Linux

Linux System Administration
ITEC4611 Network Management
Pongsuree Limmaneewichid Faculty of Information Science and Technology
What is a system administrator? System Admin Tasks and Duties: install systems (including clients/servers): hardware, software and o.s. upgrade systems: hardware, software and o.s. backups start/stop system (reboot)
Other Duties create accounts (add/delete), passwords, account management job scheduling security performance monitoring and tuning
Some More Duties documentation and testing communication and help (with user community and internal) networking (client/server) handling printers, tape drives, modems, disks, UPS, and other peripherals Memory Management
Almost The Last Duties disk space management (formatting, partitions, quotas) writing/modifying scripts (perl, shell, C, etc..) running specialized services/servers (email server, web server, DNS etc..) problem resolution
Last Duties
Training (others and oneself) Fixing Bugs Automate Tasks Maintain system files Analysis of logs/systems, collect stats, reports Planning and Recommendations Work with vendors, customers Research New Technologies
Network Interface
Initializing Network Interfaces
Basic actions taken by Linux at boot time

Recognize network interface hardware Install appropriate drivers Configure interfaces for use
How to determine if Linux recognized interface

Search directory for interface names
Kernel < 2.6: enter command cat /proc/net/dev Kernel >= 2.6: enter command dir /sys/class/net
Examples of search objects that will likely be present

eth0: physical Ethernet interface lo: local loopback interface
ITEC4611 Network Management 8
Interface Names
Default names for network interfaces
Ethernet interface: eth prefix and numerical suffix
Examples: eth0, eth1, eth2
Token-Ring interface: tr prefix and numerical suffix

Examples: tr0, tr1, tr2
How to change interface names using ip program

Take the interface down: ip link set eth0 down Change interface name: ip link set eth0 name inside Rename interface: ip link set inside up
Two commands for displaying interface information

ip link show inside or ifconfig inside
Example Interface name
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Multiple Interfaces Example: eth0, eth1, eth2, etc. Challenge: match physical connectors to proper name Order of driver loading determines interface naming Two methods for ordering interface detection
Plug and Play logic in the case of PCI interface Hardware settings in case of ISA bus cards
Addition of new interface impacts naming scheme

Existing interface may be renamed at boot time Precaution: verify connectors linked to same interface name
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Interface Drivers
Implemented as kernel modules Kernel modules appear below /lib/modules directory View modules loaded using lsmod command
Display example: e1000 76956 2 (autoclean)
e1000 refers to Intel Gigabit Ethernet interface
Run lspci program for list of internal interfaces

Drivers may be researched on the Internet
Download driver to system, if necessary
modprobe can be used to load (reload) driver

Does not require absolute path or file extension Example: modprobe sis900 ( loads SiS900 driver)
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Configuring Networking With CLI
Techniques common to all Linux distributions Two traditional commands: ifconfig and route ip program is replacing older commands
Part of the new IPROUTE2 package
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Configuring Networking Examples Example: bringing up eth0 interface

Enter ip and netmask
ifconfig eth0 203.148.144.130 netmask 255.255.255.128
User adds address of gateway

route add default gw 203.148.159.129
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Using the ip Command

ip designed to replace ifconfig, route, arp Examples of powerful features
Configure an interface using CIDR notation
ip addr add 10.1.1.204/29 dev eth0
Display routing table

ip route
Add default gateway to routing table

ip route add default dev eth0 via 10.1.1.201
Display statistics only upon request

ip statistics link dev eth0
Search ip man page or Internet for more information
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Adding IP Addresses to Interfaces

IP aliasing: assigning extra IP addresses to interface Method for creating aliases based on ifconfig
Append colon and number to interface name
Example: first alias called eth0:0
Alias names may use letters after interface identifier

Example: eth0:web1
Method for creating aliases based on ip

Aliases lack names, but Linux knows how to use them Command syntax is more compact and readable
Example: ip addr 10.0.0.3/8 dev eth0
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Wireless Interfaces
Unique features: radio receiver and transmitter Wireless-specific parameters to display and configure
Frequency, transmit power, data rate, encryption key Selecting between ad hoc or access point mode
Two wireless-specific programs: iwconfig and iwlist

Used after ifconfig or ip configures network interface
iwconfig: main tool for configuring wireless interfaces iwconfig syntax: iwconfig interface option
interface corresponds to interface name option corresponds to wireless-specific parameters
Example: freq number sets transmitter's frequency
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Using proc proc filesystem: virtual filesystem

Allows you to view and modify kernel settings Settings emulate filesystem's directory structure
View proc filesystem by going to /proc directory

Files and directories do not exist on hard disk Example: enter cat /proc/cpuinfo for CPU information
Network-related settings in two /proc directories

/proc/net: view status information only /proc/sys/net: modify network-related settings
Read/write permissions described in later chapters
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Using proc (continued)

Test command for modifying network parameters
Enter echo "49152 65535" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range Changes port range to correct value (49152 to 65535)
Verify changes made with test command

Enter cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range New connections use ports in new range
How to make changes permanent

Put echo command in start-up script Example: /etc/rc.d/rclocal script
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Using proc (continued) Another proc setting: /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

Set to 1 on two conditions
You have more than one interface You want to route packets between interfaces
Linux should update setting automatically
Manual way to set /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

Enter echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
Other proc settings presented in later chapters
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Using ARP
Address Resolution Protocol
Obtains hardware address of host given its IP address Available through arp command
ARP cache: table maintained by ARP protocol

Map of IP addresses to interface hardware addresses
View ARP table using arp a (the a is for all)

Displays host name, IP and MAC addresses
Other characteristics of ARP table entries

Entries may be updated (not frequently exercised) Entries are dynamic, will be discarded if not used
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System Networking Scripts

Intelligent tools for handling network interfaces Follow model used in UNIX-based systems High-level controlling script: /etc/init.d/network
Example: start up networking
Enter /etc/rc.d/init.d/network start
/etc/init.d/network based on other scripts and files

Location: /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts subdirectory
Relevant file in subdirectory is called networking
Two main interface control scripts: ifup and ifdown
Actual configuration data stored separately

Example: /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
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System Networking Scripts (continued)

Fedora Core scripts built around aliases with names
ifconfig command suitable for use in scripts
Adding IP alias through scripting

Create new file in /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts
File: ifcfg-eth0:0 (may be copy of existing file ifcfg-eth0)
Change DEVICE and IPADDR lines in new file

Should refer to eth0:0 and the new IP address
Restart networking to activate additional IP address
Additional IP address started every time Linux started

Halt process in future by deleting additional file
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Using ping for System Testing

ping: utility used to send ICMP echo packets ICMP echo packet verifies connection with host Using ping: ping + host IP address or host name Actions following entry of ping 203.148.144.129
Reachable host affirms connection System displays message showing connection valid Packets continue to be sent until program halted Press Ctrl + C to end program and generate summary
Using ping to identify source of problem

Ping 127.0.0.1 checks internal networking stacks
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Using traceroute Using traceroute to Examine Routing traceroute provides greater detail than ping Basic traceroute functions
Relies on TTL field and ICMP packet timed out data Identifies each router (each hop) between you and host Attempts to reach host within 30 hops (may be reset)
Example: enter traceroute 198.60.22.77

Successful route makes 14 hops
Hop corresponds to line number in display
IP address and host name shown for each router Probe packets supply three timing values for each hop
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Basic Network troubleshooting
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Configuring Client Services
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Name Services
Domain: collection of computers using common name
Examples: yahoo.com or amazon.com
Name services map domains names to IP addresses Name services as an Application-layer program
Returns IP address when name is input Returns name when IP address is input
Name resolution: converts name to IP address Name server: computer providing name services
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The hosts File /etc/hosts file: simplest name service

Contains table of names and IP addresses Each text line in file corresponds to table row May be modified and copied to other hosts
Sample output
127.0.0.1 192.168.1.35 localhost.msit.com localhost sundance.msit.com
Using the hosts file

Enter www.linux.com in your Web browser Browser sends request to resolver for IP address Resolver searches hosts file, responds with address Browser initiates network connection with address
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Configuring the DNS Resolver Manually Resolver as the client part of DNS
Makes requests to DNS server on behalf of program Example: Web browser uses Linux resolver
Configuring resolver
Go to /etc/resolv.conf file Enter nameserver plus IP address of DNS server
Include up to three DNS servers in file Advisable to select servers close to network segment
Example: nameserver 198.60.22.2
Resolver tries to reach DNS servers in resolv.conf list

Process ends when server reached or list exhausted
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Configuring the DNS Resolver Manually One domain statement may be included in resolv.conf
Only one domain name in a domain statement Example: domain course.com
Helps resolver construct fully qualified name Domain string would be added to command ping www
Search statement allows for additional domain names

Example: search abc.com cbs.com nbc.com
Given command ping www, resolver has more choices Appends domain strings as needed, until list exhausted
The resolv.conf file may be revised in any text editor
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Configuring the DNS Resolver etc/host.conf file specifies order for resolving names
Example: order hosts, bind
Resolver first checks etc/host for name to be resolved If no name present, resolver makes DNS query using resolv.conf The word bind refers to BIND software
/etc/nsswitch.conf file has replaced etc/host.conf

Provides etc/host.conf functionality Includes more options for locating information Also used by other programs, such as NIS
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Shell Introduction and Command
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Shells
Interprets and executes commands 4 - 5 different shells are installed by default Each shell has slightly different environment & features Examples
bash - most common, powerful csh - C shell, less features than bash sh - Bourne shell, oldest zsh - new, quite powerful type echo $SHELL should return something like /bin/bash
to find out the particular shell
to change shell use the command chsh

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Navigating directories
To find out the current directory: pwd - returns the current directory To change to another directory: cd /path/to/dir . is the current directory .. is the parent directory
Linux (as Windows) has hierarchical directory structure Each component is seperated by forward slash - / / is the root directory Examples
/usr/bin/ /home/admin
Paths Paths define the location of a file or directory
seperated by slashes: / Could be absolute or relative Absolute

starts with the root directory /home/raheel/paper.txt , /usr/local/bin in relation to the current directory pwd -> /home/admin, cd hw -> /home/admin/hw cd .. -> /home/admin
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Relative
Important directories
/bin : essential Unix commands, like ls /usr/bin : some extra Unix commands /usr/sbin : for super user, system administration /boot : kernel and other files for booting /etc : system services - networking, mail, disk management /var : administrative files, such as logs /usr/local : locally added programs and files by sys. admin. /dev : device files - interface b/w hardware and filesystem /proc : running processes
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Navigating directories (contd.)
cd by itself - takes to home directory
cd ~ also Home directory also denoted by ~
mkdir dirname creates new directory under current one mkdir /path/to/dirname creates new directory under the exact path Rmdir, rm r removes a directory
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cd . doesnt do anything cd .. takes you to parent directory To make a directory:
Listing files
ls - the most popular command lists the directory contents lots of options available with arguments
argument - option given to a command lists current directorys contents lists the contents of /home directory list hidden files with the -a argument long information about contents. Very useful
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ls ls /home ls -a ls -l
What is a command?
Small (big) program provided by UNIX/Linux Can make your own commands too Command is simply a file
Have to mark it executable Put it somewhere special (in command path)
Path : directories where shell looks for a given command find out path by echo $PATH /usr/local/bin/:/usr/bin:/bin/ Sometime have to specify full (absolute path) to a command
command not in path more than one name for same command
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Command (contd.)
Add a directory to path export PATH=$PATH:/new/directory/path current directory usually not in path use ./command-name Help for commands Put a command in background ls & -> [1] 23142 Bring it back fg %1 or fg 23142 Commands and shell provided features

type ls type cd
41 ITEC4611 Network Management
man command-name man 2 command-name : for 2nd section apropos edit : displays all commands related to editing
Typing shortcuts
Word Completions
Dont have to type full command or path Type Tab after typing a couple of letters cd /usr/inc - then hit Tab
would complete it as cd /usr/include/ completes the path Type mor and then hit Tab Will complete it as the command more Type cd /usr/l and hit Tab Would display lib and local because they begin with l
Works on commands too
If more than one match, the displays the options
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Command line editing
Can edit previously typed commands Commands are stored once typed
No. of commands to be stored in history can be set
Can recall previous commands and use them Up arrow - previous command Down arrow - next command Left and right arrow to navigate Ctrl-U to delete whole line if mistyped Ctrl-A : beginning of line Ctrl-E : end of line
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Command history in detail!
Can view previous commands in one display type history

displays history of commands, numbered displays only N previous commands deletes all commands in history execute previous command execute the Nth command from top
history N history -c !!
!N
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Exapnding filenames (wildcards)
Specify a group of files/directories with a single word if ls gives

paper1.doc work.ppt paper2.doc paper3.doc papa.doe prayer.doc thesis.doc
Then ls *.doc will give

paper2.doc paper3.doc prayer.doc thesis.doc
paper1.doc
* says match as many characters as possible in place of * ? says match one character in place of ?
ls paper?.doc gives
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paper1.doc paper2.doc paper3.doc
More wildcards
Can use * in between a word
ls p*.doc will give

Can specify characters instead of ? and *
ls paper[123].doc will give ls paper[2-3].doc will give
paper2.doc paper3.doc
Can combine wildcards

ls pap*.do? will give
paper1.doc paper2.doc paper3.doc papa.doe
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Displaying Content of Text Files Concatenation

Joining of text together to make one larger whole In Linux, words and strings of text are joined together to form a displayed file
cat command
Linux command used to display (or concatenate) the entire contents of a text file to the screen
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Displaying Content of Text Files Log files

File that contains past system events
tac command
Linux command that displays a file to the screen beginning with the last line of the file and ending with the first line of the file
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Displaying Content of Text Files head command

By default, displays the first 10 lines (including blank lines) of a text file to the terminal screen Can also take a numeric option specifying a different number of lines to display
tail command
By default, displays the last 10 lines (including blank lines) of a text file to the terminal screen Can also take a numeric option specifying a different number of lines to display
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Displaying Content of Text Files more command

Linux command used to display a text file page-bypage and line-by-line on the terminal screen Gets its name from the pg command once used on UNIX systems more does more than pg did
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Displaying Content of Text Files less command

Linux command used to display to display a text file page-by-page on the terminal screen Users may then use the cursor keys to navigate the file
The more and less commands can also be used in conjunction with the output of other commands if that output is too large to fit on the terminal screen
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Displaying Binary File Contents

It is important to employ text file commands as cat, tac, head, tail, more, and less only on files that contain text
Otherwise you may find yourself with random output on the terminal screen, or even a dysfunctional screen
strings commands
Linux command used to search for and display text characters in a binary file
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Displaying Binary File Contents od command

Linux command that is used to display the contents of a file in octal format (numeric base 8 format) Safe to use on binary files and text files
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Searching for Text within Files Text tools

File that stores information in a readable text format
Regular expressions (regxp)

Special metacharacters used to match patterns of text within text files Commonly used by many text tool commands such as grep
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Searching for Text within Files Text tools and programming languages that use regular expressions include:
grep awk sed vi emacs
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Searching for Text within Files Text tools and programming languages that use regular expressions include (continued):
ex ed C++ PERL Tcl
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Regular Expressions
Differences between regular expressions and wildcard metacharacters include:
Wildcard metacharacters are interpreted by the shell
Regular expressions are interpreted by a text tool program
Wildcard metacharacters match characters in filenames (or directory names) on a Linux filesystem
Regular expressions match characters within text files on a Linux filesystem
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Regular Expressions
Differences between regular expressions and wildcard metacharacters include (continued):
Wildcard metacharacters typically have different definitions than regular expressions There are more regular expressions than wildcard metacharacters Regular expressions are divided into two different categories:
Common extended
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Regular Expressions
Regular Description Expression
* Matches 0 or more occurrences of the previous character Matches 0 or 1 occurrences of the previous character Matches 1 or more occurrences of the previous character Matches 1 character of any type
Example
letter* matches lette, letter, letterr, letterrrr, letterrrrrr etc. letter? matches lette, letter letter+ matches letter, letterr, letterrrr, letterrrrrr etc. letter. matches lettera, letterb, letterc, letter1, letter2, letter3, etc. Letter[1238] matches letter1, letter2, letter3, & letter8
Type
Common
? +
Extended Extended
. (period)
Common
[]
Matches 1 character from the range specified within the braces
Common
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Regular Expressions
Regular Expression [ ] Description Matches 1 character NOT from the range specified within the braces Matches a specific range or number of the previous character Matches the following characters if they are the first characters on the line Matches previous characters if they are the last characters on the line Matches either of the two sets of characters Example letter[1238] matches letter4, letter5, letter6, lettera, letterb, etc. (any character except 1,2,3 or 8) letter{3} matches letterrr letter{2,4} matches letterr, letterrr and letterrrr ^letter matches letter if letter is the first set of characters in the line letter$ matches letter if letter is the last set of characters in the line (mother|father) matches the word mother or father Type Common
{}
Extended
Common
Common
(|)
Extended
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The grep Command

grep
Stands for Global Regular Expression Print Used to display lines in a text file that match a certain common regular expression
Use the egrep command to display lines of text that match extended regular expressions The fgrep command does not interpret any regular expressions and consequently returns results much faster than the egrep command
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The vi Editor One of the oldest and most popular visual text editors available for UNIX operating systems
Its Linux equivalent (known as vimvi improved) is standard on almost every Linux distribution as a result
Though not the easiest of the editors to use when editing text files, it has the advantage of portability
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The vi Editor The vi editor is called a bi-modal editor as it functions in one of two modes:
Command mode
Allows a user to perform any available text editing task that is not related to inserting text into the document
Insert mode
Allows the user to insert text into the document but does not allow any other functionality
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The vi Editor
Key l A O Shift-I Shift-A Shift-O [Esc] Description Changes to insert mode and places the cursor before the current character for entering text Changes to insert mode and places the cursor after the current character for entering text Changes to insert mode and opens up a new line underneath the current line for entering text Changes to insert mode and places the cursor at the beginning of the current line for entering text Changes to insert mode and places the cursor at the end of the current line for entering text Changes to insert mode and opens up a new line above the current line for entering text Changes back to command mode while in insert mode
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The vi Editor
Key w, W, e, E b, B 53G G 0,^ $ x 3x dw d3w, 3dw dd d3d, 3dd d$ d^, d0 Description Moves the cursor forward one word Moves the cursor backward one word Moves the cursor to line 53 Moves the cursor to the last line in the document Moves the cursor to the beginning of the line Moves the cursor to the end of the line Deletes the character the cursor is on Deletes three characters starting from the character the cursor is on Deletes one word starting from the character the cursor is on Deletes three words starting from the character the cursor is on Deletes the whole line starting from the line the cursor is on Deletes three whole lines starting from the line the cursor is on Deletes from the cursor character to the end of the current line Deletes from the cursor character to the beginning of the current line
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The vi Editor
Key gg yw y3w, 3yw yy y3y, 3yy y$ y^, y0 p Description Moves the cursor to the beginning of the document Copies one word (starting from the character the cursor is on) into a temporary buffer in memory for later use Copies three words (starting from the character the cursor is on) into a temporary buffer in memory for later use Copies the current line into a temporary buffer in memory for later use Copies three lines (starting from the current line) into a temporary buffer in memory for later use Copies the current line from the cursor to the end of the line into a temporary buffer in memory for later use Copies the current line from the cursor to the beginning of the line into a temporary buffer in memory for later use Pastes the contents of the temporary memory buffer underneath the current line
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The vi Editor
Key P J [Ctrl]-g u . /pattern ?pattern n N Description Pastes the contents of the temporary memory buffer above the current line Joins the line underneath the current line to the current line Displays current line statistics Undoes the last function (undo) Repeats the last function (repeat) Searches for the first occurrence of the pattern in the forward direction Searches for the first occurrence of the pattern in the reverse direction Repeats the previous search in the forward direction Repeats the previous search in the reverse direction
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The vi Editor
Function :q :q! :wq :w filename :!date :r !date :r filename :set all :set :s/the/THE/g :1,$ s/the/THE/g Description Quits from the vi editor if no changes were made Quits from the vi editor and does not save any changes Save any changes to the file and quits from the vi editor Saves the current document to a file called filename Executes the date command using a BASH shell Reads the output of the date command into the document under the current line Reads the contents of the text file called filename into the document under the current line Displays all vi environment settings Sets a vi environment setting to a certain value Searches for the regular expression the and replaces each occurrence globally throughout the current line with the word THE Searches for the regular expression the and replaces each occurrence globally from line 1 to the end of the document with the word THE
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Other Common Text Editors

pico (PIne COmposer) editor
By far, the easiest alternative to the vi editor Commonly used to create and edit e-mails
joe (Joes Own Editor)

Wordstar-style editor; can be run in pico-compatible mode (jpico) or emacs-compatible mode (jmacs) My preferred editor when run as jpico
mcedit editor (Midnight Commander Editor)

Resembles pico yet has more functionality, support for regular expressions, and ability to use the mouse for highlighting text
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Startup files
Used to customize environment before starting the shell Every shell has its own startup file; hidden
Bash has .bashrc and .bash_profile
Can contain commands and programs
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FileSystem
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Filesystem : Introduction
Filesystem: Device or part of a device (partition) formatted to store files Device: CD, DVD, hard drive, floppies, etc. Type (format) of filesystem is transparent to user
Data is presented as directories To a user, all filesystems look alike
Different formats for different purposes Random access devices only can have filesystems
Tape only allows sequential access

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Filesystem types
Supports most of the popular ones
and even obscure ones new types are being added experimental drivers available contains list of supported FSs not complete
Can look at /proc/filesystems
Can select filesystems to support if building kernel

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Some filesystem types Filesystem

Second Extended filesystem Third Extended filesystem Minix filesystem Network filesystem VFAT filesystem NT filesystem .................
Type
ext2 ext3 minix NFS vfat ntfs .....
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Mounting filesystems
To access a filesystem, it should be mounted Mounting, maps a filesystem to a given directory CDs/DVDs etc. are usually automounted May need to mount/unmount sometimes A filesystem can be mounted
automatically at startup interactively - using a command

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mount command
Used to mount any filesystem mount - tells all mounted filesystems Need to know
the filesystem type the location of the device where to mount it
The mount point defines the location of a filesystem Flexibility in mounting any device anywhere (in any directory) man mount
Hard drive partition /dev/hda1 at /windows/cdrive, windows format

mount -t vfat /dev/hda1 /windows/cdrive mounts the whole partition as folders in /windows/cdrive
Filesystem
Filesystem is also an application
for managing storage and access to files and dirs. used by applications
create files and directories open and modify existing ones delete specify access controls
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Filesystem
File: single item for storing information Directory: hierarchical collection of files & other directories
root directory: / , topmost, every other dir. or file lives under it sub directories: a directory under root dir. directories help in organization
"On a UNIX system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, it is a process."
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Filesystem layout
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Some main subdirectories

/bin /boot /dev /etc /home /initrd /lib /lost+foun d /mnt /net /opt /proc /root /tmp /usr /var
common programs, shared by admins, users startup files and kernel. Also GRUB data references to all hardware as special files important system configuration files. Sort of like Control Panel containes home directories for most users information contained for booting.. Dont mess with it! library files, common files needed by many programs files that were recovered after a system failure mount point for all external devices mount point for remote filesystems extra third party software info about system resources, man proc home dir. for the the admin temporary space program, libraries, docs for most user programs other temporary files, such as logs, downloaded files, mail queue
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Partitions
Different directories can be on seperate partitions Every filesystem is on a seperate partition Advantage
Higher data security Flexible storage options Seperation of different kinds of data
system data, user data, application data
Two types
swap partitions data partitions
df command for all active non-swap partitions fdisk for partition management
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Basic Accounting
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Accounts
Linux is a multiuser operating system Account for a user identified by username password for authentication Password file: used for authentication username:password:uid:gid:gecos:homedir:shell Two types of accounts

Root
Called super user Every Linux system has one Can create other accounts for users Restricted Can be given more permissions
User
Some accounts may not have any actual user

needed by some application
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Accounts..
Root account created during installation
One or more user accounts as well Potentially dangerous prompt for the users password
Shouldnt login using root account Can change into any user using su user
su changes to root account To run a single command with root previliges

use sudo
Accounts
Creating new users only admins can do this adduser command most default options are ok New users should change their password: passwd root can do this for a user: passwd user Deleting users accounts: userdel -r username Disabling a user temporarily Remove the entry from /etc/passwd
Permissions
Very critical in multi-user environment Maintain access over files for different users
Other users cannot access your files Critical files can only be accessed by root Similar users can be grouped together Easy to maintain permissions for a group Easy to share files within a group A user can belong to more than one group groups command User Group Others
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Besides users, there are groups
Permissions are maintained for
Permissions
Permissions under Linux are

Ownership Access rights
Ownership - who owns the file The creator of a file becomes its owner
Creators default group becomes the group owner Ownership can be changed later Can modify ownership Can change access rights
The super user, root, owns everything
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Access rights (Permissions)
Access rights Who can read, write, view a file Read

File - open it Directory - open it, list its contents File - change its contents Directory - add or remove its contents File - execute it Directory - list using ls -l : extended information
Write
Execute
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Permissions
ls -l to view the permissions Sample output
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Changing Ownership
Rre to do this To change ownership: chown chown username file_or_dir To change group ownership: chgrp chgrp groupname file_or_dir combine if username & group name are same
chgrp name.name file_or_dir
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Changing Permissions
chmod command

standard way to change permissions a : all u : current user (who is using chmod) g : files current group o : other users, not in g + : add an attribute - : remove an attribute = : set (absolutely) a permission r, w, x: read, write, execute
root can change permissions to any file/directory Besides root, only the owner can change permissions
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Changing Permissions
Simple example: make a file executable
chmod +x filename: gives permission to everyone to only yourself: chmod u+x filename to yourself and group: chmod ug+x filename multiple: chmod ug+rwx filename remove a permission: chmod o-x filename give write permission to all: chmod a+w filename remove all permissions and set file readable by user only
chmod u=r filename
-r option: set permission to every item in a directory

chmod a+rw -r dirname
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Software Installation and Update
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Software installation
Numerous software options Several sources

Installation CD Websites

sourceforge.net freshmeat.net
Usually free Open source
Software update
Software installation
Installation options
Package system

Easiest to use package system
Download binary file Download source files, compile
apt, rpm, dpkg, etc. depends on the distribution
May need to compile the source to install

Similar to installing/upgrading kernel
not all software will have package file for every distribution same goes for binary files
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Using RPM
RPM (RedHat Package Manager) Automates install/upgrade/uninstall of software Keeps track of individual software files Maintains dependencies (pre-requisite software) To install
rpm -ivh software-file.rpm Will complain about dependencies if not available To upgrade rpm -Uvh software-file.rpm
To remove rpm -e software To query

rpm
-q software
96
Using apt
Similar to RPM in many ways Much more convenient Repositories

sources of available software Internet CD Local
Software installs with less errors usually Automatically downloads and installs from sources Keeps track of dependencies and installs required ones
Easiest to use apt with Synaptic front-end

Using apt
Requires sudo previliges for most tasks To update the list of software from repositories sudo apt-get update To upgrade all available software sudo apt-get upgrade To install a software
repositories
sudo apt-get install software_name apt downloads and installs software and dependencies from
To search for software in repositories sudo apt-cache search gedit To look for information on a particular software
sudo
apt-cache show gedit
Using Synaptic
GUI front-end to apt Easy to use and configure apt with Synaptic Install apt first with Synaptic Available under System>Administration Can edit and add repositories
Archive and Compression Utilities
Crucial tools for software installation from source Archiving

Pack many files into a single file; easily transferred tar reduce the size of a file or set of files compress gzip
archive several files into one then compress the file
100
Compression
Usually archive and compression used together

gzip
Powerful compression utility Working Amount of compression depends on the kind of file

For eg., JPEG or PNG images are already compressed To find out how much compression was done:
Compress a file, big_file save compressed file as big_file.gz remove original file
To get original file back:

gunzip big_file.gz
gzip -l big_file.gz
Using tar
tar is for archiving

packing many files into a single file preserves ownerships, links, directory structure
c x t r f v
Options:
create a new archive extract files from archive list contents of archive append to archive filename of archive verbose
To archive two files a.txt and b.txt into arch.tar: tar cvf arch.tar a.txt b.txt To archive a directory temp into temp.tar
tar
cvf temp.tar temp
Using tar
To extract an archive mt.tar tar xvf mt.tar To view the contents of the archive tar tvf mt.tar Using with gzip use the z option when compressing into a gzip file To archive & compress a.txt and b.txt into f.tar.gz tar cvzf f.tar.gz a.txt b.txt To extract the above compressed archive tar xvzf f.tar.gz To view the contents
tar
tvzf f.tar.gz
Installing/Upgrading software the hard way
rpm and apt packges of a software may not always be available Use the latest release of the software
Source Binary Available as compressed files Extract the files, which contain the necessary programs Make sure the extracted program is in the PATH Extract the files, compile and install the program
Binary
Source
104
Installing from source
Hardest way to install a program Necessary for installing latest version of the software May require root privileges Usual steps
Download the required tar compressed file Extract the files using tar Run its configuration program (usually ./configure) Run make for compiling Run make install (usually with sudo) for installation Cleaning (optional): make clean shared libraries compiling problems
May run into problems!
105
END
106

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Linux System Administration

ITEC4611 Network Management

Pongsuree Limmaneewichid Faculty of Information Science and Technology

ITEC4611 Network Management

ITEC4611 Network Management

ITEC4611 Network Management

ITEC4611 Network Management

ITEC4611 Network Management

ITEC4611 Network Management

Initializing Network Interfaces

Basic actions taken by Linux at boot time

How to determine if Linux recognized interface

Examples of search objects that will likely be present

Token-Ring interface: tr prefix and numerical suffix

How to change interface names using ip program

Two commands for displaying interface information

ITEC4611 Network Management

Example Interface name

ITEC4611 Network Management

Addition of new interface impacts naming scheme

ITEC4611 Network Management

Run lspci program for list of internal interfaces

modprobe can be used to load (reload) driver

ITEC4611 Network Management

Configuring Networking With CLI

ITEC4611 Network Management

Configuring Networking Examples Example: bringing up eth0 interface

User adds address of gateway

ITEC4611 Network Management

Using the ip Command

Display routing table

Add default gateway to routing table

Display statistics only upon request

Search ip man page or Internet for more information

ITEC4611 Network Management

Adding IP Addresses to Interfaces

Alias names may use letters after interface identifier

Method for creating aliases based on ip

ITEC4611 Network Management

Two wireless-specific programs: iwconfig and iwlist

ITEC4611 Network Management

Using proc proc filesystem: virtual filesystem

View proc filesystem by going to /proc directory

Network-related settings in two /proc directories

ITEC4611 Network Management

Using proc (continued)

Verify changes made with test command

How to make changes permanent

ITEC4611 Network Management

Using proc (continued) Another proc setting: /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

Linux should update setting automatically

Manual way to set /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

Other proc settings presented in later chapters

ITEC4611 Network Management

ARP cache: table maintained by ARP protocol

View ARP table using arp a (the a is for all)

Other characteristics of ARP table entries

ITEC4611 Network Management

System Networking Scripts

/etc/init.d/network based on other scripts and files

Two main interface control scripts: ifup and ifdown

Actual configuration data stored separately

ITEC4611 Network Management

System Networking Scripts (continued)