ y = 0 2
(14.89)

Since we are at a nite Mach number, this last relation is valid only within the thin airfoil, small disturbance approximation and therefore may be expected to be invalid near the leading edge of the airfoil where the velocity change is of the order of the free stream velocity. For example for the thin airfoil depicted in Figure

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Similarity rules for high speed flight

14.1 which is actually not all that thin, the pressure coefcient is within 0.2 < C P < 0.2 except over a very narrow portion of the chord near the leading edge. Equation (14.87) can be transformed to Laplaces equation, (14.75) using the following change of variables. x2 = x1 ; 1 -y y 2 = ------------------------ 1 ; 2 1 M (2 1 % U ( 2& - 2 = --- * ---------- + - 1 A # U ( 1$
(14.90)

where, at the moment, A is an arbitrary constant. The velocity potentials are related by, 1 % U ( 2& - 2 [ x 2, y 2 ] = --- * ---------- + - 1 [ x 1, y 1 ] A # U ( 1$ or, % U ( 1& 1 -y - 1 [ x 1, y 1 ] = A * ---------- + - 2 x 1, ------------------------ 1 2 # U ( 2$ 1M
(2
(14.92) (14.91)

and the boundary conditions transform as, % A@ & dg [ x c ] 6 % /- 1& 2 1 * ------------------------ + ----------------------- 2 = U (1 * -------- + * 2 + d ( x1 c ) 2 # / y 1$ y 1 = 0 # 1 M ( 2$ 4. 2 2 -1 = -2 = 0 x1 C ( x2 C ( 1

(14.93)

The transformation between ows one and two is completed by the correspondence, A @2 @ 1 = -----------------------2 1 M (2 or
(14.94)

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Similarity rules for high speed flight

t1 t2 A % --- & = ------------------------ % --- & . - # c$ 2 # c$ 1 M (2 Finally the transformed pressure coefcient is C P1 = AC P2 .

(14.95)

(14.96)

These results may be stated as follows. The solution for incompressible ow over a thin airfoil with shape g [ x 1 c ] and thickness ratio, t 1 c at velocity U 1 is identical to the subsonic compressible ow at velocity, U 2 and Mach number M 2 over an airfoil with a similar shape but with the thickness ratio, 1 M (2 t1 t2 ------------------------ % --- & . - --- = # c$ A c
2

(14.97)

The pressure coefcient for the compressible case is derived by adjusting the incompressible coefcient using C P2 = C P1 A . This result comprises several different similarity rules that can be found in the aeronautical literature depending on the choice of the free constant, A .
M = 0.5 C P M = 0.75 4x ----c

-2

-1 -0.5

M = 0

-1 -1.5

Figure 14.2 Pressure coefcient over the airfoil in Figure 14.1 at several Mach numbers as estimated using the Prandtl-Glauert rule (14.99)

Perhaps the one of greatest interest is the so-called Prandtl-Glauert rule that describes the variation of pressure coefcient with Mach number for a body of a given shape and thickness ratio. In this case we select,
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Similarity rules for high speed flight

A =

1 M (2

(14.98)

so that the two bodies being compared in (14.97) have the same shape and thickness ratio. The pressure coefcient for the compressible ow is, C P1 C P2 = ------------------------ . 2 1 M (2
(14.99)

Several scaled proles are shown in Figure 14.2. Keep in mind the lack of validity of (14.99) near the leading edge where the pressure coefcient is scaled to inaccurate values.
14.2.2 SUPERSONIC SIMILARITY M ( > 1 2 2

All the theory developed in the previous section can be extended to the supersonic case by simply replacing 1 M ( with M ( 1 . In this instance the mapping is between the equation,
2 2 / -2 / -2 2 ( M ( 2 1 ) ----------- ----------- = 0 2 2 / x2 / y2 (14.100)

and the simple wave equation

/ -1 / -1 ----------- ----------- = 0 2 2 / x1 / y1

(14.101)

A generalized form of the pressure coefcient valid for subsonic and supersonic ow is, Cp @ ------ = F ----------------------------A 2 A 1 M( where A is taken to be a function of 1 M ( .
2 (14.102)

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Similarity rules for high speed flight

14.2.3

TRANSONIC SIMILARITY, M ( , 1

When the Mach number is close to one, the simple linearization used to obtain (14.87) from (14.83) loses accuracy. In this case the equations (14.83) reduce to the nonlinear equation

/ u' 1 2 / u' 1 / v' 1 ( ' 1 + 1 )M ( 1 ( 1 M ( 1 ) --------- + --------- -------------------------------- u' 1 --------- = 0 . / x1 / y1 U (1 / x1


In terms of the perturbation potential,
2 2 2 2 2 / - 1 / - 1 ( ' 1 + 1 )M ( 1 /- 1 / - 1 - ( 1 M ( 1 ) ----------- + ----------- -------------------------------- -------- ----------- = 0 . 2 2 U (1 / x1 / x 2 / x1 / y1 1

(14.103)

(14.104)

This equation is invariant under the change of variables, 1 M (1 ------------------------ 1 ; -y y2 = 2 1 M (2


2

x2 = x1 ; where

1 % U ( 2& --- * ---------- + - 1 -2 = A # U ( 1$

(14.105)

2 2 % 1 + ' 2& % 1 M ( 1& % M ( 2& A = * ---------------+ * -------------------- + * -----------+ . 1 + ' 1$ * 1 M 2 + * M 2 + # # ( 2$ # ( 1$

(14.106)

Notice that, due to the nonlinearity of the transonic equation (14.104), the constant A is no longer arbitrary. The pressure coefcient becomes,
2 2 % 1 + ' 2& % 1 M ( 1& % M ( 2& C P1 = * ---------------+ * -------------------- + * -----------+ C p2 # 1 + ' 1$ * 1 M 2 + * M 2 + # ( 2$ # ( 1$

(14.107)

and the thickness ratios are related by,

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Problems

3 2 & -- % 2 & 1 + ' 1& % 1 M ( 2 2 M ( 1 t 1 t2 % - --- = * ---------------+ * -------------------- + * -----------+ --- . 1 + ' 2$ * 1 M 2 + * M 2 + c c # # ( 1$ # ( 2$

(14.108)

In the transonic case, it is not possible to compare the same body at different Mach numbers or bodies with different thickness ratios at the same Mach number except by selecting gases with different ' . For a given gas it is only possible to map the pressure distribution for one airfoil to an airfoil with a different thickness ratio at a different Mach number. A generalized form of (14.102) valid from subsonic to sonic to supersonic Mach numbers is, 1 M( C P ( ( ' + 1 )M ( ) ------------------------------------------------- = F -------------------------------------------- . 23 2 23 @ ( @ ( ' + 1 )M ( )
2 13 2

(14.109)

Prior to the advent of supercomputers capable of solving the equations of high speed ow, similarity methods and wind tunnel correlations were the only tools available to the aircraft designer and these methods played a key role in the early development of transonic and supersonic ight.

14.3 PROBLEMS
Problem 1 - A thin, 2-D, airfoil is situated in a supersonic stream at Mach number M ( and a small angle of attack as shown below.
y ?( y = => C

The y-coordinate of the upper surface of the airfoil is given by the function x > x f ( x ) = A --- % 1 ---& --- x C# C$ C

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Problems

and the y-coordinate of the lower surface is x > x g ( x ) = A --- % 1 ---& --- x C# C$ C where 2 A C 1 and > C 1 . Determine the lift and drag coefcients of the airfoil.

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