Electrical Technology

CONTENTS
Preface to first edition Preface to second edition List of principal symbols 1 Power switching theory 1.1 Power flow control by switches 1.2 Attributes of an ideal switch 1.3 Sources of incidental dissipation in imperfect switches 1.4 Estimation of switching dissipation 1.4.1 Soft load - series resistance 1.4.2 Hard load - series resistance-inductance 1.5 Modification of switching dissipation - switching aids 1.5.1 Approximate calculations of switching loss reduction 1.5.1.1 Turn-on aid 1.5.1.2 Turn-off aid 1.5.2 Detailed calculation of switching loss reduction 1.6 Estimation of total incidental dissipation 1.7 Transfer of incidental dissipation to ambient - thermal considerations 1.8 Worked examples 1.9 Review questions and problems Switching devices and control electrode requirements 2.1 Rating, safe operation area and power handling capability of devices 2.1.1 Power handling capability (PH) 2.1.2 Principles of device fabrication 2.1.3 Safe operation area (SOA) 2.1.4 Ratings and data sheet interpretation 2.2 Semiconductor switching devices 2.2.1 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) 2.2.1.1 Forward current transfer ratio
xv xvii xix 1 1 2 3 3 3 5 6 8 8 9 12 15 17 21 28 32 32 32 33 33 34 35 36 37
Downloaded from Cambridge Books Online by IP 117.203.63.104 on Thu Dec 27 13:57:20 WET 2012. http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139172820 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2012
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Contents 2.2.1.2 Switch-on and switch-off characteristics 2.2.1.3 Construction and properties of some types of power bipolar transistors 2.2.1.4 Switching properties of bipolar devices 2.2.2 Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) 2.3 Compound devices 2.3.1 Cascade connected devices 2.3.1.1 Power Darlington transistor 2.3.1.2 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) 2.3.2 Cumulative feedback connected devices (thyristors) 2.3.2.1 Basic thyristor theory 2.3.2.2 Triac (bidirectional SCR) 2.3.2.3 Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) 2.3.2.4 Metal-oxide controlled thyristor (MCT) 2.4 Device selection strategy 2.4.1 Voltage and current ratings 2.4.2 Switching frequency (slew rate) 2.4.3 Ruggedness against abuse 2.4.4 Ease of triggering 2.4.5 Availability and cost 2.4.6 Incidental dissipation (ID) 2.4.7 Need for aids and/or snubbers 2.5 Review questions and problems System realisation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Preventive protection circuitry 3.2.1 Voltage and current snubber circuits 3.2.1.1 Requirement for snubber circuits 3.2.1.2 Design of snubber circuits 3.2.1.3 Worked examples on snubber circuits 3.2.2 Ancillary environmental protection 3.2.2.1 Current surge protection 3.2.2.2 Time cut strategies 3.2.2.3 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) 3.3 Abuse protection circuitry 3.3.1 Overcurrent protection 3.3.2 Overvoltage protection - crowbar 3.4 Isolation circuitry 3.4.1 Pulse isolation transformer 3.4.2 Opto-isolator 3.5 System realisation strategy 3.6 Prototype realisation 3.6.1 Principles 3.6.2 Example - single-phase voltage control circuit 40 41 43 48 52 52 52 53 57 58 73 75 82 84 84 84 85 85 86 86 87 87 94 94 95 95 95 95 102 105 105 106 106 107 107 108 108 109 111 112 114 114 114
Contents 3.7 Device failure - mechanisms and symptoms 3.8 Review questions and problems Adjustable speed drives 4.1 Basic elements of a drive 4.2 Load torque-speed characteristics 4.3 Stability of drive operations 4.3.1 Steady-state stability 4.3.2 Transient stability 4.4 Principal factors affecting the choice of drive (reference TP1) 4.4.1 Rating and capital cost 4.4.2 Speed range 4.4.3 Efficiency 4.4.4 Speed regulation 4.4.5 Controllability 4.4.6 Braking requirements 4.4.7 Reliability 4.4.8 Power-to-weight ratio 4.4.9 Power factor 4.4.10 Load factor and duty cycle 4.4.11 Availability of supply 4.4.12 Effect of supply variation 4.4.13 Loading of the supply 4.4.14 Environment 4.4.15 Running costs 4.5 Types of electric motor used in drives 4.5.1 D.c. motors 4.5.2 Synchronous motors 4.5.2.1 Wound-field synchronous motors 4.5.2.2 Permanent magnet synchronous motors 4.5.2.3 Synchronous reluctance motors 4.5.2.4 Self-controlled (brushless) synchronous motors 4.5.2.5 Stepping (stepper) motors 4.5.2.6 Switched reluctance motors 4.5.3 Induction motors 4.6 Different options for an adjustable speed drive incorporating an electric motor 4.7 A.c. motor drives or d.c. motor drives? 4.8 Trends in the design and application of a.c. adjustable speed drives 4.8.1 Trends in motor technology and motor control 4.8.2 Trends in power switches and power converters 4.9 Problems
ix 115 118 121 121 122 123 123 127 129 130 130 130 134 134 135 135 136 136 136 137 137 137 138 138 139 139 139 140 141 142 142 143 145 146 147 147 149 149 149 150
Contents 5 D.c. motor control using a d.c. chopper 5.1 Basic equations of motor operation 5.2 D.c. chopper drives 5.2.1 Basic (class A) chopper circuit 5.2.1.1 Analytical properties of the load voltage waveform 5.2.1.2 Analytical properties of the load current waveform 5.2.1.3 Average current, r.m.s. current and power transfer 5.2.2 Class A transistor chopper 5.2.3 Class B chopper circuits (two-quadrant operation) 5.3 Worked examples 5.4 Problems Controlled bridge rectifiers with d.c. motor load 6.1 The principles of rectification 6.2 Separately excited d.c. motor with rectfied single-phase supply 6.2.1 Single-phase semi-converter 6.2.2 Single-phase full converter 6.2.2.1 Continuous conduction 6.2.2.2 Discontinuous conduction 6.2.2.3 Critical value of load inductance 6.2.2.4 Power and power factor 6.2.3 Worked examples 6.3 Separately excited d.c. motor with rectified three-phase supply 6.3.1 Three-phase semi-converter 6.3.2 Three-phase full converter 6.3.2.1 Continuous conduction 6.3.2.2 Critical value of load inductance 6.3.2.3 Discontinuous conduction 6.3.2.4 Power and power factor 6.3.2.5 Addition of freewheel diode 6.3.3 Three-phase double converter 6.3.4 Worked examples 6.4 Problems Three-phase naturally commutated bridge circuit as a rectifier or inverter 7.1 Three-phase controlled bridge rectifier with passive load impedance 7.1.1 Resistive load and ideal supply 7.1.1.1 Load-side quantities 7.1.1.2 Supply-side quantities 152 152 157 158 160 164 167 170 171 174 187 190 190 191 192 195 196 200 202 202 203 210 211 212 213 217 217 220 220 221 222 233
236 236 237 240 243
Contents 7.1.1.3 Operating power factor 7.1.1.4 Shunt capacitor compensation 7.1.1.5 Worked examples 7.1.2 Highly inductive load and ideal supply 7.1.2.1 Load-side quantities 7.1.2.2 Supply-side quantities 7.1.2.3 Shunt capacitor compensation 7.1.2.4 Worked examples 7.2 Three-phase controlled bridge rectifier-inverter 7.2.1 Theory of operation 7.2.2 Worked examples 7.3 Problems Single-phase voltage controllers 8.1 Resistive load with symmetrical phase-angle triggering 8.1.1 Harmonic properties 8.1.2 R.m.s. voltage and current 8.1.3 Power and power factor 8.1.3.1 Average power 8.1.3.2 Power factor 8.1.3.3 Reactive voltamperes and power factor correction 8.1.4 Worked examples 8.2 Series R-L load with symmetrical phase-angle triggering 8.2.1 Analysis of the instantaneous current variation 8.2.2 Harmonic properties of the current 8.2.3 R.m.s. current 8.2.4 Properties of the load voltage 8.2.5 Power and power factor 8.2.6 Worked examples 8.3 Resistive load with integral-cycle triggering 8.3.1 Harmonic and subharmonic properties 8.3.2 R.m.s. voltage and current 8.3.3 Power and power factor 8.3.4 Comparison between integral-cycle operation and phase-controlled operation 8.3.4.1 Lighting control 8.3.4.2 Motor speed control 8.3.4.3 Heating loads 8.3.4.4 Electromagnetic interference 8.3.4.5 Supply voltage dip 8.3.5 Worked examples 8.4 Problems
xi 245 246 250 254 254 256 259 261 265 265 271 275 280 281 281 286 288 288 291 292 296 303 304 309 312 313 314 316 323 324 327 327 328 328 329 329 330 330 331 337
Xll
Contents Three-phase induction motor with constant frequency supply 9.1 Three-phase induction motor with sinusoidal supply voltages . 1 Equivalent circuits .2 Power and torque .3 Approximate equivalent circuit .4 Effect of voltage variation on motor performance .5 M.m.f space harmonics due to fundamental current 9.2 Three-phase induction motor with periodic nonsinusoidal supply voltages 9.2.1 Fundamental spatial m.m.f. distribution due to time harmonics of current 9.2.2 Simultaneous effect of space and time harmonics 9.2.3 Equivalent circuits for nonsinusoidal voltages 9.3 Three-phase induction motor with voltage control by electronic switching 9.3.1 Approximate method of solution for steady-state operation 9.3.1.1 Theory of operation 9.3.1.2 Worked examples 9.3.2 Control system aspects 9.3.2.1 Representation of the motor 9.3.2.2 Representation of the SCR controller 9.3.2.3 Closed-loop operation using tachometric negative feedback 9.3.2.4 Worked examples 9.4 Three-phase induction motor with fixed supply voltages and adjustable secondary resistances 9.4.1 Theory of operation 9.4.2 Worked examples 9.5 Problems 10 Induction motor slip-energy recovery 10.1 Three-phase induction motor with injected secondary voltage 10.1.1 Theory of operation 10.1.2 Worked example 10.2 Induction motor slip-energy recovery (SER) system 10.2.1 Torque-speed relationship 10.2.2 Current relationships 10.2.3 Power, power factor and efficiency 10.2.4 Speed range, drive rating and motor transformation ratio 10.2.5 Filter inductor 10.2.6 Worked examples 10.3 Problems 346 346 348 350 353 356 358 359 359 360 361 362 369 369 370 378 378 381 383 386 393 393 396 398 404 404 404 405 406 408 413 416 419 422 424 433
Contents 11 Induction motor speed control by the use of adjustable voltage, adjustable frequency step-wave inverters 11.1 Three-phase induction motor with controlled sinusoidal supply voltages of adjustable frequency 11.1.1 Theory of operation 11.1.2 Worked examples 11.2 Three-phase, step-wave voltage source inverters with passive load impedance 11.2.1 Stepped-wave inverter voltage waveforms 11.2.1.1 Two simultaneously conducting switches 11.2.1.2 Three simultaneously conducting switches 11.2.2 Measurement of harmonic distortion 11.2.3 Harmonic properties of the six-step voltage wave 11.2.4 Harmonic properties of the optimum twelve-step waveform 11.2.5 Six-step voltage source inverter with series R-L load 11.2.5.1 Star-connected load 11.2.5.2 Delta-connected load 11.2.6 Worked examples 11.3 Three-phase, step-wave voltage source inverters with induction motor load 11.3.1 Motor currents 11.3.2 Motor losses and efficiency 11.3.3 Motor torque 11.3.4 Worked examples 11.4 Problems 12 Induction motor speed control by the use of adjustable frequency PWM inverters 12.1 Properties of pulse-width modulated waveforms 12.1.1 Single-pulse modulation 12.1.2 Multiple-pulse modulation 12.1.3 Sinusoidal modulation 12.1.3.1 Sinusoidal modulation with natural sampling 12.1.3.2 Overmodulation in sinusoidal PWM inverters 12.1.3.3 Sinusoidal modulation with regular sampling 12.1.4 Optimal pulse-width modulation (harmonic elimination) 12.1.5 PWM voltage waveforms applied to three-phase inductive load 12.1.6 Worked examples 12.2 Three-phase induction motor controlled by PWM voltage source inverter (VSI)
xiii
435 435 435 440 444 447 447 451 456 457 458 459 459 460 465 471 471 473 475 476 482
487 487 487 489 491 491 496 499 500 503 505 512
xiv
Contents 12.2.1 Theory of operation 12.2.2 Worked example 12.3 Three-phase induction motor controlled by PWM current source inverter (CSI) 12.3.1 Current source inverter with passive load 12.3.2 Current source inverter with induction motor load 12.4 Secondary frequency control 12.5 Problems Appendix General expressions for Fourier series Answers to problems References and bibliography Index 512 514 516 516 516 518 520 523 525 531 536

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