Introduction. We are primarily interested in the mathematics which describes the behavior of real objects, e.g.

: three-dimensional bodies, distributed parameter systems, etc. More specically, given an object, we nd procedures whereby its mass, volume, center of mass/gravity, surface area, total charge, electric ux through its surface, etc., can be found. To achieve our goals, we employ the method, commonly used in Engineering, of decomposing the problem at hand into subproblems involving innitesimal elements of length, volume, surface. The nal answer is then obtained by adding and taking the limit, i.e., integrating. We do not discuss at length (or at all) limit procedures which make this approach mathematically precise. Any students interested in such arguments are advised to take the relevant Mathematics courses where such matters are discussed. It will be very useful to be able to at least partially visualize the 3-d objects being considered. Some people nd this harder than others. All can improve with practice. Finally, it is almost essential to concentrate on the approaches which we employ. While these are very few, the resulting formulas are very many. Trying to do well in this course merely by memorizing formulas, is very dicult!

I. Functions of Several Variables and their Properties We begin with the mathematics needed for the practical problems mentioned above. I.a Domain and Range. Plotting Consider a function w = f (x, y), i.e., w depends on the independent variables x, y. As a practical example, w could be the temperature at the point (x, y) on
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some heated plate. The allowed values of (x, y) are called the Domain of w (or of f ), while the values w assumes as (x, y) run over the domain are called the Range of w (or of f ). If we plot w as a function of (x, y) we get a surface. Before considering examples, we discuss the physical meaning of the Domain of a function. Suppose, for example, that w = f (x, y) is the deection at the point (x, y) of a loaded membrane. Clearly the only physically allowed (x, y) (i.e., the Domain of f ) are the coordinates of points which are on the membrane. We cant deect points not on the membrane, so the domain is the membrane regardless of the specic f !

(x , y)

Hence, in practice, the domain of a function is almost always determined by the physical situation at hand. For a mathematics problem without explicit physical connection, however, we shallunless otherwise speciedtake the domain of some given function w = f (x, y) to be all (x, y) for which f can be computed. We recall that: division by 0, square roots of negative numbers, and logarithms of negative numbers, are common examples of forbidden operations. As mentioned above if we plot w = f (x, y), we get a surface (while the plotting of y = g(x) gives a curve). This is extremely dicult in general. For some surfaces, the graphing problem is not too bad. First of all beware of what happens when you go up in dimension! Specically consider:
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w w=x

w = x in 1-d is a straight line, w = x in 2-d is a plane! We also have

Example. Plot x2 + y 2 = 1 in (x, y, z) space.

Answer.

Note that x2 + y 2 = 1 in the (x, y) plane is a circle.

y

On the other hand, z does not appear in the expression x2 + y 2 = 1, i.e., the graph of x2 + y 2 = 1 is the same for any xed z! Therefore x2 + y 2 = 1 gives a cylinder in (x, y, z) space.
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As a nal example, consider:

Example. Let z =

1 (x2 + y 2 ). Find its domain, range, graph.

Answer.

Since (x2 +y 2 ) 0, then the maximum value of z occurs when x2 +y 2 = 0.

Since z 0, the minimum value of z occurs when x2 + y 2 = 1. Therefore the range is the interval 0 z 1. By the same token, z can be calculated only when x2 + y 2 1, so the domain is all the points (x, y) with x2 + y 2 1. To see what this is graphically, recall that [distance from (x, y) to (0, 0)]2 = x2 + y 2 . Therefore the domain is the disc centered at (0, 0) of radius = 1.
y

Finally, to graph, its easier to square both sides: z 2 = 1 (x2 + y 2 ) or z 2 + x2 + y 2 = 1. Again by the distance formula, this is the sphere in (x, y, z) space, centered at (0, 0, 0) of radius 1. So, keeping in mind that z = that the graph is the upper hemisphere:
z

1 (x2 + y 2 ) 0, we conclude

domain

Contour lines: Let z = f (x, y), and choose a number a. The graph f (x, y) = a in the (x, y) plane is called a contour (isothermal, equipotential, isobaric) line.
1 1 (x2 + y 2 ), a = 2 . Find the contour line. 1 4

Example. Let z =
1 2

Answer.

1 (x2 + y 2 ) or

contour line is the circle centered at (0, 0) of radius

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z =

1 - ( x2 + y 2)

= 1 (x2 + y 2 ), i.e., x2 + y 2 =
3 . 2

3 4,

and the

3 2 x

Note that a contour line consists of all the points on the plane where z = the given value. If you have looked at a map, you have seen elevation contour lines. It is a way of describing a surface in 3-d, using only 2-d paper.

Remark.

Suppose w = f (x, y, z) or w = f (x, y, z, t), i.e., that w depends on more

than 2 variables. Then most of what was said earlier still holds, except it is no longer possible to graph w (would need 4-d) and the contour lines are now actually contour surfaces: f (x, y, z) = a.

Example 1.

Let f (x, y) = sin(x) e2y x2 . Find f (0, 1), f (x + h, y + k).

Answer. (a) f (0, 1) = sin(0) e2 0 = 0 0 = 0. (b) f (x + h, y + k) = sin(x + h) e2(y+k) (x + h)2 . Note: To calculate f (x + h, y + k) you replace x by x + h and y by y + k in the formula for f (x, y).
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Example 2.

Find the domain and range of f (x, y, z) = 1 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 1 .

Answer.

Since x2 + y 2 + z 2 0, the bottom is always positive. Therefore f can

be calculated for any (x, y, z), and the domain is any (x, y, z) in R3 . In the same way, the largest f is when x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0, i.e., fmaximum = 1 while for any a with 0 < a < 1 we can nd (x, y, z) so that a = 1/ a2 = 1 + z2 + 1 or
1 a2

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 1. I.e., x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 1 a2

x2

y2

by choosing, say, y = z = 0 and x = Example 3. Answer.

1. Therefore the range is 0 < f 1. y x + ln(x2 y).

Find the Domain of f =

f is made up of two pieces. For the rst part, we need y x in order for

(x, y) to be in the domain. For the second part, we need y x2 . So the domain is the region x y x2 . Note that there is no domain in the strip 0 < x < 1.
y

Example 4.

Find the Domain of f = ln(sin x).

Answer.

We need those (x, y) with sin x > 0. But sin x > 0 means 0 < x < , 2 < x < 3, 4 < x < 5, . . .

2 < x < , 4 < x < 3, . . . . So the domain in the (x, y) plane is made up of innitely many strips:
y

Example 5.

Show the level curves of f = 4x2 + y 2 corresponding to f = 1, f = 2.

Answer.

For f = 1: 4x2 + y 2 = 1, which is an ellipse; for f = 2: 4x2 + y 2 = 2 (also

y

an ellipse).

f=1

f=2

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Example 6. Answer.

Draw the level curve of f = x2 y + 3 corresponding to f = 4.

4 = x2 y + 3, i.e., y = x2 1. Therefore the level curve is a parabola.

y

y = x2 - 1

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