u.s.

Special Forces
Recon Manual
COPYRIGHT
Lancer Militaria
Box 886
Mt. Ida, Ark. 71957
USA
1986
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Organization and Composition of RTs.
RT Equipment ................
Premission Preparation..........
Air Infiltration/Exfiltration Techniques .
Patrolling Techniques ........
Tracking and Use of Human Senses in Obtaining Combat
Intelligence .........
FAC/ FAG Procedures ....
Employment of Artillery.
Foreign Weapons ........
Intelligence .
1
2
8
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PREFACE
The purpose of this manual is to provide a compendium of unclassified
techniques and procedures used by reconnaisance patrols. It is no sub-
stitute for unit SOPs. Nor do any of the techniques in this manual rep-
resent the last word. The success of any recon operation depends on
the ability of the unit to develop its own procedures and to adapt and
exploit those which prove successful. Ultimately, of course, success
depends on the motivation and training of the recon team. This manual
will provide an introduction to the required training and a basis for
continuance of training. While no technique represents the final answer,
those described here have been proven successful in several years of
combat. To the beginner, this book will serve as a summary of the tech-
niques he must master; to the "old-timer", it will be a refresher and
review. There is only one type of recon man that has stopped learning
recon - the dead type.
This book is directed only towards RT employment. Therefore, always
keep in mind that tactics and techniques are directed towards one goal;
the collection of intelligence. The patrolling tactics, insertion tech-
niques, communications, etc. are only means to accomplish that end.
(Publisher's note: This manual was developed for instruction purposes
at the United States Army Institute for Military Assistance during the
early 1970s. It contains information very hard to find elsewhere, much
of it in the form of "lessons learned" from experiences in Southeast
Asia. We felt that the information presented here deserved to be readily
available to the military professional and we hope you will find it useful
in all of your military endeavors.)
CHAPTER I
ORGANIZATION AND COMPOSITION OF RTS
1.1 GENERAL. There are essentially two basic recon teams--the l2-man team
and the six-man team. Often the team will be augmented or diminished for
specific missions. It is desirable that the RT leader be given a voice in
determining the size and composition of the team during the planning phase
of a mission.
1.2 THE SIX-MAN TEAM. The six-man team is usually composed of two Americans
and four indigenous team members. It is made up as follows:
a. 10 Team Leader (US).
b. 11 Assistant Team Leader/radio operator (US).
c. 01 Indigenous Team Leader.
d. 02 Interpreter.*
e. 03 M79 man.*
f. 04 Scout ;
1.3 THE l2-MAN TEAM. A typical l2-man team may be organized as follows:
a. 10 Team Leader (US).
b. 11 Assistant Team Leader (US).
c. 12 Radio Operator (US).
d. 01 Indigenous Team Leader.
e. 02 Interpreter.

f. 03 M79 man.
g. 04 M79
man. 'f(
h. 05 Scout.v w
i. 06 Scout.
j. 07
Scout.
k. 08 Scout c x
l. 09
Team Member.
1
CHAPTER II
RT EQUIPMENT
2.1 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT. Each team member should normally carry the
following items:
a. Sterile fatigues or tiger suit.
b. Flop-brim hat with portion of panel sewn inside top.
c. Jungle boots.
d. Pistol bel t.
e. Harness.
f. First aid packet.
g. Pill kit (for contents see para 12.1).
h. Knife (heavy and sharp).
i. Four canteens with purification tablets attached.
j. Smoke (at least one of every color in the SOl).
k , Compass.
1. Small survival kit.
m. Individual weapon.
n. Signal mirror.
o. Panel.
p. Strobe light.
q. Pen flare gun with 4-6 flares.
r. Four or six ammo pouches (canteen covers may be substituted--see
para 2.4b(3) (a)).
s. Rucksack with reinforced straps.
t. Rations.
u. Weapon cleaning equipment.
v , Maps.
w. Poncho.
2
x. Can opener (or pocket knife with can opener).
y. Waterproofed matches.
z. Insect and leech repellent.
aa. Jungle sweater (optional).
bb. RT-10 radio.
cc. Penlight.
dd. Six foot length of nylon cord (e.g. suspension cord).
ee. Swiss seat.
ff. Two snap links.
gg. Notebook and pencil.
hh. Two plastic bags.
ii. Fragmentation grenades (WP or other can be substituted).
jj. Two cravat bandages.
kk. SOl and KAC.
11. Gloves.
rom. Extra socks.
nn. Claymore.
00. Serum albumin unit.
2.2 TEAM EQUIPMENT . One of each of the following items of equipment should
normally be carried on a team:
a. Camera and film.
b. Binoculars.
c. AN/PRC-25 with extra battery.
d. M79 with assorted types of ammunition.
e. M14 mines and boobytraps as required.
f. Anti-intrusion devices as required.
3
2.3 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT. Special equipment, e.g., equipment for p r i s o ~ e r
snatches, etc., is carried as the mission requires.
2.4 WEARING AND INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT
a. General. There are three general considerations in the wearing of
equipment. First, equipment should be worn in the same manner throughout
the team so that if it becomes necessary to retrieve a particular item from
a dead or wounded team member time is not lost in searching for it. Second,
to the maximum extent possible essential mission and survival gear should be
carried in the pockets of the uniform so that the individual is self-sufficient
even if he loses his web gear and rucksack. The third point is that equipment
should be arranged so as to permit comfort and ease of access and handling.
b. With the above points in mind, following is a recommended way of
carrying equipment.
(1) Individual uniform.
(a) Trousers are held up by threading a triangular bandage (cravat)
through the belt loops. (Another bandage can be worn around the neck for use
as a sweat band, if desired.) (The two bandages can be used for emergency
first aid if required.) Trousers are not tucked into the boot top.
(b) The jacket is worn with sleeves rolled down and buttoned at the cuff
in order to provide protection against thorns and brush and to camouflage the
skin. The collar is unbuttoned. The jacket should fit loosely to facilitate
ventilation.
(2) Equipment carried in individual uniform.
(a) Lower left leg pocket. Insect repellent in plastic bottle.
(b) Right leg pocket.
1. One prepared meal, or an emergency ration.
2. Panel.
1- Pen flare gun with flares.
(c) Upper left leg pocket. RT-IO radio.
(d) Right hip pocket.
(e) Left breast pocket.
1.
SOl and KAC.
1
Map.
1
Notebook and pencil.
Six-foot nylon cord or suspension line.
4
NOTE: The above three items are carried in a plastic bag or other water-
proof container.
~ . . Signal mirror attached to uniform with cord (not attached to harness).
(f) Right breast pocket.
1. Penlight.
1. Compass attached to uniform with cord (not attached to harness) .
3. Morphine syrettes in crush proof bo x.
(3) Pistol belt and harness.
(a) Ammunition pouches are placed closest to the buckle of the pistol
belt on either side. In the bottom of each pouch place one sterile field
dressing or bag of prepared rice in order to elevate magazines for easy
access. Also cut the top seam of the pouch away. Each magazine is equipped
with a pull tab made from waterproof tape. Four magazines are placed top
down in each pouch, all facing in the same direction to minimize funbling.
A good technique is to have the first three and last three rounds of each
magazine tracer (see para 5.2) . (Canteen covers can be used in lieu of
magazine pouches as they hold more magazines.)
(b) Grenades. Carry at least four fragmentation grenades. Attach
them to the innerside of ammo pouches. WP or other can be substituted
for frag. Smoke grenades are attached to the outside of the pouches. Each
grenade should be inspected to ensure that the cotter pin is securely in
place and not corroded. Also check the fuze to see that it has not been
tampered with or substituted for. Do not tape down the handles; if you
have to use grenades you will have to do so quickly.
(c) Canteens. Attach two canteen covers with plastic canteens as close
to the ammo pouches as possible in order to allow the wear er to lie on his
back comfortably. Once an operation is begun the pistol belt and harness
should not be removed. One bottle of water purification tablets is taped
to the lid of each canteen.
(d) Left harness strap. On the shoulder tape a serum albumin container.
Directly beneath the serum albumin can fasten a snap link with the Swiss
seat attached. The snap link is fastened to the harness wi t h the gate up so
that it can be quickly snapped to the rung of a rope ladder if required.
(e) Right harness strap. Tape a bayonet or knife with the scabbard
point up. Tie the strobe light pouch over the scabbard so that it opens up
(this way the strobe light can be turned on inside the pouch so that it shines
upward and does not have to be held in the hand).
5
(4) Indigenous rucksack.
(a) Put one full canteen with purification tablets taped to the top in
each of the side pockets (NOTE: During the operation this water should be
drunk first so that if the rucksack must be dropped in an emergency two full
canteens remain on the belt) .
(b) Rear pocket. Poncho.
(c) Main carrying compartment.
1. Extra socks in plastic bag.
1. Rations .
3. Pill kit.
!!. Claymore.
i. Mines and boobytraps.
6. Sweater in plastic bag.
1. Gloves.
~ . Extra team and individual equipment .
2. Special mission equipment.
(d) Put a snap link through a loop on the rucksack so that it can be
snapped to a rope ladder extraction device, e.g., McGuire Rig.
(5) Weapon. Prepare the Ml6 or CAR-IS as follows:
(a) Tape the muzzle to prevent foreign matter from entering the bore.
(b) Tape the handguards to break the outline of the weapon. Tape a
broken-down cleaning rod to the handguard. Use enough tape so that there
is sufficient left over for other uses, e. g., taping the mouth of a prisoner.
(c) Tape the stock (M-16) to break the outline of the weapon.
(d) Tape the dust cover so that it will not make a metallic "click"
if accidentally opened.
(e) Remove the front sling swivel. Attach a length of suspension line
or a GP strap to the front sight and the rear sling attachment (CAR-IS)
or carrying handle (M-16). This improvised sling should always be on so
that your hands can be free of taking pictures, climbing ladders, etc.
6
(f) Put bore brush, grease, and patches inside the hand grip. A
rubber magazine cover from a carbine magazine will fit over the bottom of
the hand grip to keep these items- dry.
(6) The radio operator should carry only those items listed as being
carried in the individual uniform and on the harness and pistol belt. Other-
wise he should carry only the radio. The extra battery for the radio should
be securely taped to the radio. The remainder of his rations, etc ., should
be distributed among the other team members.
(7) The team member who carries the camera also carries the binoculars
(for long-range photograph--see para 6.3). Each other team member must
know where he carries the camera and exposed film so that they can be re-
covered if he becomes a casualty.
7
CHAPTER III
PREMISS ION PREPARATION
3.1 PATROL PLANNING. For a successful recon operation all possible contingen-
cies must be considered. To ensure that they are considered, the RT leader
must follow the following planning sequence: (1) plan the use of available
time; (2) study the situation; (3) issue warning order; (4) make a thorough
map study; (5) coordinate (continuous throughout planning); (6) select men,
we a po ns , and e quipment; (7) make a reconnaissance; (8) complete detailed
plans; (9) inspect and rehearse; (10) briefback. Sometimes the time span
available to the 10 will preclude completion of one or more of these steps .
For e xample, time (or we a t he r ) may preclude a VR. However, consideration must
be given to a l l of these steps within the available time.
a. Plan the use of available time . In making a time schedule the RT
leader should employ the backward planning method. Just as in loading air-
craft, where the equipment or personnel to be last on the ground are 'loaded
first, the RT leader begins the planning of his time by starting with the
time of insertion and wo r k i ng back to the time of receipt of the warning
order.
b. Study the situation. The enemy and friendly situations wi l l deter-
mine the RT leader's plan.
c. Issue warning order. At the earliest possible time the entire team
should be alerted to the prospective target date. U.S. team members should be
kept informed throughout and included in planning to the extent possible.
Team members should be told only what is necessary for them to keep their
preparations current. As a rule they should not receive a complete briefing
and should be restricted to the camp once they are alerted.
d. Make a thorough map study. In the map study the team leader looks
for possible LZs, routes, rally points, RON positions, E&E routes, and points
of interest. The map study should be supplemented by aerial photos to the
maximum e xtent possible. The team leader should also check the target folder
on the area to see what map corrections and sketches other teams have turned
in.
e. Coordinate. Coordination with air, artillery, reaction/exploitation
forces, and communication activities is the responsibility of the launch
officer and/or S-3. The RT leader should keep himself informed on this co-
ordination, however. From the earliest possible moment the team leader should
contact the FAC or FAC rider and the helicopter pilots who will be flying his
mission. Mutual understanding between all three elements is vital to the
success of the mission, especially during the insertion.
f. Select men, weapons, and equipment. Whether or not additional or
special equipment is required wi l l be determined by the mission and terrain.
Personnel should be removed from the team if their physical or mental con-
dition would make them a detriment to the team. Physical conditions that
would disqualify an RT member from a mission include bad colds, coughs, ex-
haustion, etc. Caution and good light must be exercised by the team leader
8
in eliminating personnel from a mission for such reasons .
g. Make a reconnaissance. This could be the single most important
element of the team leader's preparation. As many VRs as can be made with-
out drawing the enemy's attention to the purpose of the flight should be
executed. Usually this is no more than t wo. If possibl e, the helicopter
mission commander should also fly the VR. For this reason the 0-2 is the
desired aircraft. This enables the FAC, the helicopter mission CO, and the
team leader to make the VR simultaneously. The VR should be aimed at con-
firming or refuting the information from the map and photo study, and deter-
mining the general .level of enemy activity. The helicopter mission commander
picks flight routes, air control points, and orbit areas. Together, the team
leader and helicopter mission commander choose at least two and preferably
three LZs. LZs for helicopter landings should ideally have the follo wing
characteristics:
(1) For maximum effective use of helicopters LZs should be located to
have landings and takeoffs into the wind.
(2) Size. Under ideal conditions (See chapter IV)
land on a plot of ground slightly larger than the spread
gear, provided there is clearance for the roter blades.
required for night operations, as follows:
a helicopter can
of its landing
A safety factor is
(a) An area 50 meters in diameter cleared to the ground.
(b) An area surrounding the cleared area, 20 meters wide, cleared wi t h i n
one meter of the ground.
(3) The surface should be relatively level (maximum slope 15 percent) and
free of obstructions.
(4) A helicopter is considered to have a climb ratio of 1:5. This means,
for example, that there should be no obstacles higher than 20 meters wi t h i n
100 meters of the touchdown area. There should be at least one path of ap-
proach to the LZ measuring 75 meters wide.
(5) Operational considerations may necessitate relaxation of one or more
of the above requirements. However, requirements should be complied with to
the extent possible. The helicopter flight commander is the final authority
on the sUitability of LZs.
h. Complete detailed plans. This includes assigning duties to each
member of the team and preparation of the briefback. Adjustments to the
original plan are made based on the changing intelligence situation and on
information gained during the VR. Helicopter pilots and FAC should be
included in the preparation of the final plan.
i. Rehearsals and inspections. Rehearsals of special phases of the
mission should be on terrain similar to that in the target area, if possible.
Items to be rehearsed include immediate action drills, RON procedures, hand
and arms signals, helicopter unloading, rappelling and/or rope ladder if
9
applicable, and actions at danger areas . A sand table should be constructed
to give a three-dimensional representation of the area to the whole team.
Inspections should be conducted of individual and team equipment (conducted
as in chapter II). Radios should be checked as close to their rated range
as possible, e.g., 8 KM for the PRC-25. Other items with batteries, such as
strobe lights, should also be checked for proper operation. Weapons should
be cleaned, test fired, and then not disassembled again.
j. Briefback. The briefback is the team leader's detailed plan, as
explained to the commander, of the procedures and actions he will take to
accomplish his mission. The format is similar to the five paragraph opera-
tions order. The briefback covers, but is not limited to, the following points:
(1) Situation. Team leader describes the enemy and friendly situation as
pertains to his operation.
(2) Mission. Team leader states the mission of his team as it was pre-
sented to him at the operations and intelligence briefing and as he understands
it.
(3) Execution. Concept of Operations:
(a) Organization of team.
(b) Planned routes.
1. Infiltration/exfiltration LZs.
2. Rally points .
3. Areas of interest.
(c) Formation of team and location of each team member.
(d) Flight plan.
1. Check points.
2. Flight time.
(e) Actions upon landing.
1. Fired on prior to landing.
1. Fired on after landing.
3. If aircraft is shot down.
(f) Types of security.
1 . During movement.
2. Short and long halts.
3. During radio contacts.
10
4. Overnight.
(g) Immediate action drill.
1
Break contact.
2. Actions after contact.
(h) Designation of rally points.
1. How long to wait.
2. Subsequent action.
(i) Methods of marking exfiltration LZ and confirming signal to aircraft.
(j) Artillery and air support available.
1
How to call for artillery.
2. How to direct airstrikes.
1
How to direct FAC.
(k) Special mission procedures. (POW, special equipment, etc.)
(4) Administration and logistics.
(a) Rations and equipment to be carried by each member.
(b) Shortages.
(c) Physical and mental condition of team.
(5) Command and Signal.
(a) Signal.
1. Type radios and antennas carried.
1. Type contacts and contact schedule.
1. Air relay flight schedule.
~ . Actions if contacts are missed.
1. Frequencies.
a. Base.
l2.. Patrol.
.. Artillery.
11
d. Air.
6. Azimuth to base station.
(b) Command.
1. Chain of command.
2. Position of each American in the team.
3.2 SAMPLE PREMISSION PREPARATION. The following e xample is idealized in that
five days are available for planning. Obviously this will seldom be the case.
The time frame is e xtended so that all of the procedures can be illustrated.
a. Prior to D-5. RT leader receives warning order, then alerts team of
e xpected target date.
b. D-5. U.S. team members receive operations and intelligence briefings.
OP briefing consists of operations order. Intelligence briefing concerns
latest intelligence pictures of target area. Team then conducts map and photo
studies, selecting possible LZs, points of interest, routes, rendezvous
points, etc. Using large scale maps, the team constructs a sand table, de-
picting the terrain of the area.
c. D-4. RT leader makes VR to confirm or deny information gained from
map and photo study. Also attempts to determine level of enemy activity.
While VR is being conducted, rest of team practices SOPs such as hand and
arm signals, IA drills, RON procedures, etc. Upon completion of VR, team
updates information and continues planning.
d. D-3 Planning Continues. Special equipment and comm gear are drawn
and tested. Begin rehearsal in area similar to target area. Practice
special phases of mission.
e. D-2. Continue planning and rehearsal. Stay abrease of intelligence
situation.
f. D-l. RT leader and flight leaders conduct final VR to confirm
earlier information and plans, and to choose air routes to and from the
target area, orbit areas. The chopper pilots should determine the suitability
of the LZs (at least 2). Upon completion of the VR, the RT leader and
flight leaders should discuss special signals and the method of insertion.
Assistant team leaders supervise cleaning and test firing of weapons and
conduct equipment checks. RT leader should then lead team through talk-
through of mission. Everyone packs. RT leader presents brief back.
g. D-Day . Conduct final inspection of personnel and equipment. Con-
duct thorough comm checks. Move to launch site and receive final brief-
ing. Briefing should be given to all U.S. team members as well as the FAC
and helicopter pilots.
12
CHAPTER IV
AIR INFILTRATION/EXFILTRATION TECHNIQUES
4.1 GENERAL. Recon teams can be infiltrated and exfiltrated by land, sea ,
or air, or in combinations. The most common method currently in use is by
air--more specifically, by helicopter. This chapter will concentrate on the
use of the helicopter in inserting and extracting RT's; however, the RT leader
should not lose sight of the fact that other methods of infiltration may
be more appropriate, such as walk-in, stay-behind (when the team is inserted
with a larger unit) or parachute. It should also be kept in mind that the
enemy is quite familiar with the helicopter tactics that have been employed
over the last few years. It is therefore incumbent upon everyone concerned
to use imagination and ingenuity in adopting the techniques that will be de-
scribed in this chapter to their own situations . In all cases, avoid setting
a pattern for the enemy to detect.
4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF HELICOPTERS. All RT leaders must be aware of the
capabilities and limitations in support of RT operations. There is a balance
between these capabilities. When one of three variables--fule, range, or
payload--is changed within existing weather conditions, at least one of the
other variables will also change.
a. General Capabilities.
(1) Under normal condition, helicopters can ascend and descend at
relatively steep angles, which enables them to operate from confined and un-
improved areas.
(2) Teams and equipment can be unloaded from a helicopter hovering over
a hundred feet off the ground by rappelling or rope ladder. The rope ladder
or extraction devices can also be used to load personnel when the helicopter
cannot land. -Tr oops may also jump from low-hovering helicopters.
(3) Resupply can be transported as an external load and delivered to
otherwise inaccessible areas.
(4) Normally, helicopters are capable of flight in any direction.
(5) Because of a wide speed range and high maneuverability at slow
speeds, helicopters can fly safely and efficiently at a low altitude, using
terrain and trees for cover and concealment.
(6)
cause of
rapidly,
landing.
(7)
Helicopters can operate under marginal weather conditions be-
their ability to fly at low or high altitudes, to decelerate
their slow forward speed, and their capability for nearly vertical
Night landings and takeoffs can be made with a minimum of light.
(8) Helicopters flying at low levels are capable of achieving sur-
prise, deceiving the enemy as to landing areas, and employing shock effect
13
through the use of suppressive fires.
(9) Engine and motor noise may deceive the enemy as to the direction
of approach and intended flight path.
b. General Limitations. Helicopter support may not always be available
in the kind or amount desired. The RT leader should remember that helicopters
are complicated and relatively delicate machines, and that they are a scarce
resource for which there is a high demand. They cannot be expected to be
summoned like taxis.
(1) The high fuel consumption rate of helicopters imposes limitations
on range and allowable cargo load (ACL) . Helicopters may be partially defueled
to permit an ACL. However, partial defueling reduces the range and flexibility.
(2) Weight and balance affect flight control. Loads must be properly
distributed to keep the center of gravity within allowable limits (see para-
graph 4.3a (11.
(3) Heavy rains and gusty winds (30 knots or more) will limit or preclude
use of helicopters.
(4) Engine and rotor noise may compromise secrecy.
(5) Aviator fatigue requires greater consideration in the operation of
helicopters than in fixed wing aircraft because of noise, vibration, etc.
(6) The load-carrying capability of helicopters decreases drastically
with increases of altitude, humidity, and temperature. Engines operate more
efficiently at low temperature and humidity. This limitation may be compen-
sated for through reduction of fuel load.
(7) Wind velocities above 15 knots for utility and 10 knots for medium
and heavy helicopters affect the selection of the direction of landing and
takeoff. This means that otherwise suitable L2's may not be able to be used.
c. Factors Affecting Helicopter Lift Capability.
(1) As mentioned above, temperature, altitude, and humidity are factors
which affect the lift capability of helicopters. An increase in temperature,
altitude, or himidity will result in a great decrease in lift capability.
(2) If a helicopter can takeoff and land into a steady wind its payload
can be increased as less power is required for the same flight performance
with wind than without it.
(3) For hovering flight closer than one half rotor diameter to the ground,
the lifting ability of a helicopter is increased by ground effect. Stated
another way, a helicopter hovered close to the ground requires less power than
a helicopter at the same gross weight hovered at a height greater than one half
14
..
rotor diameter. Thus the maximum gross weight for hovering in ground effect
(IGE) is greater than that for hovering out of ground effect (aGE). This is
important to remember during rope extractions, rappe11ing, and rope ladder
operations.
d. Specific Considerations. The capabilities and limitations stated
above are variable. Specific capabilities of commonly used helicopters are
given below. These are samples for given weather and weight conditions and
should be used as a guide only.
(1) DR-1D.
(a) Internal fuel capacity, 220 gallons (1320 lbs)
(b) Cargo - internal - 22 cubic feet
external - 4000 1bs
(c) Capacity (US) - 2 pilots, 2 gunners, 9 troops
Gross weight (lb) 8800 9500 (max)
Max speed (sea 1evel/4000 ') kts 114/114 110/110
Max Range (sea level/4000') nmi 260/274 251/259
Rover ceiling -
IGE (below 24 feet) ft 8,600 5,500
,
,I
aGE (above 24 feet) ft 500 -----
(2) UR-1F.
(a) Internal fuel capacity - 245 gallons (1470 1bs)
(b) Cargo - internal - 140 cubic feet
external - 4000 lbs
(c) Capacity (US) - 2 pilots, 1 ww chief, 6 troops
Gross weight (lb) 7600 9000 (max)
Max speed (sea leve1/4000
') kts 115/115 100/100
Max range (sea 1eve1/4000') nmi 301/330 283/306
15
Hovering ceiling
IGE (below 24 feet) ft 14,600 9,200
aGE ft 9,800 4,000
I
(3) UH-lH. The UH-lH is the same helicopter as the UH-lD except for
a larger engine. All of the characteristics are the same except for the
following performance data:
Gross weight (lb) 8800 9500
Max speed (sea level! 4000') kts 114/114 110/110
Max range (sea level/4000') runi 267/287 260/275
Hovering ceiling
IGE (below 24 ft) ft 16,400 12,700
aGE (above 24 ft) ft 9,800 1,000
(4) CH-34
(a) Internal fuel capacity - 250 gallons (1524 1bs)
(b) Cargo - internal - 450 cubic feet
external - 5000 1bs
(c) Capacity (US) - 2 pilots, crew chief, 12 troops
Gross weight (lb) 12,000 13,500 (max)
Max speed (sea level!4000 I) kts 88/76 87/93
Max range (sea 1eve1/4000') runi 400/340 300/260
16
4.3 INSERTION BY HELICOPTER
a. General Consideration. A standardized routine of insertion pro-
cedures should be avoided. This applies to time of insertion, flight
formations, VR's prior to insertion, L2 preparation, employment of gunships,
etc. The general routine which has been established over the past several
years is by now well-known by the enemy with the result that they have for-
mulated effective counter tactics to be initiated whenever they sense this
routine occurring:
(1) Time of insertion. The weather and enemy and friendly situations
will often determine the actual time of insertion, but in general two times
should be avoided. These are the afternoon "pak time" and absolute last
light. Pak Time should be avoided because no one moves during this period
except Americans, and a team moving away from an L2 is not likely to be
mistaken for anything other than what it is. Absolute last light has the
advantage of providing additional cover for the insertion, but it has the
disadvantage of not allowing the team sufficient daylight to move away from
the L2 in case the enemy has determined the location of the L2. Also, if
the L2 is so hot that the team cannot stay on the ground then there should
be enough time left so that the extraction can be performed in daylight.
However, consideration should be given to night insertions. These have the
advantages of making the helicopters less vulnerable to enemy ground fire,
and the enemy has greater difficulty in determining the location of the L2.
Night insertions have disadvantages also . Air crews require a higher state
of training than for daylight operations. Larger L2's must be found. Mul-
tiple ship inserts on one L2 become very difficult at night. From the
standpoint of the team, assembly and orientation are more difficult, and
if the enemy does succeed in pinpointing the L2 then the team may either
have to run all night or attempt a difficult night extraction.
(2) Helicopter resources. The composition of the helicopter in-
sertion team is usually as follows: one to four helicopters to carry
the team (depending on the size of the RT and the factors mentioned in
para 4.2 above), one recovery helicopter with medic on board to be
used in the event that another helicopter goes down, a command and
control helicopter from which the insertion is directed (in some opera-
tions the insertion is directed from the FAC aircraft), and one or two
fire teams (i.e., two or four armed helicopters, respectively). The
composition of this team is often a matter of SOP of the supporting
aviation unit and cannot be varied by the RT leader. That presented
above is one type. Also one or two FAC aircraft will accompany in order
to direct air strikes and artillery. Usually two TAC fighter aircraft
fly cover for each insertion.
(3) Landing zones. As noted in paragraph 3.3, at least two L2's
will be chosen for each insertion, one designated the primary L2 and one
the alternate. Selection will depend on mutual agreement between the RT
leader and the helicopter flight leader. These L2's should be two to three
kilometers apart so that it wou l d be difficult for the enemy to place simul-
taneous fire on both of them. If necessary or desirable L2's can be made
in the jungle by large bombs. Routine preparatory fires on an L2 by TAC air
or artillery is normally not advised for recon operations, however.
17
(4) Air movement plans. Flight routes, start points, aerial control
points, and release points are the responsibility of the helicopter flight
leader. The RT leader should be aware of these, however, so that in the
event the aircraft goes down he will have an idea of the location.
(5) Deceptive measures. The RT leader should be aware of the tactics
that can be used by helicopters to deceive the enemy as to the number of
helicopters employed and the locations of landing zones. He should discuss
the employment of one or a combination of these techniques during coordination
with the flight leader and the FAC. Some of these techniques are:
(a) Dummy LZ's. The flight performs what look like insertions i n the
vicinity of possible LZ's (but not actually on them, in anticipation that
the dummy LZ's may be under direct enemy observation). While there should
be no recurring pattern, in general dummy insertions should be performed
after the actual insertion so that if a helicopter is shot down during the
insertion the team does not go down with it.
(b) Another technique that can be used is to have the aircraft fly in
formation with the lead aircraft containing the RT, followed by the recovery
aircraft and the C&C (if used). Upon reaching the LZ, the lead aircraft
come to low hover while the others overfly. After the RT is inserted, the
aircraft carrying it rejoin the flight in the tail positions. This technique
makes it difficult for anyone on the ground to tell when, where, or if any
of the helicopters have landed, especially if it is used in conjunction with
dummy insertions.
(c) Leap frog. The helicopters play this game in pairs, one flying low
and one flying high. The helicopters switch places in the air in a leap frog
fashion in order to deceive the enemy as to how many helicopters are being
employed and as to the exact location of LZ's. The technique can be commenced
before, during, or after the actual insertion. In any event no pattern should
be established.
(d) High control/low level flight . At the release point the helicopters
descend to tree-top level and use "nap of the earth" methods to reach the LZ.
They are directed by a high aircraft, either the FAC or C&C. The aircraft
should continue their low level after the insertion has been made. Dummy
insertions can be made.
(e)
artillery
effective
created.
The enemy's attention can be diverted from the LZ by air strikes,
fire, or use of nightingale devices in other areas. This is more
if dummy insertions are made in the area in which the diversion is
(f) After the actual insertion the enemy can be deceived if a large
volume of dummy radio traffic is used on a dummy insertion some distance from
the actual LZ.
18
..
(6) Use of alternate landing zones. Normally, if fire is received in
the vicinity of the primary LZ the flight will continue to the alternate.
If the alternate also cannot be used, then one of two predetermined options
can be exercised. Either the mission can be aborted, or the FAC or C&C pilot
can choose an LZ of opportunity into which to insert the team. No matter wha t
LZ is used, the team should get a "fix" from the FAC or C&C as soon as possible
after insertion.
(7) Other contingencies:
(a) In the event a helicopter is downed the RT leader should be pre-
pared to assimilate the helicopter crewmen into his team and command them
until they can be extracted.
(b) A common enemy tactic is to wait until a portion of a team is on
the ground before opening fire. If this happens the portion of the team
already on the ground must attempt to return to the helicopter for immediate
extraction. If it is impossible for the helicopter to remain on the LZ, or
if it has already taken off, the portion of the team on the ground should
display a panel, indicate to the FAC the direction and distance to the enemy
fire and prepare for emergency extraction as soon as possible.
(8) Actions on LZ's. As soon as the team hits the ground, all members
move in a predetermined direction from the helicopter, assemble, and move off
of the LZ As soon as the team leader sees that all members are assembled and
uninjured and there is no enemy contact, he transmits a "team OK" (usually
using a brevity word) to the FAC or C&C. (Since it is such a critical period
the team leader should be carrying the radio during the insertion and the radio
should be turned on before loading the helicopter. Regardless of the technique
of insertion the team leader should be the first man on the ground) . After
transmitting his team OK the team leader will find a defensible position in the
immediate vicinity of the LZ and establish a perimeter. After a wait of 10 to
15 minutes, or sufficient time to determine whether or not the enemy has
observed the infiltration and is attempting to locate the team. During this
time, the insertion aircraft and accompanying air support remain on station
at sufficient distance from the LZ so that it is not compromised by their
presence. At the end of the 10- or IS-minute period the team leader transmits
a situation report to the FAC or C&C. If this report indicates that the
enemy is not seeking the team in the vicinity of the LZ the aircraft are
normally released to return to base and the team commences its recon mission.
If the enemy is pressing the team right after the insertion, however, then the
team is close enough to the insertion LZ to use it for an emergency extraction.
(9) Use of armed helicopters. Two to four armed helicopters usually
accompany each insertion. These helicopters accompany the troop carriers to
the RP, then move to an orbit area far enough from the insertion LZ that their
presence does not compromise the LZ. When the troop carriers have accomplished
their insertion they will marry up with the gunships to await the team's sitrep.
When the helicopters are released the armed helicopters will escort the troop
19
carriers back to base. If it is necessary to utilize the armed helicopters
for suppression or to support an immediate emergency extraction, their employ-
ment will be as described in chapter VII.
(10) Downed aircraft procedures. If an aircraft goes down in the vicinity
of the LZ the operation should normally be aborted, and all efforts made to
recover survivors, bodies, and equipment from the downed craft (the function of
the chase ship). The survivors should remain in the immediate vicinity of the
downed helicopter for rescue, unless the enemy situation prohibits. One
technique (which requires prior coordination with all aircraft commanders) is
for the survivors to move to a point approximately 50 meters directly in front
of the downed aircraft, taking with them bodies and equipment (including
survival and first aid kits) from the helicopter (a team member should be
designated before take-off to assist each door gunner in removing his machine-
gun and ammunition in the event that a troop carrier goes down). The survivors
move this short distance away from the helicopter because it is likely to be
the target for enemy ground fire. The accompanying gunships sanitize a strip
on either side of the downed aircraft and parallel to its heading on the ground
(see figure below).
Survivors
1
0
Gunships fire supression
in shaded areas.
The chase ship follows the gunships and picks up normally in the following
order:
(a) Wounded (if the pickup is by extraction device an unwounded man,
if available, should ride along to assist wounded in the rig).
(b) Helicopter crew.
(c) Bodies (if situation will permit).
(d) Team members.
(e) U.S. Team members (10 last, carrying the radio).
The senior aircraft crew member may decide to destroy the radios in the heli-
copter, in which case the RT will assist as he directs. If for some reason
the chase ship cannot make the rescue (weather, enemy ground fire, etc.) the
team leader must be prepared to act as in (6) above.
20
---
(11) Helicopter loading. Regardless of the technique used to leave the
helicopter, certain general considerations apply to loading and riding.
(a) The aircraft center of gravity must be maintained to ensure that
flight characteristics remain constant.
(b) Sudden shifts of weight will cause temporary loss of aircraft
control. Passengers should be reminded to remain as still as possible
during flight, particularly during landing and hover operations.
(c) Team members should unload individually in order to aid the pilot
in maintaining aircraft stability.
(d) On UH-l type aircraft either or both doors may be used in unloading,
but the pilot must be notified in advance .
. (e) Hand and arm signals to be used between the pilot and the RT leader
must be discussed and decided upon in advance.
(f) The 10 is always the first to unload.
(g) The 10 should position himself between the pilot and copilot in
UH-l type aircraft during flight. In the H-34 he should sit in the door
next to the crew chief in order to receive information from the pilot.
(h) When using more than one ship for insertion and the team cannot be
divided equally between the ships then the heavy part of the team should be
on the first ship in, e.g., if 11 men are on the team, six should be in the
first ship and five in the second.
b. Helicopter Landing. Helicopter landing (touch down) is generally
the most desirable method of insertion by helicopter. It is the safest from
the standpoint of air safety and simplicity. The major disadvantage is that
a suitable landing zone (as described in paragraph 3.4) must be found, along
with at least one alternate. The scarcity of such LZ's in many areas is a
severe limiting factor on the security of helicopter landing insertions, as
the enemy may have possible LZ's covered by fire or mined. It, is for this
reason that alternate means of insertion, e.g., rappelling, should be con-
sidered by the RT leader during his planning. It is a waste of time and
resources to have a team "shot off" of an LZ. If this method is chosen, the
following considerations apply:
(1) Team members should move in a predetermined direction after exiting
the With UH-l model helicopters this direction is usually 1 o'clock
or 11 o'clock, depending on which door is being used (the nose of the aircraft
is 12 o'clock). With the CH-34 the direction of exit should be toward 5 o'clock.
These directions of exit permit the helicopter to take off in the same direction
it landed and at the same time keeps team members from crossing the door gnnner's
line of fire.
21
(2) Team members should be cautioned to stay clear of rotor blades and
tail rotors. When landing on a slope, team members should be especially
reminded not to run uphill into the rotor blade.
(3) During premission coordination the pilots should be told to land
close to the edge of the LZ so that the team can get into concealed positions
as soon as possible.
c. Rappel1ing. Rappelling as a method of insertion has the advantage
that a large LZ is not required--a team can rappel at any point at which it
can see the ground and the helicopter can get within rope's length of the
ground. However, there is some degree of danger in the procedure and teams
must be intensively trained in the technique before they can employ it tactic-
ally. With a we l l - t r a i ne d team, however, and a reasonably clear spot on the
g r o und (such as a bomb crator) , the element of surprise can make rappe1ling
the most desirable method of infiltration into an area of intense enemy
activity.
(1) Preparation of the individual for rappelling. The first step in
preparing for rappelling is to thoroughly inspect all ropes for fraying,
cuts, and burns. The i nd i v i du a l s shirt should be tightly tucked in his
trousers so that the ropes do not slip up underneath and inflict burns on
bare skin. The Swiss seat is prepared as follows:
(a) Put the midpoint of the sling rope over your left hip (right hip
for lett-handed persons).
(b) Make a full turn around the waist, bringing both running ends around
the front (at this point the right end of the rope is longer than the left).
(c) Pass the running ends through the legs (forming an X) .
(d) Tie the rope off over the left hip, using a square knot and two
half-hitches.
(e) Attach the snap link over the X at the front of the body in such a
fashion that the gate closes up and out.
(f) When threading the rappelling rope through the snap link, first,
snap it in from the wearer's left to the right so that the rope passes around
the right side of the wearer's body. Then grasp the rope in front of the snap
link and make a loop, snapping the loop in from right to left. Two or three
turns of the rope are made around the snap link, depending on the rappeller's
weight and desired rate of descent (the more turns around the snap link, the
slower the descent).
22
\
I
,
( 2) Preparation of t he helicopter fo r r appell i ng. Usually f ou r ropes
at a time can be employed whe n u s ing bo t h doors of Uff- l type he Licopter s.
Only one rope is used wi t h the CH-34. The r unni ng end o f the r op2 i s nor-
mally stowed inside a weapo n cont aine r (Gri swol d bag) . The rope i s f o l ded
accordion style a nd the loops s e cured wi t h e l a s t i c r e t a i ~ i n g bands , i n t he
same f ashion that suspension lines on a parachute a r e fo lded and secured .
The running end of the rope is we i ghted , usuall y with a sandbag. Whe n t he
LZ is reached the s a ndbag i s dr opped t o t he ground a nd t he ro pe deploys
out of the weapons cont ainer i n t he he l icop ter. When weapons cont ainer s a r e
not available, an a l ter na te method i s to s tow the a ccordi on-fol ded ro pe
inside an indigenou s rucks ack . The bo t tom of the r uc ks a ck i s dropped t o the
ground and the rope deploys from it. Ther e are several methods of t ying down
the standing end inside the heli copt e r. The method des cr ibed be l ow is j ust
one exampl e, gi ven for t he UH-lF he licopt er . Wha teve r he l icop t e r i s us e d ,
the following point s should be kep t i n mind:
( a) Allowanc e should be made f or max imum sepa ra t i on o f r opes in t he
door.
(b) Each ro pe sh oul d be ti ed down t o a t l ea s t t hree ti e- down r ings in
the helicopt e r (o r to snap l ink s fast e ned t o tie-down ri ngs ) .
(c) The re should be no rubb ing of r ope s togethe r.
(d) The floor o f t he he licop ter shou ld be padded a t t he edge so t hat
the rope does not rub on the met a l corner of t he f loor.
d. Rope Ladder. The r ope l adder a s a means o f i nfi l t r a t ion can normal ly
be used under t he same conditions as r appelling, a l t ho ugh it i s mor e time-con-
suming. Whe n de scending the l add er it should be s t radd led fr om t he s ide ra ther
than climbing down a s on a stepl adde r. Onl y a maxi mum of t hree peop le should
be on a ladder at one time. Se curing the l adde r inside t he helicopt er i s qui te
simple. Pull t wo rungs together and f ast en e ach end wi t h s nap links (gat e up)
to tie-down rings in the he licopter. Four pai rs o f r un gs s hou ld be fas tened in
this manner.
4.4 EXFILTRATION
a . Helicopter Landing. Thi s i s t he most des i r ab le method , as i t a l l ows
the team to ge t i ns i de the helicopt er wi t h a l l e qu ipme nt, c asua l t i es a nd pr i -
soners in the short est time . Whi l e terrain a nd the enemy may preve nt the
s el ection of a n LZ wh i ch meets a l l of the s t a ndar d criteri a. I f pos sibl e,
however, the following conditions should be a t tempted to be s atisfi ed.
(1) Maximum slope of the LZ shou l d not exc eed 15 pe r c ent .
( 2) An ar ea 50 meters in di amet er shoul d be cleared to the ground . An
area surrounding the cleared area , 20 met er s wi de , i s cl e ared to wi t h i n one
met er of the gr ound .
25
(3) Helicopters are considered to have a c1imb-to-g1ide ratio of 1:5.
This means, for example, that there should be no trees higher than 20 meters
within 100 meters of the touchdown point.
(4) The helicopter pilots should be advised of any peculiarities of the
L2, e.g., isolated tree stumps.
(5) Under ideal conditions (see para 4.2) a helicopter can land in an
area slightly wider than its skid or wheel span if rotor clearance exists.
However, if the requirements of the above subparagraphs cannot be met it is
usually best to consider an alternate method of extraction, such as discussed
below.
b. Rope Ladder. Next to helicopter landing, the rope ladder is the most
desirable method of exfi1tration, as it allows the team members to get inside
the helicopter. If necessary, however, the helicopter can lift off while
individuals are still on the ladder. In this case those persons still on the
ladder will snap the snap link on their harnesses (para 2, 4b (3) (d)) to a
rung of the ladder. No more than three people should be on the ladder at one
time. Rucksacks s houl d be snapped to the bottom rung of the ladder before
climbing it. As in descending, the rope ladder should be ascended by strad-
dling it from the side.
c. McGuire Rig . The McGuire rig is basically a nylon webbing saddle
which is dropped on a rope from a helicopter to a team which cannot clear a
touch-down L2.
(1) The specific components of the rig and a method of rigging them
inside the UH-IF are as follows:
(a) 25-ft tie-down rope.
(b) 4" x4 "x5' yoke.
(c) 10 snap links.
(d) 3 weapon containers.
(e) 3 harnesses.
(f) 3 120-ft 3600-lb test nylon ropes.
(g) Drop box.
(h) 5-ft section of nylon rope.
(i) 3-ft retainer strap.
(j) 3 16" x 3/4" bolts with nuts.
(k) 6 washers, 3" diameter 3/4" opening.
26
(2) Characteristics. The yoke is a safety device to hold ropes in case
one becomes broken or untied inside the helicopter. The 16" bolts are inserted
through the yoke and bent to form a ring, then welded at the end of the ring.
Two snap links are fastened to each ring, one with the gate opening up and one
opening down. One of each pair of snap links is snapped to a tie-down ring
in the helicopter. The other is snapped to the 25-foot tie-down. The 25-foot
tie-down is run through no less than four rings on the opposite side of the
helicopter from the rings, and secured with a square knot and two half-hitches.
The l20-foot ropes are secured to the helicopter by tying a clove hitch around
the yoke, passing under the 25-foot tie-down, running each rope through three
rings in triangular fashion and tying off with a bowline (the rope should be
stretched prior to rigging). The harnesses are attached to the ropes with a
bowline and four half-hitches. One snap link is attached to the center harness.
A drop box is attached by a five foot rope to the bottom of each rig. The
drop box can be anything heavy enough to deploy the rig and rope. The ropes
are stowed inside the weapons containers in the same fashion as described for
rappelling. The retainer strap is used to secure the bags to the helicopter
floor. When mounting the McGuire rig for extraction, the rucksack is first
snapped to the D-ring on the bottom of the saddle. The person being extracted
then sits in the saddle and puts one wrist through the wrist loop. When all
three saddles are occupied they are snapped together by the snap link attached
to the middle harness. Snapping the rigs together keeps all riders at the same
level, and prevents a man from falling if one rope breaks or is shot through.
27
~
,ok
0
'1
H
0:::
. /
~
H
~
,
0
()
l
:z
.
0
Z
H
~
0
0
H
0:::
.{
'.
d. STABO Rig.
(1) It has been evident for some months that there a r e some serious
safety hazards associated wi t h the us e of the McGuire rig as an emergency
extraction device. The most serious are that unconscious personnel and
personnel under fire are unable to snap themselves properly into the rig and
thus either cannot be extracted or are subject to falling out. The rig is
also sometimes difficult to mount unless it is hovered at just the right
height.
(2) As a result of these deficiencies personnel from the Recondo School,
5th SFG (ABN) , designed a nd built a harness which they named by utilizing
the first initial of each of the 5 men primarily associated with its develop-
ment, S-T-A-B-O. The theory behind it is that if a minimum 3000 pound load
bearing harness could be substituted for the standard U.S. Army Combat pack
suspenders, normally worn in the field, that it could be used for emergency
extraction.
(3) The STABO rig consists of two shoulder straps in which loops have
been built to accommodat e the standard issue pistol belt and "D" rings have
been sewn for use in extraction, to this is included two crotch straps which
can be snapped in pl ace or detached. During field operation the crotch straps
are unsnapped and rolled up in the back. They can be taped in place or held
by a rubber band. When required for extraction they are unrolled and snapped
in place. For comfort it is important that the crotch straps are properly
spaced. Recommended procedure is to have them box stitched into place when
the proper lateral adjustment has been determined . The STABO rig is part
of an individual's personal equipment and wi l l be issued one per each indi-
vidual.
(4) For extraction a nylon rappe11ing rope is used.
to the aircraft. On the other end is tied t wo bowlines on
two long loops into which snap links are connected. These
into the two "D" rings on the harness for extraction.
One end is anchored
bights, providing
in turn are snapped
(5) Additional equipment which can be used with the STABO rig are cotton
shoulder pads and a safety strap. The shoulder pads are used to keep the "D"
rings from rubbing on the collar bone and the safety strap, a short GP strap
with "D" rings on either end, is used to attach two extractees to each other
by their harness "D" ring snap links. This provides an additional safety factor.
31
Page 32 STABO RIG - FRONT VIEW
Pa ge 33
STABO RIG - REAR VI EW
Page 34 STABO RIG - READY FOR EXTRACTION
Page 35 FOLDED A7A STRAP WITH SNAP LINK - HANSON RIG
Page 36 MEASURING THE LOOP - HANSON RIG
Page 37 DONNING HANSON RIG - STEP 1
Page 38 DONNING HANSON RIG - STEP 2
Page 39 DONNING HANSON RIG - STEP 3
Page 40 READY FOR EXTRACTION - FRONT
Page 41 READY FOR EXTRACTION - REAR
CHAPTER V
PATROLLING TECHNIQUES
5.1 GENERAL. This chapter is intened to provide tips on selected patrolling
subjects which are especially pertinent to RT operations. No effort has been
made to cover every possible subject because of the vast scope of topics and
the wide range of opinions on each topic. In the last analysis, it'is the
basic military training of the team and the good judgment of the team leader,
not exotic techniques or equipment, which determines the outcome of the mission.
In this regard, there is no substitute for team training. The following sec-
tions contain selections of techniques which have worked for other RT's at
other times. It is up to each team leader to determine their applicability to
his own team and circumstances.
5.2 PATROLLING TIPS
a. Preparation Phase.
(1) Thorough map study. Know the terrain in your objective area; on
short patrols, memorize your route; for long patrols, select terrain features
to help keep you oriented.
(2) Use of difficult terrain. Impassable terrain is very rare and you
have less chance of encountering the enemy along your route.
(3) "Offset" method should be employed on route of march. An offset is
a planned magnetic deviation to the right or left of the straight line azimuth
to an objective.
NOTE: Each degree you offset will move you about 17 meters to the right or
left for each 1000 meters you travel .
(4) Alternate rallying points. Select alternate rallying points in the
event the enemy has occupied your primary.
(5) Consider the use of special equipment.
(a) Grenades.
1. White phosphorous--for breaking contact or for destroying caches of
equipment or food.
2. Fragmentation--for breaking contact and making boobytraps to delay
enemy in the event he is chasing you.
3 . Smoke--marking LZ's, airstrikes, etc.
(b) M79 Grenade Launcher--consider type of vegetation in which you will
be operating . If dense, perhaps you will not want to take an M79.
42
(d) Gloves--If the vegetation has thorns or if you expect to have to
travel in a mountainous area where you might have to rappell, you would defi-
nitely want to carry a pair of gloves.
(e) Rope--Again, if you were going "i n t o a mountainous area, you might
want to take along a rope to use in rappelling. Another use for this rope
might be for tying prisoners.
(c) Claymore
during long halts,
you, ambush, etc.
mines--Extremely useful for protecting your perimeter
boobytraps for delaying the enemy in event he is chasing
(f) Flares--Flares are useful for signalling aircraft; in addition,
they are useful in starting fires in the event you wanted to destroy some
type of flammable material; i.e., rice cache, fuel or ammo storage area, etc.
(g) Flashlight--In the event a man is wounded or injured during the
hours of darkness, a light may be necessary in order to treat his wounds.
Also, with proper filters, can be used as signalling device.
(h) Poncho--In addition to protecting you from the rain, the poncho can
be used as an improvised litter, a raft to keep your equipment dry when cross-
ing streams.
(i) Binoculars--for observation. In addition, binoculars increase your
vision at night. They also make a good telephoto lens when taking pictures
of distant objects.
(j) Camera with film--Like the old saying, "A picture is worth a thousand
words," it is good to back up your intelligence gathering with a picture. That
way there can be no doubt that what you say was there, was there. If possible,
when taking pictures, try to include a common unit of measurement to show size
(man, cigarette, etc.) or a prominent land mark if photographing terrain.
(k) Sharp knife--the tip here is not to carry a knife, but to carry a
sharp knife. There is hardly anything as useless as a dull knife.
(6) Test firing of weapons.
(a) Once you have test fired your weapon, don't take it apart to clean it
again. If y ~ u are worried about the carbon, run a patch through the bore and
let it go. Once you take it apart, you are not sure it works once you put it
together again unless you fire it.
43
(b) Always carry the cleaning rod along with you. This is not so you
can clean your weapon while you are on patrol, but as an immediate action
tool. One of the most common malfunctions of the M16 is the extraction of
the spent round. If yours fails to extract, it's for sure you are not going
to pull the cartridge out with your fingernails. If you have the rod with
you, it is a simple matter of running it down the bore and knocking the car-
tridge out.
(7) Signalling.
(a) Arm and hand signals--Practice and ensure each team member knows
all arm and hand signals you plan to use on your patrol.
(b) Practice the signals you will use after dark.
(8) Communications.
(a) Tape emergency frequencies and artillery request format to handset
of radio.
(b) Put up field expedient antenna each night in the event you are hit
by the enemy you won't have any trouble reaching help.
(c) Preset artillery frequency.
b. Execution Phase.
(1) Change point man and compass man occasionally.
(2) Use of terrain.
(3) Carrying of weapons.
(a) Always have weapon pointed in the direction in which you are looking.
If you don't, the split second it takes you to move it may cost you your life.
(b) Preparation of Weapon.
1. Remove sling swivels.
1. Tape bore to keep out dirt and debris.
3. Tape upper hand guard to prevent rattling.
!:!. Tape dust cover to prevent metallic "click" in the event it is acci-
dentally opened.
1. Tape stock to break outline of weapon. Tape may also be used in emer-
gency to gag prisoners, repair tears in uniform, etc.
44
(1) Avoid trails, streams, and roads. Due to a lack of maps, these
are the most common routes of travel by the enemy. In addition, don't
forget to check out trees while moving through the jungle. Trail watchers
often use them.
(2) Crossing of trails, streams, and roads.
(a) Skirmish line.
(b) File.
(c) A few at a time.
(3) Avoid human habitations.
(4) Sterilize trail.
(5) Actions at halts.
(a) Security.
(b) If men have difficulty in staying awake, have them kneel rather than
sit.
(c) Sleep close enough to touch each other.
1. If you snore, put handkerchief around mouth.
2. Do not remove equipment while sleeping.
c. Lessons Learned.
(1) Dead foliage may be old camouflage.
(2) Tied down or cut down brush may be a firing lane.
(3) Avoid streams and moats in an inhabited area; they may contain punji
stakes.
(4) Unoccupied houses may contain boobytraps.
(5) Be cautious of all civilians.
(6) Do not set a pattern.
(7) Always expect an ambush.
(8) Take advantage of inclement weather; however, be careful because you
cannot call an airstrike or call for extraction.
(9) Never return over the same route.
45
(10) In sudden engagements, fire low. A richochet is better than no
hit at all.
(11) In selection of LZs, avoid overuse or "likely" LZs.
(12) Smoking.
(a) Take medicine for men who cough.
(b) Method of coughing.
(13) Noise discipline.
(14) Method of walking.
(a) Hard ground - Toe to heel.
(b) Soft ground - entire foot.
(15) Actions at meal halts.
(a) One man eats at a time.
(b) One man goes for water.
(c) Keep one ration prepared at all times.
the one you had prepared the previous meal.
46
Prepare one ration, then eat
CHAPTER VI
TRACKING AND USE OF HUMAN SENSES IN OBTAINING
COMBAT INTELLIGENCE
6.1 HUMAN SENSES. The use of the human senses in obtaining and developing
combat intelligence is very important, especially in a guerrilla type environ-
ment such as exists in Vietnam. Just by smelling, touching, and/or listening,
valuable information can be gained about the enemy.
a. Smell.
(1) Smell is very important in that it can be employed to detect the
enemy before he sees you, and also to determine what he is doing now, or has
been doing in the past. Cigarette smoke can be detected up to one quarter
mile if wind conditions are right. You can also smell fish, garlic, and other
foods being cooked for several hundred meters. You may even be able to detect
a person who has been eating garlic, or other specific food, from a considerable
distance, thus discovering a guerrilla ambush before your patrol walks into it.
In Vietnam, there are many types of wood used for fuel. By being able to identify
the smell of some of these types of wood, you may be able to determine the pur-
pose of the fire and the general location of the fire, or guerrilla camp or
patrol base.
(2) For the man who seldom or never uses soap, after-shave lotion, and
other such toilet articles, it is easy for him to detect a person using these
items for a considerable distance. In some areas of the world, the best way to
prevent detection is not to use these items. The British discovered this in
Malaya. Once they set an ambush on a known guerrilla trail. The guerrillas
avoided and bypassed the ambush. Later, one of those guerrillas was captured,
and he told the British that he was in the guerrilla patrol that they were trying
to ambush. He said they smelled the bath soap which had been used by the ambush-
ing party. In other cases, the guerrillas smelled the food that had been pre-
viously eaten by ambushing parties and were alerted. Insect repellent is another
item that you can smell for a distance. If the local indigenous population
doesn't use it, your recon team shouldn't either.
(3) Another item emitting a distinctive odor is explosives. You can tell
that someone has been working with them just by the smell of his hands or
clothes.
b. Touch.
(1) In the future you may find
tunnels, or enemy dead at night with
cannot be used for security reasons.
pally on touch, hearing, and smell.
yourself having to search buildings,
no means for lighting the area; or lights
When this happens, you must rely princi-
(2) To use the sense of touch to identify an object, you consider four
factors--shape, moisture, temperature, and texture. By shape we mean the
general outline of the object. Moisture refers to the moisture content of the
object (wet or dry). Temperature is the heat or lack of heat of an object.
47
Texture is the smoothness or roughness of the object. By considering all these
aspects, you \v i 11 b e able to b asically identify the object. Your ab i l i t y to
determine \vha t a n object is by touch may save your life. A good e xampl e of this
is the timely detection of trip wi r e s by using the exposed portion of your arm
for f e eling. Another method of searching for trip \vi r e s is the use of a very
fine branch. Hold it in front of you a nd you can feel it strike anything.
Another method is the u se of a piece of wire with a small we i gh t on one end,
holding it in front of you as you wa l k . This method has proven to be quite
e f f e c t i v e . During the Korean Wa r , on occasion, the Turks wou l d r emove all
their clothing prior to departing on patrol. If wh i l e in "no-man's land," they
came in cont act wi t h someone, they merely felt or touched them a nd if they felt
clothing, they killed them. This, too, has proven effective.
c. Hearing.
(1) The sound of a safety latch being released on a rifle or machine gun
could wa r n you of an ambush or a sniper. The sound of sudden fli ght of wi l d
a ni ma ls or birds may indicate enemy movement. The sounds of dogs barking could
wa r n others of your approach to a village. You must be able to determine whe t h e r
you h ave been discovered or whether the do gs are barking for another reason.
Sudden cessation of normal \vi l d 1 i f e noises may indicate passage of enemy, or the
animal' s or bird's det ection of you . Thus, it is important that you become
familiar \vi t h distress or wa r n i ng cries of birds and wi l d a n i mal s of the area
of operations. Th e sound of a man talking, running, or crawling a r e important
s ou nd s to recognize. In r econnaissance wo r k , the t e am should a lway s move
cautiously enough to hear s ou nd s made by the enemy before the enemy hears or sees
the recon team. Another very import ant sound is the striker of a hand grenade
and the s ou nd of the handle flying off. Sound also can a s s i s t you in determining
r ange to a n e xplosion or blast. If you can see the flash of the e xplosion and
can d etermine the number of seconds from the flash to the time you hear the sound
you c an determine the approximate r ange. To use this method you must be able
to see the fl ash of the e xplosion. Sound travels at about 1100 feet per second.
For all practical purposes, we can say sound travels at 400 meters per s e c o nd .
\-lith a little practice you can learn to determine range of enemy we apo n s using
fl a sh/bang method of range determination. It is also important that you be ab l e
to identify the type and calibre of various types of weapo ns b y sound of the
report of the weapons.
6. 2 TRACKING. Tr acking, combined wi t h the us e of the basic human s enses is
another important source of combat intelligence, as evidenced by the following
e xample:
As the recon team moved through the jungle, it came upon a crest wh i ch had
recently been evacuated by the enemy. The crest \vas pocketed wi t h rifle pits.
In the spoil a r ou nd the pits we r e blurred footprints. The holes we r e deep but
not as wLde as American GI' s dig them. It wa s concluded from these signs that
the hill had recently been held by the enemy.
48
Several men prowled the jungle b e l.ow and found numerous piles of
elephant dung; enough to suggest that upwards of 20 of the animals had
been picketed there. The dung was still fairly fresh--about two days
they figured. In one area there was a small frame house, carefully camou-
flaged and we Ll.vbunke r e d in; it looked like a command post. There were a
dozen or so split gourds strewn about the room. Bits of cooked rice--per-
haps 15 or 20 grains in all--still clung to the sides. They were still
soft to the touch. Adding all these things together, it was speculated
that an enemy force of approximately battalion strength had held the same
ground not more than 48 hours before.
The ability to read and interpret signs left by the enemy is of course
important in a conventional warfare enviornment, but this ability takes on
increased importance in the guerrilla environment, because this evidence of
the guerrilla--the signs left by him--is all that you may find for days,
weeks, or even months, whi.I.e involved in counter-guerrilla warfare. The
following are the basic elements of human tracking:
a. Displacement. The disturbance of soil, vegetation, or wildlife
from its natural state.
(1) Footprints. Footprints can indicate several things: The number
of personnel in a party, direction of movement, sex, and in some cases the
type of load being borne by the person or party making the prints. Persons
traveling in a group will usually leave one set of clear footprints, these
being made by the last person in the group. By studying a set of prints for
worn or unworn heels, cuts in the heels, tread pattern of the soles, one may
be able to recognize them again. Also note the angle of the impression from
the direction of movement. Normally spaced prints with exceptionally deep
toe prints indicate that the person leaving the prints was probably carrying
a heavy load. If you follow the tracks you may find where the load was placed
on the ground during a rest break. Then by studying these prints and the
surrounding area, you may get some idea of what the load consisted.
(2) Vegetation. When vegetation is stepped on, dragged out of place,
or when branches are broken, the lighter colored undersides will show unnatu-
rally. This will be easier to see by looking at the trail into the sun.
Vines will be broken and dragged parallel to or toward the direction of move-
ment. Grass, when stepped on, will usually be bent towards the direction of
movement. When the bark on a log or root is scuffed, the lighter inner wood
will show, leaving an easily detected sign.
(3) Shreds of clothing. The jungle environment is very hard on clothing.
It is not unconrrnon to find threads or bits of cloth clinging to the underbrush,
particularly if movement was hurried.
(4) Birds and animals. Another type of displacement may occur when wild
birds and animals are suddenly flushed from their hiding places. Birds, in
particular, usually emit cries of alarm when disturbed. Animals will also
run away from man. You should definitely be familiar with the distress signals
of the wild animals and birds of your area of operations.
49
b. Staining. The deposition of liquids or soils not natural to a specific
location.
(1) Bloodstains. Look for bloodstains on the ground and on leaves and
underbrush to the average height of man. Examine stains for color and consis-
tency.
(2) Soil. Observe logs, grass, and stones for signs of soil displacement
from footgear. The color and composition of the soil may indicate a previous
location or route over which a party has been moving. The muddying of clear
water is a sign of very recent movement which can be picked out by the most
untrained eye. If the water in footprints is clear, this may indicate the
trail is an hour or more old.
c. Littering . Littering is a direct result of ignorance, poor discipline,
or both. If the enemy should litter the trail, take full advantage of his care-
lessness. Some examples of littering are cigarette butts, scraps of paper and
cloth, match sticks, ration cans, and abandoned equipment. Observe along the
trail and to the flanks for these items. Uncovered human feces is another
example of littering.
d. Weathering. The effect of rain, wind, and sun on the appearance of
trail signs.
(1) Rain.
(a) On footprints. A light rain will "round out" footprints and give the
appearance that they are old. A heavy rain will completely obliterate foot-
prints in a very short time.
(b) On litter. Rain will flatten
ammunition bandoleers and cloth scraps.
whether the litter was discarded before
very important that you always remember
(2) Sunlight.
paper scraps and other litter such as
By close examination you can determine
or after the last rain. Thus, it is
the day of the last significant rainfall.
(a) On footprints. Footprints, when first made, will have a ridge of
moist dirt pushed up around the sides. Sunlight and air will dry this ridge
of dirt, causing a slow crumbling effect. If actual crumbling is observed by
the tracker, this is an indication that the prints were made very recently and
increased stealth should be employed.
(b) On litter. Sunlight bleaches and discolors light colored paper and
cloth. Such colored litter will first go through a yellowing stage and then
eventually, turn completely white. Of most interest to us is the yellowing
stage. After one night, yellow spots will begin to form; it takes about 30
days for such litter to become completely yellow. On dark colored paper or
cloth, you must determine how much paper has faded. The only guideline for
this is experience .
50
6.3 EVADING TRACKERS.
of the trail of an RT.
demolitions; and (3)
(3) Wind.
(a) On footprints. Wind may blow grass, leaves, sand, and other light
litter into the prints. Examine the litter to determine whether is has been
crushed. If not, it will be important to remember when the wind was last
blowing.
(b) On litter. Litter may be blown away from the trail; therefore, it
may be necessary to search back and forth along the trail to locate it.
(4) Combination of above. All the elements of weather will cause metal
to rust. Check recently exposed portions of metal. For example, closely
examine the rim of ration cans where the opener stripped the paint. Rust will
form in these places within 12 hours or less.
(5) Effect of wind and air currents while tracking. Be aware that wind
and air currents carry sound and odor. This knowledge can be used to your
advantage when attempting to locate the enemy.
Whenever you hear a noise, if you will rotate the upper body with the
ears cupped with the hands until the noise is the loudest, the direction you
are facing will usually be the source of the noise. When there is no wind,
air currents generally flow downhill at night and uphill in daylight. These
elements can also be a disadvantage; for example, if following a trail that
leads into a guerrilla village, and the wind is to your back, dogs may bark
warning of your approach. A good tracker constantly considers all these factors.
There are three basic methods of getting trackers off
These are: (1) ambushing the trackers; (2) use of
covering trail.
a. Ambushing Trackers. This is usually a relatively simple matter in
itself, since trackers are normally unarmed. The danger is the possibility of
an armed force following close behind. An often effective tactic is to double
back on the trail at an angle of forty-five degrees and lay the ambush. This
may cause some delay in a reaction force reaching the ambush site after it is
triggered because of possible uncertainty as to the exact direction of travel
of the team. Whatever the configuration of the ambush selected (see paragraph
5.4) it should be accomplished as quickly as possible once it is triggered, and
the site immediately departed at a direction away from the direction of movement
into the ambush.
h. Use of Demolitions.
delay or eliminate trackers.
The following procedures utilizing demolitions may
See chapter X for methods of preparation.
(1) Claymore with time fuze. Set this on the back trail with the fuze cut
to the approximate length of time you estimate the trackers to be behind you.
(2) M14 Mines. This method is most effective if the mines are planted in
a triangular pattern about two feet apart. The location of these mines must be
recorded and reported as with any others.
51
(3) Grenade with Trip Wire. This has the disadvantage of taking more time
to install than other methods, but unless seen first will almost always be deto-
nated by anyone following. This method has the advantage over the M14 of larger
casualty radius. Grenades employed in this fashion must be recorded and reported
in the same fashion as mines.
(4) Whether or not these devices actually cause casualties, their detona-
tion or discovery by trackers may cause them to proceed more slowly. They also
provide early warning to the team.
c. Covering Trail. This should be done as a matter of course at all times.
The "tail gunner" is the man upon whom responsibility for this lies. The team
should proceed slowly enough so that he has enough time to do a proper job of
rubbing out footprints. Bending back foliage, etc. Any item of discard which
may give away the presence and/or direction of movement of the team, such as gum
wrappers, pieces of tape, etc., should be stowed in a bag to be disposed of on
completion of the mission. Rest and RON areas must be thoroughly policed and
sterilized, to include replacing bent foliage into its original position, eras-
ing footprints, etc. When it is necessary to evade trackers, it may be possible
to deceive them by making an obvious trail, then doubling back and moving off
at an angle, covering the new trail. Because of the abilities of most trackers,
this method will not work unless the start of the new trail is carefully covered.
In most cases, once trackers are on the general trail of a team, it is best to
take some active measure against them such as in a and b above. Frequent changes
of direction will make the trackers' job more difficult, however.
52
CHAPTER Vll INTELLIGENCE
7.1
REPORTING ENEMY ACTIVITY
a. General-Key Word
Salute.
(1) Size.
(2) Activity.
(3) Location.
(4) Unit
identifica tion.
(5) Time.
(6) Equipment.
b. Gun Positions.
(1) Type.
(2) Strength.
(3) Age.
(4) Field of fire.
c. Enemy Troops.
(1) Number.
(2) Uniform.
(3) Weapons.
(4) Foot gear.
(5) Direction of movement.
(6) Language.
d. Vehicles.
(1) Genera 1 description.
(2) Type cargo.
(3) Number of wheels/tracks.
(4) Type engine.
(5) Speed.
53
(6) Direction.
(7) Number of vehicles.
(8) Interva 1.
(9) Lights.
(10) Markings.
(11) Security.
(12) Size of tracks on road-depth, width, and width between tracks.
e. Terrain and Vegetation.
(1) Elevation.
(2) Slope.
(3) Bamboo & trees - height and diameter.
(4) Vines
-
length and diameter.
(5) Shrubs.
(6) Type canopy.
f. Weather.
(1) Cloud cover.
(2) Temperature range.
(3) Visibility.
(4) Precipitation - frequency and amount.
(5) Moon illumination.
g. Streams and Rivers.
(1) Width.
(2) Depth.
(3) Angle of banks.
(4) Height of banks.
(5) Composition of banks.
(6) Direction and speed of current.
54
(7) Water clear or cloudy.
(8) Potable water.
h. Trails and Roads.
(1) Direction.
(2) Type surface.
(3) Canopy overhead.
(4) Width.
(5) Indications of use.
(6) Vivibility from air.
(7) Able to observe aircraft from ground.
(8) Signs or markers.
(9) Tracks.
(10) Wheel vehicle.
(11) Cart.
(12) Track vehicle.
(13) Bicycle.
(14) Foot.
(15) Draft animals.
(16) Turn-around points.
(17) Rest-stop areas.
(18) Installations nearby.
(19) Security.
(20) Soil sample.
t . Bridges.
(1) Type construction.
(2) Capacity.
(3) Number lanes.
55
(4) Width and length .
(5) Type (vehicle or foot).
j . Fords.
(1) Banks.
( 2) Depth .
(3) Direction and speed of current.
k. Reporting Friendly Casual ties .
7 . 2 DEBRIEFING FORMAT
a . Visual Recon.
(1) Significant enemy sightings .
( 2) Indications of enemy activity.
(3) Primary and alternate L2 data.
b. Organiza tion.
(1) Composition (i.e., 3 US, 9INDIG).
( 2) List by name.
c. Equipment.
(1) \veapons.
(a) Individual small a rms
(b) Mines.
(c) Grenades.
(d) Boobytraps.
(e) Demolitions.
( f) M-72 LAH.
(g) Special weapo n s .
( 2) Signal.
(a) FM Radios .
(b) HT-l's.
56
(c) Smoke.
(d) Panels.
(e) Signal Mirrors.
(f) Strobe Lights.
(g) UHF URC 10.
(h) PEN Flares.
(3) Other.
(a)
Compasses.
(b)
Flashlights.
(c)
Individual Items.
(d) Binoculars.
(e)
Cameras.
d. Mission.
An exact duplicate of the mission assigned to the team."
e. Terrain.
(1) Landform.
(2) Vegetation.
(a) Lowland.
(b) Ridge and mountain sides.
(c) High ground, ridge tops and hilltops.
(3) Rivers and streams.
(a) Location.
(b) Width.
(c) Depth.
(d) Current (speed and direction).
(e) Slope of bank.
(f) Composition of soil on bottom and banks.
57
(g) Dimensions of dry bed.
(h) Are large streams navigable.
(4) Trails (Identify by number as location during opn).
(a) Direction and location.
(b) Width.
(c) Estimate of use (man or animals, footprints (describe prints: bare-
feet, cleated soles, hard soles), direction of movement).
(d) Overhead canopy.
(e) Undergrowth along sides of the trail.
(f) Direction signs, symbols, signals found along the route.
(g) Surface characteristics (hard packed or soft earth, dead vegetation;
light brush growth, etc).
(5) Roads.
(a) Direction.
(b) Width.
(c) Surface Material .
(d) Indications of movement on the road.
(e) Maintenance of road (craters repaired, etc.).
(f) Description of vehicle tracks.
(6) Soil.
(a) Appearance (color) .
(b) Hardness (dry, wet, muddy, very muddy).
(c) Standing water.
(7) Note deviations
etc.
f. Weather.
(1) Visibility.
(2) Cloud cover.
(3) Rainfall.
from map of landforms, treelines, water-ways, trails,
58
r
~
,
i
(4) Ground fog.
(5) Winds.
(6) Temperatures.
(7) Illumination.
(8) Effects on personnel.
g. Communications.
(1) Was jamming encountered?
(2) Problems in contacting air-relay.
(3) Difficulties with set.
(4) Indications of enemy RDF capability.
(5) Was ground relay used (Army/Marines), if so problems encountered, i f
any.
h. Narrative.
The narrative is a chronological detailed statement emphasizing time,
movement activities, and observations within the area of operations.
(1) Insert (Time and place) .
(2) Movement (Direction and distances) .
(3) Observations of human activity.
(a) Where were people seen?
(b) When?
(c) Number.
(d) Civilian or military.
(e) Ethnic group , language, etc.
(f) Clothing (color, condition), footgear, headgear, trousers, shirts.
(g) Equipment (color, size, shape, condition).
(h) Small arms (condition/type).
(i) What were the people doing?
(j) If military, well-disciplined or para-military.
(k) Apparent physical condition.
59
(4) Observations of structures.
(a) Where located?
(b) How many?
(c) Shape, size, purpose.
(d) Construction materials .
(e) Markings.
(f) Contents of structure.
(g) Estimate of last use.
(h) Indications of family occupancy.
(i) Animals or animal pen near structures.
(j) Crops close to structure.
(5) Observations of emplacements.
(a) Where (trenches, foxholes, bunkers, AW positions)?
(b) Type.
(c) Field or paddy size .
(d) Care of crops.
(e) Stage of development.
(f) Food cached in area.
(g) Abundance of crops compared to the number of people.
(h) Any efforts made to hide crops from air.
(6) Observations of animals .
(a) What type, where, how many?
(b) Wild or tame.
(c) Condition.
(d) Drayage animals.
(7) Enemy tactics.
(a) What was the enemy's reaction to the team?
60
---
(b) How did the enemy indicate that he was aware of the team's presence
in the area?
(c) Was the team followed - by how large a force?
(d) Was the team attacked aggressively when discovered?
(e) Was the team surrounded?
(f) Did the enemy attempt to avoid contact?
(g) What reaction did the enemy have when he was attacked?
(h) What action did the enemy take when helicopters arrived to remove
the team or insert a large force?
( L) Si gna1 s if any.
(j) Discipline of enemy force.
(k) Indications of enemy training and discipline.
i. Air-strikes.
(1) How many were called?
(2) Locations.
(3) What results?
(4) Was the ordnance effective against the target?
(5) Include those not called by team but observed in area.
(6) Effects of ARC lights.
(7) Report effects of commando lava.
j. Mines.
(1) Exact location.
(2) Details of placement.
(3) Sketch (for target folder).
(4) Types of mines employed.
(5) Number of mines.
(6) Detonation of mines & results if known.
k. Added Information.
61
(1)
(2)
(3)
(a)
pattern?
(b)
(c)
(d)
1.
Anything not otherwise covered.
General estimate of the extent of military activity in the area.
Signals.
Was there an identifiable pattern to the signals? What was the
Are different methods of signalling integrated in the system?
Were the signals related to enemy activity?
What was the apparent meaning of the signals?
Are different types of signals used in different areas?
Recommendations.
(1) Items of equipment or material that can be used to improve our
operational capability.
(2) Operational techniques that can be used to improve operations.
(3) Performance bonus for indigenous personnel.
m. Results of Enemy Encounter.
(1) Friendly losses.
(2) Enemy losses.
(3) Enemy sightings.
7.3 HAND HELD AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
a. Camera Operation.
(1) Exposure procedures for Pentax.
(a) Determine ASA speed of film.
(b) Set the ASA speed in the window at the top of the shutter control.
(c) Attach the desired lens, i.e., 200-mm or 55-rom.
(d) Set the shutter speed dial so that the desired speed is read opposite
the reference mark. Try to use 1/1,000 SEC whenever possible.
(e) If filters are used attach them to the camera prior to turning on the
exposure meter.
(f)
(g)
setting.
Turn Spotmatic Meter on by pushing the "SW" switch up.
Rotate aperature ring to obtain the correct "f-stop" or aperature
Do not change the shutter speed.
62
(h) Correct exposure will be indicated when the needle on the right side
of the view-finder is centered on the reverse C opening. The needle pointing
to the + sign indicates overexposure while the needle pointing to the - sign
indicates underexposure. When photographing objectives located in shadows
caused by heavy tree canopy, you may have to overexpose the photograph.
(i) Do not adjust the shutter speed unless you cannot center the exposure
needle and there are no more f-stop settings available. Then the shutter
speed dial can be moved from 1/1000 to /1500. All a e r i a l photography should
be taken at either of these two shutter speeds, preferably 1/1000 sec. This
Ivill reduce image motion or blur to a minimum.
(2) Focusing.
(a) Focusing should be kept at infinity 00. With the 200- mm lens set on
00, everything from 200 feet to infinity Iv i l l be in focus and appear sharp on
the photograph.
(b) When using the 200- mm lens it is suggested that masking tape be used
to secure the focus a t 00 (Infinity). This wi l l ensure that aircraft vibra-
tions a nd accident al bumps Ivi l l not put the c amera out of focus.
b. Factors of Good Photograhy.
(1) Cameras and eguipment.
(a) The Asahi Pentax 35-mm c amera fitted Iv i t h a 200- mm lens has proven to
be an ideal system for use in the 0-1, 0- 2, a nd UH-ID a i r c r a f t . The lens has
f-stop from F/4 to F/22 and shutter speeds up to l/lOOOth of a second.
(b) Taking photographs from any ae r i a l pl atform is simple, but one impor-
tant factor must be understood and r e m e m b e r e d ~ The s pe ed a nd vibrations of the
aircraft creates movement of the target in rel ation to the c amera. This move-
ment creates image motion or blurring of the image on the film. Thi s blur must
be minimized, if not completely stopped, or the subject m a t t e ~ c n the photograph
wi l l not be recognized.
(c) High shutter speed is the best way of s t oppi ng ima ge motion. The
recommended setting is 1/1000 . Under poor lighting conditions 1/500th of a
second can be used, however, this increases the ch anc es of image motion.
(d) The aperature (f/stop) is determined by both the brightness of the
light and the ASA speed of the film. The American Standards Association being
equal 200 ASA film needs tlvice the amount of light to make a proper exposure
as on with a speed of 400 ASA .
(e) An ultraviolet (UV) filter s hou l d be used at all times as it wi l l
eliminate most of haze and mist .
(2) Techniques.
(a) On most aircraft, vibration is extensive. The camera should NOT be
braced on any portion of the aircraft. Vibrations can be absorbed by the photo-
grapher's body and arms. Hold your elbows close to your body and you will not
only eliminate some of the vibrations, but steady the camera.
63
(b) If at all possible take your photographs with the sun at your back.
By shooting with the sun you will minimize the effect of haze, eliminate glare
and, of course, obtain much better photography. Acceptable photos may be
obtained shooting into the sun, if the sun is high in the sky and you use a
lens shade. However, you usually obtain much higher quality photos by shoot-
ing with the sun at your back.
(c) Glass or plastic windows. Do not attempt to photograph through
glass or plastic windows of an aircraft, since these windows are not optically
perfect and definition will be lost. Not only will the amount of light pass-
ing through the windows be reduced, but they will reflect light rays and thus
tend to throw images out of focus. Plastic windows have about the same image
deteriorating effects as plate glass.
(d) If at all possible it is suggested that the photographer shoot for-
ward along the aircraft's flight path to an angle of no greater than 45 degrees
to either side. The photographer observing from this position can search for
approaching point targets, since the flight path is heading him toward the
target. Shooting forward reduces image motion and results in better photos.
This technique can be utilized when flying as low as 500 feet if the 50-rom lens
is used.
(e) If, because of aircraft obstructions (wing struts, etc.), it becomes
necessary to photograph your objective at an angle greater than 45 degrees
from the flight path, it is best to use a panning technique. This is required
to negate the blurring effect due to the relative motion of the objective.
The subject is first picked-up in the viewfinder at some distance ahead of
the aircraft. Swing the camera keeping the objective centered in the view-
finder as the aircraft approaches it. When the objective is closest to the
aircraft take the picture and follow thru with the swing as the objective
passes to the rear. This is the same technique as you woul d use in bird or
skeet shooting .
(f) In cases where a series of photos of larger objectives is desired the
pilot can put the aircraft into a tight turn around the objective. This would
give the photographer enough time to take the pictures. In this case it should
not be necessary to pan but merely snap your pictures as the relative motion
of the objective is greatly reduced.
64
-
(3) Daylight expo sure table f or black and white films.
FILM BRIGHT SUN CLOUDY BRIGHT HEAVY
(Distinct (No Shadows) OVERCAST
ASA Shadows)
PLUS-X 1/ 1000 sec.- 1/500 sec.- NOT
ASA 125 F/5.6 F/4 RECOMMENDED
PLUS-X''( 1/1000 sec.- 1/1000 sec.- 1/500 sec.-
at F/8 F/4 F/4
ASA 250
TRI-X 1/1000 sec.- 1/ 1000 sec.- 1/1000 sec.-
ASA 400 F/ll F/5.6 F/4
*Spec ial Development. The photo lab woul d need to know that you ex pos ed
the roll at this higher ASA than normal. Al so, you must expose the complete
roll at this higher ASA rating.
7.4 REQUIRED DATA
a . To properly process the film and to obtain the maximum intelligence and
operational data from the photos certain data i s required for each frame/roll.
(1) Film processing .
(a) Type of camera/lens.
(b) ASA rating used (Not ASA printed on film pack but ASA setting used on
camera) .
(c) Shutter speed/f-stop.
(d) Lighting conditions, i.e. , bright sun, etc.
65
Photographer/Target
Camera/Lens .
Shutter/f-stop
ASA Rating Used
Lighting .
EXP. DATE/ UTM GRID SUBJECT
NO. TIME
66
r
t
~
,
i
(2) Intelligence.
(a) Identity of photographer/team.
(b) Date and time of photo.
(c) UTM grid coordinates (Could be marked on a map with numbers corre-
sponding to individual frames).
(d) Subject.
It is suggested that the photographer keep a log of the above informa-
tion as the photographs are taken.
7.5 PHOTOGRAPHY
a. General.
(1) Why take pictures?
(a) A camera is not just an extra piece of equipment to be carried along
on a reconnaissance mission. It is one of the most valuable assets you will
have in your intelligence collection effort. For the intelligence community
to make proper use of what your eyes see, they must have a detailed and accurate
description. The easiest way to bring this information back is to record it on
film. Not only is photography the easiest way of recording a vast amount of
information in a short period of time, but it provides a permanent record of
what you saw which can then undergo detailed and extensive exploitation.
(b) In addition to its value to the intelligence community, the photo-
graphy you take helps you and any other RT who may be going back to the same
target at a later date. It provides a visual description of what the terrain
and vegetation is like. If the proper type of photos were taken they can also
give indications of types and locations of enemy activity, areas to avoid, and
things to look for.
(2) Who uses this photography that is so difficult and expensive to get?
As mentioned previously, you yourself may very well find yourself reviewing your
or someone else's photography prior to a scheduled mission. Intelligence also
uses them in much the same manner for mission planning. Probably the most impor-
tant use of all though is the exploitation of these pictures by the intelligence
community. The S-2 is the first person to review and evaluate your results. He
forwards photos of value, along with your verbal description of the subject
matter.
b. Subject Matter.
(1) What should you take pictures of? Traces of human activity usually
are quite obvious if you are looking for them. For the most part, human
activity has the most intelligence value. But information on naturally occur-
ing phenomena (terrain, vegetation, etc.) is also of great importance for
planning purposes. It will be up to you to determine what will and will not
67
be photographed. The following is a guide on the types of subject matter
you should photograph. It is only a guide and not all inclusive. Generally,
it might be said that if something appears to you to be unusual or suspicious,
take a picture. Film is probably the least expensive item you are carrying
and there is no picture taken on a mission that would be considered as a
waste.
(a) Installations--any type of construction, permanent or temporary.
In addition to taking several close up shots of interesting items, try to
get one or two pictures of the overall installation. If necessary, pan the
camera--that is, take several photos in sequence starting at one end of the
area of interest and move the camera a little after each exposure until the
whole area has been covered. Overlap the photos somewhat to ensure that noth-
ing is missed. Close ups should show det ails of construction and the type
activity the structure wa s intended for. Installations include such things
as camps, bivouac areas, fortifications, buildings, training areas, equipment
mockups, trenches, foxholes, bridges, etc. If present, include accessory
structures .
(b) Equipment--any equipment s e e n should be photographed. Besides an
overall picture of the item, attempt to take a close-up of any identifying
markings. If the emplacement of the equipment is significant or if it is
used in conjunction with something el se, attempt to take an overall picture
that includes the supported elements. Equipment includes weapons, trucks,
tanks, boats, construction equipment, ammunition, etc.
(c) Caches--besides an overall photo showing how the cache is laid out
and how it is hidden, photos of individual items are necessary. Include all
markings or symbols on bags, crates, equipment, etc.
(d) Roads, trails, and vehicle tracks--any path for movement, from the
narrowest foot path to the largest highway, should be photographed. Take a
picture in both directions . Take several close-ups of the road surface and
the shoulder to show construction type. Vehicle tracks on a road or anywhere
else should be photographed showing individual tracks from several angles and
showing both tracks on one e xposure. Size comparison is important for both
roads and trails and vehicle tracks.
(e) Communication lines--photograph any wires or poles found. If possi-
ble, compare size of wire with a known object (e.g., cartridge). Include
cross pieces on poles and close-ups of insulators holding the wires. Also
include photographs of the path that has been cut for the lines.
(f) Personnel--these will be rare photographs. If you should happen
to be in circumstances wh i c h allow it, by all means take the picture. How-
ever, photos of a person over 100 meters away (unless a sizeable telephoto
lens is used) are of little value. Also, close-ups are next to impossible
since the camera shutter makes a considerable amount of noise. Rather than
the person himself , what is significant is anything on him that would help to
identify his function, unit, origin, etc.
68
I
r
(g) Terrain--little needs to be said about terrain and vegetation. It
is there and should be photographed. Composition of the subject is important.
Try to get a picture that will clearly show typical examples of terrain and
vegetation . Here is one area where you can overdo--try not to take an exces-
sive number of pictures of the same types of terrain and vegetation. Great
quantities of photos tend to overload the processing facilities and clog up
the exploitation channels.
(2) Focusing--a photograph that is fuzzy is usually of little value.
If your camera is of the fixed focus type make sure that you get no closer to
the object than recommended. If you can focus the lens, make sure you have a
sharp image before exposing the film.
(3) Holding the camera steady--moving the camera while making an exposure
also causes fuzzy pictures. The slow shutter speeds inherent in low light
level photography demand that the camera be held rock steady during exposure.
This can be done by bracing the camera against a tree or some other solid
object.
(4) Correct the operating instructions for the camera
you are using and operating within the design limits of the camera will give
you a correct exposure everytime . However, at times you may be forced to
expose the film under less than desirable conditions. Over or under-exposure
can be compensated for during processing . (Fuzziness caused by camera move-
ment or incorrect focus cannot). To compensate for under or over-exposure the
photo facility must have certain information. The compensation merely consists
of increasing the developing time for under-exposure or decreasing the develop-
ment time for over-exposure . There are limits, of course, within which faulty
exposure can be compensated. It should be obvious that one strip of film that
contains under-exposed, over-exposed and normal exposure frames cannot be pro-
cessed to obtain the best results from all. If such is the case, a determina-
tion must be made to process for the most important frames.
(5) Shadows--usually shadows are undesirable because they tend to hide
detail. In certain instances shadows may be beneficial . If they show depth
of interesting silhouettes, include them in your pictures.
(6) Centering the subject--attempt to center the point of interest in
the viewfinder because this is the area of sharpest focus. If you cannot fit
all of the subject in one frame, take several pictures but be sure to overlap
enough so that nothing is missed.
(7) Angles of view--for certain subjects (i.e., buildings, vehicle
tracks, etc .), several photos should be taken from varying angles. This tech-
nique allows for a determination to be made of an object's dimensions as well
as showing additional detail.
69
d. Camera Operation.
(1) A manual for the particul ar camera you are going to use should be
made available to you for study by the S-2 at your C & C. Study it and the
camera to make sure that you a r e thoroughly familiar with its operation before
taking it on a mission.
(2) There are several basic points to be covered here. Some are obvious
to the experienced photographer, but are necessary reminders for them. They
are essential factors for the beginner to know.
(a) Loading the camera--load only in subdued light, never in direct
sunlight. Make sure that the camera is free of dirt before opening. Load
the film. Ensure that the end of the film is properly reeled in the take-up
spool and that the teeth on the sprocket spool engage the perforations on both
sides of the film. Advance the film slightly to make sure that it travels
properly. Close the camera and advance the film a minimum of three exposures
(it is safer to waste one exposure than to take your first picture on already
exposed film). Turn the rewind handle slightly until it takes up the slack in
the film.
(b) ASA setting--for the automatic exposure meter on a camera to function
properly, the ASA rating of the film you are using must be set on the camera
(i.e., Kodak Tri-X is rated at 400, Kodak Plus-X is rated at 125). On the
Pen EE type camera the ASA rating is set on the numbered ring around the lens.
On most other cameras the ASA rating is set on an indicator which is an integral
part of the shutter speed control.
(c) Focusing--fixed focus cameras are simple to operate and produce rela-
tively sharp images at all distances, however, they all have a minimum distance
at which they remain in focus. Any object closer to the camera than this mini-
mum distance will be blurred. An adjustable focus camera Ivill yield blurred
images for objects closer to or further from the object focused on. Therefore,
it is essential that care be taken in focusing on the point of interest.
(d) Shutter release--the shutter release should be pressed down like one
squeezes the trigger of a weapon. A quick or jerky movement will cause the
camera to move and result in fuzzy pictures.
(e) Manual exposure--the diaphragm in the lens has a variable size open-
ing in it wh i c h regulates the amount of light exposing the film. The size of
the opening is indicated in terms of an f-stop reading. The smaller numbers
(i.e., 2.8) allow more light to enter the camera, the larger numbers (i.e., 11)
allolv less light to enter the camera. To use the manual mode of operation, one
must be able to accurately determine the amount of light available. Since this
is impossible to do without the aid of a light meter, it is best to operate the
camera automatically unless there is insufficient light to make a normal exposurE
In that case, turn the f-stop ring to the 10lvest number and make your exposure.
The film wi l l very likely be under-exposed.
70
(f) Rewinding the film--care must be exercised when taking pictures in
order to avoid advancing so far as to separate it from the rewind spool. Never
force the film if it ceases to advance before it is all used, merely rewind it
and load with fresh film. When rewinding the film again exercise care so that
you don't tear the film. Rewind the film all the way back into the cannister.
If the film will not rewind all the way, don't force it or open the camera.
Take the camera as it is back to the photo lab facility and have it opened in
the dark-room.
(g) Maintenance--it is essential that the camera and film be kept clean
and dry. The camera should be kept in its case except during actual use and
the film should be kept in a tightly closed screw top cannister \vhe ne ve r it is
out of the camera. Both should be carried in sealable plastic bags. Before
you take the camera on a mission, examine it to make sure it is operating pro-
perly and is free of rust and dirt.
e. Data Required for Processing and Exploitation.
(1) Processing.
(a) Type of camera--state exact make and model (i.e., Pen EE-2, TOPCON
RE SUPER, ASHAI PENTAX SPOTMATIC, etc.).
(b) ASA setting--the ASA setting which was set on the camera, not neces-
sarily that which is listed on the film although they should correspond.
(c) Shutter speed--record from cameras that have adjustable shutter
speeds.
(d) F-stop--record f-stop if a manual setting was used.
(e) Lighting conditions--i.e., deep shadow, bright sun, etc.
(2) Exploitation.
(a) Target designator.
(b) Team name and/or photographer.
(c) Date and time of photo.
(d) UTM grid coordinates of photo and/or photographer.
(e) Azimuth direction on which the photo wa s taken.
(f) Brief description of subject matter.
(3) It is suggested that you keep a log of the essential information for
each exposure made. This will help immeasurably during your debriefing. It
is realized that there will be times when it is extremely difficult to record
this information as soon as the picture is taken; howeve r , it should be recorded
as soon as possible thereafter.
71
7.6 PRISONER SNATCHES
a. General.
(1) Introduction. One of the most lucrative sources of intelligence
information is the prisoner of war. Little success has been experienced in
this field in the past, primarily due to one or more of the following factors:
(a)
(b)
not been
required
The prisoner snatch teams have been assigned additional missions.
Teams have not been thoroughly trained in proper techniques and have
trained together long enough to acquire the expertise and cohesiveness
for successful mission accomplishment.
72
(c) There has been a lack of patience toward, and training of, indige-
nous team members.
(d) Team organization has been poor, especially in respect to the number
of personnel assigned to the Prisoner Snatch Teams.
(e) Suitable special equipment required for the prisoner snatch was not
utilized or was utilized incorrectly.
(2) The prisoner snatch mission is one of the most difficult to success-
fully accomplish. The results, however, can be well worth the efforts expended.
From the time of mission initiation until final disposition of the prisoner all
personnel involved must be fully oriented and keenly aware of the importance of
their mission.
(3) Criteria for selection of personnel to man the prisoner snatch team
should include aggressiveness, a strong desire to succeed, a highly professional
attitude and experience. At times, the situation will not permit selection of
perfectly suited team members, however, the preceding listed criteria should be
as closely adhered to as possible when forming prisoner snatch teams.
(4) There should be a minimum of 12 personnel on the snatch team. Experi-
ence has shown that 12 - 15 is ideal, however, under certain conditions, the
mission could be accomplished utilizing as few as 9, or as many as 25 - 30.
The prisoner snatch team should be formed far enough in advance of a mission to
accomplish team and pre-mission training, conduct briefings and briefbacks and
conduct rehearsals over terrain that resembles that in the mission area. Team
members should live, work and train together continually in order to develop
finesse and expertise and to learn the strong points and shortcomings of each
other. Although the situation rarely permits all indigenous or all U.S., teams
should be formed for prisoner snatch. This assures almost one hundred percent
effectiveness of command and control during the few critical moments of the
actual snatch.
b . Ambush.
(1) A successful prisoner snatch is normally the result of a well executed
ambush. There are cases when a mission is planned to make a prisoner snatch,
knowing exactly where the person to be snatched is located. The raid or kidnap
method is utilized during this type of snatch and is rarely programmed in this
organization.
(2) Based on the situation to include weather, terrain, known enemy
strengths and weaknesses in the target area, availability of personnel, time
frame involved, etc., the size of the ambush for the snatch will be deter-
mined. Several will be illustrated here to lend an idea of what could be
utilized in a particular situation. Advantages and disadvantages will be
shown.
(a) Ambush "A" (See illustration) utilizes a l2-man team - 3 US and
9 indigenous personnel. Organization is as follows: security - 8; snatch - 2;
connno - 1; and connnand and control - 1. Equipment listed for ambush "A"
includes 1 PRC-25 radio; 3 HT-l radios; weapons, claymores and grenades as
required; in addition, whatever special equipment is required for the actual
snatch.
(b) Ambush "B
II
(See illustration) utilizes a 9-man team - 3 US and 6
indigenous personnel. Organization is as follows: security - 3; snatch - 2;
assault - 2; connno - 1; and connnand and control - 1. Equipment listed for
ambush "B" includes 1 PRC-25 radio; 2 HT-l radios; weapons, claymores and
grenades as required; in addition, whatever special equipment is required fo r
the actual snatch.
(c) Ambush "c" (See illustration) utilizes a 30-man team - 3 US and
27 indigenous personnel. Organization is as follows: security - 15 ;
snatch - 2; assault - 11; connno - 1; and connnand and control - 1. Equipment
listed for ambush "c" includes 3 PRC-25 radios; 4 HT-l radios; 2 M-60 MGs;
other weapons, claymores and grenades as required. In addition, whatever
special equipment is required for the actual snatch.
(3) Following are advantages and disadvantages of each of the illus-
trated ambushes:
Advantages
~ . Group is small, mobile and
within connnand and control span
capacity of U.S. members.
b. Air support would not be
excessive.
. Group is large enough to
fight, small enough to evade
and exfiltrate quickly.
Ambush
"A"
73
Disadvantages
~ . Relies on area weapons
(Claymore &M-79) to kill
rather than aimed fire.
b . Equipment specified could
be excessive, depending on
terrain and climatic conditions.
Advantages
a. Small size of group is easy
to infil/ exfil.
b. Air support is minimal.
. No span of control problem.
~ . Group is large enough to
fight if contact is made with
hostile force.
b. Force can engage larger
force in effort to obtain
prisoner.
. Expanded or added mission
assignment is feasible.
7 7 COMMENTS
Ambush
"B"
"C"
Disadvantages
~ . Some disadvantage during
firefight because lightly
armed.
b. Plan envisions team
exfil through area pre-
viously occupied by ambush
elements.
a. Group requires large
air support commitment.
k. Difficult to maintain
security due to size of
force.
c. Problem of command and
control.
~ . Large equipment commit-
ment.
a. "Indigenous team personnel must be thoroughly trained in holding
their fire and to follow team leader's instructions implicitly. More success-
ful snatches would have taken place had indigenous members, and in some cases,
US members, not "gunned" prematurely."
b. "Prisoner snatch team members should have an aggressive personality
and be determined to make a prisoner snatch."
c. "Pure prisoner snatch teams should be organized to work, train, live,
operate together and develop expertise. Each mission depends on every indi-
vidual functioning expertly and assisting other members.
d', "Prisoner snatch teams should be assigned the exclusive mission of
prisoner snatch."
e. "Use of recovery helicopters and support aircraft should be well coor-
dinated and in position so as to make the extraction as fast as possible. The
prisoner should be lifted out quickly unless the ground situation dictates
movement to a recovery LZ. The snatch should utilize a harness and drop line
to get the prisoner out of the immediate area."
74
f. "The situation on the ground will dictate the "method" of snatch to
use. During pre-mission training (3-5 days) rehearsals should be conducted
in no less than two methods."
g. "A decision must be made immediately if the prisoner is wounded.
Should he be hospital evacuated or returned to base? Seriousness of wounds
will guide. There should be a team member knowledgeable in first aid."
h. "The ideal situation would be to utilize
indigenous team; reasoning - command and control.
to form a team and train together as a team."
an all U.S. team or an all
Reiterate here the need
i. "Prisoner snatch missions are difficult and dangerous to accomplish.
Prisoners are sometimes bothersome (because of control) for unit leaders.
Therefore, this program must have extensive command emphasis."
7.8 AMBUSH "A". Sets up on a trail where the team leader can observe approxi-
mately 75 meters. The 03 and 05 on the left and right security, will control
claymores in their position. The actual snatch element will consist of the
10, 01 and 02. The 12 (RTO) is adjacent to, but not a part of the snatch ele-
ment. The 10 will control detonation of claymores except those in the 03-05
positions. When the enemy moves along the trail, the 10 will decide if the
group is the appropriate size to ambush (too large a force could result in a
pitched battle which is not desired on this type mission). A prearranged
signal will be given by the 10 to begin the ambush and simultaneously, the 12
will call air assets in order to speed the exfi1tration. After the snatch has
taken place, the command and snatch parties will move through 07 and 11 security
to the 08-09 position. Flank security will activate a 60-second delay fuze on
the claymores and then move between the 07-11 positions to the 08-09 position.
As the last man moves to the 08-09 position, the 07-11 will emplace M-14 mines.
At this time the team will move toward a pre-arranged LZ, or if one has not
been preselected, exfi1tration aircraft will give the team's direction of move-
ment and an LZ of opportunity will be selected for the exfiltration.
7.9 AMBUSH "B". Ambush "B
fI
sets up similarly to Ambush f1A", only in a smaller
zone-approximately 50 meters. This ambush utilizes less flank and rear security,
concentrating directly on the kill zone. Because of the small size of the team,
only a small enemy force can be ambushed, no more than 6-8 men. The 10 will
select the intended prisoner and by pre-arranged signal trigger the. action. As
in Ambush "A", once the action commences, the 12 will alert aircraft in order
to exercise a hasty exfiltration. After the snatch has been made, and again on
signal by the 10, the team will move through the ambush site to a prearranged
check point for a quick evaluation by the 10. Movement will then begin toward
a pre-selected LZ, which should be relatively close to the ambush site. The
10 in Ambush "B" has selected small arms fire as the primary kill means, using
claYmOres only if the terrain is suitable for 100 percent control.
7.10 AMBUSH "C". Utilizing the greatest number of personnel of the three, will
set up on a larger trail area-approximately 200 - 250 meters. A 5-meter no-kill
zone will be adhered to. Enemy elements coming from either direction will be
spotted and reported to the 10 by the trail security elements using PRC-25.
Trail security will also alert M-60 security teams using a wire pull. Once the
enemy has come into and passed through the no-kill zone, the 10 will signal the
start of the ambush and will select person(s) to be snatched. The primary kill
force (assault ~ l e m e n t ) will move through the kill zone and set up temporary
75
AMBUSH "A"
AMBUSH AREA
~
I. ~ M
NO KILL AREA
CLAYMORE MINES (AMBUSH)
CLAYMORE MINES (DELAY)
RT OPERATOR
SNATCH ELEMENT
o SECURITY ELEMENT
i
)
00
03 04
CARolS M79
I ~ 2-3M ~

019 02
CARolS M79
10
~
\
o 0
OS 06
M79 CAR -lS
12 PRC 2S
o
07
CARolS
o
11
CARolS
RTE OF WITHDRAWAL TO LZ
o t 0
08 09
CARolS M79
75A
9 TEAM LEADER
q RT OPERATOR
o SECURnYELEMENT
SNATCH ELEMEl'JT
( CU,'1MORE MINES
TRAIL

\.
,.
o
02
AMBUSH "B"
o CHECK POINT
I
(FINAL COORD PRIOR
TO LZ PICKUP)
RTE OF wnHDRAWAL

TRAIL
0
0

0
-
04 10t
01
11
06
0)

03
12
o
fIItJ 05
756
, TEAM LEADER
2 RT OPERATOR
SNATCH ELEMENT
o ASSAULT ELEMENT
AMBUSH "C"
t RTE OF WITHDRAWAL
TRAIL SCTY
o
O ~
o
o 2/ SCTY 3
o M60 SCTY
O ~
OGI)
12
10 ~ 11
,-
o
~ g SCTY2
QGG
SCTY 1
o
o 0 M60 SCTY
V
o
\og
CLAYMORE MINE.
ELEC DETON
CLAYMORE MINE.
TIME FUSE DETON
TRAIL SCTY
o
~ o g
o SECURITY ELEMENT
~ M60 MG (ARR IND DJR FIRE)

(
TRAIL
TRAIL
j.- SM ~ i== 25M ~
~ 100M ~
7SC
security on the opposite side of the trail. After a predetermined amount of
time (8 - 10 seconds), trail security elements will notify M-60 security they
are moving into the ambush area. Once they have passed through, the M-60
security have reached the ambush site, the assault element will move back
across the area making a hasty search of dead bodies for Maps and/or other
intelligence information. On signal from the 10, all elements will then move
out between security teams number 1 and 3, and pass through security team
Number 2, to a predesignated checkpoint and on to a pre-selected LZ.
76
CHAPTER VIII
FAC/FAG PROCEDURES
This chapter is intended as information of FAC/FAG techniques, and to
provide ground personnel with some understanding of FAC operations during
employment of close air support.
8.1 For any close air support mission to be successful, satisfactory communi-
cations and procedures are essential. Since radios are used for communications,
it is important to possess some knowledge of capabilities and types of radios
possessed by FAC and strike fighter aircraft.
a. Radio Homing. Some aircraft have the capability to home in on a UHF
or FM radio signal, thus providing the ability to locate a transmitting radio
either on the ground or in the air. UHF/DF bearing information is presented
to the pilot by a pointer which indicates a magnetic heading to the transmitter
during the time it is sending a signal. FM homing is accomplished by the pilot
switching to the home position. When the station to be homed into transmits,
a code D or U signal or a steady on course tone is heard by pilots. When a
D signal is received the pilot turns the A/C left to head toward the station.
If a U is received a turn to the right is made until a steady tone is received.
The heading at which the steady tone is received is the no wind magnetic heading
to the station. For either UHF/DF or FM homing the transmitting station should
transmit for at least 30 seconds to provide adequate signal. It should be noted
that any voice transmission by the sending station will not be readable during
DF/homing operations.
b. Types of Radios Used by FAC and Strike Aircraft.
(1) FAC A/C; 0-1, 0-2, OV-lO have:
(a) FM and FM homing.
(b) VHF.
(c) UHF.
(2) Strike aircraft:
(a) F-l05, F-lOO, F-4, F-5, and AT-37 have UHF/DF.
(b) A-lIs have VHF, FM, and UHF/DF.
c. Radio Voice CRT) Procedures. Detailed discussion of conversations
between ground and A/C will be discussed later; however, it is appropriate at
this point to emphasize the RT brevity and the use of standard phraseology
which pilots understand is vital. Radio voice transmissions are better under-
stood when spoken soft and slow. Loud and rapid speech causes over modulation.
Once the FAG has established initial contact with either the FAC or strike
77
aircraft he need no longer preface each transmission with the A/C call sign
and the FAG call sign, unless other mission A/C are working the same frequency
(i.e., Bear Cat II this is Lion over). The pilot already knows Lion and the
sound of his voice. The important thing is for the FAG to press on with his
message or target description. The time factor is vital, particularly where
jet fighters are employed as time available on station is critical.
d. Radio Antennas. In addition to power output of a radio limiting
transmission distance, antenna position and use are limiting factors. The
PRC-25 FM radio is normally used with a flexible antenna thus producing an
omni directional signal; however, if it happens to be stiff and up right its
primary signal strength will be perpendicular to antenna axis thus producing
a cone of silence over the end of the antenna. This cone of silence is par-
ticularly severe with the antenna of the URT-lO hand held radio. The URT-lO
antenna should never be pointed at an aircraft with which contact is being
attempted. Extreme care of the URT-lO antenna should be taken. If the antennl
is broken or bent the set becomes useless. As a result antenna stowage should
be accomplished immediately after its use. This will also increase battery
life as the set is shut down when the antenna is in stowed position. Another
item of importance in jungle radio operations is for the operator to attempt
to be located in a clearing or on high ground; however, it is recognized that
this is not practical when concealment is a must. The jungle canopy, particu-
larly when wet, will sap a major portion of the transmitted signal. At times
this is so severe that unacceptable range is obtained. One last word about
reception distances is that both the FM and UHF transmission/reception distancl
are basically line of sight.
8.2 For a close air support mission to be a success, team work between the
FAG, FAC and strike aircraft is essential. This is particularly important in
jungle operations since the FAC more than likely will not have the enemy in
sight. Thus it becomes the responsibility of the FAG to verbally lead the
FAC to the target. After the FAC has positively located the target it then
becomes his responsibility to direct the strike A/C into the target area and
aid the fighters in locating the target. The FAC will normally mark the targel
with either a smoke rocket (RX) or a Willy Pete RX. After the fighters have
located the target and friendlies, they take over and effect the strike. At
this point the FAC has additional responsibility of staying out of the fighter l
way, adjusting ordnance and keeping the friendlies from being struck. During
the entire strike operation the FAC is the Tactical Air Commander. He has
the responsibility and authority to expend ordnance or not to expend. The
FAC must clear each fighter for each pass and the pilot of the strike aircraft
must acknowledge that he has the friendlies and target in sight. The entire
operation can be broken down basically into the following phases.
a. Strike Request. The ground commander initiates the close air support
request by providing the FAC with the type of target, TGT coordinates, 10catioE
of friendlies, urgency of request. The FAC then contacts the Airborne Battle-
field Command and Control Center (ABCCC) aircraft. ABCCC coordinates with the
AF Command Post and determines if airborne assets are to be diverted or ground
alert assets will be used. ABCCC then informs the FAC of the strike A/C ETA.
78
b. Target Acquisition. During or before the FAC passes the air request,
he is attempting to locate the target. In most cases the FAG plays an impor-
tant role in the FAC locating the target. Generally, the FAC A/C will have
the capability to locate the team thru FM homing. After the FAC has located
the team position the target can be acquired by referencing its location in
azimuth and distance from the friendly position. If for some reason the FAC
cannot home in to the team location and the team is unable to mark its position
for security reasons, then the FAG must verbally lead the FAC to the TGT loca-
tion. This procedure is the same as that which the FAC will employ in direct-
ing the fighter to the target. This technique will be covered later.
c. Rendezvous Point/Orbit Point. The strike aircraft will usually
receive the target coordinates from an airborne command post, or from the
DASC. The flight will normally be told that the target or orbit point is off
a given TACAN station, with a DME (distance) and radial (azimuth). When sub-
mitting air requests for air strikes, the FAC or FAG should indicate an orbit
point. Selection of the orbit point is extremely important to mission success.
The use of an orbit point is also important even if an airborne FAC will be
controlling the strike on a target located by the FAG. The orbit point selec-
tion should be one located so that the controller can see the aircraft when in
orbit. The most important item in selection of orbit point; however, is that
it be easily located from the air. Examples of orbit point selections, moun-
tain peak, stream junctions, road crossings, streams and trails crossing roads.
It must be kept in mind that what seems to be large distances to the ground
observer, appear very short from the air. The second requirement in selection
of orbit point is that identifiable features, lead from orbit to target and
the leading features can be seen from airborne orbit point. If the orbit point
selection satisfies stated requirements, then it becomes relatively easy to
verbally lead aircraft to the target.
d. Target Description. If possible, it is desirable to establish contact
with the aircraft prior to arriving at the orbit point, thus saving valuable
time when A/c arrives at orbit point. An additional value with this is the
orbit point may have to be described. After establishing initial contact, and
the pilot indicates he understands the orbit point, it should be established
how much time on station the aircraft has available. By getting time available
on station the FAC, or FAG will be able to determine which targets he wants
struck first, if available time is short. The controller should provide strike
A/c as much of the following information as possible.
(1) Type of target, i.e., trucks dispersed under trees, or four 37-mm
guns in camouflaged revetments.
(2) Location of enemy defenses around the target area. This may be done
by referencing cardinal directions and distances. Example, two 37-mm guns,
500 meters north of target, five 50 calibers, 200 meters southeast of the target.
(3) Location of friendlies, or FAG's from the target by direction and
distance.
(4) Whether friendly positions will be marked. Where control team security
is important, marking its position is impractical. When marking is done, it
is important that team not identify type of marking. Let the pilot identify it.
79
Example: Teams states releasing smoke. Pilot states "Roger, I have red
smoke," or, "I have two rectangular red panels 10 meters apart lining east
to west." Again, above all, don't identify color of smoke or panels.
(5) Target elevation and limiting terrain features. These two items
are not absolutely necessary and may be omitted if time, and/or communica-
tions are difficult.
(6) After the above information has been passed to the orbiting air-
craft the controller then commences the procedures of leading the A/C to the
target. This may be done by directing the A/C, or pilots attention from one
successive terrain feature to another from orbit point to target. "I n the case
of the FAC aircraft he may procede to the orbit point then have the fighters
follow him in to the target and then mark it with a rocket.
e. Control of Aircraft Headings. Another method of directing the air-
craft to the target is by controlling the direction of flight of the aircraft
and referencing the target location thru clock position to the aircraft. The
clock reference system can best be described by picturing a clock face. The
nose of the aircraft is at the 12 o'clock position, tail of aircraft, the
6 o'clock position. The left wing tip is the 9 o'clock position, while the
right wing tip is referenced to 3 o'clock. Thus it may be seen that all clock
points are referenced to the horizontal plane with the pilot being in the center
axis.
1Z
9
6
3
The reference of point locations out along these horizontal lines may be done
in meters; however, distance is not accurate nor meaningful to a pilot. Another
method of direction may be done by stating that a location is low, or level to
the referenced clock position. This referencing is based on a vertical line
running through the pilot. The top of his head is called "high" while "low" is
the bottom position. Level may be pictured by visualizing a horizontal line
bisecting at 90 degrees angle, the vertical line running thru the pilots body
and aircraft. Example: A target is located 500 meters at 9 o'clock to an air-
craft. This could be described to the pilot as being 9 o'clock low. Let us
assume that the pilot then goes into a left bank so that the wing tip is approxi-
mately pointed at the target. Target descriptive location now becomes 9 o'clock
level. It should be remembered by ground guides, that you have to estimate tar-
get distances from the aircraft. Precise distance statements are rather mean-
ingless. The use of terminology such as north from aircraft position is not
appropriate. It is extremely difficult for a pilot to maintain his directional
80
orientation while maneuvering close to the ground, therefore, the clock refer-
ence system is preferred. It is appropriate; however, to reference a location
from identified point (feature) in degrees of azimuth.
f. Recommended Direction of Attack. This item is stated as being needed
in AFM 3-5, Special Air Warfare Tactics. Unless the guide is a qualified
fighter pilot, he does not possess the knowledge to make this recommendation.
As the flight checks in and arrives at the orbit point, the FAG should keep his
description in general terms. The passing of information should be done in
short statement passing only one or two items at a time. When the flight arrives
on station, they are primarily concerned with getting the big picture. Follow-
ing the generalized target description, the flight is then ready to receive
detailed description of identifying features leading into the target. If the
orbit point is some distance from target, it may be necessary to have the flight
proceed along, or to the first identifying feature. Just before arriving at
this point, tell him what the next point looks like. The flight leader will
seldom repeat your instructions. If he does not understand, he probably will
state "say again" or "repeat." An additional means of helping the flight leader
locate target you may have him depart the orbit point on a given heading. As
you pick up the aircraft in your field of vision, give him turns as necessary
to have him arrive over the target, how many degrees of turn, and direction
wanted, Le., "Banjo 90 left now," or, "left turn now." If you see the A/c
is over shooting your desired point, tell him to tighten it up, or conversely
ease off. To have the A/c stop the turn, merely state, "rollout."
g. Delivery tactics and methods employed by strike aircraft, as related
to type of weapons delivered. When targets are located in tall trees, you can
expect the aircraft to use steep dive angles 45 to 60 degrees. The reason for
this is obvious, as the target becomes easier to see. When targets are in
relatively open areas, shallower dive angles are preferred as it allows the
pilot to drive in closer, so that he may be more accurate. When you see deli-
veries made from steep angles you can expect ordnance to be released high. The
reasons for this is that it takes a considerable amount of altitude to pullout
and escape weapon blast. Types of patterns flown will depend on whether ground
fire is being received. Where ground fire is a factor, the attack will usually
be made with the aircraft rolling into attack from several directions at the same
time. Follow on passes will be continued from random directions. When ground
fire is not a factor, strike patterns will be rectangular, i.e., all attack
runs are made in the same direction with pull off's in same direction. This
type of pattern makes it easier for flight members to keep each other in sight
and allows time to look at target. This rectangular pattern also makes it
easier for the FAC to keep out of the fighters way and allows him to keep them
all in sight.
h. Methods of making corrections. When the FAC/FAG offers corrections to
bring ordnance on target, he should reference the direction and distance to
target from last impact. Example, "No.2, target is 200 meters northwest." Don't
say, "Lead, your bomb is 200 meters southeast of target," as it is the next man
who needs the information as soon as possible, not the man pulling off target.
Thus, all corrections should be addressed to the next man making a delivery.
8.3 GEMS OF GENERAL INFORMATION AND TERMS
a. It should be understood that considerable difference exists between jet
and propeller driven fighter aircraft. The fighter aircraft cannot slow down
81
while heavily loaded in the target area. They are capable of slowing down;
however, in so doing, they are sacrificing aircraft control. One would think
that by slowing down they would be able to turn shorter. This is not the case,
however. Thus, by slowing down, the pilot must divert his attention from target
acquisition to maintaining aircraft control. In general, the jet aircraft turn
radius will run from one and a half to 2 miles in radius. The air speed of the
propeller driven aircraft is much slower and the wing loading is not as high,
thus, he has the ability to turn tighter radius and thus has the ability to
locate a target easier.
b. Hold high and dry--term used by FAC and FAG to stop an attack and keep
the aircraft at altitude.
c. Break it off--emergency call to stop ordnance delivery.
d. Go dry--make your pass without firing or releasing ordnance.
e. Use of clock positions to describe hits in relation to target.
(1) 6 o'clock means hit short of target.
(2) 12 o'clock means hit long in relation to target.
(3) 9 o'clock means hit is to the left of target.
(4) 3 o'clock means hit is right of target.
The above positions are based on the direction from which the delivery was made.
8.4 ARMED HELICOPTER ARMAMENT. The following packages can be used on UH-1B and
C armed helicopters.
a. XM-3. This kit consists of one 2.75 inch folding fin aerial rocket (FFAR)
mounted externally on each side of the helicopter. Each launcher has a 24 rocket
capacity.
b. M-5. The M-5 kit is a 40-mrn antipersonnel gun contained in a nose-mounted
turret. Relative to the helicopter, this gun can be positioned 60
0
to either
side, 13
0
in elevation, and 60
0
depression. The capacity of the system is 150
rounds. Rate of fire is 220-240 rounds per minute. The maximum range is 1200
meters.
c. M-6. This kit consists on two M-60C machine guns mounted on each side
of the helicopter. The guns can be moved 82
0
in traverse, 75
0
in elevation, and
66
0
in depression (relative to the helicopter). The rate of fire is 550 rounds
per minute. The maximum range is 3200 meters.
d. XM-14. The XM-14 utilizes one .50 caliber machine gun in a pod on
each side of the helicopter. The maximum capacity of the system is 1500 rounds.
The rate of fire is 1200 rounds per minute.
82
r
f. XM-21. This is the same as the XM-16
t
except that one 7.62-mm minigun
is used on each side instead of the M-6. The rate of fire of this gun is 2000
rounds per minute. Total capacity is the same as for the XM-16.
a. XM-28 Dual Gun Turret. This turret is mounted under the fuselage of
the helicopter. All other systems are mounted under the wings. The turret can
mount two GAU-2B/A miniguns (8000 rds 7.62-mm)t two XM-129 grenade launchers
(600 rds 40-mm)t or one GAU-2B/A and one XM-129 (4000 rds 7.62-mm and 300 rds
40-mm respectively). The turret can move 230
0
in azimuth
t
15
0
- 25
0
in eleva-
tion
t
and 50
0
in depression.
The following kits are available for use on the
7 tube 2.75 inch FFAR pod. XM-157. b.
8.5 THE AH-1G (HUEY COBRA).
AH-1G.
[ e. XM-16. This kit is the M-6 with a 7-tube 2.75 inch FFAR launcher ,
r, . mounted below each set of machineguns. The total capacity of this configura-
tion is 14 rockets and 6000 rounds of 7.62-mm.
t
~
,
I
i
l
l
!
[
f
~
,
c. XM-159. 19 tube 2.75 inch FFAR pod.
d. XM-18. 1500 rounds 7. 62-mm minigun pod.
(1) 1 XM-28 (4000 rds 7.62-mm
t
300 rds 40-mm). This is included in all of
the below.
(2) 2 XM-159 (4000 rds 7. 62-mm
t
300 rds 40-mm
t
14 2.75 inch FFAR).
(3) 2 XM-18 (7000 rds 7.26-mm, 300 rds 40-mm).
(4) 2 XM-159 (4000 rds 7. 62-mm
t
300 rds 40-mm, 38 2.75 inch FFAR).
(5) 2 XM-157
t
2 XM-18 (7000 rds 7. 62-mm, 300 rds 40-mm
t
14 2.75 inch FFAR).
(6) 2 XM-159, 2 XM-18 (7000 rds 7. 62-mm
t
300 rds 40-mm, 38 2.75 inch FFAR).
(7) 2 XM-157
t
2 XM-159 (400 rds 7.62-mm, 300 rds 40-mm
t
52 2.75 inch FFAR).
(8) 4 XM-159 (6000 rds 7.62-mm, 76 2.75 inch FFAR).
(9) All configurations include 12 smoke grenades mounted in chutes in the
rear of the fuselage.
8.6 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
a. Radio AN/PRC-25. This radio set is a short range
t
man pack portable, FM
t
receiver/transmitter used to provide two-way voice communications.
(1) Technical Characteristics.
(a) Frequency range--Lowband 30,000 to 52.95 MC High band 53.00 to 75.95 MC.
83
(b) No. of channels--920.
(c) Channel spacing--50 KC .
(d) Voice operated.
(e) Requency modulated (FM) .
(f) Transmitter output 1. 5--2d watts.
(g) Range--5 miles or 8 km.
(h) Antennas: Short AT-892, 3 ft. steel tape; long AT-271A 10 ft. 6 sec-
tion whip antenna.
(i) Power source--BA 386.
(j) Battery life--20 hrs. (9 to 1, receive and transmit ratio).
(2) The RT 505/PRC-25 consists of the RT, the RT case and battery box
CY-2652 PRC 25.
(a) Minor parts: Long and short antenna, antenna support AB-59l Harness
ST-138, bag, cotton, handset H-138/U (push talk).
(3) Operating Procedure.
(a) Set the function switch on ON.
(b) Set the band switch at 30-52 or 53-75 depending on the channel used.
(c) Turn the MC tuning and KC controls so that the desired channels show in
the channel dial.
(d) Set the volume control at 4: readjust for desired sound level in the
H-138/U.
(e) To eliminate the rushing noise when no signal is being received, set
the function switch at squelch.
(f) Transmit'as follows.
1. Press the push-to-talk on the H-138/U.
2. Speak into the H-138/U.
(g) To receive, release the push-to-talk switch on the H-138/U.
b. Radio AN/URC-IO. The URC-IO is a small compact emergency transmitter-
receiver with a preset frequency reserved for air-sea rescue. The radio set is
designed to operate under emergency conditions. It is carried by an RT for use
in emergency ~ t u a t i o n s when all other radio communications fail. The transmitter
also emits a ton-beacon signal for homing use.
84
--
(1) Characteristics.
(a) VHF.
(b) Ground to air.
(c) Limited distance in a ground to ground role.
(d) One (1) present frequency--243 MC.
(2) Operating procedures.
(a) To place in operation, pull the antenna out completely until brass
ring is visible.
(b) To transmit by voice mode push transmit lever, talk normally, but
close to speak/microphone.
(c) To transmit by tones mode, push tone button from top. Push down to
stop.
(d) To transmit and monitor tone, push transmit lever and hold and then
push tone button down to stop.
(e) Always ensure tone button is fully up (OFF) after using tone trans-
mission.
(f) Hold radio so that antenna points up and perpendicular to the ground.
(g) Attempt to have a clear path between radio set and the aircraft.
(h) To take radio out of operation depress antenna into body of set.
c. Radio HT-l. The HT-l radio is a handheld transceiver that receives
AM signals in the 30-40 range. Operating range is approximately 1 mile.
(1) Functional description. The transceiver is designed for operation
from selfcontained batteries providing 12 volts DC or an external 12 volt DC
supply (such as a storage battery for extended periods of time).
(2) Physical characteristics.
(a) Compact, light weight: 11 1/2 by 2 3/4 in sq--weight 4 1/2 pounds.
(b) Sealed to prevent moisture.
(c) No external connections necessary for normal field operation.
(d) Telescoping antenna on side (74 inches).
(3) Transmitter characteristics.
(a) AM voice.
85
(b) 0.5 watts.
(c) 30 to 40 MC.
(d) 1 channel (crystal controlled).
(e) Range approximately 1 mile.
(4) Receiver characteristics.
(a) Superheterodyne.
(b) Frequency range 30-40 MC.
(c) 1 channel (crystal controlled).
(d) Squelch (adjustable).
(5) Operating procedure.
(a) Extend the telescoping antenna to its full length.
(b) Place the off-on/volume control in the n position.
(c) Adjust volume control for desired audio level.
(d) Adjust sguelch control.
(e) To transmit, press the push-to-talk button on the side of the case
and speak into the microphone/speaker.
(f) To receive, release the push-to-talk button.
(g) To receive by using the earphones, the earphone ~ l u g is inserted into
ext phone jack.
(h) To take the set out of operation, turn the on-off/volume switch to the
off position.
86
d. Expedient antenna. Almost any conductive material can be used to
construct an emergency antenna, for example, wire fences, cleaning rods, etc.
One excellent material available to all recon teams is claymore wire. In con-
structing expedient antennas the following formulas are used for computing
length of the radiating element:
f = frequency in megacycles
answer is antenna length in feet
234
1/4 wave = f
468
1/2 wave = f
936
full wave = f
The type antenna constructed depends on the terrain, the time and materials
available for construction, and the frequency of the radio. The result of
research in Thailand, conducted over a four-year period, shows that a hori-
zontally oriented antenna is best for use in dense jungle.
(1) Jungle antenna. The jungle antenna is a field expedient version of
the issue antenna RC-292. It is omni-directional. It is not practical for
frequencies under 20 megacycles. The antenna can be pre-cut and wired together,
then rolled up and carried in a rucksack until time for use. The three ground
plane elements should be at 45 degrees from the vertical and must be grounded to
the radio set.
87
(2) Slant-wire antenna. This antenna is for frequencies below 20 MC.
It radiates both a sky wave and a ground wave. It is for long distance com-
munications and therefore relatively static situations.
K t ~ - - - - - ~
88
(3) Vertical doublet. Total length is 1/2 wave, 1/4 wave each element.
Lead-in is twisted pair (WD-l/TT) or coaxial cable. In jungle areas an advan-
tage can be obtained by getting the antenna above trees. The additional
height is very important in line of sight communications. The length makes
it impractical for use with frequencies below 20 Me. It is omni-directional.
(4) Vertical 1/4 wave antenna (whip). This is the antenna in its simplest
form. Transmission is omni-directional. Simple construction makes it practical
for patrols. Limitations: Availability of overhead support. If support is not
high enough, bend as in "B."
89
(5) Thirty meter antenna.
quencies between 20 and 80 MC.
overhead support.
This antenna is suitable for use with fre-
It is especially practical where there is no
~ - - - - - 30 Meters ---->I
90
A
B
91
CHAPTER IX
EMPLOYMENT OF ARTILLERY
9.1 In some cases RTs will be within range of supporting artillery. Artillery
is a powerful, all-weather, day and night source of fire support. It is incum-
bent upon every RT member to know how to request and adjust fire.
9.2 MAXIMUM RANGES. The following maximum ranges are listed only to give an
idea of the capabilities of various types of artillery. To determine the exact
ability of artillery to support an RT operation, the RT leader should consult
with the FOB S-3. Each FOB maintains a list of fire support bases and range
capability fans for each.
a. 105-mm howitzer (M102) - 11,500 meters.
b. 155-mm howitzer (all) - 14,600 meters.
c. 8-inch howitzer (all) - 16,800 meters.
d. 175-mm gun - 32,700 meters.
9.3 REQUEST FOR FIRE. The following elements of the initial fire request must
be committed to memory in the sequence given. There are other elements, e.g.,
type fuze action desired, type projectile, etc., but they are not required. The
RT leader can depend on the artillery S-3 to select the proper fuze and projectile
a. Observer Identification. This is the radio call sign of the team.
b. Warning Order. Always, "Fire Mission." This alerts the artillery unit
to begin preparing for a mission.
c. Target Location and OT Azimuth. There are three methods of target loca-
tion. In all three of them, there is a common element, that being the azimuth
(to the nearest 10 mils) from the observer to the target.
(1) Polar Plot. In this method, the observer gives the direction and dis-
tance from his position to the target, e.g., direction 1620, distance 2000.
Obviously, in this method the artillery unit must know the observer's exact loca-
tion. This is a situation which is unlikely in RT work, therefore, this method
is not generally recommended.
(2) Shift from a known point. In this method both the artillery and the
observer must know the exact location of a predetermined point in the vicinity
of the target. Since this situation is also unlikely in RT operations, the method
is not recommended. It is offered here for reference. The observer first gives
the known point, e.g., from target MF 698, then the OT azimuth, e.g., direction
0300, the lateral shift (if any) from the known point to the target, e.g., left
(right) 200, the range shift (if any), e.g., add (drop) 1000, and the vertical
shift, e.g., ~ (down) 20. If there is no shift in a particular dimension, that
element is omitted. Lateral and vertical shifts are computed as in para 9.
92
r
,
, (3)
two can,
location
consists
it. For
Grid coordinates. This method can be used any time that the first
and it requires no prior plotting by the artillery of the observer's
or of a known point . Therefore , it is the recommended method. It
simply of sending the coordinates of the target and the direction to
example, grid 439069, direction 6320.
(4) Poor visibility, unreliable maps, deceptive terrain, or rapid move-
ment through unfamiliar terrain may make it difficult for the observer to remain
continuously oriented, yet he may need fire on short notice. In this case, he
may request mark center of sector in lieu of any other target location. In this
case, the artillery will fire a round into the center of the target area. The
observer will then give an azimuth to the target and shift the round as described
in 9.3.
(5) It should be remembered that time should not be wasted in trying to
over-refine initial target location when the team is being pressed by the enemy;
the important thing .is to get rounds on the ground quickly and then move them.
However, if the team has a lucrative target which is unaware of the team's pre-
sence in the area, then as accurate an initial location as possible should be
obtained (possibly by using techniques of intersection).
d. Description of Target. Describe the target briefly but in sufficient
detail to enable the S-3 to determine the best manner of attack.
e. Control. There are four possible methods of control.
(1) Adjust fire. This is the most common. It means that the observer thinks
he will probably have to adjust the initial round.
(2) Fire for effect, means that the target is located sufficiently accu-
rately that no adjustment will be necessary. This is preferred because of its
surprise value.
(3) At my command, means that the observer wishes to control the time of
delivery of fire. It can be used in conjunction with (1) or (2). If it is not
given, the artillery will fire when ready. At My Command remains in effect until
Cancel At My Command is given.
(4) Cannot observe. The observer cannot see to adjust but believes a tar-
get exists at the given location.
9.4 ADJUSTING FIRE
a. The WORM Formula. Lateral or vertical distance from one point to another
can be computed by measuring the angle in mils between the two points and multi-
plying the angle by the distance in thousands of meters to the known point. In
formula form, W=Rn. For example, if the angle between two points is 70 mils, and
93
the distance to the known point is 2000 meters, then the lateral distance
is 2 X 70 = 140 meters. If angle measuring instruments are not available,
angles can be measured by holding the hand at a fixed distance from the eye,
as below.
b. Lateral Corrections. The common application of the mil relationship
in adjusting fire is to determine the lateral correction required to move the
impact of rounds to the target. For example, if the observed angle between
the target and the strike of the initial rounds is 100 mils and the estimated
observer - target distance is 1500 meters, then the correction sent to the
artillery is right (left) 150 (i.e., 1.5 X 100 = 150).
c. Range Corrections. Always try to bracket the target for range, if
possible. Make the initial correction a bold one (usually 400 meters); do
not be timid. For example, if your initial rounds are short, then your correc-
tions might be add 400. If this gives you the next rounds over, then command
drop 200, i.e., split the initial bracket. If your next rounds are short,
command add 100; if they are still over, command drop 100. If you are employing
heavy artillery (i.e., 8 inch or 175-mm). also command fire for effect when you
are within 100 meters. For 155-mm and below command fire for effect when you
are within 50 meters, e.g., you split a one hundred meter bracket.
d. Usually artillery units in RVN will fire smoke rounds in adjustment
to minimize friendly casualties in the event of an error, or if the accuracy
of target location is uncertain.
e. Often adjustment in the jungle will have to be by sound. In this case,
tell the artillery that you must do this. The need for bold corrections is
especially great here.
f. Corrections can also be made for vertical errors but this is rare and
will not be covered here.
9.5 EXAMPLE MISSION. The sequence of the initial fire request and of adjust-
ments must be memorized.
94
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a. Initial Fire Reguest.
ELEMENT
Observer Identification
Warning Order
Target Location
Description of Target
Control
EXAMPLE
RAT THIS IS PIG
FIRE MISSION
GRID 690148 DIRECTION 0450
10 TRUCKS PARKED
ADJUST FIRE
b. Adjusting Fire. The observer estimates the distance to this target
to be 1500 meters.
(1) The first volley lands to the right and short of the target. The
observer measures the angle to be 80 mils. The command is left 120, add 400.
(2) The next volley is on line but over the target. The command is drop
200.
(3) The next volley is left 20 mils and still over. The command is right
30 drop 100 fire for effect.
(4)
required.
The artillery fires for effect, but the observer thinks that more is
He commands, repeat fire for effect.
(5) When the observer is satisfied with the results he calls end of mission
and gives results, e.g., 8 trucks destroyed.
95
CRAPIER X
FOREIGN WEAPONS
The following pages cover weapons which an RT is likely to be issued or
to encounter in the field.
10.1 CARBINE, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm Carbine (SKS). The Soviet 7.62-mm Carbine Model SKS is a
limited standard infantry weapon which has been replaced in the Soviet Army by
the AK-47 Assault Rifle. It is a gas-operated weapon chambered for the Model
43 intermediate cartridge. Although classified as a carbine by the Soviets, it
qualified as a rifle by U.S. standards. The present production model is fitted
with a permanently attached folding knife-type bayonet. The SKS is a relatively
simple, well-constructed weapon, having two unusual features. First, the maga-
zine is not detachable. When the magazine latch is moved to the rear, the maga-
zine pivots down toward the front through an angle of approximately 30 degrees
so that the cartridges can be removed without working them through the chamber.
Second, the folding bayonet is permanently attached to the rifle by a large rivet .
The rear sight is graduated from 100 to 1,000 meters in 100 meter increments,
there is a battle sight elevation setting for 350 meters, indicated by the
letter "D" on the sight leaf. This weapon is manufactured by the CHICOM as the
Type 56.
b. Functioning. This is a gas-operated, semi-automatic weapon. With the
magazine loaded, a round is chambered by drawing the bolt handle to the rear and
releasing it. When the trigger is pulled, the trigger arm is pulled forward and
pulls the sear forward out of engagement with the hammer. The hammer rotates
under the impulse of the hammer spring and strikes the firing pin. As the hammer
rotates, the hammer heel lowers the forward end of the disconnector and the for-
ward end of the trigger arm. The trigger arm is disengaged from the sear and
the sear returns to the rear position. The firing pin strikes the primer.
After the bullet passes the gas port in the barrel, the gasses, entering the gas
cylinder, exert pressure on the piston and the bolt carrier is moved to the rear
by the piston rod. The bolt carrier moving to the rear raises the rear of the
bolt which disengages the bolt locking surface from the receiver lug, and brings
the bolt to the rear. Extraction and ejection of the case takes place at this
time. The rearward movement of the bolt cocks the hammer, and the sear under
the action of the sear spring is positioned under the hammer cock notch. The
bolt having reached its rearmost position compresses the recoil spring and the
piston and piston rod return to the forward position under the action of the
piston. rod spring. The bolt moves forward, the bolt carrier lowers the rear of
the bolt as it approaches the breech, and the bolt locking surface is positioned
in front of the receiver locking lug. The bolt, in lowering, has depresses the
protruding front end of the disconnector. The hammer is thus disengaged from
the disconnector and is held in the cocked position by the sear. The bolt, in
completing its forward movement, strips a round from the magazine and chambers
it. The trigger must be released before it can be pulled to fire the next
round.
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c. Characteristic Data.
Caliber
Operation
Type of fire
Rate of fire
Type of feed
Weight, empty
Overall length
Effective range
Muzzle velocity
d. Field Strip Procedure.
7.62-mm (M43 ctdg)
Gas
Semi-auto only
30 rpm
Fixed box - 10 rd cap
8.2 lbs
40.16 in
470 meters
2,411 fps
(1) With the weapon empty and the magazine unloaded, swing the safety
down to "Off."
(2) Rotate the cover retaining pin upward as far as it will go.
(3) Push in slightly on the receiver cover and pull the cover retaining
pin to the right as far as it will go. Remove the cover from the receiver.
(4) Remove the recoil spring assembly from the bolt carrier.
(5) Pull back on the bolt handle, sliding the bolt carrier and bolt to
the rear.
(6) Lift the assembled bolt carrier and bolt from the receiver and remove
the bolt from the bolt carrier.
e. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order. Assemble bolt to
bolt carrier, place in receiver, engaging with bolt handle and slide forward.
Assemble recoil spring assembly into rear of bolt carrier. Place receiver cover
onto receiver, push forward slightly and push cover retaining pin through the
receiver to the left. Turn the receiver cover pin down.
f. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Push the safety lever up. Pull back on bolt handle; bolt
and bolt carrier will be held to the rear by the bolt-hold-open device. Place
one end of the 10-round charger into the charger guide which is machined into
the top forward edge of the bolt carrier. Push down on the cartridges until all
the cartridges are loaded into the magazine. Remove the empty charger. Pull
back slightly on the bolt handle and release it. Bolt carrier will now move
forward and chamber a round.
(2) To fire: Push safety to "Off." Pull the trigger; weapon will fire
for each pull of the trigger until the magazine is empty.
98
r
10.2 RIFLE, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm AK (KALASHNIKOV). The Soviet 7. 62-mm AK Assault Rifle is a
gas-operated, selective fire weapon which is chambered for the Soviet Ml943
cartridge. Classed as an assault rifle rather than a submachine gun, it fires
a rifle-type intermediate round. It is much more accurate than true submachine
guns such as the Sten, Uzi, U.S. M3Al, MAT-49 , etc., which fire pistol ammuni-
tion. This is an extremely well made weapon, being constructed almost completely
of machined components rather than stampings and is produced in two versions,
one with a wooden stock, the other with a folding metal stock. A modification
of this weapon, which incorporates a longer barrel, bipod, and drum type magazine
into its design, is replacing the RPD light machine gun. The barrel on all the
AK models and modifications is chrome lined and locking is accomplished by a
rotating bolt. The Chinese Communist production model of this weapon is designa-
ted the Type 56.
b. Functioning. The AK Assault Rifle is a magazine fed weapon, which
fires from a closed bolt position utilizing a rotating bolt locking system.
The safety/select lever is located on the right side of the receiver above the
trigger guard. With this lever in its uppermost position, the weapon is on
"safe;" with the lever halfway down, the weapon is set for full-automatic fire;
with the lever fully down, the weapon is set for semi-automatic fire. With a
loaded magazine in place, the bolt handle is drawn to the rear drawing the bolt
carrier and piston with the attached bolt to the rear, overriding and cocking the
hammer and compressing the recoil spring. When the bolt handle is released, the
bolt carrier and bolt move forward; the face of the bolt strips a round from the
magazine and chambers it. The face of the bolt strikes the rear face of the
barrel and its forward movement is stopped; the bolt carrier continues forward,
and cam surfaces in the bolt carrier acting on lugs on the bolt, rotate the bolt
to the right, locking lugs on the head of the bolt engage locking recesses in the
receiver and the hammer is ready to be released. If the select lever is set for
semi-automatic fire when the trigger is pulled, the semi-automatic sear and discon-
nector pivot, the hammer is released striking the firing pin, which in turn strikes
the primer. Gas is tapped from the barrel into the gas cylinder to impinge against
the piston. The piston and bolt carrier move to the rear; the cams in the carrier
rotate the bolt to unlocked position, and the carrier and bolt continue to the
rear pivoting the hammer rearward where it is engaged by the disconnector and
held to the rear. The trigger must be pulled for each shot. If set for full-
automatic, a full-automatic disconnector on the bolt carrier strikes the full-
automatic sear, rotating it to release the hammer and the hammer pivots forward
to strike the firing pin. The firing cycle continues until the trigger is
released or the magazine is empty. There is no bolt hold-open device on this
weapon; when the magazine is empty, the bolt will be in the closed position.
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c. Characteristic Data.
Caliber
Operation
Type of Fire
Rate of Fire
Type of Feed
Weight, empty
Overall length
Effective range
Muzzle velocity
d. Field Strip Procedure.
7.62-mm (M43 ctdge)
Gas
Full and semi-auto
600 rpm (Practical 225)
Box - 30 rd cap
10.6lbs
34.2 in
470 meters
2,342 fps
(1) Push in on the recoil spring guide which protrudes from the rear of
the receiver.
(la) At the same time the recoil spring gUide is pushed in, raise up on
the receiver cover and remove it from the receiver.
(2) Push the recoil spring guide in as far as it will go and lift it up
and out of the receiver with the recoil spring.
(3) Slide the bolt carrier, bolt and piston rearward until they can be
lifted up and out of the receiver.
(4) Turn the bolt head until the lugs on the bolt align with the cam
grooves in the carrier; slide the bolt rearward until it disengages, and then
slide it forward and out of the bolt carrier.
(5) Pivot the handguard lock up.
(6) Disengage the handguard from the receiver and lift it up and off of
the barrel.
e. Assembly Procedure. Assemble in the reverse order. Slide handguard
into position and pivot the handguard lock down to engage. Assemble the bolt
to the bolt carrier and slide the assembled bolt and carrier into the receiver.
Slide the recoil spring and recoil spring guide into the rear of the bolt carrier;
push forward until the rear of the guide clears the rear of the receiver, and
push down to engage the rear of the receiver. Slide the receiver cover into
place; push in on the recoil spring guide, and push the receiver cover down to
lock.
f. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Insert a loaded magazine. Push safety lever on right side
of receiver up to "safe." Draw the bolt handle to the rear and release it.
The bolt will move forward and chamber a round.
(2) To fire: Push safety lever to type of fire desired. Pull the trigger.
The weapons will fire. If the select lever is set all the way down the weapon
will fire semi-automatic and the trigger must be pulled for each shot. If the
select lever is set in the mid-position, the weapon will fire full-automatic fire
and will continue to fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
101
10.3 SUBMACHINE GUN, ISRAEL
a. 9-mm UZI Submachine gun QMK2 MODA). The 9-mm UZI Submachine gun is
an extremely compact weapon utilizing metal stamped parts and plastics in its
construction. Designed by Major Uziel Gal, it is the standard submachine gun
of the Israeli Army. The weapon embodies a number of unconventional features
with more than normal emphasis being placed on safety of handling and balance.
The receiver is rectangular in shape, composed of stampings with plastics being
utilized in the construction of the forearm and pistol grip. There are no
external moving parts when the weapon is fired. The cocking handle, located
on top of the receiver, remains in the forward position after the bolt is
cocked to the rear, and the knob is either manually pushed forward or moves
forward with the first action of the bolt in firing. Two major design advan-
tages of this weapon are the bolt system, hollowed out to surround the barrel
for the major length of the bolt, and the location of the magazine well, which
is in the pistol grip. Both of these features tend to balance the piece very
well and shortens the overall receiver length considerably. While a straight
blowback system, the bolt due to its length, is heavy enough to function pro-
perly with the 9-mm cartridge, and in being hollowed out, to telescope the
barrel. The actual travel of the bolt is quite short. The magazine being
placed in the pistol grip eliminates a major fault encountered in using the
magazine as a forward hand grip, as is the case in many submachine guns, an
eventual malfunction of the magazine catch or deformation of the magazine
itself. The weapon has a conventional safety, a sliding button type, which
blocks the trigger when pushed to the rear, but also utilizes a grip-safety
in the grip, which blocks the sear if not pressed in when firing. Two more
features worthy of note are the quickly removable barrel (unscrewing the
barrel nut lock makes the barrel easily removable), and the telescoping metal
stock which when pushed forward gives the weapon an overall length of slightly
over 17 inches.
b. Functioning. The 9-mm UZI Submachine gun is a straight blowback
weapon. With a loaded magazine in place, the bolt is drawn to the rear by
operating the cocking handle located on the top of the receiver. The bolt is
held to the rear by the sear, and the cocking handle can then be pushed to its
forward position. Pushing the select lever to either full-auto or semi-auto
position, the piece is ready to fire. The grip safety must be pushed in when
gripping the pistol grip. Pulling the trigger releases the sear, and the bolt
moves forward, chambers a round, and fires it. The bolt moves to the rear,
overriding the sear. If the selector is set for full-auto, the sear will not
engage and the bolt will move forward for a firing cycle. If the selector is
set for semi-auto, the bolt will remain held to the rear by the sear until the
triggeris pulled again.
102
c. Characteristic Data.
Caliber
Operation
Type of Fire
Rate of Fire
Type of Feed
Weight, empty
Overall length - stock extended
stock folded
Effective range
Muzzle velocity
d. Field Strip Procedure.
(1) Press the cover latch to the rear.
9-tmll
Blowback
Full and semi-auto
550-600 rpm (Practical - 125)
Box-25, 32, 40 rd cap
8.2 lbs
26.2 in
17.3 in
225 meters
1,325 fps
(2) Raise the cover and remove it from the receiver.
(3) Raise the bolt, from the front, and remove it with the recoil spring,
forward out of the receiver.
(4) Press in on the barrel nut lock.
(5) Unscrew the barrel retaining nut and remove the barrel.
(6) Remove the trigger group retaining pin and disassemble the trigger
group from the receiver.
e. Assembly Procedure. Assemble in the reverse order. Assemble the trigger
group to the receiver and put the trigger group retaining pin in place. Assemble
the recoil spring and guide to the bolt and slide into the receiver. The barrel
and barrel retaining nut may be assembled to the receiver either before or after
the bolt is placed in the receiver. Lock the cover into place on the top of the
receiver.
f. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Draw the cocking handle, located on the top of the receiver,
to the rear until the bolt is engaged by the sear and then push forward again.
Push the safety button to the rear to "safe." Insert a magazine in the well in
the pistol grip and push up to engage.
(2) To fire: Push the safety button forward to fire, either full or semi-
automatic. Grip the pistol grip firmly to depress the grip safety, pull the
trigger. The weapon will fire. If the select button is on semi-auto, the trigger
must be pulled for each shot. If the select button is on auto, the weapon will
fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
104
10.4 SUBMACHINE GUN, GREAT BRITAIN
a. 9-mm MARK V (STEN). The 9-mm Mark V STEN Submachine Gun represents
the final major modification to the STEN series of submachine guns. Introduced
in 1944, it was first issued to British airborne units, but was later issued to
all units of the British Armed Forces. Various models of the famous STEN gun
were produced starting with the Mark I in June 1941. This weapon is noted for
its simplicity of design, manufacture, and maintenance. Hundreds of thousands
of these STEN guns were manufactured not only by the allied nations of WWII, but
by Germany and Nationalist China. Of the different Marks (Models) produced,
almost all had interchangeable parts so that in many instances a model will be
recovered that poses an identification problem. Stocks of one model may be
found assembled to receivers of quite a different model, while barrels of the
various models are quite often switched between models. The piece illustrated
for instance, while basically the Mark V STEN, has a barrel from the Mark II
model. Early models of the Mark V had wooden foregrips and some models had a
trapdoor in the butt plate. Regardless of which model of the STEN gun is
encountered, it is in all respects an efficient, reliable and rugged weapon
which does the job for which it was designed quite capably. The most popular
model of the STEN series submachine guns was the Mark II model. In this model
the magazine housing was designed so that it could be unlocked from its side-
feeding position and rotated around to the bottom of the receiver so that the
magazine housing sleeve effectively covered the ejection port to keep out dust
and dirt. Over two million Mark II STEN guns were manufactured between 1942 and
1944.
b. Functioning. The STEN gun is a straight blowback weapon firing from an
open bolt. The fire select button is a "push-through" button located above and
forward of the trigger guard in the trigger group housing. The safety is a
simple notch cut in the rear portion of the bolt handle retracting slot into
which the bolt handle is engaged when the bolt is drawn to the rear. With a
loaded magazine inserted, the bolt is drawn to the rear where it is engaged by
the sear and held to the rear. Pulling the trigger releases the bolt and the
bolt moves forward under impulse of the compressed recoil spring, strips a round
from the magazine, chambers it, and fires it. The bolt moves to the rear and
if the fire select button is pushed to the right, the sear will engage the bolt
and the crigger must be pulled for each shot. If the fire select button is
pushed to the left, the weapon will fire full-automatic and will continue to
fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
NOTE: The Mark VI STEN gun is the Mark V STEN with a silencer attached. It is
recommended that the Mark VI be fired semi-automatic only.
105
c. Characteristic Data.
Caliber .
Operation
Type of Fire
Rate of Fire
Type of Feed
Weight, empty
Overall length
Effective range
d. Field Strip Procedure .
9-mm
Blowback
Full and semi-auto
600 rpm (Practical 125)
Box - 32 rd cap
8.7 lbs
30.2 in
150 meters
(1) Press in on the recoil spring cap which protrudes from the receiver
cap and slide the stock assembly down off the receiver.
(2) Press in on the recoil spring cap and rotate the cap until it disen-
gages from the receiver and remove the receiver cap, recoil spring cap and
recoil spring.
(3) Draw the bolt handle to the rear to the safety notch in the bolt
handle slot, turn the handle to disengage it from the bolt and slide the bolt
out the rear of the receiver.
(4) Unscrew the barrel retaining sleeve and remove it and the barrel from
the receiver.
e. Assembly Procedure. Assemble in the reverse order. Slide the barrel
into the front of the receiver and assemble the barrel retaining sleeve over the
barrel and screw onto the receiver. Slide the bolt into the rear of the receiver,
attach the bolt handle to the bolt and slide the bolt forward. Assemble the recoil
spring, recoil spring cap and receiver cap into the rear of the receiver and turn
the recoil spring cap to engage the receiver. Slide the stock assembly partially
onto the receiver, push in on the recoil spring cap and slide the stock assembly
up the rest of the way.
f. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Insert a loaded magazine into the magazine housing and push
in until it locks into place. Push the fire select button to the type of fire
desired. Draw the bolt to the rear and raise the bolt handle into the safety
notch.
(2) To fire: Disengage the bolt handle from the safety notch. Pull the
trigger; the weapon will fire. If the select button is set for semi-automatic
fire, "R" for repetition, the sear will engage the bolt and the trigger will have
to be pulled for each shot. If the select button is set for full-automatic; "A"
for automatic, the weapon will continue to fire until the trigger is released or
the magazine is empty.
107
10.5 SUBMACHINE GUN, SWEDEN
a. 9-mm Submachine Gun (CARL GUSTAS) (M45B). The 9-mm M45B Submachine
Gun was developed in 1944 and 1945 by the Carl Gustas Geversfaktori, located in
E1ki1stune, Sweden. This weapon has been in production in Sweden since 1945,
and many hundreds of thousands have been manufactured, both for local consumption
and for export. It is the current standard submachine gun in the Swedish Army.
The original M45 submachine gun was made to utilize the 50-round SaUMI box maga-
zine. After the early 1950's, the heavy 50-round magazine was discarded in favor
of the new 36-round type, developed in the late 1940's. The M45 model, illustrated,
is distinguished from the early M45 models by the magazine housing which is pinned
in place and may be removed to accommodate the larger SaUMI magazine if the need
arose. Later models of the M45B, produced after the 36-round magazine became
available in large quantities, has a permanently attached (riveted) magazine
housing and thus cannot be converted to receive the SaUMI 50-round magazine.
The M45B model is sold commercially under the trade name of "Carl Gustaf", and
has been adopted and produced by Egypt since the early 1950's.
b. Functioning. The basic design of the M45 has not changed since its
introduction in 1945. It is an extremely sturdy and durable weapon and fires
from the open-bolt position in a straight blowback operation. It is made, in
most part, of heavy stampings, and the folding stock is one of the strongest and
best designed of all the various types used on submachine guns. The bolt can be
safetied in either the forward or rearward position. With the bolt to the rear,
engaged by the sear, a loaded magazine is inserted. When the trigger is pulled,
the bolt moves Forward, stripping a round from the magazine, chambering it and
firing it. Action is repeated until the trigger is released or the magazine is
empty. The rate of fire has been purposely held low-so that the weapon can be
fired single-shot by proper trigger manipulation.
c. Notes to Remember.
(1) This weapon fires a special hi-velocity 9-mm parabellum cartridge,
designated the 9-mm Model 39B. It has a much heavier jacket structure and
therefore ' serves as an effective armor-piercing round. Since the Model 39B
develops higher 'pressure, it is forbidden to be used in other 9-mm caliber
weapons.
(2) Hold the receiver cap firmly when removing in disassembly. The
operating spring pushes very strongly against the cap.
108
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p.,
d. Characteristic Data .
Caliber
Operation
Type of fire
Rate of fire
Type of feed
Weight, empty .
Length, stock extended
Effective range
e. Field Strip Procedure.
9-mm parabe11urn
Blowback
Full-auto only
600 rpm (Practical - 100)
Box M45 - 50 rds
M45B - 36-50 rds
M45B - late model-36 rds
6.1 1bs
31.8 in (retracted - 21.7 in)
270 meters
(1) Press the magazine release lever and remove the magazine.
(2) Press in on the plug in the center of the receiver cap, turn the
cap counterclockwise, and carefully remove the cap.
(3) The operating spring and bolt may now be withdrawn from the rear of
the receiver.
(4) With a hard object, push in on the barrel jacket nut catch and unserl
the barrel jacket nut which surrounds the rear of the barrel.
(5) The barrel and barrel jacket may now be removed from the front of thl
receiver.
f. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order. Place the barrel
into the front end of the receiver. Slide the barrel jacket down over the barrl
and screw the barrel jacket nut onto the receiver. Slide the bolt into the real
of the receiver, assemble the operating spring to the bolt. Place the receiver
cap over the end of the operating spring, push until it envelopes the rear of d
receiver, and turn clockwise.
g. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Pull the bolt to the rear by the bolt handle (located on tl
right side of the receiver) and engage the bolt handle in the safety notch by
moving it up. Insert a loaded magazine into the magazine housing.
(2)
trigger.
empty.
To fire: Disengage the bolt handle from the safety notch. Pull the
The weapon will fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is
110
10.6 SUBMACHINE GUN, FRANCE
a. 9-mm Submachine Gun M1949 (MAT 49). The 9-mm M1949 Submachine Gun is
manufactured by the Manufacture Das Armes, Tulle (MAT), and is gradually replac-
ing the earlier 7.GS-mm MAS 38 Submachine Gun. This submachine gun has seen
extensive service in Indo-China and Algeria . The weapon design makes extensive
use of stampings and is, in general, very well made. Two rather unusual (for a
submachine gun) features are incorporated into the design of the piece. One 18
a folding magazine housing, which swings forward and up, to engage a bracket
on the bottom of the barrel jacket; this makes the weapon handy for airborne and
armored troops. The other feature is a grip safety, which precludes the acci-
dental discharge of the piece if dropped. The ejection port has a cover, which
automatically opens when the bolt is moved in either direction.
b. Functioning. This is a straight blowback operated submachine gun,
firing from an open bolt. With the magazine housing pivoted down and locked, a
magazine is inserted. The bolt handle is drawn to the rear and the bolt engages
the sear. The ejection port cover is now open. Squeezing the grip safety and
pulling the trigger fires the weapon.
c. Notes to Remember.
(1) This weapon can be carried with a loaded magazine in the magazine
housing and the housing swung up and locked into place against the barrel
jacket. When bringing the magazine housing down into vertical position, make
sure that the magazine housing lock, located on the underside of the trigger
housing, engages the magazine housing firmly.
(2) The weapon will not fire unless the grip safety is completely
depressed.
(3) With the magazine housing up and locked, and the wi r e stock fully
telescoped, this is an extremely compact arm. It can be effectively concealed
beneath a person's clothing, being only l 5 ~ inches long and less than half of
that dimension wide.
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d. Characteristic Data.
Caliber
Operation
Type of Fire
Rate of Fire
Type of Feed
Weight, empty
Overall length (stock extended) .
(retracted) .
Effective range
e. Field Strip Procedure.
9-nnn
Blowback
Full-auto only
600 rpm (practical - 125)
Box - 32 rd cap
8.5 lbs
28.2 in
18.3 in
225 meters
(1) After removing the magazine, push forward on the magazine housing
lock and rotate magazine housing forward and up slightly.
(2) Push in on trigger housing lock.
(3) Swing the barrel and receiver up away from the trigger housing.
(4) Remove the bolt, recoil spring and guide from the receiver.
(5) Press the stock release catch in.
(6) Remove the stock by pulling to the rear.
Step two and three should be performed simultaneously.
Step five and six should be performed simultaneously.
f. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order except that the
stock may be assembled to the trigger housing after the weapon has been assembled.
Place the recoil spring and guide into the bolt and assemble to the barrel and
receiver assembly. Place the rear of the barrel and receiver assembly into the
guide at the rear of the trigger housing. Swing down into position firmly until
trigger housing lock engages. Adjust magazine housing up or down.
g. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: With the bolt forward and the ejection port cover down,
insert a loaded magazine into the magazine housing. If the housing is in the
horizontal position, swing it down to the vertical. Make sure the magazine
housing lock engages. Make sure the magazine catch is engaged.
(2) To fire: Pull the bolt handle (located on the left side of the
receiver) to the rear. The bolt will remain to the rear, since this weapon
fires from an open bolt. The ejection port cover will now be open. Push the
bolt handle to its forward position. Grasp the grip firmly and ensure the grip
safety is squeezed in. Pull the trigger. The weapon will fire until the trigger
is released or the magazine is empty.
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10.7 MACHINE GUN, U.S.S.R.
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b. Functioning . The RP-46 is a gas-operated, belt or pan fed light
machine gun which fires full-automatic from an open bolt only. The bolt is
locked by pivoting wi ngs carried on each side of the bolt which are cammed into
locking recesses in the sides of the receiver by the camming action of the firing
pin. The bolt is carried on the upper rear portion of the slide, a stud on the
slide to which the firing pin is attached projects up into the bolt from the
bottom. With a round positioned in the feedway, the bolt handle is drawn to the
rear. The trigger is pulled, the sear disengages from the sear bent on the
bottom of the slide and the bolt, slide and piston move forward under impulse
of the compressed recoil spring which is housed in a tube projecting from the
rear of the receiver. The bolt strips a round from the belt, chambers it and
comes to a stop against the rear face of the barrel. The slide and piston continue;
to move a short distance and the firing pin, carried by the slide, cams the locking
wings on each side of the bolt out into the recesses in the receiver and continues '
forward to strike the primer. Gas is tapped from the barrel to impinge against .
the gas piston which is a forward extension of the slide. The slide is driven
rearward, drawing the striker rearward to allow the locking wi ngs to be cammed
in flush wi t h the sides of the bolt. The bolt being unlocked is also carried
to the rear by the slide. This weapon fires full-automatic only and the firing
cycle will be repeated until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
a. 7.62-mm RP-46 (M1946). The Soviet 7.62-mm RP-46 Machine Gun is desig-
nated the Company Light Machine Gun M1946 and is the tactical equivalent to the
U.S. M60 Machine Gun. This weapon is a further modification of the OP series of
light machine guns which included the OP (ground), OT (tank) and the OPM and DTM
(modified ground and tank). The major modification of the RP-46 wa s the inclu-
sion of a belt feed mechanism which gave the weapon a belt as well as a pan feed
capability. This makes it an extremely versatile weapon, utilized as either a
squad automatic weapon , or offensive light machine gun when pan fed or an offen-
sive/defensive light machine gun employed at Company level when belt fed. The
belt feed mechanism utilizes a vertically positioned arm which contacts the
reciprocating bolt handle and transmits this horizontal movement into a lateral,
side-to-side movement of the feed arm components. This weapon is produced by
the Chinese Communist and is designated the Type 58.
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c. Characteristic Data.
Caliber .
Operation
Type of Fire
Rate of Fire
Type of Feed
Weight, empty
Overall length
Effective range
d. Field Strip Procedure.
7.62-mm (Ml930 ctdge)
Gas
Full-auto only
650 rpm (Practical - 350)
Belt - 250 rd cap
Pan - 47 rd cap
28.7 lbs
49.7 in
1,760 meters
(1) Push in on tube lock and turn clockwise.
(2) Remove tube lock and recoil spring housing assembly with recoil
spring from receiver.
(3) Unscrew receiver lock and remove.
(4) Pivot stock and trigger group assembly down and remove from receiver.
(5) Disengage gas piston lock by pushing to the rear and down.
(6) Draw feed mechanism latch to the rear, (see step 7) raise feed mecha- j
nism to disengage feed arm from bolt handle, draw bolt handle to the rear s l i g h t ~
lower feed mechanism. Draw bolt handle fully to the rear and remove bolt, slide ;
and piston assembly from the receiver.
(7) Draw feed mechanism latch to the rear, raise feed mechanism up and
draw to the rear to disengage from receiver and remove.
e. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Draw bolt handle to the rear. Pivot safety lever forward
to "safe." Raise cover, lay loaded belt into feedway, close and latch cover.
The weapon may also be loaded by leaving the bolt forward, inserting the belt
tab into the feedway with the cover down, pulling the tab through until it
stops. Drawing the bolt to the rear will now operate the belt feed mechanism
and a round will be positioned in the feedway ready for chambering. The safety
lever should be placed on "safe" at this point. To load the 47-round pan maga-
zine, the feed mechanism must be removed and the pan is positioned in the same
manner as it is in loading the DP or DPM machine guns.
(2) To fire: Pivot the safety lever to the rear. Pull the trigger.
The weapon will fire. This piece fires full-automatic only and will continue
to fire until the trigger is released or the ammunition belt or pan is empty.
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10.8 LIGHT MACHINE GUN, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm Machine Gun (RPD). The 7.62-mm Ruchnoi Pu1emet Degtyarev
(RPD) was adopted in 1948 as the standard squad automatic weapon of the Soviet
Army. It is chambered for the Model 43 intermediate-size cartridge as are the
Assault Rifle (AK) and Carbine (SKS). The RPD is not employed for sustained
fire missions. The barrel is chrome-plated and is not of the quick-change type.
It is fed from a metallic belt which is contained in a drum attached to the
underside of the receiver. The RPD is the lightest belt fed machine gun in use
today. The amount of gas taken from the barrel to function the action can be
varied by a 3-position gas regulator located at the front end of the gas cylinder
in a manner similar to the British Bren Gun. Since its adoption in 1948, the
RPD has been modified twice. The first modification (1953) included: (1) relo-
cation of the rear sight windage knob from the right side to the left, (2) addi-
tion of a rear sight guard, and (3) changing the design of the piston head from
female to male with respect to the gas block. A second series of modifications
occurring between 1955 and 1958 included: (1) addition of feed and ejection
port covers , and (2) changing the bolt handle from a reciprocating, nonfolding
type to a nonreciprocating, folding type. The RPD is being replaced by the RPK.
b. Functioning. This is a gas-operated, full-automatic light machine
gun. It fires from an open bolt position. With the bolt to the rear, and the
first round in the belt positioned against the cartridge stop in the feedway,
the trigger is pulled. The sear is disengaged from the sear notch on the under-
side of the slide assembly. The gas piston, the slide assembly, and the
attached bolt move forward under the impulse of the compressed recoil spring.
A stud on the top rear of the slide engages the track of the belt feed lever
located in the cover which moves the belt feed slide to index the first round
in front of the moving bolt. The bolt strips the round from the belt and cham-
bers it. Continued forward movement of the piston and slide assembly cams the
locking wings mounted in each side of the bolt out to engage mating recesses in
the receiver. The final forward movement of the slide assembly causes the firing
pin to strike the cartridge primer. Gas enters the gas cylinder from the barrel,
impinges against the gas piston and drives the piston to the rear. After a frac-
tional movement of the piston and slide assembly, the slide caroming against the
inner surfaces of the locking wings carried in the bolt, unlock the bolt and
carry it to the rear. The recoil spring is compressed by this action and the
slide is engaged by the sear if the trigger has been released. If the trigger
is still pressed, the cycle is repeated.
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c. Characteristic Data.
Caliber
Operation
Type of Fire
Rate of Fire
Type of Feed
Weight, empty
Overall length
Effective range
d. Field Strip Procedure.
7.62-mm M-43 (short)
Gas
Full-auto only
650 rpm (Practical - 375)
Belt - 100 rd cap
15.4 Ibs
40.8 in
1,210 meters
(1) Turn the butt trap cover at right angles to the stock.
(2) Place a screwdriver in the top hole in the butt. Engage the cross-
slot in the recoil spring plug and turn one-quarter turn. Remove the recoil
spring plug, recoil spring and recoil spring guide from the rear of the stock.
(3) Push out the butt retaining pin.
(4) Pull the butt and trigger group to the rear and disengage from the
receiver.
(5) Raise the cover assembly by pushing forward on the cover latch.
(6) Pull the bolt handle to the rear. The piston and slide assembly and
bolt can now be removed from the rear of the receiver. The bolt and assembled
bolt locks can then be lifted from the slide.
e. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order. Assemble the bolt
and bolt locks to the slide. Slide the piston and slide assembly with the atta
ched bolt into the receiver. Close the cover. Slide the butt and trigger grout
onto the bottom of the receiver. Replace the butt retaining pin. Place the
assembled recoil spring and guide and recoil spring plug in the hole in the but1
Engage the cross-slot in the recoil spring plug with a screwdriver. Push in an(
turn one-quarter turn to lock in place. Turn the butt trap cover to a vertical
position.
f. Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: This weapon is fed from a 100 round link belt which is
carried in a drum attached to the bottom of the receiver. When the drum is
loaded, the belt loading tab should be left protruding from the trap door of
the drum. Assemble the drum to the receiver and lock into place. Pull the bol1
handle to the rear. Push the safety lever, located above the trigger on the
right side of the trigger group, forward to "safe." Push forward on the cover
latch and raise the cover. Lay the belt on the feedway so that the first round
is against the cartridge stop. Close the cover.
(2) To fire: Push the safety lever to the rear. Pull the trigger. The
weapon will fire until the trigger is released or the belt is empty.
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