h2 History Cold War Hci

Hwa Chong Institution (College) H1/H2 History International History: 1945 2000 Theme I: The Cold War and
nd How It Shaped the World
HWA CHONG INSTITUTION (COLLEGE) H1/H2 HISTORY PAPER 1: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY 1945 to 2000
Theme 1: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 References: The Cold War and How It Shaped the World Origins of the Cold War Globalization of the Cold War End of the Cold War and the Collapse of the Soviet Union Legacies of the Cold War
Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1
International History The Cold War and How It Shaped The World
1.1
Origins of the Cold War
Topics Included Rise of USA and USSR as superpowers after World War II USA and USSRs motives: political, strategic, economic and ideological US policy of containment: Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, formation of NATO Sovietisation of Eastern Europe: Berlin Blockade, Warsaw Pact Historical debate: traditional, revisionist and post-revisionist Candidates are expected to be able to: examine the aims, motives and policies of USA and USSR which led to the Cold War in Europe evaluate the different historical interpretations of the origins of the Cold War
What is the Cold War? The Cold War is a period of tension and subdued hostility which gripped most of the world between the 1940s and the early 1990s. It was an indirect and unconventional confrontation between two superpowers contesting for ideological, political and economic supremacy, short of a direct hot war. Fundamentally, The Cold War was a breakdown of the relationship between the Allied forces and the Soviet Union due to various reasons which will be explored now. Practice Questions: Assess the view that the fundamental underlying cause of the Cold War was the belief in both the USSR and the US that confrontation was unavoidable. [MI, 2009] It was the failure to recognise each others national security concerns that led to the Cold War between the USA & the USSR. Discuss. [NJC, 2009] To what extent was the outbreak of the Cold War due to American paranoia of Soviet expansion? [CJC, 2008] "Excessive apprehension, not aggression, led to the dawn of the Cold War." Discuss. [HCI, 2009] How far do you agree that the outbreak of the Cold War was more a product of national security interests rather than ideological differences? [JJC, 2011] How important was the Sovietisation of Eastern Europe as a cause of the Cold War? [A Levels, 2011]
Examining the Nature of the Relationship In essence, we need to understand the nature of the USA-USSR relationship during and after the war, and ask ourselves: "What has changed?" A Study of The Wartime Relations Between The Soviet Union and The USA
Factor-Based Study Study Questions: The causes of the Cold War in Europe were strategic and economic rather than ideological.' How far do you agree? [A Levels, 2009] "Fundamentally the Cold War broke out because of a clash of political objectives rather than a clash of ideology. Critically evaluate. [TJC, 2009] Essay Approaches Fundamentally, both questions require a comparative approach. In essence, in proving your thesis, a strong essay should also disprove the anti-thesis. Anti- Thesis: Disproving It: Thesis: Synthesis: Why it seemed ideological Why it wasn't ideological OR why it wasn't political etc. Why it was political or strategic/economic Can bring in mutual misunderstandings, but make sure link to topic is clear, if not one would be seen as twisting the question.
Content: Ideological Reasons The United States Expansion into Western Europe serving political and economic interests for markets and desire to retain economic hegemonic position. The Soviet Union Differed over their interpretations over democracy - Long history of ideological/territorial expansionism even before under the Tsars - Bolshoi Theatre Speech "Two Worlds" praised the Soviet model, suggested extension on the global scale hints of Communist expansionism. Strategic Reasons Containment Policy as a response - Fear of resurgence of German to perceived Soviet expansionism militarism into Eastern Europe o Justification of the need for o Article X: Reported a strong Eastern European -
intentions of Soviet expansionism; Bolshoi Theatre Speech by Stalin entitled "Two Worlds" also seemed to confirm such suspicions o Perception of 11m strong Red Army's reluctance to move out of Eastern Europe after 1945 (seen as opportunity to enforce will) o Communists pressured Iran & Turkey for territory o Coup of Czechoslovakia seen as end of encouraging democracy in EE.
buffer Fear of impact of US Containment policy o Soviet insecurity triggered by perceived US actions Atomic Issue Salami Tactics
Economic Reasons - Soviet Union was strained by A communist takeover of Europe World War II would deny Americans of much- Abrupt end of US lend-lease aid to needed markets for American USSR goods. - Extraction and repatriation of raw Value of European economic materials recovery creation of Marshall - Socialism in One Country Plan was, superficially, to ensure suggests period of high Stalinism the growth of the European primary priority was economic economy. reconstruction. Rehabilitation of German - Saw EE as more than buffer economy as crucial element of states, appreciate value of that recovery plan. Eastern Europe (specifically Germany) for resource extraction Germany had resources that USSR felt entitled to. - COMECON economic organization to control states politically, even if it helped Soviet recovery. BUT - Comecon/CMEA - Soviet Rejection of US Marshall Aid - Economic control to maintain political loyalty of the members for security reasons. - (Hindsight: Despite that, unrest in Poland & Hungary 1956, Czechoslovakia in 1968)
Summary of Soviet Motives Economic Concerns 1945 Issue/Event-Based Study Wartime Agreements Differences at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences Border Security
1947 1949 (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan)
Disagreed on the Question of Germany and Eastern Europe. Economic Issue: The Russian proposal of $20 billion in reparations was opposed by the West. Issue of Eastern Europe: The Russians were also disappointed with the decision to not allow Eastern Europe to be a sphere of influence for the Soviet Union, who wanted a buffer zone against Germany. This was the beginning of the showing of cracks between the parties involved. Consensus was only reached because of a mutual need rather than a natural unity. Stalin agreed to the principle of free elections in Eastern Europe, went back on his agreement to hold free elections within the month. Degeneration in Potsdam: Refused to accept Soviet government in Poland, demand for free elections rejected by Soviet Union. Evaluation Stalins agenda was to obtain economic help for Soviet Union, and revival of Soviet economy Stalin's Objectives/Views Change in attitude from the Westerners was seen as a betrayal of trust. Hence, Stalin had no choice but to seemingly go back on his promise on free elections and establish control in Eastern Europe to defend herself. Potsdam had revealed a distinct cooling-off in relations. Evaluation/Link to Thesis Statement This development of mistrust and dissatisfaction with the Americans and over the post-war agreements ultimately led to the breakdown of relations and the unravelling of the alliance; this had eventually led to the suspicion from both sides that culminated in the Cold War.
Difference in economic objectives Ostmark and Deutschmark The Western zones of occupation merged to form Trizonia, and introduced the Deutschmark in order to strengthen Germanys economy. The Soviets were alarmed at the prospect of a restored Germany as it would pose a threat, having being invaded by the Germans before. Primarily, the Soviets were only interested in extracting reparations from their zone of influence in East Germany and this marked the differences
in economic objectives over Germany. The clash of differences not only became a source of disagreement that contributed to tensions, but was also one of the reasons contributing to the Berlin Blockade, and by extension worsening the tensions in the Cold War. Furthermore in this situation, economic differences resulted in strategic concerns for the USSR which further saturated the Cold War atmosphere with heightened tensions.
End of Lend Lease Agreement - France was busy repairing German war damage in its country and fighting to keep its colonies. - USA decided to withhold further amounts of loan whose markets were not open o Dollar diplomacy was a key tenet of US foreign policy in the early 20th century use indebtedness to further American interests o Soviet dissatisfaction towards such heavy handed American tactics - End of the Lend-Lease Act to the Soviet Union was seen by Stalin as American aggression and unwillingness to allow the Soviet Union to recover from WWII The Issue of Germany and Poland/Eastern Europe The German Issue Disagreements over the German Issue threatened to divide the two superpowers. What was the significance of Germany?: America USSR Wanted a weak Germany, but - Wanted punishments and eventually recovered one to reparations resources for a stimulate Europes economic reconstruction of the Soviet Union revival. economy. Division of Germany into 4 zones, administered by the Control Council - American and British union of - Soviet refusal to deliver food and zones to create Bizonia first step basic commodities in return for of separation. reparations from British and - Eventual formation of the Federal American zones Republic of German and the - Americans halted reparations German Democratic Republic. deliveries, which the Soviets saw as a breach of the Potsdam agreement. Berlin Blockade initiated by the Soviet Introduction of the Deutschmark Union introduction of a new currency introduction of a new economic system despite earlier agreements. -
Poland and the issue of free elections Polish Issue: Pro-Soviet communist government backed London Poles called for free elections, which were eventually rigged. Stalin had earlier promised free elections to be held in Poland this was evidently going back on the agreement of the Atlantic Charter Signs of expansionistic tendencies Its Impact: Stalins agenda was to obtain economic help for Soviet Union, and revival of Soviet economy (for economic reparations) and for issue of Germany, was really about getting buffer (of Eastern European states, and historical baggage of Germany's attacks on their land) However, this was perceived by the Americans as expansionistic tendencies and failure to honour promises deepened suspicion and mistrust amongst allies. Stalin's Objectives/Views Change in attitude from the Westerners was seen as a betrayal of trust. Hence, Stalin had no choice but to seemingly go back on his promise on free elections and establish control in Eastern Europe to defend herself. Potsdam had revealed a distinct cooling-off in relations.
The Iron Curtain Speech The concept of the Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological fighting and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1989. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances. Churchills Iron Curtain Speech proved to be the foundation of such a divide. The most famous part of his speech is quoted below.
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an "iron curtain" has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.
At that period of time, the Soviet Union was still seen as a reliable ally in the context of their assistance in the defeat of Nazi Germany and Japan. Churchills speech was warmongering and unnecessary, but had outlined the Western stance towards Communism early on, and hence his speech officiated a geo-political divide of Europe which characterized the Cold War, convincing many of the Soviet belligerence.
From the Soviet Perspective However, his speech was warmongering, and led to Soviet retaliation in the form of hostile policies against the West. Hence his speech played a part in defining the perceptions of the Soviet and Western spheres, and in this way, had raised tensions between the Western and Eastern powers. Counterargument: It is imperative to note that Churchills speech was delivered after he lost the local elections this came from a man who was no longer in power and hence no longer held much political clout. Thus, the significance of his speech cannot be overrated. Bolshoi Theatre "Two Worlds" Speech - Glorification of USSR's achievements and praised its past economic policies of FYPs and Collectivisation. - Decreed that their successful model should be multiplied both in USSR and beyond. - Signified to the West that Stalin was still devoutly Communist hints of ideological expansionistic tendencies. THE BERLIN BLOCKADE Result of long term build up of tensions together with underlying ideological differences Responsive to US strengthening of Western Germany and Western Berlin Deemed a threat to Soviet sovereignty and influence in Eastern Germany. Reaction to US violation of the principle that policy on Germany's future be decided by Four-Powers with the creation of Bizonia, and later Trizonia this was perceived to be Counter-response by Americans with Airlift was an example of brinksmanship that only served to worsen the tensions between the two superpowers.
Significance of the Berlin Blockade > Hardening of Divisions in Europe after 1945. > Increased Western cooperation leading to the formation of NATO with full US participation serving as the impetus for territorial and sealed political division within Europe. 1. Creation of the Federal Republic of Germany Separate West German state formed Berlin Blockade was originally fought to prevent this division Yet, it actually accelerated the creation of such a state. 2. Onslaught of the East against West Faceoff creation of 2 separate Germanys and NATO Start of stipulation of conditions mutually exclusive positions short of physical conflict - Breakdown of goodwill between former allies what could once be tolerated or could once be negotiated was no longer the case. - Sealed the political, territorial, and economic division of Europe into the two camps.
First major ideological and economic conflict Causing the division of Germany into two shows that there was not a single chance for a united resolution over the German Issue. Initiation of airlift and its success Berlin Blockade had failed humiliation of the Soviets, saturating atmosphere of tensions and growing hostility American commitment to the German issue was undoubtedly clear lack of clear consensus between them and the Russians over this issue signalled no potential for any signs of cooperation/collaboration between the two superpowers tensions increased.
The Study of Security Interests Security Concerns of the USSR Soviets suffered Western hostility to the Russian Revolution, and were annoyed at the delay of the opening of the second front. Stalin was furthermore not informed of the atomic bomb that USA had. Merely wanted a buffer against a potentially strong again Germany. Set stage for future misunderstandings lesser possibility of cooperation due to lack of understanding Stalin wanted Poland as a buffer zone instance of security concerns However, the British were unable to accede to the Stalins request and this caused tensions as Stalin viewed it as a reasonable request, and he took it as a sign of lack of Western understanding about primary concerns of the USSR. As it is, the relationship between both powers deteriorated after this first disagreement. Thus, the issue of Poland fully demonstrated how the security concerns of the USSR contributed to a source of tension between both parties that led to the start of the Cold War.
Discussion of Salami Tactics here?
Evidence Pointing Towards the Sovietisation of Eastern Europe (A Levels 2011) Soviet Actions Soviet Security Justifications Expansion into Eastern Sovietisation aimed to Europe addressed 3-pronged threat of US Containment, US Actions Potential invasion through - Soviet action in Poland and deter German response to US role resurgence through buffer in rapid recovery of states. Western Europe US Actions in Western Response to continued US Berlin had led to the military presence and BERLIN BLOCKADE strengthening of western zone with currency reforms and mergers of Bizonia and Trizonia Safeguard Soviet security in Berlin Coordination of activities to keep in contact with communist parties worldwide To prevent USA from politically infiltrating into Eastern Europe and compromise buffer value secondary importance of economic concerns US Perception Perceived to be recklessly aggressive and violated Yalta Conference agreements for democratic elections ideological expansionism
Perceived as hostile and expansionist to spread ideology into Western Berlin.
Truman Doctrine led to Formation of COMINFORM
Rejection of Marshall Plan and formation of Molotov Plan/COMECON
Perceived as trying to instigate worldwide Communism division of Europe into two political blocs Soviet rejection and disallowing E Europe from accepting aid was seen as uncooperative and hostile was responsible for division into two economic blocs Consolidation of division. (In reality, no need for this as USSR was in physical control) Contributed to and completed division of Europe into military blocs seen as hostile as the Pact was directed against Western Enemy legitimized Soviet troops to suppress internal unrest.
COMECON was to provide aid for Soviet's Eastern European allies
US Creation of NATO led to Warsaw Pact
Direct response to formation of NATO and inclusion of FRG in NATO need to safeguard Soviet instruments with political statement of bloc solidarity
Adapted from Mr Edmund Kwok, Raffles Institution
CONTAINMENT: THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AND THE MARSHALL PLAN

American policy of Containment: The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan Containment is a policy adopted by the Truman administration, designed to prevent the Soviet Union from expanded its powers bond its current domain. Basis: USSR was not a state which could be reasoned with. USSR will attack the weak points in the West Buildup of Tensions before 1947, addressing concerns of Eastern Mediterranean to help fight suspected Soviet communist-backed rebel insurgents. Weakness of Britain's Power. The Truman Doctrine is essentially a response to increased communist pressure in Greece and Turkey, starting the defense against "disruptive elements" worldwide. Plea was granted to give $400 mln to Greece and Turkey In the long run, Truman Doctrine was aimed at curbing the domino effect of communism. Impact: - Revolution in US peacetime policy division of Europe into political blocs, marked start of containment policy. - COMINFORM created to coordinate actions of communist parties worldwide "Two Camp" Speech by Zhdanov only served to worsen tensions Kennan's Long Telegram/Clifford-Elsey Report - Article X reasons for Soviet aggression and expansion; Kennan's rationalization of Soviet Union moves - Clifford-Elsey Report called for by Truman reflected and crystallised US policy-making with examples of aggressive Soviet actions highlighted. - This ultimately led to the formation of policy of need for "aggressive containment" against "expansionistic" Soviet Union. - Impact: Formed the basis for NSC68 to adopt military stance in combating USSR. The Marshall Plan Key tenet of American foreign policy aimed at supplying financial aid to Europe, provided that the economy was "open" i.e. very much for American economic interests a good European economy would provide markets for American goods. The ECONOMIC dimension to Truman's Containment response to Soviet control of Czechoslovakia from Feb 1948. Basis was the fact that communism would thrive in areas plagued with poverty this plan aims to counteract poor economic conditions. On a larger scale, however, this was "dollar imperialism" in action attempting to limit influences and potential breeding grounds for Communism
to take root saw it having the ability to potentially comprome value of Eastern Europe as security buffer to USSR Benefits to American economy by providing market seen as economic aggression by USSR growing hegemony and domination over Europe resulted in rapid economic recovery of Western Europe and united their economies against the Soviet Union. Carving out of two distinct blocs in Post-WW2 Europe actions perceived by the Soviets as aggressive, for it seemed to plot the West against them strength of Western German economy led to Soviet insecurity which sparked off Berlin Blockade Response: Molotov Plan for COMECON in return to strengthen Soviet control over Eastern Block marking economic division of Europe leading to expansion into Hungary.
The Formation of NATO Need for military coordination and leadership from America as a result of US containment policy Combat the military weakness of Western Europe Formation catalysed from Berlin Crisis. Mutual security and guarantees Security, military and ideological alliance to deter attack perceived as coordination
Their Disagreements Fundamental Disagreements over the treatment of the shattered European economy o Rebuild, reconstruct vs dismantlement o Open/free trade vs closed/command economy conditions attached to new loans from US dollar diplomacy; Marshall vs Molotov) Fundamental disagreement over political system in Europe o Free elections v Soviet system o Differences at Yalta and Potsdam (Poles, free elections, Declaration of Liberated Europe) o Subsequent Soviet acations and US demands (Truman Doctrine) Fundamental disagreement over reparations o German war indemnities and extras for Russia o Issue of Ruhr valley resources as reparations o Issue of % of western zone reparations to Russia in exchanges for food from eastern zone Disagreement over territorial boundaries o Polish, German and Russian borders Tehran and Percentages Agreements issues of spheres of influence.
BUT this all originated from different world views. o Liberated and Democratic Europe vs Soviet Security o International economy vs Closed economy for rebuilding o As a result: Pursuing different policies that seemed to undermine each other Ending of lend lease Soviet demanded heavy reparations vs US desire not to cripple Germany for economic reconstruction Promoting democracy Led to misunderstanding attempts to neutralize such threats only further exacerbated tensions.
Character-Based Study
Franklin Roosevelt
Roosevelt contributed to the start of the Cold War by setting the stage for it to happen once WWII ended by conceding too many concessions to Stalin. After Roosevelts death on 12 April 1945, Truman who took over the presidency was less willing to compromise and accede to Stalins various requests, as evidenced by disagreements at Yalta and Potsdam over Poland and Germany. This caused tensions to rise as Stalin was used to Western acceding to his requests and this sudden shift in attitude caused his paranoia about US motives which had been festering since the delay in opening of the Second Front to increase immensely. All these historical baggage contributed to the misperceptions and misunderstandings that characterized the Cold War.
Winston Churchill
Churchill was a significant player in the start of the Cold War only because of his famous Iron Curtain speech that painted a Europe divided into democratic and communist blocs. At that point it time, it must be noted that Churchill had no official political power and thus his opinions not likely to lead to any sort of concrete foreign policy measure against the USSR. Nonetheless, his speech was important as it riled Stalin, who accused Churchill of warmongering and causing unnecessary tension between the USSR and the West. In addition to this, his speech might have played the role of clarifying and concretizing USAs policies which had not been fully thought out at that point in 1946, when USA attitude towards the USSR was still pretty much ambivalent. Thus, his speech formed the background to a changing US policy towards the USSR.
Joseph Stalin
Stalin was one of the main drivers behind the Cold War, as seen from his incessant paranoia which characterized much of his dealings with the US, resulting in heightened tensions and mutual mistrust. Stalins paranoia about security affected the way he formed his policies against or in response to the US, as seen from a wide variety of incidents such as the issue of Poland, the Molotov Plan and the Warsaw Pact, which generally worsened relationships between both countries. Thus, his paranoia contributed to more tension in the Cold War as it made him prone to misperceptions and misunderstandings, which snowballed into formation of retaliatory policies that further aggravated the tensions. (His paranoia was also fed by Western actions, such as the delay in the opening of the Second Front in this case, his paranoia was unjustified, but in other cases such as the issue of reparations from Germany, the West fed it by being ambiguous about reasons behind not wanting heavy reparations) (Examples thus show that his paranoia affected the way he dealt with issues and increased the tendency for mistrust to increase. His suspicious nature was also not helped by external factors such as the aggressive US policies thus he cannot be fully blamed as the US could not understand his concerns) Furthermore, it can be argued that some of his policies, such as the Salami tactics and the Sovietisation of Eastern Europe, were inherently expansionistic in nature and thus the USSR became perceived as a strategic threat by the US. This worsened tensions between both countries. While some of the fault lied with Stalin for being expansionistic, more of the fault lied with the US because they were completely unable to understand Stalins security concerns the US had no experience of being invaded since 1812 and were separated from the world by 2 huge oceans, so they could not appreciate Soviet security needs. Apart from these factors which can be argued that US could not have done anything to correct historical and geographical factors, the US also failed to observe that issues of Poland and Germany all happened along the USSRs periphery, and there was little evidence in seeking to go beyond, so it can be seen therefore that she was more for establishing spheres of influence in order to cement security needs rather than going for world dominance. The West also failed to appreciate that the domination of Greece
and Poland by Britain only served to heighten Stalins paranoia about the Wests intentions of keeping the USSR vulnerable. In short, the US has to shoulder more blame for the Cold War as Soviet security concerns were very real and backed by historical evidence, and if the US had taken efforts to understand this, the Cold War may not have occurred. Even as the US had concerns about communist expansionism, their concerns were merely driven by ideological differences that blinded them to the true nature of the Soviet need for spheres of influence in order to satisfy security concerns.
Harry Truman
Harry Truman was the other central character in the start and development of the Cold War. He contributed to the start of the Cold War through his misinterpretations of Soviet intentions, and the escalation of it through his Containment policy. His misinterpretations of Soviet intentions caused the tit-for-tar trend to escalated, which created the spiral of mutual recrimination and misunderstanding of both parties real intentions, leading to a degeneration of the Cold War. Furthermore, his Containment policy was the first official US declaration of the Cold War against the USSR and can be seen to be the trigger that led to retaliatory policies from the USSR and vice versa, resulting in a further deterioration of relationships and heightened tensions. Within the Containment policy, there were facets of it that not only caused increased tensions but also initiated an economic divide which worsened the Cold War. This was evidenced in the Marshall Plan which was the indication of a US-initiated economic divide, which prompted the reactionary Molotov Plan from the USSR which cemented this divide. The establishment of NATO by the US which resulted in the retaliatory Warsaw Pact was yet another example of how US policies made the Cold War worse by introducing a military division; when the Marshall Plan-initiated economic divide is taken into account, the blame for the development of the Cold War lies heavily with the US.
Evidence Pointing Towards American Aggression in Europe
Historiography of the Origins of the Cold War
Summary Soviet perceived USA as aggressive US perceived USSR as aggressive
1.2
Globalization of the Cold War
Reasons for the extension of the Cold War outside Europe Superpower rivalry versus localised conflicts Consequences of the localised conflicts on the development of the Cold War Impact of the spread of the Cold War outside Europe Candidates are expected to be able to: analyse the reasons for the extension of the Cold War outside Europe analyse the implications of the superpower rivalry on conflicts in Korea and Cuba evaluate the effects that regional conflicts had on superpower relations
Issues of the Korean War: What was the nature of the war? Did the nature of the war change over time? Was the Korean War a limited war? Was the Korean War evidence of Communist expansionism? What caused the Korean War? What happened as a result of the Korean War? How did it change the complexities of the Cold War?
Causes of the Korean War Perspective: Was the Korean War Evidence of Communist Expansionism? No Stalin was absent from the UNSC when they decided to invade Korea he could have used his veto power to deny UN intervention in Korea - clearly reflecting lack of coordination between the Communist states. Hence this meant that Kim and Stalin were seemingly independent of each other and North Korea was not a proxy. Stalin said to Kim, If you get kicked in the teeth, I shall not lift a finger" o Stalin was disinterested in involvement in this conflict, even if he did give the green light for invasion.
Yes (also the content for Soviet aggression/Stalin's actions) Kim only acted after Stalin gave the green light. Stalin only gave the green light after he o attained the atomic bomb, o knew of potential American DISINTEREST in Korea after Korea was left out of Acheson's Defensive Perimeter Speech AND o was assured of Mao's involvement means that there were certain political conditions which had to be met before he decided to green light the mission.
On hindsight, the war only ended when Stalin died. o Possibly shows that end was contingent of Stalins death. Evidence to suggest military aid was provided to North Koreans o North Korea acted as a proxy for Soviet interests, use of military suggests the importance of the Korean War to Soviet ideological and strategic interests that a conflict like this required such defending. Local Interests Kim II Sung wanted to be seen as the reunification hero of Korea wanted to unite the peninsula Skirmishes had already been occurring at the 38th parallel another sign of resentment towards the 38th parallel signaling nationalistic feelings Prior to any form of superpower intervention, they had already existed border skirmishes 100,000 Koreans had already lost their lives in the battle for reunification. Nature of war to both leaders named the "Fatherland Liberation War" in North Korea, similar intentions in the South. Agency/intention of war came from Kim Il Sung himself, not Stalin. Korean War was hence seen Merely local strife borne out of the Norths intention for reunification under communism rather than actual Soviet expansionism (perception of Communism being monolithic by the Americans is not true!) American Actions
US reaction to invasion of South Korea was very much based on their understanding that events represented an attempt by USSR and China to expand influence.
Saw it as Stalin being the true perpetrator of conflict perceived soviet involement fell in line with policy of containment and hence necessitated US response.
Important to consider American strategic interests and economic interests Japan was a large trading partner to America.
Truman saw the need for a definite , direct stand against communism , a need to reinforce Truman Doctrine Herein lies the significance of NSC68: lay down the foundations for the need for military reinforcement/angle into containing/rolling back Communism. Rode on communist paranoia of the 1950s with his domino theory to gain support for Korean War involvement - loss of china appeared to confirm their fears of spreading communism Facing domestic pressure from hardliners and growing communist paranoia, too soft on communism Policy of containment led to perceived Monolithic communism Chinese intervention and impetus for war was all SUs doing, with Stalin as the true instigator of the conflict. Over Time: Ideological rolling back communism
Debating the Nature of the Korean War Type of War Civil Evidence - Interests of the two leaders, Rhee and Kim, were to reunite Korea under their own style of rule. - Largely North Korean initiative, civil war between two factions. - This suggests that the reunification interests of the two leaders were more significant than the interests of the superpowers, and the involvement of the superpowers were only manipulated by the two leaders for their own interests. - There were already border skirmishes between the two Koreas, suggesting that the Korean War was merely a manifestation/exacerbation of such conflict. - Chinese intervention when the Americans attempted to cross the Yalu River brought the Chinese into the war, who feared their national security was at risk. This was especially so, considering how the Americans attempted to always undermine the Communist regime. Prolonged the conflict in the region, as Chinese troops pushed the Americans backed, causing them to face an entirely new war. - Initial rejection of the idea of invasion; invasion only occurred after operation was given the green light by Stalin. - Suggests that the operation was dependent on Soviet approval and Stalin's personal interests, and hence, Soviet interests were the dominant reason for the war. - Only decided to operate when Americans' accidentally left Korea out of their Defensive Perimeter Speech America: America made use of UN troops to fight against the Communists, but not against Soviet forces directly, for it believed that it was not fighting against NK alone, but the monolithic force of Communism Hence, showed commitment to containment and fear of Domino theory, protect strategic interests of Japan (major economic and military base of America) Saw Korea as the Greece of the east. Determination to roll-back communism suggests her interests in Korea were to defeat communism rather than to only protect Korean interests.
Regional
Proxy
Consequences of the Korean War Study Question: Discuss if the Korean War was a turning point in the development of the Cold War. Evidence/Arguments for the opinion that it was a turning point in the Cold War. - NSC68 alone saw the need for a new military angle added into the Cold War signs of American commitment to Containment o Troop presence in Asia would suggest that the Americans were taking the fight against Communism on a global scale rather than what has been occurring (a relative stalemate, Iron Curtain of division) in Europe. - Rollback Policy change in dimension (roll back past the 38th Parallel) EFFECTS OF THE KOREAN WAR
1. Militarisation of the Cold War [TS] The Korean War was a powerful factor in the rearmament of the US such that its defence budget quadrupled and there was an active use of force to contain the spread of communism. Thus, Korea marked the militarisation of the Cold War. [EVI]
Evidence/Arguments for the opinion that it was not a turning point in the Cold War. - No sign of commitment from the Soviet Union there was hence a refusal of direct conflict with the Americans
USA involvement in Korea necessitated a substantial rise in US defence production. This massive increase in US defence expenditure and capabilities was not only for the purpose of fighting a war in Korea. USA felt that she had to be ready to fight a series of limited wars against Communism around the globe. This thus resulted in the implementation of the NSC-68 which called for an increase in US defence expenditure and rearmament. The US felt that Communism could only be contained by military means.
[EVA] The Korean War reinforced the need for the US to permanently expand its armed forces and maintain a constant state of military readiness, thereby adding an increasingly military dimension to the Cold War. 2. Emergence of China as a great power [TS] Chinas involvement in the Korean War marked a third dimension to the Cold War conflict.
Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1 3. Change in US policy in SEA
[TS] The outbreak of the Korean War and the fear of Communism spreading prompted USA to focus its Containment policy in SEA, especially in Indochina. This was in stark contrast to its previous policies which was mainly focused on Japan and East Asia. [EVI]
USA began to see Indochina as an area vital to the security of SEA and the security of Japan. In an attempt to eliminate Communism in Vietnam, USA supported the French against the Vietnamese nationalists who were dominated by the communist-inclined Vietminh. The US saw Ho Chi Minh as an agent of Moscow.
[EVA] The Korean War thus triggered the spread of the Cold War beyond Europe into East Asia and subsequently Southeast Asia. The fate of SEA and the future of Japan were intrinsically linked. It was thus vital to US interests to prevent further spread of communism in Asia so as to guarantee mutual prosperity under a capitalist economy. 4. Expansion of NATO [TS] The Korean War not only marked the globalisation of the Cold War, it also escalated Cold War tensions in Europe, which remained the main theatre of the Cold War and the most important of US priorities. [EVI]
The possibility of communism spreading in Asia reinforced the need for USA to maintain its sphere of influence and dominance in Europe. NATO was strengthened as 4 US divisions were sent to Europe as reinforcements. In 1951, Greece and Turkey also joined NATO. Turkeys membership strengthened NATO as it gave USA the capability of launching air raids against the southern part of USSR and was a useful platform to block any attempted Soviet advance into the Middle East. The intensity of the Korean War saw USA encouraging its NATO partners to increase military spending in an attempt to make NATO an effective shield against Soviet aggression.
Cuban Missile Crisis Contextualization The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was the American discovery of Soviet missiles on Cuba OR placement of missiles by the Soviet Union on Cuba. Causes of the Cuban Missile Crisis: Study Question: To what extent was the Cuban Missile Crisis a result of Kennedy's mishandling of affairs? American Aggression/Historical Baggage: Topic Sentence:
Evidences: US interventions in South America (and upholding of the Rio Pact and Monroe Doctrine) in
order to exclude communism such as the removal of Guatemalan leader Arbenz in 1954 served as a caution to future Cuban governments who realized that they would need allies in order to not fall victim to a similar fate. (Overthrow of pro-USA dictator) Hostile American policies such as economic sanctions and the Bay of Pigs invasion an attempt to topple the socialist/un-American friendly government, seen as an attempt to undermine Castro's political position in Cuba, destroy socialist republic in nascent stages national security of Cuba threatened Operation Mongoose of covert operations of propaganda and sabotage from the US were aimed at undermining Castro's regime in Cuba. American trade embargoes on Cuba economic aggression against the Cuba, pushed Castro into seeking a closer alliance with Khrushchev, whom he saw as the only feasible counterinfluence to the US. Eisenhower's snubbing of Castro immediately after the Cuban Revolution, despite Castro's attempts to meet him diplomatic tensions
Soviet intrusion/aggression Topic Sentence:
Alliance was opportunistic Bid for nuclear parity, spirit of the Arms race check American missiles systems in Turkey. Suggested Cuba as a base, Khrushchev implemented systems. Monroe Doctrine and Rio Pact suggests the defence of Latin America by America from any hostile forces. Soviet Union traded with the Cubans (sugar for technology).
Placement of missiles were to gain a strategic advantage over the USA who had missiles in Turkey, and to placate hardliners and China alike over the position of the USSR worldwide was not under threat.
Lack of openness with the USA, denial of weapons placement in Cuba; encroachment into regional hegemony, compromised the security of the USA.
Fuelled beliefs of Communist expansionism increased tensions.
Evaluation: This being said however, it must be noted that the missile placement was only prompted after a series of hostile US actions such as the Bay of Pigs invasion and economic sanctions against Cuba. Thus, the fault for the placement of the missiles does not lie solely with the Soviets even as they seized the opportunity to advance strategic interests; without the opportunity provided by the US in the first place as they pushed Castro away through hostile policies, the placement of missiles could not have occurred. By extension, the crisis could not have occurred without any missiles.
Castro's belligerence: Topic Sentence:
Castro courted Soviet involvement Nationalisation of US firms US administration forced to take a decidedly hardline stance against the Cubans. Declaration of the "construction of a socialist state" encroaching on sphere of influence, not articulated before the Bay of Pigs Praised Moscow as the direction that Cuba should be following Consistently requested for economic and military aid from the Soviet Union
Conclusion CMC best attributed to Castro's provocative actions call for nuclear deterrence was the root cause of the CMC in first place. His alignment with SU drastically altered Cuban intransigence to US demands monolithic communism resulting in retaliation and leading to conflict which escalated into the CMC. Need to safeguard territorial interests, asset regional hegemony. USA need to protect territorial security.
Consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis Developments of the Cold War Study Question: Discuss if the Cuban Missile Crisis was a turning point in the development of the Cold War. Evidence/Arguments for the opinion that it was a turning point in the Cold War Dtente o Telephone hotline was set up as a direct line between Washington and Moscow o Closer cooperation End of nuclear brinksmanship move to denuclearization: o START and SALT, o NPT Evaluation: Limited Brezhnev and Reagan continued to build arms Evidence/Arguments for the opinion that it was not a turning point in the Cold War Military conflicts still continued as seen in Afghanistan, Iran, whereby proxy wars for the battle of ideological and strategic supremacy continued.
EFFECTS OF THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS:

1. Kennedys first foreign policy success [TS] The successful resolution of the CMC marked the first foreign policy success for Kennedy and boosted the power of American diplomacy. [EVI]
Through the peaceful resolution of the CMC, Kennedy earned a reputation as a skilled negotiator and leader as he demanded a return to the status quo and would not settle for any compromise. He also allowed USSR to back down with dignity. This boosted American confidence greatly as the power of American diplomacy was construed to have solved this dangerous crisis.
[EVA] Therefore, the CMC was indeed a triumph for Kennedy as it absolved him from the Bay of Pigs fiasco and demonstrated American dominance.
Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1 2. Khrushchevs downfall
[TS] In contrast, the Cuban Missile Crisis was a disaster for Khrushchev as he was perceived as being weak in the face of the US. [EVI]
In the negotiations, Khrushchev was perceived to have backed down by agreeing to withdraw missiles from Cuba, thus humiliating the USSR in the process. The Soviet forces were upset with him and this contributed in a large way to his dismissal from his post of Soviet leader in 1964. He was even labelled a Capitalist by China.
[EVA] Therefore, it is evident that the Cuban Missile Crisis was disastrous for Khrushchev as it saw him being wrongly discredited, and eventually resulting in his removal from power. 3. Dtente [TS] The Cuban Missile Crisis was significant as the realisation that both superpowers had moved too close to the brink of a nuclear disaster produced a desire on both sides to reduce Cold War tensions, thereby resulting in the implementation of dtente. [EVI] (Disarmament) The crisis was significant as it brought the world close to nuclear conflagration and prompted an examination of the policies of the superpowers. The near open conflict over the placement of missiles in Cuba resulted in exploration of ways for a less confrontational way of conducting their competition. This saw the entertainment of the idea of peaceful co-existence. This was manifested in the form of an unwritten code of conduct, refraining from interfering in areas where the other side has established influence. This was evident in the lack of American action in Czechoslovakia in 1968. Arms control efforts were also boosted. Both powers signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This was followed up by the signing of the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty, which was designed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to other countries. [EVA] The crisis highlighted the danger of world destruction posed by superpower rivalry. Thus, this led to the establishment of friendlier relations, or dtente, between the superpowers, resulting in a permanent relaxation of tensions. ** This was a significant turning point in the Cold War as it took on an increasingly rules bound dimension, both written and unwritten. Counter 1: [TS] However, the importance of the CMC should not be exaggerated. The developments post 1962 had long term standing precedents that cannot be attributed to a singular event. [EVI]
Peaceful coexistence can be attributed to the Berlin Wall crisis of 1958-1961, and the mutual desire to avoid a general war. The policies of German leader Willy Brandt, and his ostpolitik, also saw an easing of tensions between West Germany and USSR.
[EVA] Clearly, the period of dtente following the CMC was made possible due to the longstanding desire of both superpowers to avoid a general war. Long term policies also provided the conditions for the easing of tensions between the superpowers, thereby contributing to dtente. Counter 2: [TS] Even though disarmament policies were put in place, there was little change in the military policies of the superpowers as they continued to engage in the arms race. [EVI]
Arms control efforts did little to control the growing threat of nuclear war in the 1970s, with the development of MIRVs and INFs circumventing the conditions of treaties signed. Nuclear proliferation continued in spite of treaties agreed upon, due to residual mistrust and rivalry between the superpowers. In the 1970s, Soviet nuclear strength even reached strategic parity, thereby lending further justification to the assertion that disarmament measures held little effect.
[EVA] This clearly shows that the CMC did little to change the nature of the Cold War as the arms race still persisted as a form of competition between the superpowers. Counter 3: [TS] Furthermore, despite the thawing of relations, indirect competition through proxies persisted even after the CMC. [EVI]
This is evident in Iran where USA made use of Iran as a platform to fulfil its political and economic interests. In order to contain communism and protect its sphere of influence, the US launched Operation Ajax to overthrow Mossadeq and eliminate the communist threat. In the case of Afghanistan, USSR intervened in the civil war to ensure the installation of a pro-USSR president. This was to prevent Afghanistan from falling into the hands of the Allies as the Soviets feared that it could be used as a platform to launch a nuclear attack on USSR, thereby threatening its national security.
[EVA] Despite dtente, competition through proxies remained. The basic nature of the Cold War, constant competition between the superpowers, still persisted. ** Therefore, while the CMC changed the way the Cold War was conducted, it did not change the intensity or the basic nature of the conflict. American leaders continued to belief in containment while the USSR remained concerned with military parity, as evident from the arms race. Competition through proxies remained, while rules of engagement were not always observed.
Combining Both Case Studies How far does a study of the globalisation of the Cold War show that the superpowers in most cases did not call the shots? Discuss the validity of the statement with references to the Korean War and Cuban Missile Crisis. Yes, the superpowers did not call the shots.
No, the superpowers did call the shots.
Evaluation/Final Stand:
1.3
End of the Cold War and the Collapse of the Soviet Union
Candidates are expected to be able to: examine the different historical interpretations of the end of the Cold War
Understanding the Pre-1985 Soviet State Leonid Brezhnev was the Soviet leader through 5 American presidents, from 1964 up to his death in 1982.
Under Brezhnev, the Soviet Union had experienced an era of stagnation, whereby the economy faced serious underlying problems.
The Brezhnev Doctrine "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." Candidates should not confuse the End of the Cold War with the Collapse of the Soviet Union. 1.3.1 The End of The Cold War Different Schools of Thought When did the Cold War end?
The question to ask: Plausible Dates
What does it mean when the Cold War ends? Tension and hostility Mutual exclusivity towards peaceful coexistence.
1.3.1.1
Soviet Initiative School of Thought
This school of thought argues that it was Gorbachevs short term political and economic policies that had helped to reconcile economic, ideological and military differences and tensions between the Soviet Union and the USSR. The decrease in such tensions had ultimately led to the end of the Cold War, for the two superpowers were now no longer in conflict over PESI issues. Gorbachev's policies: Gorbachev's FP had effectively ended the CW in terms of military, economic and political and ideological competition, in lieu of how he had dismantled structures in which competition in these areas could be carried out. o Withdrawal, disarmament, self-sufficiency o Warming of relations, withdrawal of tensions. The Brezhnev Doctrine (of world domination) was replaced with Sinatra Doctrine leading to withdrawal from EE vow to not intervene in the autonomy of former satellite states. (peaceful coexistence) Pulling out of third world states like Afghanistan, thus ending proxy wars and the battle for political and strategic interests. Gorbachev was also willing to concede in his negotiations with the USA over arms reduction, and allowed for unequal terms to conclude the INF Treaty. Glasnost and Perestroika were other signs that the SU was the one that had initiated the end of the CW. The introduction of these two policies was evidence of the USSR accepting WESTERN MODELS OF GOVERNANCE: democracy and capitalism. Gorbachev aimed to rectify the lack of flexibility and innovation that the Soviet economy suffered from, largely due to resources being directed to military and heavy industry goods, and to improve the Soviet society through rooting out inefficiency and corruption in the government and industry through the relaxation of censorship and a degree of political openness, thus rejecting the previous Communist establishment. This included the private privatization of certain sectors of the economy where factories and enterprises were given more autonomy, for example managers were given more decision making power to decide on management details like wages and working initiatives. Inefficient plants were allowed to close and the state did not control prices, aimed at providing more profit motive, in turn making an end to the political, economic and ideological competition. American Triumphalist School of Thought
1.3.1.2 Statement
This school of thought asserts that Reagans short term policies namely the threepronged approach, was the main factor that led to the end of the Cold War due to the relentless application of the Wests military superiority and dynamism of its economic system, that eventually triumphed over the Soviet Union. Evidence Motives: Through the remilitarization of the US military, and their intervention in thirdworld countries, USA aimed to force Soviet Union into unsustainable spending
whereby it would worsen the current Soviet economy and causing the Soviet Union to implode from within. Three-Pronged Approach Military Actions: Withdrawal from INF (Intermediate Nuclear Forces) talks and START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks). Restarted the Arms Race: increase of 53% in spending during peacetime in 1981. Buildup of naval power, B1 bomber, Stealth aircraft, neutron bombs (the last 3 which were cancelled by Carter) restored, earning condemnation from the Soviet Union. Zero Option for Europe saw to a proposal for the removal of Soviet SS20 missiles from Europe in return for no future deployment of US Cruise and Pershing II missiles. USA also developed a plan, the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), which was a defensive weapon from possible nuclear attacks from space. It proposed to deploy a space-based defence system to make the USA invulnerable to nuclear weapon missile attacks, by means of a network of armed satellites orbiting the Earth.
Strategic Interests: Third-World Intervention In the intervention of third-world countries, the USA showed support for anticommunist groups including armed insurgencies against communist governments, known as the Reagan Doctrine where the USA funded groups they called freedom fighters such as the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, the Contras in Nicaragua, all of which were fighting Soviet or Cuban backed Marxist governments. In Nicaragua, there was the covert funding of the Contras which led to the Iran-Contra Affair where it involved several members of the Reagan administration selling arms to Iran, man avowed enemy, as it didnt cooperate with the United Nations and was therefore regarded as a rogue nation, and using the proceeds to fund the Contras, an anticommunist guerilla organisation in Nicaragua. Economic Interests: Economic Action Trade embargoes against the Soviet Union limited their trade opportunities Prevention of sales of cutting-edge technology to the Soviet Union that they were not really able to solve their agricultural problems, which had been plaguing their economy. effect of keeping Soviet industries backward and uncompetitive, increasing agricultural shortages faced by the USSR pipeline sanctions (gas sanctions from 1980 to 1982, whereby US embargoed equipment of the UrengoyUzhgorod natural gas pipeline cost Soviets $480mln.) Further, instructions to OPEC nations friendly to USA interest to increase oil productions depressed oil prices hurt Soviet ability to subsidise ailing industries and supplement its unproductive agricultural sector.
Consequences: The aim was to force the Soviets into unsustainable spending to maintain parity as the USA had money, but not the USSR, thus worsening the already very poor economic situation in the USSR. The Soviets attempted to follow suit with their own program and in trying to keep up with the US in military spending and research and development, it severely damaged an already shaky Soviet economy. Explanation By the process of remilitarization, USA would force the USSR to join in the arms race as USSR would not want to lose out in the arms race for fear of losing power and influence. Thus USSR felt obliged to catch up and divert more resources to the military instead of its economy. This was coupled by the years of collectivization as well as years of containment, which left the USSR economy in tatters. This also forced Gorbachev into negotiations when it was economically ruinous to participate in the arms race, leading to a loss of support from the hardliners, leading to factionalism within the Communist Party and in the end, the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Democratic Regimes had existed before 1991 in Eastern Europe Communism had lost its appeal. Glasnost and Perestroika's aims Full democratic reforms only attained with Yeltsin's rise to power/collapse of the SU in 1991. People Power School of Thought
1.3.1.3
This school of thought believes that it was due to the pressures placed on the government by the citizens of the country that led to the end of the Cold War. Evidence Motives: The citizens of USA pressurized the government to cut down on the threepronged approach as they had experience of the hostilities of war, such as the Vietnam War, which included the loss of both lives and resources. For USSR, the people opposed USSRs involvement in the arms race with USA. Actions: In June 1982, the Americans campaigned and demonstrated for nuclear disarmament and freeze. Also, there was intense opposition to the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) amongst scientists and the Congress. They also prevented Reagans government from following through with his policy of overthrowing the government in Nicaragua. In USSR, Gorbachevs renouncing of the Brezhnev Doctrine led to a rise of people power in the Baltic states. This led to the Solidarity party movement in Poland, resulting in an approximate membership of about 10 million members; who opposed the Communist government. In Estonia, groups of 200 000 were organised to sing in shifts of 48 hours in opposition to the USSRs policies. Consequences: This therefore led to the governments to reconsider their policies and be open to negotiations with the other party so as to appease the people, and the pressure exerted on the government by the people led to the negotiations between the two superpowers and the thawing of relations, which resulted ultimately in the end of the Cold War.
Explanation The long drawn Cold War took its toll on the people and therefore they bonded together, providing staunch resistance against the government. The people often saw disagreements with various policies or were disgruntled with their economic plight as their resources were committed to the war. This usually led to uprisings or displays of frustration and disgruntlement to press for a swift end to the war. This caused the governments to be more open to negotiations in order to appease the general sentiment. Evaluation No, there were other factors to consider. The Leaders:
Circumstances that had allowed the people's power to succeed:
1.3.1.4
Long Term School of Thought
This school of thought highlights
Long-Term Reasons for the Collapse of the Soviet Union/End of the Cold War Statement The long term Soviet woes and the long term American containment policies that led to Gorbachevs implementation of the short-term measures of Perestroika and Glasnost to try and correct the long-term Soviet problems, and Reagans threepronged approach. Also, the relationship between the two superpowers thawed significantly after the Cuban Missile Crisis where they realized they couldnt sustain the Cold War. Evidence Motives: The Cold War came to an end because the two superpowers realized that it was impossible for them to divide and rule the world, as it was economically unsustainable. Actions: For the Soviet Union, Brezhnevs implementation of the Brezhnev Doctrine forced the USSR to intervene in its Eastern European client states, thus placing a strain on the Soviet economy. The military expenditure during Brezhnevs rule was also a ridiculously high 40%, thus effectively crippling the Soviet economy. Hence, this forced Gorbachev to implement reforms to correct a stagnating economy and political problems in the form of Perestroika and Glasnost. For the USA, the long drawn containment policy had sapped USA of its resources. In the Vietnam War, the financial burden was approximated at $150 billion, with another $200 billion earmarked for the future in the form of Veterans benefits. This led to large deficits for the USA. Consequences: The knowledge that they could not sustain the Cold War led to the two superpowers relenting and giving in with a series of treaties to show their compromise, such as the policy of Dtente, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT) I and II. Explanation The long drawn Cold War had taken its toll on both the USA and USSR. More importantly for the USSR, the long term effects of containment as well as past policies resulted in Gorbachev having to implement reforms to try to correct the longterm problems present in the Soviet Union. The subsequent failure of such reforms plunged the USSR further into crisis and led him to have to cut back on military spending and reach a compromise with USA, which led him to lose the support of the hardliners and causing factionalism within the Communist Party, resulting in the implosion of the USSR from within. As for USA, Reagans three-pronged approach was in fact, merely an extension of the long-term containment policy adopted by the USA and therefore, the end of the Cold War was caused largely due to the long-term factors which led to the two superpowers implementing short-term policies as a reaction to the long-term issues.
1.3.2
The Collapse of the Soviet Union
Sample Study Question: To what extent was the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 a result of the domestic policies of Gorbachev?
Undeniably, Gorbachev's domestic policies did bring about the immediate reasons for the rapid decline of the USSR. It allowed for rise of social and political forces to capitalise on underperforming Soviet economy as rallying point to challenge the CPSU and bring about the eventual dissolution of the USSR once Communist party had lost its legitimacy as a political authority. Glasnost Discussion of glasnost should entail a detailed explanation on how the policy was intended to encourage higher levels of openness, in a bid to critique the corrupt and inefficient Soviet bureaucracy and encourage reform. While it had served to increase political influence of Gorbachev with growing criticism of past leaders glasnost proved to be destabilizing as intellects began criticising legitimacy of communism and soviet system itself increased perception of corrupt and inefficient of the CPSU intended by Glasnost. Revelations abductions, gulags and brutality only served to further alienated the masses and amplified the potential for dissent. Rise of radical elements led by Yeltsin used political and economic problems of USSR to galvanise support from masses and challenge the CPSU entrenched divisions between radicals and hardliners erosion of legitimacy of CPSU Yeltsin declaration of separation eventual dissolution. Furthermore discussion of this should point out how economic reforms introduced to bring about higher level of autonomy and incentivize production had resulted in deepening of problems eroding legitimacy of the CPSU and the unity of the Union. Comment on how greater autonomy granted to factory managers in setting wages had resulted in arbitrary raising of wages that yielded no significant increase in productivity. This had in turn led to inflation and worsening of the economy. Consider how this is compounded by neglect of agriculture sector inefficient and unproductive agricultural sector had experienced few reforms saw continue dependency of imported food. Hence, unprofitable industrial sector and unproductive agricultural sector went together to increase hardship basis of dissent for glasnost to act upon Explain how high inflation eroding purchasing power means that people were worse off than before led to dissatisfaction with the Soviet system. However, should be appreciated collapse of USSR was triggered by breakaway of EE states from Soviet leadership, bringing about a wave of pro-independence movement that cumulated in the dissolution of the USSR. NPT on foreign policy Sinatra Doctrine - Reversal of Brezhnev doctrine in EE was significant
Perestroika
Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1 -
EE governments and people took advantage of effects of glasnost in USSR to express their desire for higher levels of autonomy. Approval in form of Sinatra Doctrine brought about a wave of political change in EE, many declaring abandonment of communism as a political system, had in turn inspired fifteen soviet republics to follow suit formation of commonwealth of independent states dissolution of the USSR.
Reagan's 3-pronged approach Gorbachev's policies taken in context reaction to Reagan roll back attempts created condition to commit resources to commit and compete with USA, entrenched economic problems. Military: Reagan had reversed disarmament, two-track policy of engaging USSR in talks of arms reduction in both nuclear and conventional weapons while stockpiling it themselves. SDI change the balance of power in nuclear arms in favour of the USA forced USSR to commit significant portion of Soviet budget into developing similar program to keep balance. USSR little choice to continue depilating arms race which it could not afford. Economic: Embargoing USSR in terms of technology and agricultural produce dual effect of keeping Soviet industries backward and uncompetitive, increasing agricultural shortages faced by the USSR pipeline sanctions (gas0 from 80 to 82, whereby US embargoed equipment of the Urengoy-Uzhgorod natural gas pipeline cost Soviets $480mln. Further, instructions to OPEC nations friendly to USA interest to increase oil productions depressed oil prices hut Soviet ability to subsidise ailing industries and supplement its unproductive agricultural sector. Proxy Wars supporting of proxy wars across globe to undermine and sap soviet influence and finances CIA support of mujahedeen in resisting Soviet influence invasion by red army as drain on limited resources that USSR cannot afford to spend. Eventual decision to withdraw by Gorbachev as a result of these economic conditions would serve to further delegitimize CPSU, angered hardliners. Underlying Problems: Political veteran officials had won entrenched top positions Soviet bureaucracy adopted a conservative outlook reluctant to accept change and reform Newer younger officials during governments of Brezhnev and Khrushchev found routes to promotion blocked govt led by ageing men. There emerged massive conservatism and reluctance to change in aging Brezhnev bureaucracy too many checks against reforms lack of real progress.
Economic: - USSR operated command economy with state control, and resources were allocated thru central planning system was unresponsive to needs of consumers and to sudden changes in conditions such as crop failure or fluctuations in word prices of raw materials instead of profit being motive lacked incentive for high productivity new ideas and innovation discouraged hence could not compete ideologically, economically with the Americans who were outinventing , outproducing and out-innovating them. Brezhnev's military adventurism in the 70s meant USSR had to dedicate resources to sustain Soviet influence worldwide- Declaration of Brezhnev Doctrine Soviet sphere of influence and interest would necessitate Soviet involvement saw deployment troops in Afghanistan and EE to maintain political control diversion away from starving industrial and agricultural sector effects muted by significant oil revenue USSR gained due to oil crises of 83 and 79. Study Questions
1.4
Legacies of the Cold War
Candidates are expected to be able to: evaluate the effects of the end of the Cold War Study Questions: ACJC 2009 How far do you agree that the international order of the 1990s "differed very little" from the Cold War system? ACJC 2010 'An emerging new world order.' Discuss this view of the international system in the 1990s. CJC 2010 "With the end of the Cold War, the world saw greater division than unity." How far do you agree with this view? To what extent has the proliferation of dangerous weapons been the most important outcome of the end of the Cold War? Positive Impacts of the End of the Cold War A New World Order Predicted Greater levels of international peace and coordination between former Cold War rivals towards fostering peace in the rest of the world: Iraq, Northern Ireland and Middle East Democratisation of African states A rechanneling of resources from defence expenditure to economic development: European growth and investment in Asia Movement towards disarmament and arms reduction: USSoviet initiatives to further reduce arms stockpile and tracking of nuclear arsenal From peacekeeping to peacemaking: Instance of Iraq, Kosovo
Peace Dividend
Expansion of the Role of the UN
Negative Impacts of the End of the Cold War Rise of Ethno-Nationalistic Sentiments The perceived triumph of democracy and capitalism and the relinquishing of Soviet authoritarianism saw suppressed ethnonationalistic sentiments re-emerge to destabilize the international system. Consider the fragmentation of the USSR and Eastern European states and the resultant ethnic clashes in the name of
nationalism. Also note the re-emergence of Islamic republics. (Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kazhakstan) Ethnic cleansing in Kosovo drew in international actors. Similarly, not all states experienced a positive transition from socialism to capitalism, authoritarianism to democracy. Suffering from years of economic inefficiency imposed by authoritarian regimes, the rapid adoption of capitalistic practices had brought catastrophic repercussions (i.e. Russia). The promise of democracy had also saw political transition hijacked. Intra-regional tensions between partition states had also threatened to take on a nuclear dimension, as states sought or obtained nuclear weapons and used these weapons for political brinksmanship: N Korea, India and Pakistan Administrative weakness of Russia and the former Soviet republics had also meant that accounting of nuclear weapon stocks was difficult and raised concerns of these weapons landing in the hands of extremist groups. As the sole superpower of the 1990s, the USA had utilise its military might to pursue its national interests and undermined the sanctity of sovereignty in the international system. Consider the developments in Panama and Haiti. Its position in the UN had also be amplified with the weakness of the USSR and American contributions to the UNs activities (peacekeeping forces, financial contributions). The economic dependency on US consumption globally also meant the US wielded significant influence i.e. Latin America, Japan, Asia With the increasing dominance of the USA in the international system the 1990s, effectiveness of the UN was dependent on concordance with US interests. Similarly, with growing influence of
Failed Democratic and Capitalistic Transitions
Proliferation of Dangerous/Nuclear Weapons
Growing US Hegemony
Sidelining of the United Nations
Russia and China by the late 1990s and their suspicion of American hegemony, the Security Council returned to being mired in veto votes. Positive Effect: A New World Order
The end of the Cold War ushered in a period of international cooperation, primarily between the two former Cold War foes, the USA and the USSR, as there was no longer jockeying for political, strategic, economic and ideological supremacy between them This was referred to as the New World Order, and it was envisioned as cooperation between the two former foes in ensuring a peaceful and stable world, with the integration of the USSR and later Russia into international systems, while ensuring its cooperation in promoting democracy and peace For example, in Iraq, the USSR supported the UN resolution calling for the UN to enter Kuwait to push Iraqi forces back and defend the country, while in Angola and Mozambique civil wars between sides sponsored by both the USA and the USSR were ended by ceasefires and the brokering of peace accords between the enemies, leading to the democratization of the countries Hence, it can indeed be said that a New World Order of international cooperation leading to peace did exist for a short time after the End of the Cold War
Evaluation However, this was only an illusion of harmony, as the seeming peace created by the New World Order was actually marred by the rise of ethno-nationalistic sentiments among the Eastern European states, the spread of dangerous weapons and failed transitions to capitalism and democracy Hence, the New World Order existed only as an illusion of global peace, and contrary to it there was an explosion of conflict and chaos that resulted from the end of the Cold War
Greater Cooperation between the two superpowers The end of the Cold War called for a spirit of great power cooperation. This appeared to be distinguished under three periods: - Dealt with the nuclear disarmament and security arrangements - This expanded into UN strengthening and great power cooperation on a range of North-South, economic and security problems. - Malta Conference collected these various expectations and fleshed out into the forms of German reunification and the acknowledgement of human rights. - The Gulf War then refocused this term on superpower cooperation and regional crises integration of the Soviets into the international system
Sub-point: Facilitation of the developments in Middle East Peace Process Collapse of the USSR/End of the Cold War removed the framework which had been an obstacle to conflict resolution. Regional level Iraqi invasion supported by the PLO regional stability could only be achieved if Arab-Israeli conflict undermine legitimacy of Islamists who advocated expansion, revolution or war in name of liberation
A New Africa Belief in the 1990s was that the collapse of the USSR demonstrated the bankruptcy of socialist autocracy and supremacy of liberal democracy. In Africa, increase in a more pluralistic political system. - Democracy returned in Ghana by 1992, contested elections in Algeria in 1990 - Angola: USSR and Cuba supported MPLA government while US supported the UNITA rebels. With the reduction in CW tensions, Cuban forces withdrew, ceasefire brokered and termination of civil wars in Angola and Mozambique - Symbolized by transition into full democracy under Nelson Mandela - Botswana beacon for democracy, Mozambique and Tanzania grew at at least 5% annually. From the above, it can be seen that the end of the Cold War hostilities have allowed for the .
Peace Dividend The peace dividend argument suggests the economic benefit of a decrease in defense spending. A rechanneling of resources from defence expenditure to economic development: European growth and investment in Asia Most notable in Russia and Western Europe Movement towards disarmament and arms reduction: US-Soviet initiatives to further reduce arms stockpile and tracking of nuclear arsenal START Treaty in 1991, Lisbon Agreement of '92, START II in '93 further reductions in number of US and Russian nuclear weapons Limiting Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was reached in '95 when '68 NPT was made permanent by USA and Russia. Prospect of American-Russian nuclear exchange was much less likely.
Anchoring of Russia into new Western orientation with inclusion in G7 organization

With the end of the Cold War, there was an increase in economic welfare in Western nations, where military spending was cut and the funds diverted to other areas which improved the economy For example, the Gross Domestic Product of Britain saw a sudden jump of around $200 billion from 1989, when the Cold War ended with the collapse of the Berlin Wall, to 1990 The same time period also saw a jump of almost $250 billion in GDP for France This shows that with the end of the Cold War, economies reaped a peace dividend by repurposing military funds for more productive means that led to economic growth
Evaluation However, it must be noted that it was only primarily in Western Europe that the peace dividend was reaped, and much of the rest of the world did not see any economic improvement coming from this For example, in Eastern Europe, the sudden transition from Communism to Capitalism led to the failure of many businesses and widespread poverty, as evidenced in Poland where the insufficient knowledge of the capitalist system and the lack of proper processes and infrastructure resulted in the collapse of newly-privatised industries and production Hence, the peace dividend was less significant because, despite claims to the contrary, it was limited in its scope and primarily affected Western Europe, while economic chaos persisted in many ex-Communist states in Eastern Europe
Increased Prominence of the United Nations From peacekeeping to peacemaking: Instance of Iraq, Kosovo . During Cold War Period, - Peacekeeping had limited aims contain or freeze, but could not resolve - UN was not successful in resolving CW disputes due to veto Soviet boycott of the SC allowed for UN forces UN was more effective in dispatching small peacekeeping forces to defuse smaller, non-CW disputes. CW doomed UN attempts to resolve disputes. After the Cold War: - Renewed calls to be agency for peace expansion of the UN peacekeeping made possible by superpower cooperation, allowing SC to be a more effective tool in maintain peace and security such as in the Gulf War, East Timor, Cambodia and El Salvador. - Expansion of role to peace-making by collective support in defusing and dealing with the Gulf War.
The end of the Cold War removed the problem of superpower rivalry from the stage of international diplomacy, as the USA and USSR were no longer attempting to obstruct each others objectives This manifested itself partly in a removal of obstacles to UN intervention that would have been put in place by either the USA or the USSR to further their Cold War interests For example, in the 1991 Gulf War, intervention was swiftly achieved to protect Kuwait from Iraqi aggression because all the permanent members of the UN Security Council were in agreement on the implementation of measures to remove Iraq from Kuwait (the PRC did not veto the resolution authorizing war and only abstained)
Evaluation The strengthening of the UN, however, was not without its limitations: UN intervention was largely only possible now with the help of the US, which was its greatest contributor and now dominated the organization For example, in Rwanda, the lack of US support for an intervention to quell the 1994 Rwandan Genocide led to the inability of the UN to take action, resulting in the deaths of 800,000 civilians at the hands of the extremist Interahamwe. Hence, it can be argued that although the UN faced less obstacles from superpower rivalry in its actions and was hence strengthened, this only occurred when its actions were in line with American interests, and this was hence not as positive, as the USA now had increased hegemony in dominating the global system with its interests
Negative Effects: Rise of Ethnic Nationalism

With the end of the domination of Communism and the Soviets over Eastern European states, it was often the case that without these unifying factors, ethno-nationalism sprung up as various ethnicities asserted their identities once freed from suppression by the USSR and Communism For example, in Yugoslavia, the end of Communism resulted in ethnic groups such as the Serbs and Bosnians reasserting their identities, resulting in the Yugoslav Wars where various states of Yugoslavia fought the federal government and each other to gain independence and territory, including multiple cases of genocide, especially by Serbian militants against Bosnians, as well as the Kosovo War between Serbia and Albania where NATO was forced to intervene, showing the scope of ethno-nationalisms effects in the Balkans Also, the former Soviet republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan fought over Nagorno-Karabakh once they had been freed from Soviet control, resulting in open warfare, which was only halted with intervention from the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the forced relocations of Armenians and Azerbaijanis. Previously, conflicts between Armenia and Azerbaijan in 1989 and 1990 had been suppressed by Soviet military intervention, further showing how ethno-nationalism was sparked off by the end of the Cold War
Separatism of Chechnya and the need to maintain a standing Russian Army to enforce territorial integrity.
Hence, the end of the Cold War can be seen to have brought about ethno-nationalism by removing the unifying force of Communism and Soviet rule from Eastern Europes multiple ethnic groups and hence allowing them to reassert their identity, resulting in conflicts that
destabilized parts of Eastern Europe and even sucked in international organizations such as the UN and NATO
Negative Effects: Failed Transitions to Capitalism

In countries newly freed from the system of Communism, the transition to capitalism ran into problems as the people of these countries had no prior experience with capitalism and how it worked, resulting in severe economic crisis For example, in Poland, economic shock therapy, which liberalized the previously Communist and state-run economic system, caused many state companies to close at once, resulting in a rise in unemployment by 6% in 1990 alone and to 16.9% by 1994, and a fall in GDP by almost 10% from 1990 to 1991 Also, the adoption of capitalist measures in Russia resulted in economic crisis, as inflation hit 2500% in 1992 and GDP declined by 40%, while many social welfare programmes such as guaranteed work and free healthcare that existed under Communism were simultaneously ended, resulting in severe impoverishment of the Russian people Hence, the end of the Cold War also had an economic effect upon post-Soviet states, as the sudden introduction of capitalism that it resulted in was problematic to the formerly Communist states, resulting in a failed transition to capitalism that caused economic crises and poverty in post-Soviet states However, this was not as significant as an effect of the end of the Cold War, as it was in part merely a result of poor USSR policymaking under Gorbachev that had put the USSR in a dismal economic state to begin with
Negative Effects: Spread of Dangerous Weapons

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the various arms stockpiles scattered around the former USSR and its Eastern European client states fell under poor management due to the administrative inadequacy of Russia and the former Soviet republics This allowed weapons to fall into the hands of belligerent states and terrorist organizations, destabilizing the security situation globally as it increased the level of conflict and intensified ethno-nationalistic conflicts For example, in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, both Armenia and Azerbaijan, as well as militants from Nagorno-Karabakh and Muslim fighters brought in by Azerbaijan, used weaponry, including tanks and aircraft, stolen or bought from former Soviet bases and corrupt Soviet peacekeeping troops in the two countries to wage war on each other, fuelling the ethnonationalistic conflict between them Also, the massive black market in ex-Soviet arms had intensified since the end of the Cold War, with weapons no longer needed by the downsized military being sold to terrorist and rebel groups in the Third World, such as the various rebel warlords in Somalia who used Sovietmanufactured weapons to attack UN forces in Mogadishu in 1993, resulting in a UN withdrawal in March that year and leaving the country open to further instability Hence, this shows that the end of the Cold War had resulted in the spread of dangerous weapons throughout the world, from Eastern Europe to Africa, which is significant as it
destabilized the general security situation globally as it resulted in an overall increase in conflict throughout the world as terrorist and rebel groups gained the ability to attack others and the intensification of ethno-nationalistic conflicts due to the increased availability of weapons
The eventual collapse of USSR had also meant unregulated proliferation of dangerous conventional and unconventional weapons to strife-ridden states and extremist groups. These groups had in turn used these weapons to further fuel domestic, regional and international stability i.e. unaccounted Ukrainian nuclear weapons, rise of Pakistan and India as nuclear powers which worsen tensions, armament of terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda and the Taleban, African wars, etc. insecurity threat to proliferation
Debatably, the end of CW brought about significant impact

Dominance of USA in post-Cold War era
Superficially, NOW ascendency of USA as global hegemon and creation of unipolar world in 90s. Initially saw end of bipolar divide in SC and expansion in the role of the UN occurred from peacekeeping to peacemaking Peace dividend diversion of resource from defence to economic growth and development. Most noticeably in Western Europe and INITIALLY the Russian Federation But despite earlier growths, introduction of capitalism in EE has cyclical effects more pronounced failed transitions to democracy in Russia, growth was early parts of 1990s. Long Term/Limitations: One can also argue that the status of the USA as the sole superpower of the world had increasingly limited the ability of the UN to carry out objectives dependent on political interests of the USA intervention in Rwanda lack of ideological competition in Africa.
Economic distortions from problematic transition to capitalism have brought about its own set of instability to the region and the international system in the 1990s. Adoption of capitalist reforms by USSR had continued to meet with littile success, despite the end of hostilities with the USA. With outbreak of conflict due to separatism Eastern Germany hogged down Western Germany
Rise of oil-producing middle eastern/central Asian states and religious fundamentalist groups
Oil rich CA and ME states, no longer subjected to political dynamics and intervention of CW turned towards political Islam in lieu of ideological vacuum. Subjected to years of Soviet and US intervention, many financed fundamentalist movements and supported a rejection of the West. Those left behind by World's transition to capitalism became increasingly disillusioned and attributed their fate an outcome of Western exploitation, in turn increasing their susceptibility to anti-West messages of various fundamentalist groups i.e. Iran, SA, Syria, etc.
As many of the nations which had not profited from Capitalism were Arab nations, this fuelled the rise of Islamic fundamentalist groups such as Al-Qaeda which blamed the West for the root of their problems. They rejected the Western model of capitalism and aimed to return to the Golden Ages of Islam during the time of the Prophet through strict and literal adherence to the Koran. This justified the use of jihad or holy war. Accused capitalism of being the root of all evil, and to be blamed for economic hardship. Islamic banking etc.
[EVA1] Therefore, it is evident that due to the failed promises of capitalism and the resultant instabilities, the end of the Cold War brought about the rise of fundamentalist groups and their proliferation of violence resulted in greater volatility. [EVA2] Therefore, it is evident that with the growing instability that gave rise to Islamic fundamentalist groups, the end of the Cold War ushered in a new world order where much of the Islamic world rejected Western principles of capitalism and instead chose to be governed by Islamic principles and Shariah Law as recorded in the Koran.

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Hwa Chong Institution (College) H1/H2 History International History: 1945 2000 Theme I: The Cold War and

nd How It Shaped the World

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Origins of the Cold War

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

1947 1949 (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan)

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Discussion of Salami Tactics here?

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Perceived as hostile and expansionist to spread ideology into Western Berlin.

Truman Doctrine led to Formation of COMINFORM

Rejection of Marshall Plan and formation of Molotov Plan/COMECON

COMECON was to provide aid for Soviet's Eastern European allies

US Creation of NATO led to Warsaw Pact

Adapted from Mr Edmund Kwok, Raffles Institution

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

CONTAINMENT: THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AND THE MARSHALL PLAN

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Evidence Pointing Towards American Aggression in Europe

Historiography of the Origins of the Cold War

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Summary Soviet perceived USA as aggressive US perceived USSR as aggressive

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Globalization of the Cold War

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1 3. Change in US policy in SEA

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Soviet intrusion/aggression Topic Sentence:

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Fuelled beliefs of Communist expansionism increased tensions.

Castro's belligerence: Topic Sentence:

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

EFFECTS OF THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS:

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1 2. Khrushchevs downfall

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

No, the superpowers did call the shots.

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

The question to ask: Plausible Dates

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Soviet Initiative School of Thought

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Circumstances that had allowed the people's power to succeed:

Long Term School of Thought

This school of thought highlights

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1 -

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1

Hwa Chong Institution H2 History 9731 Paper 1