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Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2010 with funding from

University of Toronto

http://www.archive.org/details/jewishquarterlyr04drop

'-^

THE

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ni

NEW SERIES

EDITED BY

CYRUS ADLER AND

S.

SCHECHTER

VOLUME

IV

1913-1914

PHILADELPHIA THE DROPSIE COLLEGE FOR HEBREW AND COGNATE LEARNING

LONDON: MACMILLAN & COMPANY,
Ltd.

^--"'^'^-X-^

OXFORD

HORACE HART

FRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

DS
101

CONTENTS
PAGE
Apto\vitzer,V.
:

Formularies of Decrees and Documents

.
. . .
.

from a Gaonic Court

23

Backer, W.

Some Remarks
:

to Saadya's

Tokehah

Bentwich, Norman
BiJCHLER, A.
Palestine
:

From

Philo to Plotinus
in the

...
Air in

119
i

Learning and Teaching

Open

485

Cohen, A.

Supplementary Notes to Gorfinkle's edition

'

of Maimonides'

Eight Chapters

'

....
.
.

475
53

Davidson, Israel
Epstein,
J.

Poetic Fragments from the Genizah

IV

N.

Two

Gaonic Fragments
:

.419
'

Friedlaender, Israel

Review of Aspects of Islam by

'
.
.

Duncan Black Macdonald

Friedlaender, Israel
:

.115
443
635

The Rupture between Alexander

Review of Ahad Ha-'anvs
:

Jannai and the Pharisees

......
'
.

Friedlaender, Israel
Friedlaender, Israel

Es.says

Review of

Zur Entstehungs-

geschichte des islaraischen Gebets

und Kultus' by
.

Eugen Mittwoch

.641
.

Grunhut,
Halper,
B.

L.

Our

edition

of the

Palestinian
. .

Talmud
.

compared with the Leyden MS.

:

107
153

The Scansion

of Mediaeval
.

Hebrew Poetry
.

Halper, B. Halper,
Hefes
B.

Recent Arabic Literature

:

.311
519

A Volume
I-III
I.
:

of the

Book

of Precepts of

b. Yasliah.

Hoffman, Charles
Literature
.

Jewish Essays and Homiletical

.

.511

iv

CONTENTS
PAGE
.

HusiK, Isaac: Recent works on Maimonides

Jacobs, Joseph
:

5^5

Legends of the Jews

:

499
357

JASTROW, Morris, Jr.

The

So-called Leprosy

Laws

Krauss, Samuel

A
:
:

Misunderstood

Word

Margolis,

Max

L.

Recent Biblical Literature

Joseph B. Abraham
A.

249

Marmorstein, a.

HaKohen

.621

Montgomery, James
MiJLi.ER,
:

Recent Syriac Texts

493

W. Max An
S.

Egyptian Document for the History

of Palestme

PozNANSKi,

ben Notes on the Poem of Elhanan

Shemaryah
Radin,

..
.
. .

Max: A
:

in Charter of Privileges of the Jews

Ancona of the Year 1535

225

Prolegomena to a Greek-Hebrew and Reil.er, Joseph III 321, 577 Hebrew-Greek Index to Aquila I, 11, and

Schechter, Frank
English Jewry

I.

The

Rightlessness of Mediaeval

'

Schechter,

S.

Reply

to

Dr.

Biichler's

Review

of

Schechter's 'Jewish Sectaries"

449

Slousch,
the

Nahum:

Representative

Government among
303
in

Hebrews and Phoenicians

:

TiSDALL, W. St. Clair Testament. IV.

The Aryan Words

the

Old
97

FROM PHILO TO PLOTIXUS

By Norman Bentwicii,
Neo-Platonism was
philosophy, and
peoples
it

Cairo, Egypt.

the

final in

outcome of Hellenistic
thought the fusion
cosmopolitan
of

represents

which
society.

characterized
Its

the

Graeco-

Roman

most distinguished

exponent was
in

Plotinus, a Hellenist Egyptian

who taught
for

the third

century C.E., but

it

flourished
this

2co years after his

in the early

time

and

it

was from

system that

Middle
the
in

Ages

philosophical thought

made

a fresh start

among

Arabs.

Jewish thinkers thus played an important part

the revival of metaphysics, and found in the last stage of

Greek speculation ideas

outlook.
It
is

sympathetic

to

their

religious

instructive therefore to trace the

in

Jewish

elements which were contained

the original

amalgam,
it

and more especially

to consider the influence on

of the

one considerable Jewish Philosopher of the ancient world.

Philo-Judaeus,
of the
direct
it

is

generally

recognized,

was one

forerunners

of neo-Platonism, which
in
in

may
the
the

be defined as the development of Plato's system

light of Eastern religious ideas.
first

He

it

was who

century of the

common

era

made

fruitful

the religious

seed which was latent in the Platonic teaching by combining with

fruitful
it

Hebraic

conceptions,

just

as

he made

the philosophical ideas implicit in Hebraic mono-

theism by his mastery of Hellenic philosophy. VOL.

IV.
I

He

fused

2
with
itself

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the
in

Platonic

single

impersonal

'

Good

'.

evolving

the

multiplicity
spiritual
all

of the material

world through
personal

the

noetic
creates
is

'Ideas', the

Jewish

God

who

things

by His
UXclto^v

will.

Hence the saying

other
scholars:

which
7/

handed

down by Suidas and

t)

^iXbiv

-nXaTMviC^i

(fyiXcoviC^L

either
still

Philo

Platonizes

or

Plato

Philonizes.

The work

of a great
in

thinker lives afresh in each age;

first

and Plato was,

the

century, recreated for the

Greek world and

more
the

for

the

non -Greek world by the

interpretation
in
his

of

Judeo-Hellenistic sage.

More

especially

latest

works, the
that

Tiviaeiis

metaphysics, to

and the Laivs, Plato had realized influence mankind, must be trans-

formed into theology, and that ethics must be established by reverence for God. For four centuries he had lacked
adequate interpreters of
this side of his teaching
;

he was

a great theological and religious reformer as well as the but the heads of founder of metaphysics and logic; the school which
derived

from him were not

fitted

to

develop his religious thought.

Philo,

however,
Plato
in

approached
particular,

Greek philosophy as a
from a new standpoint,

whole, and

bringing to his studies an intense religious conviction that

all

things were the expression of the divine unity

and he

sought to develop and confirm that conviction by a philoIt might have been expected that his sophical doctrine.

work would be continued by

Jewish
Hellenists

band

of

Alexandrian
but
rise

sharing

his

religious

outlook,

a
of

combination of circumstances, among which the

Christianity as a

separate religious community,

the de-

Palestine, struction of the Jewish national centre in

and

Alexandria the attendant decay of the Jewish community of

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

are the most important

BENTWICH

prevented

the Judeo-Hellenistic

school from
carried
it.

progressing beyond the point to which he

He

is

the only original philosopher in that

school:
gists

his

Jewish predecessors and the religious apolo-

who

followed him, merely combined their dogmatic

creed with philosophical doctrines, directly borrowed and

assumed without modification.

He, alone, constructed a

scheme which, though based mainly upon Greek elements,

combined them
a
in

a new

fashion

so

that they formed

new and organic whole.

Nevertheless, though he lacks

true successors, he stands at the head of a

new developtwo
:

ment of Hellenistic thought. And two streams of philosophy

may

be traced

running parallel through the next

in

centuries,

both of which have their source

Philo

the

stream of pagan neo-Platonism, and the stream of Christian

Gnosis.

They culminate
features

at

the

same

time, the one in

Origen, the other in Plotinus.

Certain
doctrines

of the
to

development
both.

of
is

these

two

are

common
all

There

growing
fixed,

tendency to make

teaching more

rigid,

more

more
than

prosaic,

and more
is

matter-of-fact.

Although

the

substance of thought
it

not less vague and

unscientific

was with

Philo, the

form

is

entirely different,

and

less appropriate.

He

expressed his religious philosophy

utterance
;

in poetical, suggestive,

the later neo-Platonists

it

and
in

the

Patristic

philosophers endeavour to set

out

dogmatic
the

creed,

and

in

pseudo-logical
Christian
era

syllogism.

From
a

beginning
decline

of the
of

there

was

remarkable

mental

power of every kind

Creative imagination

throughout the Roman-Greek world.

degenerated into crude fantasy
with words.
:

reason sank into playing

The lowering

of the

standard of thought

B 2

4
manifested

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

itself

most

forcibly

in

the

conception

of

God.
as

Human

reason could no longer conceive the world of one

noetic
principle,

the

evolution

and

human
in

imagination could not

rise to

the idea of a divine unity,

who
of

reigned alone with undivided sway.

first

Hence,

the

one school we have

first
;

a gnostic dualism, next a Trinity

principles,
in

and

lastly a fantastic

system

of

emana-

tions

the other a similar progress, which

last stage, because the

is,

however,
its

saved from the

Church fixed

dogma once

for all

upon an unalterable foundation.

is

The

decline of mental power

shown

also in the

more complete
combine
harmonizing

dependence upon

authorities,

and the

inability to
for

them

in

new

synthesis.

While the desire

is

different systems of thought

stronger than ever, the

method which the neo-Platonists employed was the subordination of diverse principles; and the method of the
Church Fathers was to
set out excerpts

from the various

agreement with

Greek philosophers as evidence of

their religious

their

dogmatism.
feature

Another common
sophy
is

of the post-Philonic philoin

its

engrossing
is

interest

God and

theology.

The

religious attitude

the only possible attitude of each

is

and every
effect,

school.

It

partly a

cause, and

partly an

of this that Eastern teachers figure so prominently

among
of the

the philosophical writers of the

first

three centuries

common

era.

They

possessed the more vivid sense of

the divine government, and were better able to supply the popular demand for theological speculation. Even in the
Stoic,

which was the most

in

rational

of schools, Musonius

and Epictetus

the second
colour,

century imposed a certain

intensified

amount

of Eastern

and

the

religious

tendency.

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

The most

BENTWICH
first

distinguished of the Platonists of the

two

centuries of the Christian era were

Ammonius of Alexandria,
his pupil, Plutarch
c.E.),
;

who

taught

in

Athens
Greece;
in

{c.

60-70 c.E.);
(/.

of Thebes in

Albinus

150

probably a

Jew who taught

possibly
It
is

the school of

Smyrna

Maximus

of

Tyre, Numenius of Apamea, certainly a Jew, and Atticus,

so,

who belong

to the reign of
all

Marcus Aurelius.
are

notable that almost

of

them

of

Eastern

origin.

Of Ammonius of Alexandria we have no record

left

but his disciple, Plutarch, has

an abundant collection

of philosophical as well as of historical works, and from

them we can
imbibed.
Its

infer the character of the

Platonism he had

leading
ideas.

feature

is

the

mixture of Greek

with foreign

In the decay of original and inde-

pendent speculation the thinkers of the time endeavoured

to reach

some kind of

certainty

by comparing the

ancient

authorities of different peoples

It
is

and syncretizing

their results.

the

more probable,

therefore, that the

Alexandrian

teacher

Ammonius, who must have known

significant that

Philo's works,

carried something of his influence to his school at Athens,

and

it

is

Plutarch exhibits a remarkable

interest in the nature of the

Jewish

God and Jewish

religious

observances.

Among

the Qitaestioncs Coiiviviales he in-

cludes studies of the likeness between Jehovah and Dionysus,

of the relation between the Jewish Sabbath and Bacchic
rites,

and of the reasons

for

which the Jews abstained from

eating pork.

Plutarch

is

less

a philosopher than a scholarly priest,

at the discovery of truth as the re-

aiming not so much

establishment of the Greek

to which philosophy
interpretation.
is

national

religion

of Delphi,

brought as a support by allegorical

religion

But the Delphian

was to be univer-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Judaism of Philo was to be
century both as regards

salized just as the philosophical

universalized.

The

parallel

between the chief Jewish and

first

the chief Greek Platonist of the

their

general

attitude

to philosophy
is

and

their

special

philosophical doctrine,
alike seek

striking

and

instructive.

Both

a catholic unity of faith by a philosophical

interpretation of their

own

national religion

but while

Plutarch syncretizes
in

all

other conceptions of the deity, e.g.

'

the treatises
',

'

On

the E at Delphi

and

On

Isis

and

Osiris

Philo endeavoured to surpass them, and insisted on

the special Jewish conception of God. pate the Scholastics,

in

Both again

antici-

the sense that they subordinate

philosophy
insist

to a fixed religious conception of reality.

spiritual conception of the

Both

upon a

Deity and of the

soul, and are in direct hostility with the Stoic school, whose atheism and pride they attack. Both in accordance with

this attitude reject the dialectical

and

eclectic tendencies

of the
to the

Academic
first

school, as
i;.C.E..

it

had developed from the third

century

and, returning to the original

works of Plato for their guide,

religious teaching.

draw out from them

advance
their

their

Both

finall}-

intuition as the

true

cognitive

facult}-,

and

crown

teaching

with

mysticism.

The

general correspondence

is

supported by a number

of similarities in their detailed ideas,

part of philosophy which
ance,
in
i.e.

more

especially in that

was

to

both of supreme import-

their theology.

Plutarch conceives the chief

;

God
we

his essence to

be beyond mortal comprehension

:

only
the

know that He is not E at Delphi he argues

1

zvJiat

He is.^

In his treatise

upon

that the holy letter really stands

Plut. 391 F.

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

for the

BENTVVICH

word Et (Thou Art), and

and unknowable God.
'

is

the appellation of the

ineffable

Neither number therefore

letter

nor order, nor conjunction does the

seem

to indicate.
in

But

it

is

an address and appellation of the

is

God complete
is

itself,

which, as soon as the word

uttered, sets the speaker

thinking of the power of the God.

" Being "

His true and

unerring and solely appropriate name.

We

ought to say of
in relation to
is

God,

He

is,

and

is

in relation to

no time, but

eternity the timeless and changeless, in which

neither

before nor after, nor future nor past, nor elder nor younger.

But being One

He

has

filled
is

the Ever with the one Now.'

timeless, changeless,

But while God

able,

in essence

unknow-

He

reveals

Himself by different effluences

in the uni-

verse.^

The

different aspects
'

of Dionysus are analogous

to

the Powers or

Ideas

'

of Philo.

Plutarch recognizes
in

also a

supreme cosmic power.

'God

His unity cannot

create the world, because

He
for

cannot be the subject of any

change, but
a

it

is

fitting

some other God

or rather

demon appointed
and undergo

to rule over perishable things to do

In his religious veneration

this

this condition.'

for Dionysus, Plutarch asserts the unity of the

Godhead

but, as

was natural

to a thinker

who

started from polytheism,

he was

willing to hypostatise the divine powers,

later

and thus
develop-

he foreshadows more completely than Philo the

ments of neo-Platonism.

Plutarch sometimes

calls the chief

power the Aoyos or

the production of

vovs,^

and represents

its

function as

harmony from
language,

discord, like that of the

in

Aoyo?
nearer

Toixevs

(the

dividing Logos)

Philo.*

Coming
attributes

to

Philo's

he

suggests

the

which the Jewish thinker applied to the creative

-

Word

De

E.

9.

De

Is. 49.

Ibid. 55.

8
in a
dile,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

passage where he because
'
:

justifies the deification of the croco-

of

God

and therefore an imitation For the divine Logos also needs no voice, and
it

is

tongucless,

proceeds noiselessly to rule mortal things with justice^ With this we may compare Philo's interpretation of the
voice at the revelation at Sinai, that
it

was the Divine

Again,
Ideas in two

Presence
like

itself

which exalted

the

multitude.^''

Philo,

Plutarch

regards the

Platonic

aspects, or rather he imagines

paradeigmatic ideas and

derived

moving
a-uppoLUL,

forces

in

material
etS?/,

things

from

them So
But

o/xotoV)?re9,

Ao'yot,

whose operation can be

far
it

expressed by the image of the seal stamping wax/^

Plutarch's

theory of Being

is

akin
its

to

Philo's.

exhibits a striking divergence in

explanation of matter

and

evil.

Failing to interpret the world throughout in an

w^ay,

idealistic

the Greek

thinker deliberately adopts a

There are two antagonistic powers in the government of the universe, the good and evil God, Mind and Matter. This is a fundamental part of his Platonism,
dualistic view.

and he derives
of Plato

it

confidently from the teaching in the

evil world-soul."

Laws
finds

about the

But although he

superficial Platonic authority for his crude solution, Plutarch

shows himself rather a follower of the neo- Pythagorean

teaching, wdiich exaggerated the dualistic elements to be

found

in

Plato's

works

into

a coarser theory of reality.

Parallel with the dualism of Plutarch (viewed as a

logical theory)
is

cosmo-

the gnosticism of the early Christian

Church,

represented

most

soberly

by

Basilides

and
spirit,

Valentinup.

They
De De
Is. 75.

are parallel results of the

same

s
c

^^
"

Is 53-4.

De Decalog. 1 Dc Is. 45 Plat.

1 ;

4.

FROM PHILO TO PLOTIXUS

BENTWICH

and represent the growing obscurantism that was infecting

speculation.
Plutarch's general outlook

upon the universe

is

repre-

who fill in the They all profess interval between Philo and Plotinus. the belief in one supreme transcendental God, who is so
sented in the other incipient neo-Platonists
far exalted

above the world and mankind as to be incom-

prehensible.

He

is

associated with Plato's rayaOov, or the

literally as
'

Idea of the Good, which they interpret

Being' {k-nU^wa
rrj^

beyond

ovaias).

Between this barren principle

and the world they are compelled to place intermediate

beings
;

some endeavour
in Plato's

to establish a scientific theology,

based upon a logical ordering of the various divine agencies

mentioned
to
fill

Dialogues; others again are content

in the

intermediate steps more vaguely and develop

Plato's

demonology.

Typical of this class

is

Maximus

Tyrius,

who

is

not so
is

much

a philosopher as a philosophical

rhetorician,

and

the more instructive as an index of the

period, just because he

religious ideas of the

makes no

attempt at a

scientific

system, and aims only at setting

out neatly accepted notions.

One

of his dissertations deals

with the nature of Plato's God, and another with demons.^

He

declares that while

all

nations differ about their gods,

yet they agree in recognizing one supreme God, the father of

established
it
;

who

is

all;

and

this is the

but he does not mention his

is

unknowable.

Beneath the

God whom name because one God come the orders

Plato has
Kara^aCvovaa
ex tov

of demons, StaSo^^ koI ra^t?

f/e'xpt

ap)(?/s

&0v

As imagination narrowed, the interval between God and man had to be definitely graded. If man could
y?]s.
^

Cp. Taylor's Translation of the Dissertations, Nos. 2-7.

lO

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

not reach God, he should reverence his offspring, the stars

and demons.-'

The other
their

class

of incipient

Neo-Platonists

who

en-

deavoured to establish an exact theology, and

in the

form of

work are more

philosophical, elaborate a division of the

its

Godhead, which reaches

but
is is

fullest

statement

in Plotinus,

well defined before his time.

Numenius

of

Apamea
;

the most distinguished representative of this class

and

it

has been often suggested that he was a Hellenistic Jew.^^ His name was not uncommon among the Jews and is found
as early as the
first

book of the Maccabees

(12. i, 16

and

In

passing

curious

parallel

may be noted between

Maximus
In
his

Tyrius and Maimonides, which may

intermediate between the
first

be due to some Arabic neo-Platonist,

Pagan and the Jewish philosopher.

is

dissertation
his

on

'What God

according to Plato',

Maximus ex-

pounds

theory of divine emanation, which produces not only thirty And thousand gods but a multitude of divine essences innumerable. Conceive a mighty empire and powerful then he continues thus
:
'

kingdom
and earth

in

which

all

things voluntarily assent

to

the

best
.

and most
. .

honourable of Kings.
:

But

let

the boundary of this empire be

heaven

while the mighty King himself, seated immovably, imparts

to the obedient the safety

which he contains
and many

in himself.

The

associates

of this empire are

many

visible

invisible gods,

some of them

encircling the vestibules as messengers of a nature most allied to the King, but others subservient to them, his servants, and the associates of his table
:

and again others possessing a

still

more subordinate

nature.'

Now

Mai-

monides at the conclusion of his Guide io the Perplexed (Bk. Ill, ch. lij uses the same image to describe God's providence over all things and the different
gradations of the

human

recognition of God.

He

pictures a king in his

it.

palace with his subjects partly in the city, partly without

city
:

Of those

in the

some turned their backs on his palace others turned towards it. And actually of these some entered and walked in the vestibules and some king was seated. Maimonides thus applies reached the inner court where the simile which Maximus to the degrees of human approach towards God the
used for the degrees of emanation from God.
Nicolas, Cp. Siegfried, Philo als Auskger des A. T., 277, 402, and in Revue de V Hi&toire des Religions, VII, 769. Etudes sur Philon
10
'

'


FROM PHILO TO FLOTINUS
15.
15).

BENTWICH

II

Apamea,
its

too,

was a famous Jewish centre

in

Syria,

and on

coins of the second century the

name
found.

of

Noah and

design

of the

Ark have been

Numenius
influenced

then, if not a Jew himself, must have been by Jewish teaching and have been in contact

with Jewish Hellenists.

He may

be credited

also,

without

doubt, with knowledge of

Philo's writings,

and he shows
less

how

Philo's

doctrines were
^^

transformed

by

refined

minds.

Origen

mentions that he often introduced verses

in

from the works of Moses and the prophets

his philosophy,

support of

and allegorized them with ingenuity; and

^-

he quotes examples from his works on Numbers and on

Space.
a

Eusebius
in
:
'

gives

like

testimony, and
states

preserves

fragment

which Numenius

his philosophical

method thus
and

We
in

should go back to the actual writings

of Plato and combine them with the doctrine of Pythagoras,

call

to

confirm them the

is,

beliefs

of the

cultured races.

That

we should compare

their

holy

books and laws and bring to the support of Plato the

harmonious ideas that are to be found among the Brahmans,

the Jews, and the Magi.'
It

may be

that the tradition

which ascribed to Numenius the authorship of the two

sayings
Tt
(TTL

^^

i)

UXoltoov
?}

(\)iXu)viC^i

?)

4>tAa>y
('

-nXaTOiviC^i
is

and

nkdroiv

Mcovo-Tjs

aTTLKi^oiv
?
')

What
;

Plato but
it

Moses speaking Attic Greek

is

erroneous

but

seems

clear from the other notices of his

work that he enlarged

from

upon the agreement between the Bible and Greek philosophy, and this conception he must have derived
Philo-Judaeus.

The
^' '*

few fragments of his work which are extant exhibit

c.

Celsuni IV, 51.

I,

12

p^aep. Ev. IX, 411c.

op.
cit.,

Clemens, Strom.,

150,

and Euseb.,

XI,

10.

12

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

several correspondences with the Philonic interpretation of

the Bible
Genesis,
'

e. g.

he praises the verse

in

the

first

chapter of

The

spirit of

God was upon

the waters,' because

water represents the primal matter, which was filled with the spirit of God.^"^ His theology, however, shows a striking
descent from the monotheistic Platonism of Philo.

With
derived

him the

division of the
first

Godhead
the

into an

unknowable Being,

who

is

the

Unity, and an active Creator

Christian

who

is

from him, a division that

foisted

commentators

on

Philo,

is

fully

and dogmatically accomplished.

The
in

strong infusion of Pythagorean ideas which appears

in all

Numenius, as

the later neo-Platonists, led

him

to

carry the division one step further, and find in the

Godhead
simple,

the holy triad, which exercised a potent fascination during

the period.'"'

'The

first

God being

in

himself

is

because being united throughout with himself, he can never be divided. God, however, the Second and Third is one

by being
it

associated with matter, which

is

is

duality, he
first

makes
is

one, but

himself divided by

it.'

The

God, who

the abstract impersonal

is
is

Monas of Pythagorean
;

speculation,

free

from

all

manner of work
two aspects:
operation
' ;

and the second God,

who

the Creator, governing and travelling through the Cosmos,

is

conceived

in

(i)

in his divine

exaltation;
is

(2)

in his creative

and each aspect

is

treated as

a separate hypostasis.
Idea, and he

He

the self-maker of his

own

makes the world

as its creator.'

In this conscholastic's

fused speculation, anticipating the mediaeval

argumentation, wc see a mystical development of an idea

found
'*

in

Philo that the

Logos

is

at

once the Ihea

ch.

iSewy,

and
M.

Cp.

Porphyrj%

Antniui

Nyiiiphaniiii.

10;

Philo,

De

Op. II.
1''

Fragment

in

Euseb., op.

at..

XI, 537

fT.

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS^BENTWICH

also the

sum

of forces which pervade the universe.

The

different attributes of the

Hebraic

God become

the different
different

powers of Alexandrian-Jewish speculation, the

hypostases of Syrian
Philo
s

Platonism.

Numcnius converted
fragments show

poetry into dogma, and his

in

how

an unimaginative mind
Platonism
of his day.
in

an unintellectual era debased

adapting

it

to the less exalted religious needs

Platonists of the second century

The Eastern

were led away by impersonal conceptions of the Godhead to

divide
it.

And

as

Maximus remarked, ""

TTappi](ria

thinking, perhaps,

of the contemporary interpretations of Plato, the vagueness of the poets was better than
the
divine
nature,
?/

twv

recorepcor

about

the

bold

cocksureness

of the

new

philosophers.

Numenius was the founder

of the Syrian

school of
in

Platonism, which through Porphyry was merged

third century with the school of Alexandria.

the

His works,

according to Porphyry,^' were constantly studied in the

school of Plotinus.
to have

Amelius, one of the

disciples,

is

said

known

all

of

them almost by

heart.

The deduction
contemporary,

of a Platonic Trinit}- from the Tiiiiacus did not, however,

pass without challenge.

Atticus,

who was

his

championed a
strength
of this

truer

Unitarian

Platonism, and

on

the

was claimed by the Church

fathers as

a witness of Plato's agreement with Jewish monotheism.

Proclus mentions him as a neo-Pythagorean philosopher,

and attacks him

with the

for identifying the rayaOuv of the

Timaeus

Arj/xtoD/jyo?

(Creator),

and thus combining the

*

Creator with the supreme unity.

with perverse accuracy,
1
^^
'

But

in Plato,'
is

he says

the Creator

called

good but
',

Discourse on

'

Whether poets
and
14.

or philosophers have spoken more truly

Life of Plotinus, 3

14

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

tJie

not

good, and ]\Hnd, too,

all

is

good, but the

rest.'

cause of

being and above the

We

Good is the know nothing

in
all
its

of the personal history of Atticus, and no ancient writer

suggests that he was a Jew.

But he upheld

strictness the monotheistic principle,

which must have been and he marked

induced to some extent by

Jewish influences,

a religious reaction against the syncretic and eclectic tendencies which combined Aristotelian with Platonic ideas.

His works were dissertations praising Plato and upbraiding

Aristotle for their respective agreement and disagreement

with the religious standpoint which makes knowledge of

the one

God

the supreme Good.^'

Upon

each part of

philosophy he pointed out the

fallacies (as

he thought) of
;

the one Greek philosopher, the truths of the other

the argument
is

and

throughout one which might have been

adopted by a

faithful Jew.

Thus Plato

ascribes

all

to the

divine providence or soul of the universe, Aristotle

makes
Plato
all

the divine sphere terminate at the moon, and

ruler of the universe

severs the

from the divine government.

:

says the soul

is

incorporeal and immortal

Aristotle

but reduces the soul to a nullity {^LKfjvv odv

Ti]v
^//rx^i'0

ij.i]hiv aTTocjifjvaL

representing

it

as neither altogether
\//rx')
:

body nor
Aristotle

incorporeal.

Plato unites the vovs and the

divides

them and attaches immortality only

amounts

to the vovs,

and

this

to a denial of a personal after-life.

:

Plato
it

maintains that the world was created

as eternal.

Aristotle regards

Atticus reveals that the question of creation was already

a
subject
of dispute in

the school, but he vehemently

maintains his interpretation of Plato's teaching as to the

18

Cp. Euseb.,

oJ>. cit..

509

a.

FROiM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

origin of the world
at this point

BENTWICH
'

15

by

direct creation. ^^

We

pray that

we may not be opposed by those of our own

to think

household

who choose
is if

that according to Plato

in justice

also the world

uncreated.

For they are bound

to pardon us

on reference to Plato's opinions we believe

what he himself being a Greek has discoursed to us Greeks

in clear language.
'

"For God,"

says he, [Tiviacus 30 a),

rest

having formed the whole visible world not at

in

but

moving
it

an irregular and disorderly manner, brought

out of disorder into order, because

He

thought that this

was altogether

better than the other".'

Atticus goes on to

argue that the world though created

if

may

be imperishable
for the

God
is

so wills

it.

'

For there

is

no stronger bond

preservation of things so created than the will of God.

Nor

there any cause from without acting in antagonism

with God.'

Maimonides would have found a valuable

ally

for his controversy against the Aristotelian doctrine of the

eternity of the world,

Atticus.

had he known of the argument of

^"

In another striking passage Atticus

contrasts the

religious sympathies of Plato's theory of ideas with Aristotle's

rationalistic

rejection of

it.

The argument
'
:

reads like an

expansion of certain passages

in Philo's writings,

modified by

the controversial religious zeal of the writer

The very main-

spring and central point of the Platonic system,' he says,

'

the order

of noetic

existences,

has been rejected and

trodden
is

down and

utterly scorned
left,
if

by

Aristotle.

For there

nothing of Plato

you take away these primal

ruling notions.
all

By

this

conception he most clearly excels

father, creator,

other thinkers.

Imagining God to be the

all

lord,

and protector of "

20

things,

and inferring from ex-

Ibid.,

801

ff.
.

GifTord's translation.
4.

jiji^^ 8j_^

cp. Philo. dc Miuidi Op.

l6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

first

perience that the artist must

conceive in mind what

he

is

about to produce, and then with regard to the mental

idea proceed to their Hkeness in concrete things

fashion he
established the thoughts of

in

this

God

as prior

to

material things, the incorporeal noetic models of creation

and subordinate causes

Aristotle, not

of

all

particular

things.
is

But
great

being able to perceive that what

in

and divine and noble

like nature to in

things requires a power of the

bring

it

into being, puts

complete confidence
it

his

own

subtle analytical power, which, while

was

able to

pierce earthly things and give adequate knowledge

of them, did not allow

reality.'

him

to acquire a vision of the true

Atticus illustrates a stage in the religious development

of philosophy, which
is still

more

intensified in the Patristic

writers
is

who were

his contemporaries.

For him monotheism

the touchstone of philosophical doctrines.

By

the Church
in the

fathers the ideas of the

Greek thinkers are weighed

:

balance of Biblical teaching

they are no longer valued

according to their intrinsic or rational excellence, but only

according to the closeness of their agreement with revealed Philo's allegories belong to a dift"erent stage of truth.
thought, when the religious mind
is

so attracted
it

by

foreign

philosophy that

it

endeavours to read
century the

into the holy book.

But

in

the second

religious schools of the

Christian fathers no longer admitted Greek philosophy to be

of the same rank of truth as the Bible.

It

was accepted as

corroborative evidence, rather than as a profounder

of the religious doctrine.

meaning

The

Jewish-Hellenistic school of
later

Alexandria, of which we

know no

exponent than Philo,

passed insensibly into the Christian Catechetical school which was first founded in the Egyptian capital at the end of the

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

second century
his
;

BENTWICH

I7

and Philo passed out of the tradition of

own

people to become the guide and teacher of a sect

which departed further and further from the Jewish monoThe religious ideas of the Alexandrian Church theism.
fathers

prevented

them from maintaining the Philonic

attitude either towards

started with a fixed

God

or towards Platonism.
in

They

and unalterable belief

the division of

the Godhead, and in a recent revelation of perfect truth.

There was no question of finding beneath the words of the New Testament a profounder philosophy than they bore on
their surface.

For the words were themselves the language

of the moral philosophers of the day, and in the eyes of the

Christians a higher
genius.

wisdom than any utterance of the Greek Christianity, in the words of Eusebius,^^ was

'neither Hellenism nor Judaism, but a

new and

truer kind

of divine philosophy
therefore,

'.

Athenagoras, Clement, and Origen,

Philo had sought, from Plato

do not

seek, as

a science which should complement revealed truth, but only

evidence of their

own

doctrines, to confirm their precon-

ceived dogmatic position.

At

the

same time they accept

it is

Philo's position about the Pentateuch that

the deposialle-

tory of philosophical doctrines, and they extend his

gorical

method

to the prophets

and Psalms.

Philo

may be
But

said to bear to them the relation which Aristotle had to the

mediaeval Scholastics

he

is

the master of method.

while they accept his teaching almost as a gospel, reproduce

large sections of
it

in their

own commentaries, borrow

his

his

style of composition, their spirit

and follow

method

implicitly, yet

and their attitude are radically

different.

They

regard Greek philosophy, and more especially Platonism, as

21

op,

cit.,

16 d.

VOL. IV.

l8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

less clearly

an imperfect image of wisdom, reflecting more or

the doctrines of their religion, and largely derived, in so far as

it is

valid,

from knowledge of the Hebrew scriptures.

They
tacitly
^^

revive

and elaborate the charges of plagiarism invented by

first

the Jewish apologists of the

century B.C.

E.,

and

dropped by Philo.

In a curiously naif passage Clement

first

claims that the Jews were the

people to speculate

philosophically about the nature of reality, and the Greeks

were

their pupils, as

is

proved among other reasons by the

fact that the doctrine of ideas

which Philo had expounded

in

his allegories

on Genesis was the prototype of Plato's

idealism.

Philosophy and revealed religion belonged to

different grades of truth,

and the one was

onl}" useful to
it

compare with the

other.

For missionary purposes

that the

was

desirable to be able to

show

two were

consistent.
to con-

But none of the

Patristic writers

make any attempt

struct a religious philosophy in the sense

which Philo had

soul,

given to

it.

They have no special theory of the

;

of

knowledge, or of ethics

their philosophy

is

almost exis

clusively theology, and in addition their philosophical

entirely subordinate to their

dogmatic theology.
Srpcojixarets

Clement
it is

appropriately names his work

(patchwork), for

a miscellany pure and

simple, a collection of detached frag-

ments of Greek works which tend towards monotheism.

openly professes himself an
eclectic.-^
'

He

call

philosophy

not the Platonic or the Aristotelian or the Stoic, but the

eclectic

system of

all

the true doctrines proclaimed by each

of these schools, the whole of those which teach righteous-

ness along with pious knowledge.'

The

attitude which he

and Origcii take up

is

more

liberal

than that of Tatian and

"-

Cp. Clemens, Strom.

I,

2.

^^

Ibid.

i.

37.

; :

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

Tertullian,

BENTWICH

19

who regarded Greek philosophy as

and the marriage-gift of the

the invention

of the devil,

fallen angels to

the daughters of

men

but they

feel

bound

to take account
is

of that attitude.

Philosophy, they urge apologetically,

;

a worthy recreation, an aid to faith

of

like the stolen fire

Prometheus,

it

may

be

fanned

into
it

flame

by the
cor-

divine impulse, but at the

inferior

same time
of
it

is

the gift of the

angels, and

much

is

Hebrew wisdom

rupted.-*

Clement was a Platonist with

in his

strict limitations

and Origen

controversy with the pagan Celsus began

the open battle between reason and faith which was for
centuries to destroy the independence of philosophy and

break the continuity of

interpretation of the

civilization.

Philo brought to the

Greek philosophers a principle which

was philosophical
an outlook upon
philosophy.

his religious successors

life

came

to

it

with

which was not commensurate with

Professor Bigg, the historian of the Christian

:
'

Platonists, points the contrast

In Philo's scheme knowledge

suffering has no

was more than

faith,

and vicarious

meaning

such words as Atonement and Mediator could not mean to

the Jewish Platonist what they meant to the Christian.'

In other words,

dogma

supplanted reason as the standard

of truth in the Christian school. In the

Patristic theology,

however,

we

find

a close

correspondence with the ideas of Philo as they had been

developed

in

the
is

Syrian School of the second century.

the
'

The primal unity

as Dr.

Unconditional

One

'

',

deified

Zero

',

Hort

called

it.-^

We
He
and

know not what He

is

is,'

says

Clement, 'but only what

limit,

not

He

is infinite,

without
so

form and name

if

we name Him we do

^*

Ibid.

I,

17

VIII,

V, passim.

''

Introd. to Clem. Stroui., bk. VII.

C 2

20

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

improperly.'-^

He

is eTreKCii-a is

roC kvds Kai vvep

avTi]i' \xovaha.
is

The God whom we know

tified

His son, the Logos, who

iden-

with Christ.

All the attributes which Philo attached

to
it

to his poetical

Logos belong
and Origen
-^

in

its
is

Christian guise,

but with the difference that the Logos

separate person
;

now

definitely a
is

explicitly declares he

not

insiibstantivinn, to distinguish

him from the Jewish Logos.

of God,

He

is

the

name and House

activity, light,

His consciousness,
Priest,

living

wisdom,

and image, the High

Melchizedek.

He,

in his turn, is

connected with the world

through

his

cTru-otat,

which correspond with the creative

(powers) of Philo
'
;

and executive

owa/y.eis

and these again

'.

constitute a third hypostasis, the

Holy

Spirit

way the theology of Hellenistic-Jewish monotheism was made to do service for Christian Trinitarianism. The theological It needed only a change of spirit.
In this
doctrines

of

Clement

and

Origen

are

still

nearer

the

theology of the school of Plotinus than the doctrines of

Numenius

and

if

we knew more of the

history of the

Christian school at Alexandria during the second century, we could say with greater certainty how much the one
influenced the other.

The

Christian and

Pagan schools
third

were indeed

in

conscious

antagonism during the

is

century, and that doubtless

the reason

why

Philo, the

guide of the Christians,

pupils of Plotinus.

is

not mentioned by any of the

But, as

we have

seen,

the works of

the Syrian Platonist, Numenius, which on their face reveal

the influence of Philo, were regularly read and

commented
the
father

upon

in

the

school

of Plotinus.

Moreover,

of the Pagan school

26 2

and the

master to
''

whom
I,

Plotinus
8.

Strom. V,

II.
I, 2.

Paedagogus,

De

Priiidpiis,

FROM PHILO TO PLOTINUS

ascribes the root

BENTWICH

21

Ammonius Saccas, was himself originally a Christian and we are told that Origen was his pupil. The inference may be drawn from these
of his system,
;

facts

that

Jewish-Christian

and

Pagan

philosophy

at

Alexandria during the second century to a large extent

grew up together, and that there was no

between
them.
Differences

violent barrier

of

outlook, differences
less

of

method doubtless there were, but none the

had much
in

the schools

common and sources which Foremost among those common sources was
Platonism of Philo
:

they shared.
the religious

and

in

the ultimate development of

ancient
albeit

philosophy those teachings of the Jewish sage,

in

distorted
in

form,

played

an

important part.

Hence, when

the Middle

Ages the Jewish philosophers

thought large elements of

of Spain absorbed

into their

neo-Platonism, they were

in part receiving

back what had

been derived from an

culture.

earlier fusion of

Jewish and external

FORMULARIES OF DECREES AND DOCUMENTS FROM A GAONIC COURT

By
V. Aptowitzer, Israelitisch-theologische Lehranstalt, Vienna.

These

formularies, ten in number, which are published

first

here for the

time, are, with regard to contents, form,

partly, but very

and name, partly altogether unknown,

little

known.

Highly interesting as they are on account of

from a Gaonic court, and indeed, as their
still

their descent

language shows, from early Gaonic days, a

greater

importance attaches to them because of their contents,

especially for the history of Gaonic jurisprudence which
is

shrouded

in

obscurity.

Moreover, they throw light on

communal organization in Babylonia during the Gaonic period, of which we know almost nothing. These formularies have been found by me in the manuscript niDIDNH nsD, cod. Montefiore 115.

As

far as I

know,

Halberstam,
script, is the

who was

formerly the owner of this manu-

only scholar

who has

taken notice of them, in

his introduction to iNl ni3^n, ed. Schlossberg, p. iv, end, but

only

in

a casual and cursory manner, failing at the same

time to perceive their importance.

stam's
notice, the
I'ilb

According to Halberare also

is

same formularies

found

in

manuscript
to me.

HT'i*,

which, however,

not accessible

The

source from

which the compiler of the Asitfot

23

24

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

derived the formularies

not indicated.

But

after

Formulary

No. VII follows on

ND1K'

fol.

148 a-i49a an exposition of

N3TD
docu-

Nnams'

together with the formularies for those

ments, identical with the exposition and the formularies in

the

Responsum Slid are-Sedek^ 86a-87a, and thus

it

is

perhaps not too venturesome to assume that also the others,

or at least the formularies immediately preceding, I-VII,

were contained
originally.

in

that

Responsum which was much

larger

The author

of this

Responsum

is
I,

R. Natronai, as indi-

cated in Slid are Sedek and ItUir^

18 d.

fol.

The Formularies I-VII are I47b-i48 b above, IX and

is

located in the manuscript,

X
p.

are on

fol.

137 b below-

137 d below, VIII

found on

136

a.

have arranged

the groups of the manuscript according to the development

of the cases.
In the Formularies
I

-IV and VIII

reference

is

made

to

the head of the

academy (Nn^TiD en) and the

court of the
in the

academy
same way
(i"in:

(NriTDDT X33),
as III

V
at

and VI are addressed

in

and IV, while

it

VII the Gaon

is

addressed

nipD^).

Thus

is

once obvious that I- VI II come

from a Gaonic court.

In IX, X, on the other hand, such

palpable signs of identification are missing, and only their

language makes certain their Gaonic

origin.

As

to the author of the Asiifot, he

was very probably

the author of

a pupil of R. Eleazar ben Judah of

the npn,

Worms,

whom

he always designates as his teacher Olio),

In view of the fact that with the exception of R. Eleazar

he names none other of the very numerous authors as

teacher,
it

his
in

follows that the

constantly recurring
is

niD

the very frequent quotations from R. Eleazar

title

not a mere

of honour, as Gross, Magaziji, X, 66^ assumes.

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

I

APTOWITZER

25

am

indebted to the liberality of Dr. Hirschfeld, of

offices of

London, and to the good

Dr. Poznanski, of

War-

saw, for the opportunity which was afforded

the

me

to study

MS.

in

Vienna.

I.

iS*jton

ynp

^3

pm

''b'm

I3"y
\s*

.NJ!:n

wp

pnn ps^ NjyninrD

.d^c:'

>nT^i

Nci^'j^ ^p^DT

^NrD^c'^ I'pbci

IV pnnvpn iniDi ynn: ^s^ yain

i'a^

xnun NJDnp
,y3in

yc-c^n

^n^n ysn^
n?^\s

xj^n
n^jn
\ni

^^^y3pN

ab
^i-pn

^ni

poio
5

^2

rir\

[>y3-i]

b^

^^yn

^s

s'nTnm
nriNi

Tj'2\xn
p-iyu^'^i'

nr^::i

.n^n

pnrj'n

N'^

^mn

.njh n-nN3
])r]'b'rD

nu

ab)

/,)2'i>

bv

pn

Nc^t^'^

\)?Di}'bi
ii:i2ipb
NrD^u'i

inn^o
Nn^i'

mtD^nna N:Dnp!? xnavn

Vi:n^Di

.xnTnrDn tiiib

.in^^-y ^in^^ n'j^ui

.p3n> 9

n.
ID

xnnvn
nDOL^]
s-:j3-i

\nnD: .Nnn^no

-i:"-!

NJiron xnn

Dnp^ npn^

^in^b

N^cr

iD

Nni3c[n]-iDi
\n-iv:ni

fjNnc^

^m^c'i
n-!?irD^

nm xd^::' nsD pm
\i2i

.vnvonp
n^ynr

Nymn^

.x^^d'j'

i-yi

^yi

njidt n^bv
n^yinL-n
5

xnjDT

nnarb

s'^roc

>*nD-i
ny:>*

.T-D^n

^yD::^n

xyirD-ki'h

"n

n^^

NSDish mo^^i
xjj^yninD
^vpn

n^jo pp^D^i N^^y^ xb^yi?

n^^

bz nn ^2^

n^j^yapxn
i?2

.n^n^yn
n^iinn

pnnyh n>nibs^
yi^Ej'no^

^2 nrb .Tjn b^ya

irc'-isi

xnm

N:n

x^^n^cf?

.wn

nniio n^2 pnnsi

^i^i *]d njt:' !r2 ni^!?

Nj-iro

i^k

xim

nv^p ^yictrb \T2V Nnoc' ;dt ^nji^ ni?:mnn

.nn?::^'!

.Tr:p!5

xnavn

cnpn

T'y oi^c^n'-a n*:-id 10

26

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEVV

III.

nn\n3
snTnc
-j-n
^'2

(':a '2)) Nn':"33

^rs-n ^rni t<:;2n^

in pd

ins

bi 'pnm npci nn pn^^i 'doidi nsiDi Nn3:n a^i^ip noN san nDon inb sjrynino
Nrn
yD::'D

Nn'i:'^:^ ['a

^m]
^^nn
in

.d^u- nv'"i
ira

N^^n^o^

NJr^n

[n^^] yapn^s

I'd

^n

n^o--n

t<b

yaw

^s wxim
^nio'^'i

;'::;n
,3

sna^nion sann

y'?:-J'i

ynin ^s Nnsi

bv n\n'

xn^ps

Nrrrn

iV2i

.np^y ^3 ^rnns

xh xns

.nnx

bn
n^n^

n^n^
in'C'j'

^n^^'^b

pi nn^n2
?ixi

.t^

inn^i
;'in

snTnon S22
i?:T2

b3
N^
ij3T

pn:N

p^niib so':^

nn\n2n

lya

n^^

^rm

nnn

mr:s in n^xpi
-i2>

n^or-.-n

t^^xc'i

n^^

lanna

.VT ahi JSD

^n^nc'j-n

n\-ni3

nvjr, xn^ n'2^D

cna

.D^y na^

121 nn nyj*

nT^

i:s s',m ^2 nvn n^in

14

IV. naiDi
[^n ^:ai]

5<n/!:"inx

Nn-:'>:3

('Jn

^3i)

xn-j-^^n

^w\x-ii

^:^m

xJ:im^

nv^i ^n>3n

-ir,x

bn '?Tn
yam
[n^^]
p^ni

npi^)
i^2

nn

pnira^

>Dn3i ^0^21)
.D^tr

mm

nn'n2 a^Dipb p2:n

nn ^2n pn^ s^j'ymno

n^icn fi^/m
n^rnnc'Nt

Nxn

ynpn^sn ^y ynnj ^2 ^y
.p?:v

unm

Nn'p2
ah) 5
n^b

srrm
ynn

pn^n nn'n23
x^i
^2l:i

nrrn-J'^si

nhs

N^

n\-n?:-L:'

sh s:n ^np

pDV pn^n ^2 xinn

innm Nnn-nr^n snn by nm> i?:nnxi s:"tP2 n^rn byab

n^D^'2
r\>bv

xnonnxT
n2
"1:121

ir:!n

jyn

.nnx
n^ri''

bn

nm^ xonnxb xn xnronnx

fix

.T^y itnnxi

i?2nnx pnx

pnmib 'D^'ip) xi
id:
x^i
p>
"ir>i

n^cin m-pi ^D^cDip

n2D ^201 n^bu vnn^2i

n^nin 10

xnibv [n]n pbcn

xh

xnc^js '32 .t:2

pnpM

nmnro npyi

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

APTOWITZER

27

wsbi

p3^r3D

\-nDP3i

\nnr''j"i

mL-in
121Dl*'i

mun? xh mvc mnn^

n"-^

myr:!

ini^nani

nnna xds

paon

xh

ri>:vo

pnon

.oi^iy

N-ia!? i:!i

-jd

n:L" i:n

Nim

^d

hti pi

^a

cm

V.

iSn^mx

wSipi ^pnn'>

npi xn^pai ,[NnmnNi]

^d
iSinn

xn'ria N^onp^ p2:n ^d ^n

n^^
p'2i

Dinnw'i
.n':n

n^^

ncnr-^sn
n-a

wnm
xh

^^d
'm^

nvn p.T^cv
nt:3

^ya^

D^^ar^p

n^i
"layi

inn

n^tnh
5

^y Jim ^Nn^niN* ^3 bv

pnm

Njn
H'l

n^^y ^^ap
T~i''

xh xrim
n-nnn
a

ncn

Nt?

nu'yn i^
n^!?y

n^x^ ncN DZ'c^n

^^nd^'i
pr:''

"i-'^*

Nnii-ns
n-^ JT-Nn

un^i xjTps

i^ n^:' Tu'n

imn p
.xn

pDi^ji
'V?~ip}2

p^

!?3

^y pT

ymn
xn:c'

^2^ n^n^

xjo^i^r-Ni

^^D^Doi

N-inai

xnna

n'.nn

ynn:

pn bzh
xrnr!? 10

nnD'

N^

cw

^avn ny

pna nayr^h
ijnr^

Nj^L-ci'i

wXiuis^i

ynan-'i n^n'j'n
n--^

h-'ds-'J

mc-i

n^^

x:aNT pxn ncnro /T-n

.xn-c: ny n^^n ain

n^x xr,D-nx^ n^^

]r\^J2b

nm
^y

^xtj"'

nn bi
^i:p

btb
]22

"-yan

jxo

Db)v^ nij:ix
,^TJ2b
*c'ip^

mncx

^T'c^

xnvj-i
nir

nainj xn xna-nxi

x^i
i:;i

,xt^: ny

pn
15

.D^y h3^

n-^,'!?

-j^i

nnrn

VI.

i^nbpii
.bi ':"ii

xn>pD nin x^T-xn ^cp |^t pj^ x^rymno

n^^nxn xjij:d d^^c'
n>D^>DT

x:)m^

xh

i^^ap

xh xjn no

p^DDn^xn xn^ns lan^i

n>jn ^npi n^^

xnx xncm

^r^^bn

mn

^ya^

.t^

;n?j^

28
-rnnx

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

sh
pnN

noxi ,ymn pa

l?o

xn^nD^ n^yyai /:^d

n>jn bya^

i^^ns

^ivs-

p^mb

^Do^

NT xn^psn ;cn

i>'3

.sn\-iD by

nt

^3 bv 2\n3n\sn [sn^na] xinn p^sn x3\t

bi

.in'rsb
'"'^^

pi bzh
'^"^

N3nV2

^~o^<"i

z^'"^' ^'^

^^'^^^

/^'^

i^^^-''"^

''"^^^^'''

VII.

xniD'^i

xpns

pn bs
n^i?

-i?3sO)

psm
aii

32

-^2

%b
I3i

N^onp xynn n^yan

bs>

in ^si
^^^'"^

xjynnpi

po

I^t

^s n^^

^^

"'^"^

nmr-x no yan:b

n^b

Nnosi ;b th'P xh N:m nnni

Kio^T

.nd^^d!?
.T^

^'ib:b
!^s

p-:-n
is?:i

xpi

i^^rD^

^2>-cn

(o) -jts

^b

n>s nr^xi

n^sn

isi^

bv

snvoh spns nin^h

n':;i

ps:
!?yi

mpai'
[n]\ni!5

^y^n pn^n
.I>J2V

srTm

/b:o

sns

[ynn] (ynn) bs

pnbn n^n
n^b

\mrD-J'i

Db^t:^
n\-ii>

pi
n^b

NmL:h spna nn3i xn^pai

n\sn |xo ^3 by xiyi xnn
10

i)yi

-iM spi

131

nvn^

ynn ino -inx pu^i snr^c'n sn> ^bo xns sbi xnb^Dn
n^ais

b
^an

nrona ybn>

.n^nbao

xnn

xbiyni

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n^^vby

nn] nno sim

Nnn
,i:i

nsb^y S2^i n^aD n'3 n^nyn^

invn^

sm

N*:n ^ny^bim

nv^b

bs n3n sip n>by

n^>pn^

^[nxnnn N:n
n^nb^a: 15
iin'b
'-j'ixo
>:br3i2i

^n^:cn

n^h sy-isi si^ynbi s^cun saiyb b3'cb snrwO

^n^r:-i:n

ynsn^NT jsci
^sonp
s^y^r-i
Nn-L:'^J3

Nnu'?r3i
jdi

j<v33
r\:biir^

pbyn
nnr^i

n^-j'nb

n^oiib

P21

Qn-iO

bu'cn

nn
^^n

N^rm
NDiib-i

^31

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nnnn /T^o ynsn^

^5011b^

spnai

.-inb>b n^3

[n^mn] (iTonc^O
.131

spnab

n^b

ba DV3 nain3 pn 30

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS APTOWITZER

VIII.

29

p
m^^
n^r^n

n^n

ti'iatr

Nns
ynin

n'h'i
!?a

|r

nod
,]>j?Dn

i31

,^2

^:x

sim

'%

nvb Nnn^nr^i
l"?:''w'i

Ninni

nnn

NnnTict xnan

yan:

y3in

^2i?

NTivc'-i

.t"^

n'^i

jn

n^n

L"r:L"
wS*:n

n^b

y^n:^ un3i

pn pi n^n

'J'U^L^^

.por pnbn ^j-no ny

nb inJ^nnuN^

IX.

KsnDSiX

n:tJ'

N:mDip^ nnx
P^w' TiT'

% n^D^s

^d nn ^21

.b {<[jJ3JN2

mm wsnnnD
'ib

bh

pa-i^ "^m

I'Tc 'bvi ^2n ,mr:x '2m N:n

"en*
"b

nnin

^i^ya

N^yanpi ;})icb

p^n^'i

;l":\s*

M^^y

poo
no

.t^ n^Ni
^^

'on'^ D"i2nDi2N 12 ^m'b

p-ij:Ni,p.Tb
n*:?

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n\s-t

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5

ii
i^nb

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NnL"n
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,j!^y

in^ n\si
'yn::*c"i

irnn^i

nnnn

N'j3'L:'in

pnnyn

"^n

''inn

/cn''^

N2nui2x

pn!?

i:f:ih

pmi
'cn"!?
'^n-^)

N:n:N
''zbz

Nj:^''yi

.sjm Nprrix pn^

.Trj"'Di

p2:jnDi
''33

pn^^nvn o^spi
^an^

-^3

^2^

pDODNi NJn
p^XxL-i
p3\n?2'i
,ri'''C'Zi2

N3Dnp

iim

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n^^y

w: ^2n v^nn iX2nD'i2N3

py2C'Di
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yf:c"i

j'nm
'cn'

.td^":

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n'by

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pn^
''D3J

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onnrri

pn-n
iT^

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(n)'"i^y

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n^th^i

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L"j::n:i

n'xn ;sD
cn"^

br' [^vpn]

(lop^) p^roi pn^^-iva dp^?:i

J^'ni^

pnn'2

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'22)
nl2''t^'

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b2^ n^b
15

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pn

^2^

pni:2i

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p2

p'2Dn
p^'-N

nr:?

Nm^n xm^
N2nui2N]

pi Nmn: pi Nnyutr

'r^n'[-t

^2

b2 nbyjn^pi ndii^t pna fo[i] nd^dc' p:i

Nmynyi Nn^yo
^jnn pn pT

P^nTNi Nin i'2n2i ncno ^niDiNn ':nn pn

-^l""

go

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

IDi ID

Sim

r\yj2 i^n ^2 nn ^21

s*:jn

^3 N:mp

mm

n?2

^byn ^2T

.nnos

p'l^^i

^^^'^"'P^

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p^^si

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pn^3T!'r3i

pnv:-^n Vu'^yn p^^s 'Dy:

pn ^2^ siJ^nn Nrn

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nv-ins pari sn^J^nx pan -nr-x

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nuc' b^
/r:n^
i^y

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in ^2^
n-n

p!?^x

xr^pi
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n32\ti

xifonni

Niana

x^onp

25

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

APTOWITZER

NOTES
I,

Setting a Date.

The
to

president of the
a
law-suit

Academy

orders a subordinate court

failing

adjust
is

between

and B,

in

which the

court

to set

a date on which the two parties should appear

of

before

the

court

the

Academy.

With reference
tone
in

to

this

procedure comp. Sanhedrin 31b.

This

summons, and

still

more the

which

it

is

couched, but especially the fact that the

names of the judges all

were
in

this

goes to prove that

Gaon mentions the we are dealing

That the Geonini

here with a court instituted by the Gaon.

the
habit

of appointing judges
ed.
p.

is

known from
No. 180.

the

Responsa of theGeonim,
it

Harkavy,

p. 80,

Harkavy,
case only

is

true,

believes,

ibid.,

356, that this was the

after the fall of the exilarchate,

but the contrary

is

the report of Nathan ha-Babli, Neubauer, II, 86,

the judge of the

known from who speaks of

;

Academy

alongside of the judge of the exilarch

II,

comp. Neubauer, Auecdota,

fact

86,

1.

6 from below.

Also the
that

known from

Saadya's

controversy

with

ben Zakkai,

the exilarch had no jurisdiction over persons residing in districts

subject to the Geonim, leads to the necessary presumption that

the judges officiating in such localities were not appointed by

the exilarch; comp. Neubauer, II, 81-2.

R.

Zadok's explanation in Halakot Pesukot, No. 156,

is

on
that

which Harkavy's assumption

based, proves by no

means

the exilarch had the exclusive right of appointment.

Indeed,

we read

in

Sepher ha-Shetaroth, ed. Halberstam,

is

p. 134,
.
.

where

apparently R. Zadok's explanation

presupposed

NpnS''

3n3 nnn
"'d:.

pi

;nh
NpriD''

'^h

nvjn
vo:

'h
iri

jniJi

v^^rS Nnib:
ja

D'n

nniDC^

Nmium
In
this
II, 158.

ixipj
is

r\ya^T\

nrc-i

j'jnuc

ion

sense

to

be understood
mentioned
nn''*j''

also

Eshkol, ed. Auerbach,

Judges authorized and appointed by the head of the

are
also
in

Academy

Responsa of the Geonim,

b'd'H.

ed.

Coronell, No. 110:

C'SID mc'T

32

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Our Formulary apparently
deals with

a case of refusal to

institute

a law-suit in the appropriate local court.

The

plaintiff

addressed his complaint directly to the Gaonic court, but the adjustment. latter refers it to the appropriate court for peaceful

And

for this

only,

since

the

rejected
is

court cannot render a

decision de

iiire.

The

rejection

admissible;

comp. Baba
ed.

kamma
No. 180.

112

b,

and Responsa

of

the

Geonim,

Harkavy,

Moreover, that the

plaintiff

has the right to bring his

affair directly

before the higher court (^Hjn pn n^n), as Tosafot

loc. cit.,

Baba kamma,
Formulary.
L.
2.

endeavour

to prove,

is

confirmed by our

In reference to law-suits, the Talmudic term

b,

is

p-'j;

N3nn;
final

comp. Sanhedrin 18
is

Berakot 58

a.

But there the

hence
"-pn:?!

sentence

had
the

in

mind, while here the proceedings are

parties,
:

only begun with

'^"^2
is

examination of the
;

'J'-^y

more appropriate
As
to
h'^'O

comp. Megillah 30 b

jrj^yo

xnOT.

in the sense of 'law-suit',

comp. the

biblical-

talmudic
L. 3.

Dnm.
pnnvp3.
is

nvp here means process of

not

law, causa

in this

sense the word

to
it is

known
and

in

rabbinic

literature.

Related

the Syriac nvp in the sense oi propter; comp. Payne Smith,

I, 5
;

s.v. xvp.

11, 7

III, 5

means

'in the presence

of;

III, 10, n-nivpn nnD"" N^I i^nx^

and
'

drink in his company'.

their

N^ C'J''Sn 'nobody shall eat Perhaps our pnnvp^ also means

this

in

presence

'.

Also

in

sense

n^:p

and

""^'p

are

unknown.
LI. 3

and

7.

must be made

to

Before proceeding to the law-suit an atttempt compromise. Comp. hereon Sanhedrin 6 b.

L. 4. ^ih NJOn Miynp'S': appoint a time for and IV, 4. As to the expression, see III,

N.N.

See

II,

Variae Lectioties, ibid., Baba kamma 113 a, 138 a, n. 7, and Sefer ha-Shetaroth, ed. Halberstam,

Mo'ed katon 16 a, p. 272, n. 9, and

pp. 3

and

136; further, Hullin 150 b.

L. 4.

Probably N:n

yrOK^M;

comp.

II, 7

III, 4;

^"d IX, 10

N;n

yctri.

The

latter expression

occurs in Baba mesi'a 70

a.

GAONIC DFXREES AND DOCUMENTS

NJn
yJTB'lDI

APTOWITZER

33

sn^'D

is

employed with the

tacit

supposition that

the proceedings will take place and that the person appearing

before the court will

submit to the decision of the judges.

Barring this supposition, and with the view of a mere appear-

ance
tTDCri

in court, the following phrase

is

used in VIII,

f.

NHN*

yanJ

'the accused appeared'.

Hence

in

III,

6,

where

only one party appears

place, yotri ynin
LI.
ni-'K'Tl

and the court-proceedings cann ot take

is

% xnx
s.

very probably to be read C'OD'I.

f.

NnnTim
II, 3,

N'33 as the

term for the Gaonic court, Hebrew

"lyC,

occurs very frequently in Gaonic literature.

v.

Comp.
consists,

my
no

note on
L. 6.
IT'S

pan.
II,

nnsi, comp.

8 n-a

jmnsi. The warning

to the warning,

doubt, in the threat of

excommunication

in case the person

summoned does
L. 8.

not appear.

As

comp. Mo'ed

katon 16 a and Tosafot,

ibid., s.v.
.

jnntD.

Nn3Vn

1C'T21

To

this

corresponds

II,

f.,

jrt'lSI

II.

Reply.

The

lower court notifies the

Gaon
for

that in accordance with

his order a date has

been

set

and

to

appear before

the court of the

L.
I.

Academy.
official

This preamble in
is

letters

from

inferiors to their

superiors

known from the report of Nathan

the

ha-Babli.
:

The

'"C\>

Gaon of Pumbeditha wrote to spon similarly the latter to

;

Gaon

of Sura
;

pnn npn^

the former

comp. Neubauer,

Anecdota, II, 78.

Perhaps

this prefatory

formula in the corre-

spondence of

one Gaon

to another

was a mere matter of courtesy,

as this must have been the case surely

on the

part of the

Gaon

of Sura.

But

in purely official letters to superiors this

was not

a mere courteous phrase, but was adapted to the circumstance that in the academies all the letters received were read by the
secretaries.

Comp. V,
II,

Responsa of the Geonim,

ed. Lyck,

ed.

Harkavy,
fn-nn

pp. 32, 76, 88, 91, 96, 149, 187, 275;

n''JlC'si
^K',

No. 56;
in

31

Jeshurun, V, 137.

Comp.

addition

VOL.

IV.

34
Jer. 36. 21
;

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Esther
6.
i
;

Ezra
ed.

4. 18.

See also Gittin 19 b and

p.

Responsa of the Geonim,

L.
2.

Harkavy,

no.

Responsum by NrnJOmDl Sherira and Hai to the community of DND, Jeshurun, V, 157. Interesting is the greeting to the children of the Gaon in an
N^DC>

nm

ND^w* in the

official letter.

L. 3.

Immediately

after the

Gaon (and

his children) the

p^n

are

named.

The same

occurs in

the correspondence of one

II, 78.

Gaon
court.

to another,

Neubauer, AiiecJota,

Accordingly they

were the most prominent members of the Academy and the

This follows with particular clearness from the
of Sura
in

fact that

the

Gaon

his letter
\zy\.

to

the
it

Gaon

of

Pumbeditha

employed only the term

our Formulary, an
court,

Now

is

rather strange that in

official
is

letter

from a lower to the superior

no mention

made

of the supreme judge at this court,

the

Ab

Bet Din or S'^m Nyi.

This

is

the

more peculiar since

in this
I

document even the

servants are included in the greeting.

f:n~i

conjecture therefore

that

in

our formula designates the

'::'N"1

Ab

Bet Din and the other associate judges, probably the

n?3 or D^DvN.
here in
tion
is its

For

it

is

very improbable that p31

'

is

employed

and that no menmade of the Ab Bet Din. Also in the correspondence of one Gaon to another the p31 are certainly not mere learned men but the official members of the Academy next
general sense of

learned

men

'

'

',

in rank to the
rh-2 "j'xn.

Gaon, hence likewise the

Ab

Bet Din and the

Thus we obtain
of
tfie

the term p2~l for the

body of high

officials

Gaonate.

We

understand now why the Gaon of Sura

of Pumbeditha employed only the
title

in his letters to the

|:3"i.

Gaon

Alongside of these
officials

jm

there were also other p2~i

active only in the school.

were not

and who were

who They

are never mentioned as p2~i simply, but always with a specification of the degree

of their erudition.

Comp.
])p.

the passages in

Poznanski, Studien zur gaofuiischen Epoche,

associate judges are probably also the
inquiries addressed to the

46-8.

Official
in

p31 mentioned
Africa.

the

Geonim from Northern

Comp.

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

Responsa of the Geonim,
Jeshunin^ V, 137.
ed.

APTOWITZER
27,

35
and

Harkavy, pp. 24,

32,

With reference
to the
latter

to

our Formulary, the absence of the greeting

Ab

Bet Din might lead us to the assumption that the

official at

was not an

the court of the Gaon, but conducted

an independent
effect that there

court, as

indeed we find some statements to the

were two courts in each of the two academies

p. 337 f., and Ginzberg, examination the evidence on But on closer
is

thus Eppenstein, Monaisschrift, 1908,

Geonica,
I,

p.

12.

which

this

assumption

based reveals

itself as

hardly convincing.

Eppenstein points to the superscription

in

Responsa of

the

Geonim,

ed. Harkavy, p. 88,

nn''"J"'n -iyj',

'

where the court of the then n"n 3S

it is

Hai

is

termed

and where
n'n ^S'.

further stated n?0"iin ^'A

fact

Nint:'

13''jnN '':2^

b\'^y^

P"i

But he overlooked the

that in this superscription

Hai

is

designated as px: HTw'"' '^'Nl

apy, that

it

comes therefore from a time when Hai was already

still

Gaon, namely, Sherira being

Sherira's abdication

alive^

from the time between

and

his demise,

between 998 and 1,000.

At

this period the inquiries were disposed of officially by Hai, but

out of

filial

devotion and deferential sentiment he submitted his

decisions, at least occasionally, to his father for advice, thus inviting

him

at the

same time

to

add

his signature.

That the circum-

stances

were such in our superscription can also be verified

fact that with regard to Hai's reply the stereotyped phrase

by the

lyJD^ nsipJI,

common

to all official writs,

is

employed, while

in

reference to Sherira, his

signature
is

being only of an honorary

.T'^y

character, the phrase used

simply

noyi.

The

retention

by Sherira of
was the

his former titles after going out of office

was due
part,

merely to a matter of courtesy and reverence, and on Hai's

result of
filial

duty and respect.

Thus

it

was natural

and a matter of course

hnjn

for Hai's secretary to characterize Sherira's

part in the response by the

remark

'J3^

bmr\ pn n'2 b^
be explained

no-iin D31

nT^M

t^'sn

XTT^:'

l^'iJiniS.
1

In the same way also the super20a,

is

scription in Pa/'^^j', ed. Warsaw,

to

nv''NCi'

vN

HTC'' E^SI pX2 ST'TJ' IDUII

TXT^'' E^'NI

pNJ ^XH

li-iaT 'J2^rD "I^N^J'Jtt'.

Here

Sherira and Hai are academic chiefs at one and the

same

: :

36
time,

THE JEWISH QL'ARTERLY REVIEW

and Hai
is

named

first.

This can only be explained by the

its

theory that at

tlie

time of

composition Hai was

Gaon and
na^'J^'M

Sherira ex-Gaon,

Eppenstein further emphasizes the appellations

lyc'

and bnjn pi n*3

in the superscription in question, arriving at the

conclusion that the former expression designated the court of the

Ab

Bet Din, while the

failed

latter

was used

for the court of the

is

Gaon.

But he
PHJn.
p.

to see that n3''C'M -]T^

find in
r\'2

identical

with pn

nn
149

Thus we
^1'^iri

Responsa of the Geonim,

rh):

ed. Harkavy,
ibid.,

90:

fn

ba

br

ni'-cf'n

nyij'

bn;
:

p.

NnTnm
bn:n pn
^vS-Tj*>
;

xaxn^ nan
'-i:;'v:

wi
ibid.,

n^ai?;
p.

ibid.,

p.

156
^s*

b^^ brym jn n^a^

bv: na^L-'n

'TiDn Nnsa^

215:
II,

n^n

n^ij

-vi^b

q^jil-nt
bc^

^^^

fmin,
:

31, No. 9: n^ijn

:

na^L"'

-iyr

^x

hn:n n"n ^s
pT;
^i;'

/<2A^, VI, 233

n>D^ xna^nan ^iip\

^NIL''^

yj'

S"t:n

ibid..

New

Series,

191 o,

p.

71,

n.

25:

hn:n pn n^nc nh:

I,

na^-ii^n

lyco. Clomp,

also Ginzberg, Geonica,

p. 12.

That

r]y^>7\ nyr' stands for the court of the

Gaon

follows also

from Responsa of the Geonim, ed. Harkavy,

p. 273,

p. 269,

No. 548

No. 551

Fardes, ed. ^\'arsaw, 122 a;

I,

Hemdah Genuzah,
:

No.
po^

37,
7C'
;

and

litur,
is

16

c.

In the two latter places

Sura,
as

na^C^

"lytr

this

the

academy of
is

Harkavy points

out.

That
n^DHD
nn^C'M

this

explanation

true

is

proved by MS. Oxford

2699^^

n^y b'C \"0'h^ ['W'^']

is

px:

nnyo

li^m^.

also

found

in

Berliner-Festschrift,

The term -[W and in p. in,

P'or
nn'':i'\T

Harkavy 's Studien

ufid Mitteilion^cii, V, p. 230.

"lyc

in u letter of Masliah
p. 81.
II, pn:;

Gaon
in

of Fostat, see Schechter's Saadiana,

NnaTlDT N32 also

214;
86
Itiur,
a,
I,

Harkavy,

p. 276,

No. 555

Geofiica,

p.

18 d, from a
15, where,

Responsum by Natronai

nyL",

No.

however,

Wl

U3, as also in
pn!

Asufot, 148 b below.

In the formulary of a NOVC in

nyc',

86 b below

wn

^:i,

and

for

it

in

Asufot, 148 d below,

in the sense

N32

Nna'DDl.
Aptovvitzer,
Reciit,

Concerning N23 and

"lyt:'

of court, comp.

Die syrischen Rechtsbiicher U7id das mosaisch-ialmudische

105-6
;

pp.

comp.

in

addition

Anan

in

Harkavy, Studien

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

und
Aliiteihingt'ii,

APTOWITZER
:

37

VIII,

p. 116.
is

In the ninth century the court

of the Nestorian bishop

IOC. cit.

likewise called y"in

comp. Aptowitzer,

The
also
fits

period immediately after Sherira"s retirement from office

the superscription of the inquiry directed to Sherira and

Hai

in

Responsa

of the

Geonim,
'':t^'

ed.

Harkavy,

p.

187

"lyc*

7N

i'Nna'"'

^^

ci'in; D"'Jn -na

i?X

ni^ia

\>^ r\1^^\ since

indeed there
at the

could not have been at the

same

time.

That Hai's

Academy two supreme courts court is named here 7njn pT n"'2

inclined to
think,

out of
p.

courtesy, as Ginzberg
is

is

Geonica,

I,

12,

very improbable, since this courtesy towards

Hai would have

superscription

been

discourtesy

to

Sherira.

Besides,

this

belongs to the secretary

who had

to adhere to the official style

and could not bestow

titles

as he pleased

and out of courtesy.

to

On

the

other hand,

my

explanation

goes

show

that

the

courtesy towards Sherira was necessary, and a matter of course

even from an

official

point of view.

That the inquiry

is

addressed

to both Sherira

and Hai,

as at the time

when Hai was

still

Ab

Bet

Din,

is

simply to be explained by the fact that in distant regions

Vice became known only after some time. P''t^n"'^J a courtesy paid to Hai in Ittur, I, 61 d
:

Sherira's abdication
versa,
'sn

we

find

m h^ ijn
an

jr-n^i

hn:n pn
is

rr^n

pw

N-in^'

''j:po.

Here Hai's
But

office of

Ab

Bet Din

called pn n^3 out of courtesy.

only pT n^a and not ^njn pn n^3.

Ginzberg, to strengthen his assumption of two courts at each

of the

two academies, adduces also another, seemingly very

powerful proof, namely, the passage in

nin'itr''

Hemdah Genuzah, No.

20:

Ticnr p:n Tin ny^nN.

In

reality,

however, these 'four

courts'
P*1V

owe

their genesis to a

scribal

error or misprint, for in

:

''1yl^',

91 b,

No. 38, the passage reads as follows

nnS3

nn^K'^
is

^n';;'3(C')

pi

nu

nin''D

wind.
;

That

this is the correct text

borne out by the context

the

inquiry,

indeed, reads

'D

Y'a pT

nWD
n"'3

ymstD nnsa

^''nnJB',

whereupon follows the answer

rr?c'

ninvo ya-isno

nnsa

D'-ciy

i^yoc

nS irNi n^

38

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

This passage being disposed
of,

there remain only the passages

Harkavy,

p. 187,

and

Ittui-,

I,

61 d, which

seem

to speak of the
;

simultaneous existence of two courts at each of the academies

both of these passages, however, refer to the time of Sherira and

Hai.

Thus

in

any case, even

if

appearance

is

to

be accepted

as reality,

the assumption of two simultaneous courts must be

confined to the Pumbeditha and

activity of Sherira

the period

of the

common
fact

and Hai.

In this period the contemporaneous

explain
itself

existence of two courts would

by the
could

that

Sherira

and Hai, being

relatives

(DOnp),

not

act
5,

as

judges together
p., ibid.,

in actual cases.

Comp. Tosefta Sanhedrin

i

3,

9 (21 c)

and Shebu'ot
in

(35

b),

Sanhedrin 36 a and

Tosafot, s.v. pN,

Sherira

^TH nyc, 91b, No. 36.

a,

See in

addition Hai

in

piv ny^', 92

No.

44,

ibid.,

85

a,

No.

8,

Responsa of the Geonim,

\..

ed. IMantua,

No. 205.

3.

nSD. Greetings

to the secretaries are not

known from

the Gaonic correspondence.

Greetings from the secretaries to

I

those addressed occur, as far as

in

know, only once, and that

Samuel ben Hofni's

it is

epistle.

/(2^.,

XVHI,

p.

404.

From

this

epistle

evident that there were two kinds of secretaries, plain

at

scribes

mentioned

the very

last,

and the secretary of the

after

Academy, ny^'M

1210,

who

is

named immediately

the

Ab
he.

Bet Din, according to Marx's correct emendation

cit.,

in

JQR.,

p.
p.

771; comp. also Poznanski, Studien zur gaondischeti

48.

Epoche,

Of

the latter kind are no doubt the

after the
in the
\V1'~\

n^D

in

our Formulary, since they are greeted

the 'Nlirrx.

and before
literature.

These

'xnirrx

do not occur

Gaonic

\\'hether they stand in relation to the frequently occurring

or were

'

speakers

'

is

difficult

to decide.

That
is

also the

CN^n Geonim
the
|C:"i"inni

made

use of a speaker during their

ni"'~i"i

known from
H, 84
:

report of

Nathan

ha-Babli, Neubauer, Anecdota,

Dy^ V"13T ycct^l V^y nciy.

Concerning "'N:n, comp. the passages

in Poznanski's Studien, pp. 46-S, and Eppenstein in Monatsschriff,

1908, p, 45Sf.

It

would be worth while also

to investigate

the remark in the mystical composition in Jellinek's Beth ha-

Midrasch, VI,

p.

X3n3 niD'^un psiuy

Perhaps a conclusion

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS may be drawn from

on
festive occasions.
it

APTOWITZER
is

39

that the D^SJn used to recite the

It

prayers

seems, however, that NJn3

a corruption

for Ninan,

which

is

the opposite to

NIoyT nn'bo mentioned there

above.
L.
3.

^NIC"

"Ti"!^:;'!.

These are undoubtedly messengers who

to

were sent by the academies

inspect the courts

the communities

in

order to
affairs,

and

also to regulate other

communal

but especially to collect contributions for the academies.

true that

It

is

such

messengers are

not

mentioned

explicitly

any-

where

else,

but that they formed a permanent institution at the

academies must be assumed without reservation.

messengers we
can hardly imagine

Without these

how

the quite large

sums

That gotten together out of small contributions were delivered. which there were collecting agencies in the communities to
the individual contributions were delivered, report of
is

we know from the

II, 84,

Nathan ha-Babli, Neubauer, Anecdota,

where

it

related that after blessing the chiefs of the

Academy

at the

inauguration of the exilarch the contributions of the individual

communities were enumerated, also

of
the

'

the persons the

who

take care

contributions

until

they

reached
".

school -houses,

nn^'C"!'

yjn::' ly nan^n

n''pDyn?2:;'
its

If,

on the other hand,

would
it

every

community delivered
its

contribution through a messenger

from

midst,

the

waste

in

expenditure

have

been

enormous and wholly

of the academies.

unjustified.

Hence

is

absolutely safe

to say that these contributions were collected

by the messengers
II, 87,

Nathan

ha-Babli,

Neubauer,

relates

further that in times

letters

when money was

to

scarce at the academies

used

to

be sent

the

communities,

urging

them

to

contribute their share and alleviate the needs of the academies.

Who

forwarded these
?

letters
I

and collected the contributions

if

not the messengers

Geonica,
I,

am

surprised therefore that Ginzberg,

2,

note

i,

is

led to the conjecture that 'apostles'

late evidence,

were sent out by the Geonim only on the basis of

and Marx,
requires

ZfhJI., XIII, p. 107,

remarks that
official

this

conjecture

further investigation.

The

name

of these mes-

sengers was certainly not Dn'ps. as Ginzberg,

loc. cit.,

assumes,

40
but, as

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

may be
]jr(jbably

seen

from our Formulary,

officer,

cnibc

The

T'pD

was very

an administrative

corresponding to the

meaning of the word.

L. 4. L.
8.

n'bi^b
"Jl^i:

"n^rb.
l^s*

Comp. Taanit 29 b: n^bm

Nim.
where,
Similarly III,
5,

N^ian.
2,

r.T^
I\',

14 and VIII,
is

7: comp. also

17,
"l^H,

however,

"]:s

not

in

place.

The harmless word

only,

known

heretofore from a single passage

in

plays

an

important part

the

history

of the Gaonic

literature; indeed, serious scholars

it

have sought to deduce from

nothing

less

than the time of the composition of the Halakot

in the

Gedolot.
ed. H"!

For

formulary of a

nvvn
:

D2 in

Halakot Godolot,
"12X

Warsaw, 131a, we find the following

NJ^'im xy:D^
"il^E
;

nn^3
"JJN

Nim

'':il'2

Din

the meaning of

being unknown,

Halberstam,

Rabbinowicz,

Neubauer,

and

Hildesheimer en'n,

deavoured to find therein a yearly date:

the Seleucid era,

2"J

N"y, ^*:N of
to

Comp. Halberstam's
iv,

introduction
to

ni37n

1X1, ed. Schlossberg, p.

ed. Berlin, p.
p. 8.

and Hildesheimer

Halakot Gedolot,
i?y

315

comp. also Epstein, ni^n: m^^n ISD

it

"ICND,
all

Our Formularies now make

"]jN
"]3,

absolutely clear that

the

dates deduced from

are wrong, that the

word can have no

another

other meaning than

'on that and that day of that and that

"'TIT

month

'.

X, 9 NDDST

l^N

makes any attempt

'

at

rendition impossible, the

phrase evidently means

so

and so

many

zuz of silver
p.

',

for

which we have
*]3.

in Sefer ha-Shetaroth, ed.

Halberstam,

62:

jn^n pi

^xWW, Jahrbiicher, V,

160,

who would
that 'they
i.

correct "]3N to

p, came

near the truth.

But how

Halberstam, who
all

refers to y.^ in

our Formularies, can suppose

come perhaps from

is

e.

2": ^S Seleucid,

an enigma.
'

the above-mentioned
"Jis
is

year',

probably connected
',

with the talmudic

'

^2'^^

those

'

',

the others

or

"]3n

'

those

',

these '. In both of these words T is not a plural sign, but they go back to ^^; comp. Margolis, Lehrbuch der aramciiscJien Sprache des babylonischen Talmiids, p. 18,
(in the datings)
9.

Thus

"J3S*

may be

singular

and

plural (X,

1.

11).

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

APTOWITZER

4I

III.

Decree of Excommunication.
his failure to

N. N.

is

excommunicated on account of

appear
is

before court.

Every community cognizant of this decree

also

bound

to

excommunicate him.
excommunication
p. 84,
is

similar decree of

found in Responsa
is

of the Geonim, ed. Harkavy,

where the ban

pronounced

on account of a
ence to

false assertion of insolvency.

nn'TlS.

Elsewhere we find
Harkavy's
a,
is

nothing concerning the contents of the

Ittiir,

refer-

ed. Ven., 33 a

= ed.

Lemberg, 19

not exact,

since there only the superscription reads nn^ns IDC' by mistake,

but the contents are those of an

to

snamN.

Comp.

further below

No. V.

The
sent
plaintiff,

nn^riD,

though written

in

the style of a decree, was not

to the

head of the

court,

but was handed

over

to

the

as

we

learn from

No. VI.

The same

is

true also of

the following formularies.

LI. 1-2.

The same opening

it is

also,

IV, 1-2, while in the follow-

ing formularies

not stated

fully.

These formulas of address

are especially important for the knowledge of the

tution in Gaonic times, since otherwise
it.

communal constilittle

we know very
college

about

Those addressed
^J''m
NJ:a"i,

are,

besides

the

of

rabbis

and

judges,

the
in
a,

presidents

and functionaries of the

the
NOC'^JD
"'C'Si,

communities.

First

order

come
:

in

the

Responsa pnv nyc', 75

corrupted into nu^'C*
Nn:^''J3

No. 14
ed.
in

nVD:3

"ti'sn,

ed. Lyck,
:

No. 10

''::'Sn,

Mantua, No. 41
second

nD'':^''^.

The
to

"Ja

mentioned

the

place are
^11

probably
is

presidents

of synagogues.
to ''3D,

Perhaps, however,

^1

be

emended
and
Tiyn
p.

corresponding to
to Cipr
;

the D^ipT in Sha'are Sedek

b.

ed. Lyck.
"'moi

As

comp. pnv ny:^^ 84

No.
182.

nn^JD^ni

Responsa of the Geonim,

Another

ed.

No. 4 D''JpT Harkavy,

:

112 above, ed. Mantua,

"'3

possibility

for

^J3

is

"Nnn,
ed.

learned

members
No. 554,
p. xliii.

of the

community.

Comp.
(Etivres

Responsa,
completes de

Harkavy,

and
\sn3

Harkavy
is

in

R. Saadia, IX,

also

found in a MS.

42

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

com p. Lewin, Prolegomena
and
after
last

of Sherira's Epistle, Aiisgabe

zu

eniei-

ueuen

vom Sendschreiben

des R. Scherira Gaon, pp. 2 7-8.

Then
in

follow the secretaries

them the
place.

''DJ"12

also

Shdare Sedek they occupy the

from the
it

From

this

as

well as

fact

that

they are

named

next to the

^B'N~I

nVD33,
puts
it

follows with

certainty

that they
p.

were not, as Gratz

of compresidents

{Geschichte der Jiiden,

Y\

139), presidents
"'u'Ni.

munities and identical with the nrDJ^

The

proper were the nVDJ^ TX~I, called by Nathan ha-Babli, Neubauer,

II, 85,

pnpn

''u'XI,

while the "iDona were subordinate administra-

tive officers.
'

After the ''DjID follow the

'.

nn

pnbs, which
to

render

other functionaries
i.e.

Improbable seems
officials, "13L"3

me

the translation

'free workers',
for

unpaid

^\y

~|13V

"'mV2

D''pDiy,

such were also the

*DJ"1D

and

Nnu"'J3

''L"N"I.

munal
certain

leaders paid already at

that

time

Or were comThen indeed the

those
to

Babylonian communities were as modern

great

in

days as a

community
the
'^^'^'^1

in

Europe
are

is

striving

be

in

our

days.

At

last

'''-\'P'o

named, hence

also they were

communal
L.
3.

officials.
''^"'^n.

nV''1

Comp. Responsa,
V,

ed.

Harkavy,

p.

31 below,

172,

No. 344.
7.

L.

VIII,
pnv,

4.

Nn^S. Comp.
a,

Comp. IV,
e.g.

4, 7;

2,

YI,

i,

5, 8

VII, 9

Responsa, ed. Harkavy, pp.32, 76, 187; nyc'

87

No. 15 end; Jeshurun, V, 137.

i, s. v.

See also the places

indicated above, to II,

LI.

npn\
16
a,

lo-ii.

Comp. Mo'ed katon

above:

Tl'Lyi

^'3N"I1

IV.

Stringent Excommunication.

The
ban
is

plain ban having proved to be ineffective, the stringent

pronounced over the disobedient person.

is

In a smaller

frame and in Hebrew the Nnc"inJ<

of R. Paltoi, Sha'are Sedek, 75
ed.
a,

preserved in the

Responsum

No. 14; ed. Mantua, No. 41,

II,

Lyck, No. 10; and Orhoth Hayyim,

504.

Comp.

also


GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS
Nimuke Yosef
As
to

APTOWITZER

43

ever, occurs neither in Alfasi's

Baba kamma 113 a from Alfasi, which, howcompendium nor in his Responsa.
excommunicated,
Coronell,

to the contents, concerning the wife of the

n''D~it:21p

comp.

nron, ed

109 a below.

There

is

hardly any need to demonstrate that in our Formulary the older,

original
LI.

form of the Nncinx

9-10.
10.
inD*T,

is

preserved.

&C.
n"':**^'

Comp. HuUin
in

13 a below.

L.

n"mn

R. Paltoi's

Responsum.
:

.THTIfc.

So

also in ed.

Lyck and Orhoth Hayyim

inTin:)

in

Shdarc

Sedek vniJirc, miswritten from vnUITO.

Mitteil., IV, p. 357.

Comp. Harkavy,
is

Sfi^d.

und

The

reading vmJITD

against the Baraita

Mo'ed katon
in

15

a,

njup

T\\in

P'wiyi.

Comp., however, R. Isaiah

3,

R. Nissim to Alfasi Mo'ed kalon

is

No. 11 84, whose explananot complete

the

tion

certainly
II.
(i.e.

due

to the reading vm^ir?:;

L.

Nni^V .Tn p^?2n N^.

the

Ye

shall

prayer

quorum
:

necessary for public prayer) with him.

In

Sha'are

Sedck

loy

I^^DHn

^N'1

missing

in

ed.

Lyck.

In the ban-decree in Coronell's "DIDJip iT^on, 109 a below:

mtl'yn
IJrrn"'

N^.

Comp. MisJmeh Torah, Talmud Torah,

ad
loc.

7, 4,

and

Kesef

MishiteJi,

LI. 13-14.

Mnm

to r\h

is

missing in R. Paltoi.

For \nnr3l

we should probably read

'

^nTT-^l

or Minr^l, from the root nr:

rebuke'

as

:]TJ.

r\h Ty:^T. N^l .Tjv^ ;i3Dn N'h.

is

As object Nnjn'3
to

or a

word of

a similar meaning, oynvo, nvo,

it

be understood.
to give

In the rabbinic literature

presents

is

not expressly forbidden to accept

and alms from an excommunicated person and

is

such to him, but such a prohibition

the 'exclusion from society'.
tion
is

probably inferred from

Among
a
1^^'N

the Karaites this prohibi-

expressly emphasized.
ed.

Comp. Benjamin Al-Nahawendi,

:

po^n nxK^c,

Goslow,

nir^y:

nS

iDi^c'a

^sr: s^

nD3

comp. Bashyazi, 1,T^N miN',

ed. Odessa,

inc.

This goes
Mitteil.,

back to Anan's Book of Precepts,

VIII,
p.

in

Harkavy's Stud, und

n*^i

14

vS-j'c r\^^r\i

pnay xh pj tni

r\^^r\i piynt:'r:

nS

44
n^^
'

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

n^m
JN03 n^b
',
'

p-n'j'ni n-'^y
'

deal with

buy

iron-iD. Rut perhaps 2D: here means comp. Mo'ed katon 15 a and Mishneh Torah,

min
is

niobn,

7, 5.

similarly, as

we have

seen, also
is

Anan.
to

There

also a third possibility, namely, that NnriN

,

be taken as

object of 3D3
against

so that our sentence

would contain a prohibition

matrimony with an excommunicated person.

Of

this

there

is

no

trace

in

rabbinic literature.
{loc. cit.)
:

Anan, on the other

r\b

hand, has the following

n^nn"'X^
^si -T-yD.

frcnSD Nin

x-|3:

''N'

nJ^D ni2ib n>b j^k'-isd s^n snrr'N

L. 14.

nnna nd3

ididc^i.

Comp.
loc.

oian

ns-'ni:',^

Mishnah
removed,
the

Zebahini 96 b below, and Rashi, ad

The

rinsing of the cu[)

is

was probably a symbolic action

so the excommunicated
is

as the rinsing water

removed and separated from

28 b and Kiddushin 60

community.
tion,

Comp.

similar

symbols of banishment and separac,

the nvvp Ketubboth

and the
'"lyC',

throwing back of lumps of earth after the burial,

pn
Or

21,

No. 19
171
p. b.

Mdaseh ha-Geonwi,
ini^''nnm,

ed. Epstein, p. 51

Zariea, II,

&c.

Comp. Halachoth
N"113V

Gedoloth, ed. Berlin,

r\h
\T'^^y(y^
|i5

427, from

Mo'ed katon 16 a:
n|?13n

NJOl

(Ezra 10. 8)

br\po bny' Nini n^nsn.

is

In our texts of the

Talmud
pn"':a

this

passage
2

missing.
inix

Comp. Benjamin Al-Nahawendi,

De::'D

nN::^D,

i:r2D

bna: nc'

v^y

bi\>''

n^ dn

L. 16.
is

nd:''P

-)3Tn
'

am

unable to explain.
cling.'

Perhaps prnTi

the right reading,

wrath shall

V.

Decree about Seizure of Property.

is

The

creditor

authorized to take possession of the property

belonging to his debtor.

The Nn3"nN
b,

is

often mentioned in
a, S:c.

the Talmud, comp. Baba kamma \\2

Baba batra 169

Alfasi,

Concerning

this

document, see Responsa,

Halberstam,
p.

No. 272; Sefer

Torah,

ha-Shetaroth,
ni?1

ed.
;

f.,

and Mishneh
loc.

ni7D, 2 2, 5

and Kesef Mishneh, ad

There are two

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS'

APTOWITZER

45

kinds of NnsiHN, the one concerns the property found in the

possession of the debtor,
seize the

the

other authorizes the creditor to

immovables of the debtor which have been aUenated since the loan. In our Formulary the former NH^mN is involved.
For other formularies of
p. 4,

this

xn3"nN, see Sefer ha-Shetaroth,

and

Ittur,

I,

19

a.

LI. 5-7.

'nnn, &c.

Deut. 17.

n
we

comp. Shabbat 23
1.

a,

pNni

"lion

N^D i:iV. NTl^niN ^3 ^y

NJLDvK'Xl, &c.

"I3yi

in

is

peculiar.

LI. 8-9.

Since

deal here with a refractory

debtor, the

Nn2llN extends Baba kamma 112b.

LI. 12-14.

also over the immovables.

Comp.
is

To

bear witness

before a non-Jewish court

forbidden according to Baba

kamma

113 b below.
is

It

is

only
in

allowed in the case when the Jewish court

the debt.

unable to

call
4,

Comp. Responsa, Shdare

^edek,

84

h,

No.

ed.

Harkavy, No. 233.

\'I.

Decree Removing the Ban.

When

the refractory debtor, against

whom

a Nn^riD was issued,

subsequently becomes penitent and submits to the regulations of

the court, the NITTIS
is

torn;
to

comp. Baba kamma 113a.

But

now

the creditor,

summoned
it;

produce the NHTlS, maintains that

he does not possess

hence the court revokes the ban and issues

to the debtor a decree to that effect,

by means of which he can

all

accomplish the revocation of the ban by

the courts.

The
by
its

name
'

of this

decree

is

xnPpN

'alleviation';

judging

contents
discharge

we
',

should

rather

expect

the

designation

Nn^TlN

Such a decree
even by name.

is

unknown

to talmudic

and gaonic
as far as

literatures
I

Only Judah ben

seems

Barzillai,

know,

mentions

briefly in his Sefer ha-Shetaroth, p.

136 below, a ^TO

n"inn, which, however, in

to

be only the formula employed

removing the ban and not a legal document.

removal of the ban
is

The formula

for the
p.

preserved in Responsa, ed. Harkavy,

234.

Comp.

also Responsa, ed. Lyck,

No.

11.

46

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

VII.

Decree of Ban for obtaining Evidence.

imprecations
',

Nmo^
has for

'

is

the term used

for the

ban which

its

purpose a confession on the part of the debtor or

a statement on the part of other people.

The

ratification of the
is

ban

in

writing,

which contains also the formula of the ban,

This term and the cases
in

called NniO^T Npn.

which a NpflD

Nmc^T
No. 9
;

is

executed are mentioned several times in the gaonic

literature.

Comp. Responsa,
No. 333.

ed.

Miiller,

No. 22

ed.
p.
i
;

Lyck,

Hemdah Genuzah, No. 137;

Comp.

ed.

Harkavy,
p.

and
Sefer

especially

also Harkavy, ibid.,

396

lia-Shetaroth, ed. Halberstam, pp. 134

and

135.

As a means for obtaining evidence the ban is of gaonic origin. -|SD3 und RAbD. Comp. Rashi, Shebu'ot 38 b below, s. v.

mm

to

Mishneh Torah, niynu',

Sha'are Sedek, 42

11. 13.

See

also, in addition to the

gaonic passages already mentioned,

165
75
;

Hemdah Genuzah, No.

22,

a,

70

b,

a,

kofh,

No. 13 end, 75 ed. Miiller, No.

b,

No.

17,

No. 83, 71 a, No. 3, 73 a, No. 9, 77 a. No. 32 ; Halachoth Pessu186, No. 454, 480,
2,

94,

13; Responsa, ed. Lyck, No. 9; ed.

p.

Harkavy, No. 97, 169, 170, 182, 184, 333,

494, 496, 498, 513,
p.

271

ed. Coronell,

No.
190,

3,

40, 72, 96

end;

ed. Miiller,

43 b below, No.
I,

189,

192,

193,

217;

CJVJ'S-i V:^ jnTin,

49, No. 13; ed. Cassel, No. 13, 43, 148;

17, 26,
39,

ed.

Mantua,

No.

10,

235,

240,

275,

298,

341;
''"lyB',

Geonica, II. 290;

Saadya
I,

in Isaac
a,

ben Reuben,

niyili^

chap.
r.DH.

3,

end;

Iltur,

37 b, 38

6 d.

Comp.

also Aruch, s.v.

Especially remarkable

is

the ban over those

evidence but
h'y'O

fail

to

do

so, as in our Formulary,

who can furnish 6 ynn 73 ^y

1.
:

Nnx

xbl.

This ban, the ban over witnesses,

is

not

only
5.
i

non-talmudic, but apparently even anti-talmudic, since Lev.

is

referred to by the rabbinic tradition to certain definite persons

4,

comp. Shebu'ot

Tosefta,

ibid.,

2-3, and Sifra to Lev.

5.
all
i

5.

i.

The
in

Karaites, however, construe Lev.

in

the

sense

that

the Bet

Din pronounces the ban over

so that they

those

who can

testify

an

affair,

may come and make

their statements.

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

Comp.

APTOWITZER

47

Bashyazi, I1TPN n~i~iN, ed. Odessa, 218 c-219 b, where this

is

conception

expressly designated as opposed to the teaching

1]}

of the Rabbanites:
-o*^

Nini

rhu Sp nyoD'i ain^n

irDNC'
"is*

no pi
hn") ix

pn n-a lonn^'J'^
a''^n

n
n2

p^'in ijiy n::oi n^r n*^

iS^

dn

yn"'

^nnyn nyinca
D>n^M

lyni tv"\

nu^

''Ji^'d

pjy!?

nny

ynv*^

Dnyn
onis

pxir
nn"*

nose
p ds

nbzpn 'bv2 nyn^

x^s*

s'^

^o^cann b^ nyn

yainn

nnyn nyuu'n.

In the ban over

witnesses we have therefore a gaonic institution which agrees

with the Karaite interpretation of a biblical passage and Karaite

practice.
It is

impossible to credit the Geonini with the adoption of

institution,

a Karaite

hence the ban over witnesses must have

it

been of Rabbanite origin, and since

to Lev. 5.
r,

goes back undoubtedly

;

comp. pnv nyC', 87

i,

a,

No. 17

comp. also Ibn Ezra

on Lev.
Karaite,

5.

the interpretation of this verse

we know

to

be

must also be much older than the Karaites.

it

This

interpretation corresponding as
biblical
text,

does to the
the

literal

sense of the
tradition,

was adopted

despite

conflicting

while

the

traditional interpretation

was confined to the contestify.

sequences only of the refusal to

very

important
witness-ban

testimony in favour of the high antiquity of the

and

its

source, the Karaite interpretation of Lev.

if

5.

i,

would be

available

the fragments published by Schechter in his Documents

I,

ofjeivhh

Sectaries^ vol.

were

really the

remains of a

'

Zadokite
I.

work
in

',

as assumed by Schechter in his introduction, and

Levi

REJ.,

1911-12.

In these

fragments
:

we

read,

according
lost (any-

to Schechter's translation, p. xlvi

thing),

'And he who had

it

and

it is

not

known who

has stolen

from the tent of the

camp

in

which the thing has been

:

stolen, its

owner

shall proclaim
if

(Schechter

it

by) the oath of cursing, and whoso hears,

it

he
:

knows and
ynti'^

utters

not,

he

shall

be

guilty.'
13:j

Text,

p. 9,

11.

10-12

3:a

n^N n^non

(nybro)

isod

^o yniJ xbi nnixn

bn

DB'Ni yv^

kS

Nin ynv dx

yoitj'ni

n^xn nyinK^a vbyn.

II,

L. 12.

X^jyni, &c.

Comp. Orhoth Uayyim^

504.

48

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEWLI. 13-14.

The required supplement was made by me

for the p.

in accord-

ance with the formula

ed. Harkavy,
loc.
cit.

removal of the ban in Responsa,

ITCn.
14-15.

234. //vV/., W-DTW Comp. Or^of/i Hayyim, As to the change into invn\ Ps. 52, 7: nvn\
a,

comp. Shebu'ot 36

and Aptowitzer. Das

\).

Schrifttvort in der

rabbinischen Literatur, I (Prolegomena),

27.
7.

Comp. Deut. 28. 26 L. 16. Comp. Ps. 109. 18. Comp. Baba mesi'a LI. 16-18.
LI.

Jer.

33.

4.

i.

See also Responsa,

ed. Lyck,

No. 115, 35
NDII^n.

a.

L. 19.

Comp.

further below,

No.

9,

1.

14.

VIIL
The defendant
plaintiff failed

Decree of Postponement.
has appeared
twice

before

court,

but the

to

appear;

wherefore he loses for a period of

the

thirty

days the right to

is

summon

defendant

before

court.

This

a kind of postponement.
there
is

In the talmudic and gaonic

decision.

literature

not the slightest vestige of this

is

In

this

literature no mention whatever

made

of the case where

Thus we find the plaintiff does not appear at the fixed date. preserved in our Formulary an important decision bearing on the
talmudic-gaonic court procedure. For another decree of postponement, comp. Sefer ha-Shetaroth, p. 91, and Ittur, I, 18 a.

comp. Harkavy, Stud, und and MitteiL, IV, p. 390, and Sefer ha-Shetaroth, pp. 90-91, Halberstam's remark thereto ; comp. in addition 7C' imin

As

to

the

meaning of

cnt:c',

n''J1C'N"l,

I,

26, Sha'are Sedeh, 91 a below.

IX.

Decree concerning Guardianship.

Smiilar
/llur,

N. N.

is

appointed guardian over the orphans N. N.

are

formularies
I,

found

in

Sefer ha-Shetaroth,

p.

J,

and

29
L.

c.
2.

>^m, &c.

On
;

this

formula, comp. e.g. Responsa, ed.

Harkavy, No. 323, 324

ed. Miiller,

No. 19

Geonica, II, 288.

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS

LI.
7

APTOWITZER
this
2,

49

and

14.

N|':''n^<.

For the explanation of

II,

word,

comp.

Ginz.berg,

Gconica,
p.

p.

211, note

and Aptowitzer,

Monatsschrift, 1911,
LI. 9-12.

637.
mesi'a 70 a,

Comp. Baba
is

and Rabbinowicz, ad

loc.

L. 16.

NriTH

the ban introduced by the

Geonim

in place

of the oath of the Torah.

Comp. Responsa,

ed. Cassel,

No.

13,

43, 150; Henidah GenuzaJi, No. 22,

further Responsa, ed. Harkavy, pp.
i,

On

the expression, comp.

114, No. 340, 387, p. 271

below, 272, 273 above, No. 551 end, 556;

;

Sha'are Sedek, 41 b.
;

No. 38, 70 b, 71 b, 73 a ed. Miiller, No. 88, 97 end, p. 43 b Geo?iica, II, 290 ed. Mantua, No. 105, 265 Sefer ha-Shetaroth,
;
;

PP- i3> 37) 43> 62.

to

Comp.
sruyo.

also

the

passages adduced above,

No. VII,
L. 17.

s. V.

xniD^.

Nmyiyi
p.

Comp. Halberstam's remark

ed.

in Sefer

ha-Shetaroth,

147,

and Responsa,

Harkavy,

p.

186.

NDOB'
LI.

|D,

&c.

17-18.

Comp. above, to No. VII, s. v. sniD^. Comp. Harkavy, loc. cit., and Sefer ha- Shetaroth,

PP- 9. 13-

X.

Decree by Court concerning Public Sale.

court was compelled to
sell

The

a portion of the estates of

the orphans in order to provide their sustenance.

effected through auction to the highest bidder.

The

sale

is

The

sale is legal

and hence unimpeachable.

pp. 61-3; comp, also
ibid., p.

Comp. hereon Sefer ha-Shetaroth, 16. The emphasis in maintaining

is

the legality and immutability of the sale

that the people

explained by the fact

who bought auctioned goods from the court were not popular; comp. Ketubbot 100 b NDn^NT ''D3J ''^DK ^11. L. 4. ''Til, &c. Comp. above, to No. IX, 2. L. 9. D"'3n pp-riD. Comp. Arakin 6. i. L. 16. Comp. Sefer ha-Shetaroth, p. 43, 19. LI. 17-19. Comp. Responsa, ed. Harkavy, p. 164, and 6'</e';:

1.

1.

ha-Shetaroth, p. 18.
L. 21.
b,

nDtrn ^DD1D3 S'^m xn3?:DS3

ed.

t^/T.

Comp. Baba

batra

and Responsa, 44 VOL. IV.

Harkavy, No. 421.

go

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Supplement.
I,
1.

3.

mp

and

^Vp in
i-liS,

the sense of law-suit probably goes

in

back to Arabic

^,

Hebrew
in

script

^i'p,

n^i'p.

This

Arabic verb occurs once more

rabbinic literature, in the

Targum
1907,
II,

to Prov. 17. 14

xnp

judge.

Comp.

Aptowitzer, REJ.,

p. 58.
1.

3.

wording also

in

The Responsum nn33 men, No. 20, with the same Mdaseh ha-Geofiim, ed. Epstein, p. 73. NevernyL^ is

theless the text in pnv

Ibid.

proved to be the only correct

the

text.

For

jm

being

designation

of

the

Gaon

of
des

Pumbeditha, comp. Lewin, Charakteristik und Biographic

Rabbi Scherira Gaon,

Ibid.

p. 3.

to

the

The reference of the Responsum, time when Sherira withdrew from

from
i.

ed.
his

Harkavy,
office

p. 88,

and the

refutation of Eppenstein's deduction

this

passage are further

supported by Lewin,
Ibid.

loc. cit., p.
na'^w'^
'=

11, n.

To
r'^'

PD''^"J'
'^'^"^"i^

"W'^',

comp. also ha-Goren,

n. i
;

I,

p.

91

n'ono

Ty

Lewin,

loc. cit., p. 3,

Marx

in

JQR.,

New

Series, II, p. 90.

III,

NHTID.

On

the meaning of decree of excommunication

II,

comp. Nathan ha-Babli, Neubauer, Anecdota,

Responsa, No. 150, superscription
II, p.

86

Maimonides,

mnn

nnTlD, see Orhoth Hayyim,

115; Ritba

to

Mo'ed

k.

Rashi to Ps. 55. 22, and the

Comp. in addition commentary of Solomon ben ha17 a below.

p. 87,

Yatom
III,

to
1.

Mashkin, ed. Chayes,

2.

and notes 3-4.

5, 5,

xn'J"JD "3 pn.

ibid.,

In Bekorot

Tosefta,

ii>id..

Ill,

end;

Babli,

36

Z^

below nCJ^n "n designates learned people

of a lower grade.

lY,

1.

OdiiSI).

Perhaps

this

word

is

not simply a miswriting

of nsiDljbut ^D-n)=: superintendent, hence similar to the following

'Dns.

As
9

officials

of Babylonian communities the '"DTiD are

men9
a.

tioned Shabbat 154 a and

Yebamot 45
xbl.

b.

Comp.
8.

also

Yoma

IV,
lY,
p. 25,

1.

f.

Comp.
Nni^V

Sefer ha-Shetarot, p.

1.

II.

n^:i

p^on

Comp. hereon Mahsor

Vitry,

No. 45.

GAONIC DECREES AND DOCUMENTS APTOWITZER

VII.
xniuS.

51

Comp,

in addition ^(/^z- ha-Shetarot, pp.

Vitry, p.

7,

38,

43> 54, 60,

74; Mahsor

795, No. 567, p. 796, No. 568

and 571, P- 797, No. 573. Ibid., p. 798, we find the following Gaonic ordinance (D^JInj n:pn) n^2 n3 LT^ m^as* 1^ m2N'J' ^ni
:

17

nos':;',
!

hence

a/;^.r/

verbatim as

in

Schechter's

Zadokite
ed.

fragments

Comp.
a,

also
b,

Responsa Meir of Rothenburg.

159
a,

Bloch

(Budapest), 24

158
,
.

160

a.

IX,M.

2.

X>y

vm.
315;

Comp. Halakot
Alfasi

gedolot, ed.

Warschau,

131a, ed. Berlin,

Vitry, p. 791
;

p.

Yebamot XII end; Mahsor

Sefer ha-S/ie/arot, pp. 26, 54.

IX, j. 16.
62, 74;

Nmn:

Comp.

in addition Se/er ha-Shetarot, pp. 38,

Mahsor

Vitry, pp. 796, 797,

POETIC FRAGMENTS FROM THE GENIZAH

By Israel Davidson,
Jewish Theological Seminary of

America.
IV.

Poem by Elhanan ben Shemaryah.

The

following document, which Dr. Cyrus Adler was

kind enough to put at

of Genizah
as
1

my

disposal,

is

found

in

a collection

MSS. which
It

he brought from Cairo as early

single

891.

consists

of a

sheet
in.)^

of

parchment,

measuring 29-2 x 11-4 cm. (11^x4^

sides.

written on both

The

writing

is

in square characters,

and with the

exception of the

last line is legible

lines, thirty-nine

throughout.
of which
fill

The poem
one side of

comprises sixty

the sheet and the remaining twenty-one occupy the reverse

side, the rest of this side lines

being

left

blank.

The

first

sixteen

contain in acrostic the sixteen letters of the

''an"'3

name

of

the author innou'

]:rhii,

while each alternate line of

the remaining forty-four lines begins with one of the twenty-

two

letters of

the alphabet.
is

While there
of this

no positive evidence to prove the identity

Elhanan

b.

Shemaryah, there
is

is

equally no ground

to doubt that he

the well-known scholar of

Kairowan

who corresponded

with the

Geonim

Sherira and Hai, and

was the teacher of R. Nissim.^

^

If this

surmise

is

correct,

This statement

is

in direct opposition to the opinion of Poznanski,

who

holds that Elhanan

was

the pupil of R. Nissim

{\i<'\'\''p

""trON,

No.

ii).

He

bases his opinion on a passage in Gabirol's poem, addressed to R. Nissim,

53

54

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

then this document

the

only poetic composition of

his letter collecII,

Elhanan that has come to our knowledge, unless

to the

community

of Jerusalem,

now

in the

Oxford

tion of

Genizah MSS. (Neubauer and Cowley, Cat.

a), is

2873, 21

likewise written in the poetic style.

The
makes

style of the
letter C/(?i?.,

poem reminds
XI, 643
ff.).

us very
it

much

of the Hushiel
it

While

has no metre,

use of rhyme, parallelism, and biblical allusions, and has also

a number of talmudic phrases.

The language
is

is

in several
I

places obscure, but because the writing

very clear

refrain

from making alterations

to introduce

in

the

body

of the poem, preferring

my

corrections in the notes.-

There

is

one
In

linguistic peculiarity

which

is

worth especial notice.

of the word
''3

a number of cases the vowel

Yod

is

elided,

and the consonant

is

combined with the following word.^

it

Although the poem seems to be complete

does not

contain any direct statement as to the time or the circumstances of

its

composition.

It

opens with a eulogy of the

learn truth

men who

acquire

wisdom and

and

justice,

who

shun the path of the perverse and keep the commandments,

the inheritance of the righteous (vv. 1-7).
It

then speaks

where Elhanan
p. 37,
1,

is

referred to as the y:^T\ of R. Nissim (Brody. T'J'n

"ISJw*,

14).

It

is,

however, impossible that Elhanan,

in the

who was
word

already
sit at

famous as a scholar

days of Sherira, should in his mature r years

the feet of a younger man.

We
a,

must, therefore, construe the

"{''jn

in

some other way than

script as
father, or

its

ordinary mean-ng.
ir^fl

According
inJ''3n

to
is

D'IDID ''pHpl
given in manu-

the passage in Mo'ed katan 25

nQN

nVQ,
is

13*jn

n^N

in3"'3n

nya.

Hence yir\
*T'3n),

used in the sense of

likely

educator (see also Jastrow, s.v.

and Gabirol very

refers to Elhanan as R. Nissim's teacher and not his pupil.

2

Where
The

the reading

is

very obscure

leave the text unpointed.

:

'

following are the words in which the elision takes place

'3
;

Ver. 53,
for

lN":'33 for IKtJ'3

ver. 54,

n>yj'1D^3 for
;

U"i^^^

^3

ver. 56,

1DND3

1DK0

ver. 57,

T^'iTX'^

for

pyn O

ver. 58, -Ufina for

inn

'3.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

of the

DAVIDSON

55

men who proved

unfaithful to the traditions of their

fathers and, because of their pursuit after gain, found

profit in the
(vv. 9-14).

no

study of the law but

much

weariness of flesh

the

From them the poet turns abruptly to speak of men who search after knowledge diligently and who
great
privations
for

suffer

the

sake

of their traditions

(vv. 15-28).

And

just as abruptly
'

he comes back to the

wicked and the foolish who rebel without understanding

and transgress without ascertaining the truth'

bonds as

(vv. 29-33),

who, ignorant of the law, yet speak with haughtiness,

break
all
if

and

to

them alone

all

the land was given

(vv. 34-40).

Then, once more, the poet turns to eulogize

their faith, as well as

men who gave up their lives for those who left their homes and their
the

possessions that they

might
poet

keep the law intact (vv.

tells

41-6).

And,

finally,

the

us that these refugees found shelter in

Rome,
that

Teman, and Kedar, and concludes with an invocation

the great deeds of these

men may

bring everlasting grace

upon them.

By Rome

he very likely means the western

countries of Europe,

and by Teman and Kedar he means

in general.

Yemen and Southern Arabia

It
is

evident, therefore, that the poet has in

mind some
is

definite events,

and we

are justified in assuming that he

very probably speaking of

the

persecutions

under the

Fatimide Caliph Hakim, which lasted from 1008 to 1020,

and extended over Egypt, North

(Graetz, Gesch.,

Africa, Palestine,

and Syria

V^

388), a fact

which explains why the

refugees found no other haven than Europe and Southern

Arabia.

56
>

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

cnD',!:^

n:nri

p'^ri]

^n^rn n^'d nns

''i.B'X

'

nniB'N Dnn'j'i? yi^o ^5|Din

^

yi?o'j'

Nil
nsi^

nne?^ n^np n*^io

c-jj/'nio

vni^'c^
^3dn"i

''

.n'iDn D''sn23

iin-'

n;1

i-,annn
13

DnTO cnny

^n'3'"i>*

nb-i

ipC'
,-

Dnjn -T -

n''3inD C'333 T

xm

n^ inyD T -; n^
indies']

cnNTi pwi ns;n

xi*?2ri

The introductory
1.

eight lines are in greater part a paraphrase of Prov.

3.

13

and
'

3-6.
*i:nr:L"
"'2,

Cp. im^T'J'c

Mai.

3. 14.

Cp. Prov.

2. 15.

''

The

text

is

obscure and ver3' likely corrupt.

I'tiX
f)D"in,

Read perhaps yi?2C

18. 16

Nl'3

C*"l*u'N
17. 5

CTlt-v
'

and with reference to Deut.

and Ps.

render

To

continue to hear ^the voice] of the creator, to strengthen

the steps of the survivors'.

* J

The verb "OTOCv

is

to be supplied at the

beginning of

this verse.

I suggest reading

DnDn CNnSS
3,

C'p.ynO IC'T]
:

"nj

triil
to

and with

reference to Po. 55. 15 and Eccles. 10.

render

He

chooses

throng [the

house of the Lord] rather than, be punished

standing]
^'>

like the fools

[whose under-

fails

them
I. 1

'

Cp. Abot
'

3. 13.

^1

Cp. Eccles.

12. 12.

'-

The

students have to watch the gates [of learning] evening and morn8.

ing.'
rests,
13
is,

Cp. Prov.

34

howe, T/ie Mislniah on which

. . .

the Palestinian

Talmud

Berakot

1. 1,

4 (^D'lnc'n

caiyn

y?2'J*

riN jnip ^nCNJD).

With

reference to Ezek. 27.

9. I

suggest reading

NM

N7

3")yJD, that

the law
1^

is

no merchandise among tradesmen and venders.

''

Plural of D"l

Jer. 48. 29), the that are

meaning

is

that the

law can

find

no

dis-

tinction

among people

haughty and proud.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON
N^pn ni*Din
15

57

Dnn

c'ii-^z

n^'^nrin

'^'Jiiri

-'

nnnoo

''3i?:t:j2 :

b^ijE-Tisi
.
:

n^^'pn''
/ t
':

nnn tt:

cidds
'

v v

Dnj;i

nnD3

n-'Sia

isn Dn^nx idic^

:'-

t -;

^'^nncpcDi

[n-ins D'V'^n: D^yi^p

=s

^niccx nispN
n-pn:;

nn^s npQ npiEn

20:1-1!),-;^;

oh

'^b'ln

2=

cn^nro

ninino

^-iTi'iHI

^nns n^

^^ ^^ 21

Prov.

I.

16.

'*^

Ezek. 33. 31.

Piov.
2. 3.

''

Prov.

i.

21.

Isa. 5. 11.

1^

-0 /6/rf. I.

21.

Ibid. 2. 4.

--

Deut. 33.

3.

The meaning of

verses 19 and 20

is

that they gathered

together for instruction i^DH^^N "1D1D), wandering from village and town, to
receive the
23

words commanded
16.

as well as the laws

"*

handed down
i.

orally,

Cp. Ps. 139.

This verb

Cant. R.

6.

"5
"'^

is to

be taken with
Suffering
is

D''"li'NnJD in the

next

line.

Cp. Cant.

5. II.

metaphorically expressed by saying that

the face has become black.

(Ex. R.
""^

Cp. the expression nV^iTl^

VJD ITni^'HC

i).

Cp. Eccles.

12. II.

rearranging the words as follows

The meaning of vers. 22-4 can best be shown by DnnHC'D miy^ nn'b]} D'^rii:'n mSIp
:

D-'ViDj
"*
I

c>ynp cnDDDai
take the

pmn

[nnc].

word

D''"I1D

as a pass. part, of "113 (cp. |*"1N

:

"miSm

"11D,

Isa. 24. 19),

and render the verse

[in spirit]

'

The

righteous

who walk

in integrity,

though broken
"

observed as they were commanded.'

Hof. of n"l\ not

biblical.

58

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

D"-i>,nini
/
; :

linu 2^1
T^

nb'y
/

n^s t t

MiS^ -:

*i

Qno

;t:3?2

^c^p

lyn

nwi

'nil

:
naiy

:/'
d'.D3 ^pai

:t

:t

30

nniyp nnD3

nyn

''>3?p

^yi"'.

d-io

iin: irnj nntp

'3-1

37

Qntp

=i3L"n3

i^sij

nnin

Q''bs*w'3

^'

Dn^iK'J

niixn

^-niL;v"jn

^'^pny

ix^p nzT

-T

:t

:t

^Dn-i-ini Q''yip np>*nD

jnxn

n^^Db

on/

30

Cp. Ezek. 18. 25.

The
to
if

Hit',

of

pD

is

not biblical.

The meaning

ol

verses 27 and 28 seems

be that

if onl^-

every one did the same as these

righteous people did, and

the heart and mind u^ere pure, then the

way

would be measured and

31 33
3* 33

safe

from traps and snares.

^-

Ps. 58. 4.
Jer. 4. 22.

Deut. 32. 20.

Cp. DntDH N:
Isa. 24. 5.

lyO'J*,

Num.

20. 10.
^^

Cp. Ps. 32.

=^

9.

37 39

Hos.

8. 12.
1

Ps. 73. 8.

The

of

n''"11D1

may be
i.

a dittograph on account of

Un2\

or else read

)2r\y nniDi,cp.
^0
*'2

isa. lo.

Ps. 107. 27.

"
10.

Ps. 75. 6.

Sanhedrin
Jer. 2. 13.

90 a

43

" Job
of this verse
is

15. 18,

The meaning

that these

wicked people tore down the

fences and raised up others as

not the created (Qni'lJ \
<6

if

they were the creators (DniflTl HOn),

Supply the word

if

hinn

before HOi'HD and the verbs in the next verse,

to

i.e.

as

for

them alone the earth ceases

bring forth thorns and thistles.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

.nncc'
/

DAVIDSON
^'O^snip

59

Dnj^iJO a-iyn^

.QJ^?:'

dj\''.

40 (verso)
t

Dnnyo Txnb n\S3^ t-T-:,t:

Dnp""
/ -'t:

om-y t
:

no^
:

5'^DnD3

ic'yzi

D'bii

^D^sp

'"'D'tp^^

2"?"!?^

T"

-.

-.,

T^.

5^nnY3^

D-jn^ ^n^ini

^nT3

onic^ri"!

''^'iiyo

Go
/

Q>TiR3 on!) VT

.. -

on

nn -:

^4 /

^B'ytJ'

TV

n^iJ nvb -: T

*''

Hif. of tDpD

'to ferment'.

The meaning of
their

this verse is that these

wicked people regarded themselves above the laws of nature, and therefore
their

wine and
lees.

oil

would not ferment, and

perfumes would not be mixed

with
*8

In this verse the poet turns again to the righteous and says that they
to

surrendered themselves

those

who came
1D13

to light

up the roads.

What

he means by
*9

this is not clear to

me.

Cp. the expression Cp,

I

mnD^

^3 ICT-', Taanit 22
^'

b.

^
52

Sam.

21. ID,

Jer. 51, 40.

is

For D^"in)OD, the meaning of verses 42-^

to the

that these pious people

gave themselves up

sword and
hand

fire

rather than forget the law and turn

away from
53

it

to clasp the

of the stranger.

paitanic usage instead of lyOJ, cp. Kalir

Shekalim

yi*22

5]yi

VD

nc'n
5*

''bp^.

They

left their

possessions to the wily of heart.

56

Cp. Prov.
57

7. 10.

55 Isa.
53

41, 17.

Ps. 78. 25.

59

Job

36. 16.

Paitanic usage for f\D2

^'

mD'.

Ps.
-

na.

9.

^0 Isa. 5. 13. 63 ^5

Joshua

1.

11.

Ps. 112. 9.

Cp, Job 21.

8.

"
of the verse
is

Cp. Ps. 22. 32.

The meaning

that the deeds they have

done

will be as

an atonement for the people that shall be born.

6o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

69

nnny y3
'
/

n-'y^'isbs

"^^

nb:^"'

on-'s Difsn

Dnab T;

D'j'sa bioyio ^oQ-'snn --. ..

T;-

Dpbn nix^;C0 =r 't:V

-: T
:

-: T

T T

-'^D'-njQ Dt-'s:

nyns

^'sp^n^

D-'^ii^y

bb^

75Qns3

nn^ajf!)

mns

^^v.t

D''i)2y"'!

cjb'i

en

bip

ipni'i

rs^Dn^ [n2] nnis* D^33iD3

60

V.

From a Divan of Solomon Ibn Gabirol.

of Gabirol's
in

In 1858 Leopold Dukes published a volume

secular

poems which he gathered from manuscripts

Oxford, Parma, and Vienna.^

With

the exception of two

poems which were

in the possession

of Carmoly, and to

which Dukes evidently had no

access, this

volume, though
all

containing only sixty-nine poems, represented almost

that was
''^

known

of Gabirol's secular poetry."

Ten years

Ps. 112. 9.

"
^^

Cp. Lev. 20. 20 and Yebamot 55

Cp.
Isa. 53. 10.

a.

See also above,

n. 3.

^ Cp. Isa. The meaning is that they were 53. 12 and Zeph. 3. 10. numbered among the transgressors though they were engaged in prayer.
^0

Cp. Ps. 142.

Cp.

6.

'^1

Cp.

Isa. 53. II.

<*

"

Berakot 48

b.

"2

Isa. 53. 12.

Ps. 92. 15.

" With

their suffering they atoned for the communities as with offerings

of bullocks (Lev. 4. 13-21;.

Cp. Siphre, Deut. 32

D''^"1D n"lJ3)p:^'

C^^D

D^i'lD CniD'''' 13.

"'^

Prov. II.

3.

"
ben

Cp. Zeph.

2. 14.

'^^

Cp. Dan. 12.

3.

Dukes, HD^u' n^C, Hannover, 1858.

Id.,

Saloiiio

Gabirol

aiis
all

Dukes claims
but the fact

that

he published
"liyj

the

Malaga, Hannover, i860, pp. 13, 14. poems of Gabirol, even the fragments,
in the

is

that

he overlooked some poems even

"I'J'N

Oxford MS.,

as,

for instance, the

poem

nyiD reproduced below.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

later, in

DAVIDSON
to gather
his

6l

1868, Senior Sachs

made an attempt

and

elucidate the reh'gious poetry of Gabirol."

But

method

of ekicidation was so comprehensive that in a work of 167

pages only 29 short poems were reproduced.

Neither Dukes nor Sachs made any reference to a
complete, independent Divan of Gabirol's poems.
schneider's
INC^jn n^nJD,
list

Stein-

of 65
is

poems
njno),
*

is

based on the Oxford MS.

which

only an appendix to the Divan of

Judah Ha-Levi (min^

of a

and contains the compositions

many
list

other poets

while Luzzatto,

who began

to

make

of Gabirol's poems, likewise

-^

made no mention

of any

special collection.

The

first

intimation of the existence of a Gabirol Divan

in the prefatory

was given by Harkavy

note to four poems

of Gabirol published by him in 1893," although he did not

emphasize

this point.'

Then came
^

published by Neubauer

14 poems from a Genizah manuscript which

the
list

of

seems to have been originally an index to a Divan of

Gabirol.^

Further proof that the poems of Gabirol were at

into a

one time gathered

Divan has been furnished by the

thirty-three leaves from the Genizah in the possession of

^ *
5

Sachs,

D''TL^^^

n-'C', Paris, 1868.

St., Caf. Bodl., pp.

2336-7

Neub., Cat., 1970,

In n?w'n,
I,

III.

Luzzatto, Q'JtD^'Dn
list

ni<?,p. 102.

38,

David Kahana states

that he compiled a

of Gabirol's poems, but does not speak of any special

Divan.
"

Harkavy,

D^JC
:

Dj D^D'TPI, No. 3 (published as supplement to J^pDn,

title

1893, No. 144, under the

-'

of

QnOXO

nyQIN;,

p. 4.

He

merely says

'm

TlXi'TD ''"^2

;3"Cn iS'VnO \hn2.

'".

* 9

Gedenkbiich siir Erinnernngan D. Katifmaiiii, Breslau, 1900, pp. 279-87.

Neub. and Cowley,

Cat.,

No. 2835
the

It

may be

of interest to

know
poems

that just as in

MS. Oxford No. 1970

poems

of Gabirol follow the

of Judah Ha-Levi, so also in this index the record of Gabirol's poetry follows
that of Ha-Levi's.

62 E. N. Adler.
edited

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

This fragment, which has been identified and

by

Brody,^'* contains the greater part of thirty-four

poems of GabiroV^
to
us.''2

thirteen of which
in

had been

entirely lost

And now we have

the fragment from the Taylor-

Schechter collection, reproduced below, additional and conclusive corroboration that Gabirol's poetry

had already long

ago been gathered

in

one independent collection.

Our fragment

(T-S.
first

Loan
cm.).

69) consists of two mutilated

is

leaves of paper, the

its

of which

only about four-fifths of

leaf,
still

original size (17

its

x 16

The second

pre-

serving

original size (21 x 16 cm.), has also preserved its

original pagination,

and bears the number 30

(i.e. b).

The
in this

poems, written
126.

in

a cursive hand, are

numbered from 133 to

And

since the leaves are consecutive

we have

fragment

ff.

29

and 30 of what was once a Divan of

Gabirol's poetry.

The name
his.
is

of Gabirol,

it

is

true, is

not

mentioned

in

the fragment, but there cannot be the least

doubt that the poems are

the Oxford MS.,^" No. 133

For No. 123

mentioned
in

is

also found in
list,^^

Neubauer's

No. 124

is

the oft reprinted

poem beginning

TiJNia Tivijo
in

HDnn, and No. 126 has likewise been included

edition.^'

Dukes's

a record

The only poem of which there was not even until now is No. 125, and that poem could be
its

recognized as Gabirol's by

very

diction, as will

be pointed

out in the notes to the text.

us two

Our fragment,
is

therefore, gives
all,

poems

for

which there

no other source at

one

">

MGJVJ., LV,
in

pp. 76-97.

" The
authorship
1"

fragment contains thirty-six poems, but Brody doubts Gabirol's

two cases
92,

fol.

30

a,

b and

fol.

33

a.

See

ibid., p.

where Brody gives

2337, No. 54.
3,

list

of them.

"
"

St., Cat. Bod/., p.

Gedenkbuch,

p.

286, col.

No. 22.

"

noi^'i' ^T'li',

No. 69.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON

63

poem which The

death.^*'
first

is

found also

in

the Oxford MS., and two others

texts.

which give us better readings than that of the printed

poem From the

(No. 122)

is

an elegy on his father's

-i::>n*

expression ^nn ny n^n

""ax

(ver. 5)

we may
fact that

infer that his father

last verse, in

was a man of importance, and

from the

which he consoles himself with the

(''kraJI

he

is

safe

from further sorrow

niy),

^S3 "TUro

''D

/*i

nn nsn
the
last

^nyn nrnn ab

we may

infer that his father

was

of his kin to die.^^

satire

seems to be a
for poetry.
It

on some

The second poem (No. 123) versifiers who had no talent

phraseology,^^

reminds us of another long poem of Gabirol

on

this subject,

and

recalls to

mind some of

its

as will be pointed out in the notes to the text.

first five lines

Only the
of lines on

of this

poem
fol.

are preserved, and

by comparing
only eight are

the
fol.

number

of lines on

29 b

Vv'ith

the

number
lines

30 b we find that of the twenty-eight

I,

missing.

therefore,

assume that

five

of these eight beconsist of ten

longed to No. 123, making the whole

lines,

poem

one was the opening

line of

No. 124, and the remaining

1

two
1^

lines

must have contained a superscription to No.

24.*'-'

This

was already

pointed out by Brody [MGU'J., LV. p. 95, note 72^,

from his study of the Oxford MS.

^^

To

establish the text of No. 122 of our fragment with greater facility

and precision,
a facsimile of

my

friend Prof.

Marx obtained
last

for

me

through Prof. Cowley

74, fol.

two pages of the Oxford MS. (Pococke

and Nos. 122, 124 as well as the

i7ob-i7ia).

These two pages contain the

twenty-four verses of the

first

poem lin ilDV

CJINJ

t^'^bl

nine lines of No. 126 of

our fragment.
^8 I have reference to the poem Tin HDy (see Sachs, iT'nnn, I, 47-56 Dukes, ^''^, No. 9 Graetz, 'y^lC' t2p^, p. 49). ^^ It is, however, possible that fol. 29 b contained originally twenty-nine
; ;

lines like

fol.

30

a,

in

which case nine

lines

would be missing.

Two

of

these must have belonged to No. 124, one as superscription and one as the

opening

line,
it

and the remaining seven must have been part of No. 122,

making

consist of twelve verses.

64

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW The

third

poem
I

(Xo. 124) has already been published

it

five times,''^'^

and

would have refrained from reproducing

it

a sixth time were

not for the fact that our Genizah fragso far known,

ment presents the best text

with some

and does away

of the far-fetched interpretations to which the

resort.

commentators were forced to

out,-^

As Sachs

has pointed

this

Gabirol and
fortunes.

poem is in some friend

Verses
3,

the form of a dialogue between

to

whom
his

he complains of his mis-

i, 2, 5, 6, 9, 7,

10 are spoken by Gabirol,

friend.

and verses

4,

by

The

fourth

poem

(No. 125) seems to be a conciliatory epistle, written to

a friend with

whom

he had quarrelled, but whose friendship

provided the friend admitted he had

he wished to

retain,

acted wrongly (compare verses 21-24).

this friend,

The

identity of

however,

is

impossible to establish.

As

stated

in the tenth verse, this

poem was

written at the age of 16,

poem written in the same year.'-^- Altogether, then, we know with certainty of five poems composed by Gabirol at this early age. They
and
its

phraseology reminds us of another

are

n'J'n 'js,^- jy'^nn,^-*

^njsnn

^nv^^o,-'^ nin

noyr'^and i?NnSnn,
in

the

first

twenty-nine lines of which are found

the last

poem

of our fragment (No. 126).

is

This poem was published

so faulty that instead of

once by Dukes,-' but his text

merely giving the variants

I feel justified in

reproducing the

-0

TiDDps
;

"u: (1850), p.

nr^b^ n-'C (1858^ No. 3

a-yj'ic'
?},

upb

(1862;, p. 37

'iiM

':2

nvpi

^iT3:

no^K-' 'm (1878

pp. 8-12;

TBTt -\W
21

(1906), p. 36.
^33 ni*p1 22"\^'\
""33
,

1in
1~in

p. 8.

-^

See notes

to the text.
it

2^

nXpl

Jl'^C"),

p. 12.
"^^Pi

Sachs conjectures that

p. 13).
''"

is

probably

another version of the poem

2*
^e

ntOV {Md.,

= No.

125 of our fragment.

n. 18.
^7

See above,
No. 69.

n. 20.

See above,

pc^'C*

n^t:',

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

complete text of our fragment, though
of the whole poem.

DAVIDSON
it is

65

but a small part

In addition to the text of the

in this

poems

deem

it

proper,

connexion, to present in an appendix a number of

corrections to the Genizah index published

by Neubauer.
it

As Neubauer

himself informs us in his prefatory note,-^

for

was impossible

him, on account of
text,

his

poor eyesight, to

add any comment to the

and the identification of

many of the poems was made by Halberstam. Yet there are many poems still unidentified, and the few identifications which I add may prove of service to students of Gabirol's
poetry.

A full

list

of Gabirol's poems, giving the printed

fill

and manuscript sources, would

this

a long

felt

want.

But
let

must be reserved

for another occasion. will

Meanwhile

us

hope that Dr. Brody

edition

be enabled to complete his

excellent

of

Gablrol,^^

and

make such

list

unnecessary.

^'.

1N'3Di*N

-IN2

nh

^^r\im

b^r^b

nny .thx ny

nny ny^ ^jpi-n ns?

2*
^

Gcdenkbticli, p. 279.

Dn^'D'H

-I'tr,

Berlin, 1898-1900,

80,36 + 28 pp.

2"

In the Oxford

MS.

there

is

no superscription.

brackets are supphed from the Oxford

notes.
21

Words enclosed in MS. unless othenvise stated in the

This verse

is

to be construed as

n''a:^'

^nn:; -nyj
like

T^N

^njin,

if it read ni^ya 'aa^ rZ>^ \T'^'^''^^ ^^3 which may be rendered My heart is bowed
:
'

down
22

a ghost from the

is

ground
its

(cp.

Isa. 29. 4)

when my
23. 3).'
"irD^.

grief, for

which there

no balsam, reaches
13. 52.

height (cp.

Num.
HTll''

Cp. Lev.
IV.

The fragment reads:

VOL.

66

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

r,nj;

n[^^]:

tj^n

37

^^3^;

no xb

^?ri

ny

.Tn T^i< -as

<i,T-Dy [n]n[^n] nm:??

imn

r^p:
'3

tj'n;

ipn>'

nixb .th
fot<ri

"-n^nB' "^^'irin n'j'Nio

m
^3

^^nn

^3|5

:5X

"rfrvn]

nnn^

d^K'JX tsina'!'

nsT

'"l^^^

nonxo yi

s^

Cp. Lara.
This verse

2. 11. is

3*

thus to be rendered

'The more
weeps.'

call

unto mine eye not

to

grow weak with weeping

s5
36

the

more

it

MS. Oxford reads:

The
like

nirDH ^31

n33K
words

^31
is

n33N.
Perhaps we

meaning of the last two

not clear to me.

may
tears

construe the phrase to

mean

that the eye is constantly flowing with

4)

he

who

has

an

issue (cp. Lev. 22.

and read

Pl^n

3T3n,

or perhaps read H'n

ceases.
='

3X3n,

i.e.

the tear which the pain has revived never

The meaning

of this phrase

is

obscure.

Perhaps
:

bbW' ibbx
38

(cp. Isa. 47. 9).

:

MS. Oxford reads

v3^
*]''N
.

^33^^

we ought nON^

to read

Our fragment reads

39

On
'

the frequency of this and similar metaphors in the poetry of the

Spanish-Arabic period see Goldziher, 'Bemerkungen zur neuhebraischen Poesie

(JQR., XIV, 721).

Following
D"'C"'

is

list

of the verses in the

poems of
''T*C^

Gabirol in which the expression

ni33 occurs.
5
;

Dukes, HDPti'
i
;

No.

6, ver.

No.

9, ver. 6

No.
;

10, ver.

No.

15, ver.

No.

16, ver.
Q'^O''

No. 22,
is

ver. 6;

No. 62, ver. 5

in

No. 24,

ver. 10, the expression

'J3

used.
<" *^

The

suffix refers to

73n

in the

preceding verse.
his soul
is

His righteousness has been a sign that

bound up

in

peace

with God.
''^

The word bsn

to put

is

used here in the sense of

trust in fortune,

'

fortune

',

and the poet

warns us not
her
gifts.

our

because her spoils are greater than

Henceforth

(nW

^"IPIN)

know

this of the

world that she sharpens her

arrows

(cp. Jer. 9. 7) to kill

root ""Sn,

men. The form n^XH, which presupposes a can be explained by i Sam. 20. 38.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

.T3y
i?33

DAVIDSON
"-Jiy

67

nn
'inN*

^n^

xi?

ox

y3i*i

nyst?2 n>-n lo
D'-'Nf)

4o,T,^j5H

r!D3i

rrjin

ny bni? i^d^

-idb*

v.:!-.-

:-:

/t

-/LJ-

'>nb^\

<j

"rm

^i"?3r

iDpi

n:i2n ^o^^n

^pm ^tT

^^p

" The

world presses [on man]

to
fit

like a ring

on the finger

enough of breadth

the thickness [of the finger].

when it has not The fragment reads

:

ny3D3, MS. Oxford reads: n^3y 103 H^ '.T" i6 DX. 45 ^^QQ to the man whose heart turns after her splendour and her beauty. MS. Oxford reads ''22^ llltf"' ^^iib "13'^:

inclines to

*^

Construe

this verse as if

it

read

C'3>N

nns

^3n

TnNI^I

ri^''

D"I3^.
*''

MS. Oxford reads: HI

In the last

mJD

13.

^*

two verses
is

the poet tries to console himself

by the

fact that

the death of his father

^^
'

the last blow that fate can aim at him.

He wrote

to

one of his friends blaming him

gift for it.'

who
I

laid claims to the art

this,

of poetry without possessing the

In deciphering

as well as

some of
Prof
'0
'1

the other Arabic superscriptions that follow,

consulted

my

friends

Israel Friedlaender

and Mr. B. Halper.

Cp. Hos.

9;

14

and the expression nr3 DipOQ

Dm (Berakot 10
HDy
fjlisb'^*

a).

A
;

similar expression is found in the

poem Tin

^^t^^

No. 9
52
*^

rrrinn,

i,

pp. 47-56), v. 70.

Cp. Ps. 11.3.

VJnX (Exod.
Cp. Deut.
l^yiV
v.'ould

35. 11)

would be better suited

to the

metaphor.

5*
'6

4. 25.

be more correct.

F 2

'

68

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

(f0l.29b)

!_/

1^

v^

['3n]b nsn^ pins' ns-ij? dxi

''S

Fragment reads Dpi, but the metre requires IDpl

torn in this place and
it

" The MS. is

seems as

if

two

letters are missing.

We

should perhaps read DTlH in the sense of stanzas, the meaning would

then be that these pseudo-poets write in faulty stanzas and do not

laws of scansion.
D-'JONJ
58

Cp. also his poem

dj\si -\2ib
-\''^'2.

llil

HDJ?, ver. 33

flJ/T*

know the NP T^^S

alreadj^
''2'\

ni:in^

This

is all that is left

of the superscription.
S.

As

the

poem has

been thoroughly commented upon by

Sachs

in his essay

HOX'

nn
^
^^
61

'32

nypi hl^nj, pp. 8-12,

shall

abstain

from further comment,

text.

except where the Genizah MS.

differs

from the printed

MS. Oxford has

Cp. Eccles.
2.

clearly
3. 18.
:

nDIID.

Sachs reads HSn."!.

22;

MS. Oxford reads

interpreting

HD'OSn Qn'hv
it

Sachs

(loc. cit., p.

9) corrects

it

into

riDCXn Dn^i'V, and maintains that the word Dn^PV

"lL*'y,

refers to the
to

words

nti'C")

to

mean,

'

Is

it
I '

for a

youth of sixteen
text gives a

mourn

over the sixteen years that have passed

logical sense
:

Our

much more
!

'

Is

it

for a

youth of sixteen

to

lament over the day of death

See also Sachs,

ibid., p. 2.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON
<":

69
D
=

^-\m^ "nab ~ T

'jstsB' - T ;

nann

hsc-^dSj '3 ^mpi

na^pn nab^ T T T
'

iib^
:

niy

nvm
:

6SnD^:3 iE'D^

T^K

3N*33 IJ'iiX

"2 ^y3^i
"^nytj'i's*

HT-vp

nh

Spn n^smnx

n[h]i5^

^?^

"'?'^-

^''^ '""P^^

''[n]i-in3 n^n; c'i:sb

jybnn

nsp

j^a

Dvn 133; bins

isb

-iii'x

"snhiya

nt^'i

-\\))

'^^h b::3

niTHi* D3 nni ban tj'X

nrinp c:r\s*b

'nsb'

"ipiN ^^b

"2 3 e*

MS. Oxford and

ibtd.,^):pnnb.
7Z>/^.,

printed texts read: ^JDDti\

n213J

ria:""!

3N3:

C'lJS niD'-n,

which

is difficult

to explain, for

riDIJJ

could not refer to C'lJX, and the abstract noun

refers correctly to {^23.

is nD''JIJ,

but in our

text

it

fi^

ss

A kasida composed when he began to write poetry. The manuscript reads nn3, but the nature of the kasida
hemistich of the
first line

requires that

the

first

should have the same ending with which

the whole
ver. 3
^^ 68 69
:

poem rhymes.
I^H"'

For a similar expression see his poem 11 H HDy,

"3

-Jinn

IJH
is

yil

The same phrase

Ezek. 31.8.

found

in the

above-mentioned poem, ver. gr.

The word inK'D

is

to be understood.

Cp. nn'J'3 "JOnO

''C'JN

rD3

"lyj,

Isa. 33. 15.

""

Manuscript reads

Dmyj

D'lT

y\\>^

^33.

Manuscript reads nJinD TIDC' C'N? "IDIN

"j?,

but the metre requires

the transposition.

70

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

'ininnyo n-i^yi nini
D^p"!

-.... C2

"qn^b 2\s'd: -1^3

['Jinx
b

>i*n

npnn

^'nni

n^myp
nn'psz
''3

"^1 ^3N*

'^n
t

(fol.3oa)
10
..

bns tnix

Ijd'i

^^13

-n

171

..

n[ni]i-2n

cpnn

b'd: ^ji

D-y^Dc s^^rn

mi
n
. . .

b2 ba
nj2rt
.
.

cm
D3i

hthd

'b

n^'s>:i2

L"Ei:i

'lb

ny

D^p l^z-^n -lb "^sn bv dni

nii'iNn rj^y ^.dxo jypb

niiDy

TjD'N'i

\'?yo

idvi

'm"inyn

a'^^p^ti

na^x ib:

nz^'s"!

n^ic-'x

'3X

'a

}ypb

'i

'Run from my

wrath.'

Cp. Job 21. 30.

(Isa. 10. 29,.

The poet

is

also playing

upon the phrase

'2
73

m^yo n3y

Read perhaps nil^rSS

'

(2

Sam.

12. 31).

And

thou wilt tremble at the wrath of

my spoken arrows

like a

woman

that gives birth to 32. 304 'G

her first-born after being barren in her

\'outh.'

Cp. Jer.

Supply perhaps HJH nX"l. I shall hear the supplications.'

<

"
niiny =

Ps. 35. 14pi.

of

mny,
boots.'

formed from

iny

after the analogy of

HIDy

from ILSy.
lick
pi.

" 'And
absolute.

every day thou shalt

the dust off

is

my

mi^y =

pi.

In the Bible only the

const,

found.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

Vn^^

DAVIDSOxN
TX '3S a^,B'N

71 pi

Tib

2:;

ninina "Tnibsyo
TjS

D^B^wNti

iy"!3^

cs^^'n

""-lb"!

ni-inb D2 D\ynen -id3

D''pnK'

Qrh

^r\)

-^

nni:n niy

njnn')

[T'i'J^n ^rpK'n

nW

nnb

Tti'x niyi

ninbn onb'

n;^^

x^n
nrni [^JDJ^ -ipn nnx qni

nniD3

"nii-'K'i

[niDjs ";

DP1JN

abn fyn
.

^d

nb

''^n

ba

'b)

ip

nibnsn npanb vnipn^i]

niSa?
ir:;n5i

[ni^jnpin b2 m-\3. bx [nbrin]

nab'?'!

[i5p]

irn n^i

^-nr\^y

'^^V^

^^'^^(fol.sob)

"^

similar expression

is

found

in the

poem lin HDV

ver. 98

m"l''t^'^

D-'xn nijiy ^^ vnipti*n ijn^i idid ^no.

''^

Reads perhaps Dnn''31.

'

join an oath unto thee that thou punish the heart of the rash

with

these beautiful [verses].'

Q'^b^l D^'by (Job 16. 4).

For the use of

It is also
:

"1211

in this sense cp.

.

riT^nX
''ri"!3ni

possible to read

nW

^3

and render

it

as follows

'

associate these [verses] with thee that thou

punish the heart of the rash with these beautiful verses.'

of the adjective
*^

But the

repetition

n?X

is

objectionable.
in the

There

is

no superscription

Oxford MS.

The words or

letters
''"l^u*.

enclosed in brackets are supplied from the edition of Dukes

(HwC

No. 69', which

of this
82

is

based on that manuscript.

For interpretation of some lines

]2

poem

see S. Sachs,

nn

'32

m'pi bn^33

nD^K^

"lai,

pp. 13-16.

Edition

= pX.

72

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

vxbs "iNon nooin iyp^

Q''???'*l'

'^3?^'!

[livn] "IK'S

_,;

nmx!? nmn'? niin^

ni^j3 f]bx [i03 n]^ ssQis^i
s-'D'^nn^

m^3N onb

i?33

9"nnb''!

nri-13

tJj n>jp N^^^

'-"^jyn
'banii

n]^nx

ni^'n

nj^N-ix ^iy

p^Q ^iy pistp

^s *'
r\'Q'\

Edition =

H^ njm

<

Cp. Ps. 35.

i.

Cp. Jer.
II.

6. 2,

and Brown and Driver, Heh. and Eng. Lexicon,

s.v.

86

Cp.

Chron.

12.

38. ICD''

The Ed. reads DDnN::'

Dulces
"IJ^T*

lOn"" liyi.

The
two

MS. Oxford reads HHw'

variants, DfinSt:' 1?0n^

Hiyi, and on the margin are given

(e^z'^.,

and nnC' IDD^ DHiyi.

p. 69. n. 4)

copied one of the variants wrongly and gives "INK'

i^XI.

" So
follows
8*
:

in text,

but

suggest reading
to

'And they continue

17.
.
.

and render the clause as destroy the remnant that was saved.'
1117^3

Cp. Jer. 50.

89 Read perhaps HPTl Hy and the verse may be rendered The mighty have oppressed her with their might until the wealth which she once
.
: '

possessed became their possession.'

'"'

Ed. reads flvilJ "ID TJ'N.

i

Ed. reads

HHIti'l.

Ibid.,

'^i'[)ir[

^2 Ibid.,
''3

riv^Tia and in a note gives the reading nv''ND

Ibid.,
Ibid.,

n-'onnD.

"*

DvlSJ, and the fragment reads m?D3.

Both these readings are

incorrect since the context requires a parallel to nHli'n , hence

my correction.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON

73

niDD inx

^l';7

'-''^ba

^b TJ'K

93ni!?i3;;

on px

ny

^i^npjn"!

niijin^n

D'^^a'Sji Vw^[3^'!]

^onnipE3

ni-iiDxri

vni

"mhDJ

HTni^'DJo

n^bni n["i

nip^nn
inb;
[Ti_yn]

p^t^^

oy w^j^i
'osf;'^

25

npx

pna

95 9^

Ed. reads fnni*^.

'And make her

is

rejoice

with the gorgeous garment of betrothal.'

for

n773D
9''

used instead of b^b^lO (Ezek. 23.12}

''py.
if it

mh^3,

cp. Jer. 2. 2.

Fragment reads

Construe the verse as

read

TIED ]nN *^X IVwHI

1^: TJ'N.

Ed.

reads IJC'im.
99

Ed. reads

n^'12"'

li?''Dm.

100 Ibid.,
'"1
'

Q-'ny^, and in a note D"'ny"l.

thirsty

Hungry and

hke does
is

that are failing in strength.'

Ed. reads

mbnn
102

mblB'O m^''X3, which

Fragment reads '7n3.
/6/f/.^

entirely void of sense.

i3

nti'y.
1t^'y

The word

"'71^ is to
^^li?.

be supphed from the

first

hemistich,

i.e. nb'^b^i

npy n^NU'

"4 Pass. part, of npa.

Fragment reads nnip''D3.

Ed. has in a note

^"^

Ed. reads TlDV

to

In this verse Gabirol begins to enumerate the great

the

deeds of the man

108

whom

poem

is

addressed.

Read perhaps nii"I^P n'^ni^DD.

Plur. 3rd pers. of |1^.

10^
198

Fragment reads niJn.

i.e.

^^^ Ibid.,

|n.
and deeds of righteous-

" Supply the word pTif,

ness.

he sought

justice

74
ni^[iyi]

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

px
'^b^.

ini^[i>']|i

[P"'DDn5' ''^^1

PI]!' P^??- '^'^.

"^nihpp

'i-iia

rjas'^ [nix?]

[li^'srio

nu'o]

'S'???

[isni]

Appendix.

As
poems

already stated above, the Genizah fragment published

first

by Neubauer contains an index of the

of

lines

of the

Judah Ha-Levi and of Ibn Gabirol.

The index

of Ha-Levi's
is

poems

is

on the recto, and that of Gabirol's

;

on the verso of the manuscript

the writing, however,

does not quite cover the whole of the verso, so that this

appears to be the end of the

Gabirol's

list.
it

On examining
contains 114

the

list

of

poems we

find that

titles.

This

seems to show that the Divan from which our two leaves
are taken was

much

larger than the

Divan which the writer

of the index had before him, for our fragment shows that the original Divan had already contained 126 poems in the
first

thirty leaves.

Of

the 114

poems enumerated on the

as

verso, one

was
as

identified

by Halberstam

Judah Ha-Levi's, and one

,5
;

identified

and No. 26) Abraham Ibn Ezra's (col. i, No. by him as already printed in the edition
in

18 were

of Dukes,

and one more as printed by Sachs

p.

Ha-Magid, 1864,

140

27 were shown to have been recorded by Zunz in

,

LiteratitrgescJiichte pp.

188-9, and the remaining 66 were

111

Cp.

Sam.

21. 9.

112

Ed. reads n~in!X^.

112

As Dukes remarked,
3, Fragment reads D3
4.

this refers to the

Sanhedrin,

who

sat in a semi-

circle
11*

(Sanhedrin

115

The poem contains

line.

ninety-four lines, but our fragment ends with the

twenty-ninth

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

left

DAVIDSON

75
13,

unidentified.

Of

these 66

shall identify here

and of the other 48

cases.

I will

give additional references in 37

To

facilitate reference, I

number the poems

in

each

column.

MS. Oxford No.

Verso.
6.
7.

2835*'.
i.

Col.

nmn^

Read nnin^

nn:r (in d^>:v

-no,
25).

II, p. 6).

imn
an J

Pil^C'

(cp. Zunz, Lit.-Gesch., 188,

No.

8. 9.

riNV^ nr:: z"^ (in Sachs, D''T::'n

nni?
1
.

n'-L", p.

132).
p. 163).

Read nn: nn^

(/-^/o'.,

in^i:

(/Z-/^.,

10. i::'paN

-i[n*k:']

p.

150; Baer, ^wStc^

nmny

ino,

p. 34).

n. inx

nyn'J'
P7).

(Sachs,

ibid., p.

140; M. Sachs, Religiose

Foesie"^,

16.

-IDDD

^:;'D:

l^ (Brody,

n"'::M

lyc*,

p.

39; H.

AI.

Lazarus in

Jews' College Jubilee Volume, p. 207).

17. 18.

vN

TOV
i'DL''

irrc'

(Dukes, Ziir Kenntiiiss,

'T-L",

p. 157).

nn

(Sachs, D''Te'n
68).

p.

107; Brody, ''DVSn DIOJip,

No.

19. n^^'N n"J' (cp. also Luzzatto,

D^'iD-Dn

m^,

p. 71,

No.

61).

20.
21.
22.

nn
HDD
*j'^

p^ DI^C
^^y 331::'
IJa
cnVi:'

(cp. Luzzatto, ibid., p. 72,

No.

98).

(Dukes, Zur Kennt.,

(Halberstam,
p. 55).

p. 158).

nmx

^U, p.

23;

Graetz,

Dp^

n^r^ri::',

23.

^^:^'3 njai:^' (cp. Luzzatto, ibid., p. 71,

.Ti''2'>

No.

70).

24.

'W
^:'l:^'

(Dukes, Zur Kemit.,

p.

158;

n^jcn, XII,
p.

357

p^?:n, II,
25. p^na

hi;

Sachs, n"'C'n n^c*,

126).

(Geiger, Salomo Gabirol, p. 141).

Col.
I.

2.

*^''N3

ntDnn ^ni (cp.

''^30
'Dy

St.,

Cat. Bodl., p. 2337,

^I'-DSn,
;

No.

57).

15.

C^n^D

Dnyi (Harkavy,

VI,

p. 148).
"l^'J',

25.

njni

\yi (Graetz, ibid., p. 45

Brody, "'T'Cn

p. 21).

76

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Col. 3.

2. -j'-inn

lb

no

^:?2T

(maDps*
T'-J',

n:3,

p.

21; Graetz,

idid.,

p.

52;

Brody, Dn''w'n
4.
rin

p. 32). D^j:3r,n

"'nx

mv

N^n.

Read

^2 ^3S niv i6n ('ops' vjj,

p. 26).

14.

npnC'D

mnj

^12S*.

This

is

very likely identical with

''2)

the

poem on an
of
I

apple (nnx^n

published by Harkavy in
ijias*.

fj^DXn, VI, p. 148,

which begins npnun nn

however, are
ripnC'D
njJT^

Both

these

readings,

void
\.V,

of

meaning.
refers to

suggest, therefore,

which

the apple on the tree.

15.
j'ip3

nx

nr

no^ (Dukes, n^^c^

n^t^'.Ti

n'-c',

No.

64).

16.
19.

"33^ ^y Qnbti^ (Brody,

n'ntzn

-ly&s p. 36).
""a^yD
"':i^N*C>

an 1^x3

'JI^ND*.

Perhaps identical with

4,

C\ncnn.
22.

See below, Col.

No.

13.

ip?3^*

nnv

Identical with No. 123 of our fragment.

23. TIJNID TlV^i'O.

See text of the

article,

note 20.

25.

>rT

y3'j'n

ahn (tisdpn
]'ct

n::, p. 22).
2).

26. ''ncN

xn

(Sachs, iTnnn, II, p.

Col. 4.
1.

nn
n-

nn
^"ivpn

lyc* (Sachs, Qn'^'j'n n^w', p. 129).

2.

bum
"nii'

(niDops

nJ3,

p.

26;

Dukes, n^^c

n"'C-',

No. 66).
3.
'DHJO

13

(Sachs, 'd'H
(Sachs,
id.,

n^ti', p.

156).

4.

HTiT

^5<^

''n'J^'

/(5/^.,

p.

in;

Brody, ''LDVan DIOJIp,

No. 77;
7.

Twii

"lyu^",

p. 41).
p.

nn'C'^33 ynin'J' (Dukes,

]).

Zur Ken?it.,

171

Sachs,

^:^^-I

''Tu',

134; M. Sachs, Rel. Foesie,

^JVJ-C'

p. 8).
':;'n "'Tw',

10. 13

31
p.

(Brody, 'm^sn D-iD:ip, No. 79; Sachs,

;

137

Sachs, He/. Foesie,

p. 9).
i,

12.

[js'lT

nn

^Ew*.

Identical with Col.

No.

18, q. v.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS DAVIDSON

13.

77
p.

['no]nn ^a^yo

^jii?N-c'

(n-iSDps n^:, p. 29:

8).
II,

nnv^<

^jd,

22;

D^Dvan DIDJ1P, No.

15.

HNnpN* ann'j^ (Sachs, .T-nnn,

nniN*
bi2,

p.

i;

on^cn

n^w*, p.

152;

p. 23).

16.

inTn^ py

^sc' (an^L-n
7
;

n^r,

p.

117; T:cn, XII, 357; onujip

p.

CDVSn, No.

Dukes, Zi/r Kenntniss,

171

Sachs,

Rel. Poesie, p. 8).

Col.
5.

5.

^n33

^JNI

p^XI (Brody, Monatsschrifi,

LV.

p. 85,

No.

19).

VI.

Two Poems of

Joseph ben Jacob Ibn Sahl.

life

Our
Sahl
is

knowledge of the
still

and writings of Joseph ibn

have the testimony of

very scanty.

We

Abraham

ibn

Daud

that he

was a pupil of Isaac ibn Ghayyat,

and that he was rabbi of Cordova from 11 13 to his death in 1124.^ From two poems which he addressed to Moses ibn Ezra - we gather that he was very much attached to
this poet,^

and that

in his earlier

years he suffered greatly

at the

hands of some ignorant people.^

Beyond

this

we

have no biographical information concerning him.

Yet we
scholarl}-

may assume

that he

must have written some

works, considering the high rabbinic post which he held

he must have known Arabic,

1

since,

according to Bezalel
-,.

Neuhauer, Mediaeval Jewish

C/nviiicIcs, I.-]

Moses

ibn Ezra, accord,

ing to the quotation in pDnT" "IDD (London, 1857, p. 229 b of his death in 1123.
2
3

places

tiie

date

Dukes, Moses ben Ezra, Altona [1839], pp. 101-3.

Cp. Dukes,
ibid.,

p. 102, ''2^])

D''JD

Hu'D

'h'h

and

p. 3,

3"nN nL"D

Ibid., p. 102, 11.4-7.

'

78

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Ashkenazi, he translated some responsa of Alfasi from

Arabic into Hebrew,^ and he certainly must have composed

a large

number of poems,
di Rieti,^

since Ibn Daud,*^ as well as Harizi

in

and Moses

speak

high terms of his poetic

gifts.

Moses ibn Ezra

also mentions

him

in his

Kitab al-nmhadara
his poems.^*^

ii<al-iuuddkara.^ and quotes four verses from

The two poems

interesting, for

given below do not add

much

to our

biographical knowledge of Ibn Sahl.

They

are nevertheless

one

is

addressed to Isaac ibn Ghayyat, his

teacher,

and the other

Moses ibn

may be one of the poems from which Ezra quoted.^^ The fragment (T-S. LOAX 168),
niDK',

ni*31pD

B.M.

fol.

108

a.

See

also Steinschneider, //ri. Uebersctz.,

p.

912, 3* ' *

Neubauer,

ibid., ibid.

'JirDSnn, ch.

3, ed.

Kaminka, pp.

39, 41.

tsyo

^n\>'C!, p. 99.

Rieti classes Ibn Sahl with Gabirol and

Moses ibn

Ezra, and in a note copies the words of Ibn Daud.

pOnV

'D,

ibid.

his Cat. of Berlin

MSS.,

See also Steinschneider's index to the ri"li'XnO?N, in 11, p. 130. according to which the name of Ibn Sahl
work.
cited

occurs three times

10

in that

These four verses are

itself is

by Dukes
:

in

D'^r^Hp

7n3,

p. 10.

As

this

book

rather rare

repeat them here

CJDinnc n3n-i ^npivi

a^cVi'y

d'

^^:3

inon

(a)
to think

The
that

fact that the

it is

two hemistichs rh^-me with each other leads me

the opening line of a Kasida.

mx'^s
T\'Z'y

li?:Dy

vh \v^b

ry \t2U
^c'c^i

nnin^ nx

^d

n?:x

(b)
(c)

bvyr\'

nn

iod
nN"1

'ps

^^y

non

...

Dukes suggests
verse.

that the

word

may

be supplied at the beginning of this

mwp
" The

nn:D
their

-h^

vyncb

rhh^
it is

ir

ica ^nn:i

(d)

To judge from
first

rhyme and metre

possible that verses b and d are

taken from one poem.

of the four verses quoted has the
to deal

same metre and rhyme as

It
its

our poem, and seems also

with the same theme.

excels by far in

must, however,
style the

be admitted that the second

poem

poem

addressed to Ibn Ghayyat, and reminds us forcibly of the style of Gabirol.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

in

DAVIDSON

79

which these poems are found, consists of two leaves of

paper (17-5x13 cm.), which are not consecutive.

are very Hkely the outer leaves of a fascicle.
I

They
do
not,

however, consider them as part of a Divan of Ibn Sahl, but

rather as part of a collection of

poems by various

authors.

The

reason for

it is

that the

poems of Ibn Sahl

are preceded

by a fragment of a poem of Ibn Gabirol. What our fragment contains of the Gabirol poem corresponds to verses
51-70 of the poem beginning nnann
of
n^nn.^^

In the edition

Dukes

there are 98 verses to the poem, and yet our

r\b^2
{

fragment has the word

= finis)

written after the

seventieth verse, which goes to prove that the

at

poem

suffered

the hands of the copyists.

Further
is

proof that the

copyists were careless with this

poem

the fact that even the

ninety-eighth verse does not seem to be the proper ending.^"^

Dr. Brody,

in his

admirable edition of Gabirol, has begun

his edition has thus far reached

to publish this

poem, but

to the fortieth verse.^"*

It is advisable, therefore, to

give

here

in

a note the variants of our manuscript.^^

fol. i

Omitting

recto

and the

first

two

lines of the verso,

which are occupied by the

to the text of Ibn Sahl.

lines of Gabirol,

we may proceed

A.

'2

Dukes, r\rhvy

n'':^^
,

No. 68.

"

lUd., p. 68, n. 6.

"
55

Brody, Dn''B'n '^'^ Berlin, 1900, pp. 35-6.

Ver. 54,
r\r\^Z^
;

ver. 56, p'^ [DK^] ])y)

62,

ver. 59,

H'^NCa

pn''C'"'

ver.

60,

Dnyil Wll^b;

ver.

n^b'W '\yy^

ver. 64,

DnpW

VO'.^'T;

ver. 65,

irn^

^D^m;

ver. 66,

Dnnob nnno.

8o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

T
:

n ns Dzp'ni

-''^y^ "vp; NT
-6

10

013

'[33

--'K^'y

03
B.
(fol.
2,

recto)

D'-jpnc nri33^i

^
c'M

nvrinns

D:rT;

"^nion

D''b'\s*

1*"'

Cp.

Isa. 50. 10.

1'^

Ps. 69. 4.
Isa. 46. 6;.

18
1^'

Piel of ^1T

cp.

D^iC aPT D"'hn,

her

Cp. Job 38. 28.

20

Read perhaps H^l^ia (=

According
to the

in

circles).

Cp.

Isa. 22. 18, i.e.

in

'May
orbit.'

God
21

grant that his wandering sun of friendship

may

be stopped

her

metre of

this

poem

the line should begin with '^3n.

22

From

the point of metre

we must
^yt2?0

regard the Shcva in "|3n as Slicva

mobile.
23

Text of manuscript reads

but over the

the scribe wrote a

J.

Both readings, however,

2*

are without

meaning and against the metre.

Read perhaps
Job
38. 32.
9. 9.

n"lS, imperative of n~lX (cp.

mD

^n^X

Cant.

5. i)

the meaning, however, remains obscure.

2S 2"
'^^

Read perhaps
Lev. 11. 18.

ni3.

Cp. Zech.

28

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON

8i

jnin^ ^>y-i3 ^'^'l[y]^

D'-cpD Dtra? \^y pin

.D"-??!?

}yipb
D^N''E'3n

"rm

fiS3

TD?^

^3 ^^^bn "v^n dni

(fol. 2,

verso)

34D''D"jn

nB'3 ^b
b'nii

to''nri3

33^1 \)^b i^b

"t^V

pNI

,0

y>n>iDb^
n"'ni
38D''jp'nD

3ns

^ys np
iajsn

n3iN ^^nayj.

13 nayn e?^n

'ps

ni3ni
^^

DN n'^m: V3^3n
Tj^-nts:!

p3)?b vninsb'3
bxi3i

132^1

n^ni^EJ' 'inr''D3

niiQ ^b n^y W'n^

TJl'l

D'-nya !je?p iB'

ns

d\'i"^n

^"!!5^

^Sp
^:3'1.

33131

15

29

Either read nnob', or take

)nNm

to stand for

pNH

30
31

An
I

appellative for the Egyptians (cp. Gen. lo. 13).

28. i6.

Sam.

The manuscript is apparently by the same

32

torn, but the

scribe.
It

word pS

is

written on the margin,

the text the two

seems that

in

words

pX

^3
33
3*

were written by mistake p3

Pr. 25. 12.

Lev. 27. 21.

<

35

And

this

shall offer as a peace-oftering in the fire of love.'

8. 9.

3nS

is

sing, of D''3nN,
36 3T 38

Hos.
it

Construe

as

if it

read njyj

3^ 13^n.

MS. reads

TiZV:

ibbn.

MS. reads n3ri.

Cp. the expression

nDHD

pT (Sanhedrin 32 b).

VOL.

IV.

82

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

VII.

Three Poems of Joseph Ibn Zaddik.

Joseph ibn Zaddik, the younger contemporary of Ibn

Sahl, and his successor in later years to the rabbinate of

Cordova (1138-1

149),

was highly praised

for his poetic gifts

by Judah Halevi,^ Abraham ibn Daud,- Judah Harizi,^ and Menahem di Lonzano.-* It is very probable that many of
the liturgical
acrostic

hymns which bear

Piyutim.^

the

name

of Joseph in
is

were composed by him, yet his authorship

three

certain

only

in
is

Our knowledge
There
is

of his secular

poems

likewise very scanty.

one poem which

latter

he addressed to

Judah Halevi when the

Palestine,*'

passed

through Cordova on his way to

and recently

Dr. Brody brought to light three more poems, two of which are inscribed to Isaac ibn Muhagir,'' and the third the
editor presumes to have been addressed to

Moses ibn Ezra.

in

There are

still

two other poems which are

some sources
the Divan

ascribed to Ibn Zaddik, but their authorship must remain

a matter of doubt.
of

For one of them

is

is

found

in

Judah Halevi;^ and Dr. Brody

3

inclined to think that

Cp. Brody, Diwan,

I,

Nos.

10, 32, 83, 124.

I,

2 3

Neubauer, Mediaeval Jevoish Chronicles,

'Jiroann, ch. 3 -ed. Kamin1<a, pp. 39,

75.

42\

"

nn^
(a)

Ti':*,

137

b.
-iii-

n^r
^3i!^

nsiD^

n^ns by\
g.

(b:

^-c^np tin

'h.,

(c)

i?:^^

"lb

''2n

SeeZunz,L!Vera/!<'g-c5c/2;c/;/f, p.

216; Neubauer and Cowle^',

^

Catal, n, p. 155, No. 2738, 4

6

It

was first published by Luzzatto

in XV^XX" T\1

n?in2.

p. 58.
"li?:*,

It is

also

found in Graetz's D'r:"i:r Dp"?, p. loi,

^

and

in

Brody's T'^'H

p. 127.

Brody, Drci niibckannte Fniindschafisgedichte des Josef ibn Zaddik,

in the notes to
this
b.

Prague 1910.
8

Ibid.,

Dii.wi,

I,

No. 49 (t2yD3 ny).

lines (3-4; of this

poem
Jacob

Brody

states that
in the

two

poem

are quoted by Eleazar

Ha-Babli

name

of Ibn Zaddik.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

it

DAVIDSON
Abraham

83

is

more

likely the composition of Halevi than of Ibn

Zaddik,^ and the other, while in the Divan of

ibn

Ezra

it

is

ascribed to Ibn Zaddik,''

is

ascribed in another

source to

Abraham

ibn Zaddok.^^

The

texts produced below are found in two Genizah

fragments of the Taylor-Schechter collection.

The

first

fragment (T-S.

Loan

73) consists of a single sheet of

paper
is

(20x15

cm.),

and contains two poems, one of which

From the fact that the first poem is marked with the letter ^2 we may draw the conclusion that it is the second poem of some collection, perhaps a Divan of Ibn
incomplete.

Zaddik.
since
it is

It

cannot be taken as the number of the page,

placed on the inner margin of the page.

The

other poem, however, bears no number, but the absence of

the

number may be due

to the

faded condition of the

to be

manuscript.

The complete poem seems

is

an epithalais

mium, and

addressed to Isaac
b.

ben Abi 'AH, who

perhaps a son of Ezekiel

to

Jacob

Abu

'Ali of Damietta,
left

whom Judah

Halevi addressed a poem when he

that

city to continue his journey to Palestine.^-

The second fragment

only,

(T-S.

Loan
to

167) consists of a

small sheet of paper (14-7 x 10-5 cm.), written on one side

and contains a poem addressed

This

Rabbi Joseph ibn

Migash.

poem

is

found also
is

in

the Divan of Abraham

it

ibn Ezra, and there

it

stated that

was composed by

'

Ibid.,

Freundschaftsgedichtc, p.

7. 5.

'^^

Egers,

Diwan

des Abraliatn ibn Ezra, p.

pnX'' "i^^D,

XXIX,

29-30. See also Steinschneider,

Z)/e i/i-j^^/scAn//^;/;

Verzeichnisse d. k. Bib. sii Berlin, II, p. 32,

MS.

54,

fol.

60 b

Egers, Diwan,

pp. 149-50; Brody, Frettndscliaftsgedichte, p. 6.

^-

Brody, Diwan,

I,

No. 30.

See Steinschneider, Introduction

10 {JQR., IX, 627).

lo

the

Arabic Literature ofthejeivs,

12, n.

84

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in

Ibn Ezra

honour of Ibn

Zaddik.^'^
I

As

far as the author-

ship of the

poem

is

concerned,
for

am

inclined to accept the

is

testimony of our fragment,

to have a

the Ibn Ezra Divan

known

number of poems

ascribed to
is

him

erroneously, as,

for instance,

No. 217, which

clearly the composition of

Joseph ibn Zebara.^^

Moreover, the extravagant praise

his friend

which our poet lavishes on

appropriate
in

Joseph would be more

the case of Ibn Migash, considering

how

equally lavish such

men

as Isaac Alfasi,^-^
in

Judah

Halevi,^"

and Maimonides^' were

There
is,

their praises of Ibn

Migash.

however, one point which casts a doubt on the

identity of the Joseph to

whom

Ibn Zaddik addressed this

poem.

In verse 17 the poet refers to the son of his friend,

and

in

the last verse he calls him

by

his

name, Solomon.

To

our knowledge, however, Joseph ibn Migash had only

one son by the name of Meir,

the forty-sixth chapter of the

whom

Harizi mentions in

Tahkemoni}^

We

have,

therefore, to look for another celebrated contemporary of

Ibn Zaddik who had a son by the name of Solomon.

here, again, Harizi

And
same
Harizi

comes

to our aid.

For

in

the

chapter, in speaking of the great

men

of Toledo,

13 Egers, Diuan des Abraham ibn Ezra [ = E], p. 87, No. 196. The poem had previously been published by Egers in MGIVJ. 1883, p. 423 [ = E'], afterwards it was also edited by Rosin in Reinie und Gedichte des Abraham

ibn Esra. pp. 121-3

[

R], and by Kahana

in

y3"N"in

nom

)01p,

I,

44-6

K].
'*

Albrecht, Siiidien

zit

doi Dichtutigen Abrahatns ben Ezra.

Leipzig

1903, pp. 27, 32.

1

According

to

Ibn

Daud
nL*'?o

in

n^miD ^^n5^K
If'

iJ^m
I,

^*j'

n?3pn 'D Alfasi wrote of Ibn Migash iinn i^-exc' (Neub., M.j.ch., 1,76:.
II,

Brody, Diuan,

Nos. 62, 95, 114, 130;

to the

No. 21.
fol.

1'

See Maimonides' Introduction

Ed. Kaminka.

Mishna, ed. Wilna, 1908,

b,

11.

4-6 from above.

18

p. 350.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

mentions Solomon
b.

DAVIDSON

85

Joseph ibn Shoshan as contemporary

It is there-

of Isaac the grandson of Joseph ibn Migash.^^

fore plausible that our

poem was addressed by Ibn Zaddik

to Joseph ibn Shoshan,

whom

Harizi describes as hnjn

N''ty3n,

and perhaps on the occasion of the birth and circumcision of his

son Solomon. ^^*

This would lend a more pregnant meaning

to the seventeenth verse

yim

']:2.

n2y nb

"ICN 3-iy IJ

'

Thy
not

son

will

come
'.

after thee that the light of the

West may

be quenched

Of

course

we must not
also

lose sight of the

possibility that Ibn

Migash

had a son Solomon, of whom

history has no other record, in which case the

poem
it

could

very well have been addressed to him.

the text of our fragment
is

Be

this as

may,

so

much

superior to that of the

Divan of Ibn Ezra that

feel justified in

reproducing
in
is
it.

it,

irrespective of the identity of the persons

mentioned

The

strophic character of the following

poems

that

of the Miizuassa/i, or girdle song.

illustrates a different

Each poem, however,

For the better

form of Mtiwassahr^

19 Ibid.

^2-\

i'njn

N''C'2n

n^'^'

^an

n"C':n

n''N''K'3

-innoDi

1^"

This poem naturally dates from before 1149, the year

If,

in

which Ibn
birth to
at least

Zaddik died.
a son,

therefore, Joseph ibn

Shoshan had already given

when

this

poem was composed, he must have been born

This would put Ibn Shoshan's birth
{Gesc/n'chie,

twenty years before.

not
1

at

about 1125, and

translation, IV,

135, as

Graetz assumes

VI, 207
les

Hebrew

243, 244, 409).

See also Schwab, Rapport sur

Inscriptions hebra'iques de

VEspagne, pp. 58-60.

20

On

the structure of the

I.
:

Strophengedicht.
it is

as follows

Muwassah see M. Hartmann, Das arabisc/ie Das Muwassah (Weimar 1897;, pp. 95 ff. Briefly stated The Mttw. has two component parts, the bait, consistEach baith&s two
sets of

ing of three or more lines, and the kufl, consisting generally of two lines,

each line again being divided into two hemistichs.

rhymes, one

for the first hemistichs

and one

for the

second hemistichs, and no

Tittfl,

two

baits

need have the same rhyme.

In the case of the

on the other

hand, the two sets of rhymes are uniform throughout the poem, so that by

86

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

it

understanding of the metre be

y: NIC' in

remarked here that the

is

the middle of a word

is

disregarded, while

nbp nyijn

counted as a

full

vowel.

(T-S.

Loan

73, recto)

n^pr-it^'

nnriK'

-"^-inc'-nn

n^ii^

dn

iic'

B'Tisy

n^

-"'pn*^^

ri'']i-by

fl^J^ti!

no

them the various

the

baifs of the

poem

are held together as

a kiifi

if

by a girdle

hence
In that
first

name Mnuassah.
line,

Sometimes

may have

three sets of rhymes, one

for the first hemistich of the first line,

another

for the first hemistich of the

lines.

second

and a third
is

for the

second hemistichs of the two

case the uniformity

kept up through the poem, as for instance in the

poem

of our texts.

The ordinary
bait, in

Mitiv. begins

and ends with a

is

kitfl,

con-

taining altogether six hifls and five baits, but there

also a class of

Muw.

which begins with the

incomplete
line.

which case the number of

knfls is only five.

Both of these classes are

illustrated

by our

texts (Nos.
its

and

3},

while the

poem

(No. 2;

is

altogether peculiar since

in later

^j// consists only of one

'"CK^

For the use of the Mttiv.

^

Hebrew poetry see Bacher, JD^n

to

(Budapest 1910), pp. 75 21 Another poem of

'

his

[addressed]

Isaac

b.

Abi'ali,

the

Lord

strengthen him.'
22

This poem
to the

is

undoubtedly a wedding song, and the poet, alluding

of veiling

perhaps

ceremony
to the

and unveiling the

face of the bride,

:

compares her beauty

'

dawn breaking through

at the

the darkness, and says

See

if

the daughter of the morning star has broken through the darkness of
let

her armour, and

us

awake

sound of her song,

at the

sound of her

dove-like cooing.'
23
2*

Note the
Cp.

alliteration
7. 16.

and paronomasia,
to the
'

MS. reads nJV "I^C

say of the house

Amos

From here

end
',

of ver. 7 the poet devotes himself

'

to the praise of the

bridegroom.

What

says he.

shall

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

B^l^njv

DAVIDSON
r^nr]
n't;)

87

nnb'p sin

-3

n^*^-^y

':

.n^pHN'b
25!in3"}

nvn

n-ib'p

nbn:

""p

=qib'

nn

^p:?

1322

jn nby;;??

D^ipnon

''icb'3

nn

12115

Dni"n niry
M>33
Tjin

niy-ib

-inxnri-nn
n-iiD

ni.

nnin

n^ns; n:inyS

nn

ijnj -sDi*?

n-iiT

-lis

n30

nno
3on'<32C'n
T VT
.-

n^n^

nnp

""B

T'xn T
n)3

^nnpy
^'^i^

-jb

niN3

(verso)

niDO

n-i''2nn

that one might as well of Isaac [b. Abi'ali], for he holds so exalted a position pleased or disto ascend to heaven as to attain it, and, whether attempt

pleased, let

all

who wish

to attain

it

desist, for

it

shall

remain with him as

an inheritance.'
25

From

this
*

verse to the end of the

afar the

poem

the poet lavishes his praise on

stole the spiced

the bride.

From

winged wind rode and

odours

her, for the time of love of the charming doe, holding sweet counsel about Beneath her ornaments she conceals for thee 8-10}. has approached (vers.

the choicest splendour (ver. 14).

Her

beauty,

if

not masked, would put to

into her face

shame the stars of heaven (ver. 19). He who has looked looked upon a constellation (ver. 26
' .

has

26
29

MS. reads mi^yn.

Cp. Isa.3.
18.

27

cp. Frov.
2

7. 18.

^8

MS. reads UVl.

MS. reads n*3D".

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

31

nil fi^yo
V T

"-Jiisi

20

nj^ttxn i^ HD-ix
T
:

ny

'

nsj?:

nil

^bnp ^3
VT
-

'DT

v"'?.?

"iD^^

n-'jB

i3y ^s

pny

12b "inN s^'^nenD

n^l
''=1

\^

^\ 'bn b^b^

-ynb

"'"n

px

nyb33

xrbx
'a

nai^en n^ nns^
naii^'D

nzi

senyxm nx
ny n^yvx

nbninb ^''nn
nr]^')

t]'*x

niTO nx
'<n<\i>)

VQpn

^Dy3 3ii3 ^y^

'^sn

S'-'nxi

nxi'cx ix

2'

'The pomegranates of
'

a watered branch'
6. 7.

may

be a poetic expression

for her
^' 23 35
3''

temples'.

Cp. Cant.

MS. reads HJI^b, but metre

requires correction.
^*

Cp. also Cant.

4. 6.

A
'

poetic term for the bridegroom.

n.

Job 38. 32. and m3' brother.'

See

20 above.
shall bring

^^

Cp. Ps. 37. 23.

I

Death

me

peace unless

find

my delight

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON

89

(T-S.

Loan

167)

DK''''^pn

"ny

ijin

nan

^"^pyiT DyT3

Dt^N

iB'Difj

nan

't;

b^i iTni, niy

^"niK^np

^nii]

Dy

-"ppn

38

The
"IT
i

inscription in

reads

THN ^X

pi)

fXICy

p
'

nDT" '1 ^D ^Npl

(inx
S9

pw.
is

Where

the old [wine] that brings

first,

new joys ?
ver. lo, is

The poem may be

is

divided into two parts, the

ending with

devoted to the praise

of wine, and the second, extending from ver. ii to the end of the poem,

devoted to the praise of Joseph.

the

The

first

part

would seem

to indicate that

poem was written on some

^0 *-

festive occasion,

perhaps on the circumcision

of Joseph's son, Solomon.

EE'RK.

nT'K'.
for the

MS.
Jewish people.

TnN3.

A poetic name
.

Cp. ?N"m'"' ^32 v"'i*N (Exod.

24. II

^5

Deut. 32. 14.

EE'RK.
wine

JI^J^V.

The

vessels are profane until the

sanctifies them.

RK
is

read

incorrectly
^^

^OyD.

Referring to Jer. 35 the poet says that he

who

tastes

wine

blessed,

but he
*''

who
is

curses

it is

cursed.
*^

7N

wanting
is

in E.
in

Jer. 15. 18.

*^
so

This verse

wanting

MS.
Rosin reads Dinan

The MS.

as well as

EE' reads m::"np Dy mJDDn.

it

nitJ'np Dy, and explains

befindliclien

in the following

way

Sie, die hier

an der Tafel
(Dy ni03n

Lehrer

Israels, bleiben niit

den

keiisclten

'

Lehreriniten

'

90

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

D\byQ

^51^

-''"ip

^nn-'i^'^n

"iji'tj'i^n

^wb^n

PiDv T]^

ban

obb niopno
Dyi-2 TjnpJ)
siinj?:

rjozn bs ^3
se-jj-ipsj

Dip^

npb
'3

n;iDn bNitt'3^

s^Tji^^

^x

p-ini

'^DK'

nixsn
"i3

5s?jnriK Tjia

.133^

x? t^n* anyo

niK'ni?) gliicklich vereiuf, walircnd

ich in alley

icli

davon

rcisen

muss, tind nkht

snclien soil

iveiss, zvo

Welt so

vorireffliclie Meiisclien

nnr noch einntal

{Reime

it.

Gedichte, p. 123, n. 3).

Kahana adopts the reading of Rosin.

not only far-fetched, but
it

This inter-

pretation, however,

is

also breaks the continuity

v.

of the poem, and does not explain to

whom
6 to
v.

DI^^3?n in
10

10 refers.

In

my
:

opinion the whole passage from

v.

may

be rendered as follows

Bring the red balsam

it

(i. e.

wine) for the incurable wounds of the heart so

let
it

that

(i.e.

the heart) live again, and

souls.'
I

(i.e.

the wine)

become the
wine, the

redeemer and healer of

poet continues
: '

Then, addressing himself

to the

While

go

in

search of them, the wise of Israel, the wise

(i.e.

of the people of holiness,

let

thy mercy be compassionate upon them

the

wounded
51

hearts and souls), and do thou dress them in the glory of thy sweet

garments.'

52

EE'RK. D{J'p3X nJNI l^N ly. EE'RK. DB'^nbn -nm ^n *by.

Cp. Gen. 49.
II.
5^

53
55 56

E.

"iDI.

play on Ezra 47. 13, where

Uriiit

f]D'i'' is

used as a verb.

RK

read

'?Jp.

Refers to the

and

TIniminiiii, cp.
;

Num.

27. 21.
;

Cp. also 2 Sam.

R. il^U3 ^XiKO^

16. 23.

reads

Uvh UIDn ^Nlt'm

bsiti*ni.

E'.

"J^CW DDP^

u^b; K. w^h in^D3

57 58

nnn. Judah Halevi says of Ibn Migash ''aiVD "M pT3 No. 130, ver. 7). MS. reads "jnnX "JOB' na33 K^.
"iniv
53

EE'RK. i^x^

13"iy

{Diwan,

I,

MS. nn3.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

DAVIDSON
DC''3ni -^b

91

ciTj'oni^ Din

ny

^^nT

20

nbns Dy niin
Dj:'7n nini "iud >3

VIII.

A Poem ov Joseph ben

Shesheth Ha-Sephardi.

In the third chapter of the Tahkemoni Judah Karizi mentions twice the name of Joseph ben Shesheth among
the great poets of Spain, and in both instances he mentions

him immediately
'0

after

Moses ibn Ezra/ from which we

D^I2\

E' reads
D''J2''

n^OD D'lny^

R
in

reads

D''0-1,

reads

D'-Q:.

The

word

may, however, be taken

the sense of

D^tO''

T\M1,

i.e. fate

(cp. above.

Poetic Fragments, V, note 39), and vv. 18, 19

:
'

may be rendered
Tni?n pN).
']''N3K'1

as follows

Heaven hath made a covenant with thee, nay the earth will

help thee to
61

make

fate itself

thy slave

'

(2t03^ D^^yb
I,

D"'n''

similar statement
i'HKI

is

applied by Judah Halevi to Ibn Migash

lirX
2 63
1

D'yCJ'">

nrn
;

ICa^*'

ipiwan,

No. 95,

ver. 23).

MS. reads

Dcinm.
ee'.
E.

nmnn i^
;

rk.

punctuate n'linn -^\.

nb^n

E'.

n^Dnn.
:

" MS.
N^l
'"11
.

reads >2.

The passages

read

n''::'^
n::'?^

ri''\>\>V:i
.

NITV

HK'D

^m
.

n':;'3

N71

D^:^3Dn HK'iD NiTy

D^pim

c'D3^ t\^^'
^a-ii
.

^idv ^an

nirp ni"i ^^M hidd!? n^:i' n^^*n

t\^':;

fiDV

OJ^^^^nn, ed.

Kaminka, pp.

39, 41).

The

Brit.

Mus. MS. Add.

'-\

27, 113 lias in the first

passage the reading

nt:'t:'

fiirB

n'''i'3

sh,

in

accordance with which

Kaempf suggested
D''~iyK',p. 8, 11).

the reading of

ilK^'D

also in the

second passage
is

(mcy
known
is

But aside from the

fact that this

manuscript
is

well

to be

full

of errors (see Kaminka,

ibid.,

468), there

no doubt that HK'D

92

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

that Harizi speaks of a poet

may assume
during the

who

flourished

first

half of the twelfth century.

The poem

given here below, likewise from the Tayloris

Schechter collection,ancient poet, for the

probably the composition of this

of Joseph ben Shesheth
acrostic
'

name

is

clearly

stated in the

title,

and traces of the

Joseph are
'

discernible in the second stanza,

'

where the

Yod and
of an
is

the
in

Samek

'

of the

name

are

marked with three dots

letters

slanting position

the usual sign of the

initials

acrostic
illegible

in ancient manuscripts.

Unfortunately the stanza

just

where the other

fact that the

ought to

be.

However, the

mere
is

name of our poet was Joseph ben Shesheth

to establish his identity indisputably.
indicates,
',

not

sufificient in itself

The poem,
'

as the

title

was addressed to the

is left
f,

famous scholar R. Judah

is

but

all

that

of R. Judah's

patronymic
is

the

initial

n and the

final

from which

it

impossible to learn his identity.

We

gather, however,

that he was a Cohen," famous for his generosity,* his great

learning,^

and

his eloquence.*^
in

From

the closing stanza

it

seems that he was involved

some struggle from which he

to conjecture.

came out
or

victorious, but

what the cause of the struggle was,

is difficult

who his enemies The purpose of

were,

the

poem was
felt

to invite R.

Judah

to leave

Spain, where he must have

himself a stranger,' and

here a dittography due to N"ny

ni^^^ preceding

it.

For other poems by

Joseph ben Shesheth

. ,
.

cp.
i:n''

Neubauer,
d^jv),

Caiai., II, 2699,

5b

(beg.

lOyJ

nO

py
II,

^i*y

mm
7.

2712,

nh

-beg.

"-jvy-n

"i^b t-VN).
Ttidela, ed.

For the family name Shesheth,

Asher,
2

cp. The Itinerary of

Benjamin of

pp. 3-5.

T-S.

Loan

Paper,

i leaf,

15-14 cm., cursive hand, written on one

side only.
3
^

Cp. ver. II. Cp. ver. 21.

Cp. ver.

14.

Cp. vers. 15-17.

'

Cp. ver, 2.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

settle
in
|yv
it

DAVIDSON

93

mc',^
is

which very Ukely stands

for Fostat.^

From

this

to be concluded that Joseph ben Shesheth

there.

himself,

though originally a Spaniard, was no longer

Indeed, the fact that the surname Ha-Sephardi was applied

to

him

is

additional proof that he lived outside of Spain.

If not for this,

we might perhaps

identify

him with Joseph

ben Shasheth ibn Latimi, a

liturgical poet of the thirteenth

century, but the latter seems to have lived to the end of his
life

at

Lerida
to the

in

Spain. ^^*
it

As

form of the poem,

may be remarked

that in

the manuscript the verses are not separated but follow each
other continuously, occupying altogether thirteen
lines.

Of

course there
verses
(i)
is
\j

is

no punctuation.
is
v^

The metre
as Basit}^

of the shorter
consisting of

that which

known
,

- and

(2)
(2)

while that of the longer

verses consists of

(i)+

(a), in other words, a

modified
its

form of the same metre.

Each group

of short verses has

own rhyme, while

rhyme

all

the longer verses are divided into

two hemistichs and have throughout the poem one uniform

for the first hemistichs

and another

for the

second

hemistichs.

^^

'jsy

yih No^

n[n]in>

"I^^T nyjj^a
* ^

'Mmi

i^jj

tj?!?? ^I.^'^ip

Cp. ver.

4.
I,

Neubauer, Mediaeval Jeivish Chronicles,

118; Jewish Encyclopaedia,

V, 6ia.
10

See Landshuth,

muyn

HIDi?,

p. 98.

" Kaempf, Die ersien Makamen, p. 21, 3 b. 1- The meaning of this phrase is obscure. " The Pual of JDT is post-talmudic.

^^

Jer. 8. 22.

94

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

"'lyn i-^nnja

ab-nn

T]^-no

"

iy'^"'"T]"?'?i

-^*

no

'^igVl2

pri ni2[ni_] ^:n

ny^?

^[v:]

npy Dp

n^bbno nanji^'
nnir^n

....
. . .

2255

....

^ip px-i

D'oib^

W?9*

^-li?

no
-'

-"

|D^l

iJ^i:*'"!

cn^bN* p'pr\

D-aDsrfni

-nns

-1^3

-^ari

10

-bbyo

niDi D^s'^yb' p^y

15

s^^biB' D''iEn

wr^zn n-Sio

'^

Jer. 41. 17,

and Rashi ad
tarry', cp.

loc.

" = 'Wilt thou " Isa. 33. 20.

i'-*

Sanhedrin 11.4
1^

HT

7'^

12''T

riK

pJVD pX.
-

Ps. 78. 12.

Analogous
Gen.
:

to fD",! in ver.

i,

and likewise post-talmudic.

this

Jon. 2.1.

'^1

47. 23.

We
XH

may perhaps connect

[0^1,

verse with the preceding

this lion's

and read

nnX
'

"li:

'and he appointed
D''^"Ji<,

whelp'.

" So in MS., ^3 The hatef

24 25 =

the metre requires

'

cp.

Kings
is

10. 20.

in this

and in several other words

disregarded.

Joel

4. 14.
is

Num. 21. I. It MS. reads 031.

the

simply a poetic allusion

to the East.

" Cp.
2*

expression

m\U\

nrjy

HTI

in

Gabirol's

niS^^'O

"\T\2,

Job

12. 17.

GENIZAH POETIC FRAGMENTS

no
'".i9''n

DAVIDSON
-nna

95
ni:itj'^p

n3K'3i

W.D

bbb'2

pB'Din ^SK'i

nny npo

K'DJ nn-'K'D

vnab' noDn
/

20

no

It-

-t:

-:/-:

:-i3a

vnsa

ni^n^

'3

^ip

n5
^^

=^''

fONJ D^K'np-Dy-D;'! bx-oy

[nj-i

niy nnin^i 25

'He banished
I

these three wise

men from
31

speecli,'' i.e.

he surpassed

them.
30
^'

Kings

5. II. ri1v3"l?2i

Lam.

4. 3.

Cp. the expression

I

p^DilB'

HD Kiddushin 39 b.

'3
3^

Chron.
in

5. 2. is

So

MS., but the metre

incorrect.
3^

3^

Lev. 26. 19.

Hos.

12. I.

THE Aryan words

By W.
St.

in

the old testament

Beds., England.

Clair Tisdall, Bedford,

IV.

We
first

now come

to Persian words in the

Hebrew-Aramaic

text which

have or seem

at first sight to
/m;;/.

have as

their

element the prefixes /ra and

Having

dealt with

these

we

shall

be able to go on to consider certain other

in reality are

supposed Persian vocables which

I.

not such.
irpo-,

Infra (Avestic and Achaemenian

vor,
in

Greek

Lat.

pro,

German

word D^onns

Eng.forc) there seems to occur only the Dan. i. 3, 6 Esther i. 3 6. 9. The B. D. B.

;
;

Lexicon rightly regards

which
in

this

as

the plural of the word

Avestic
it

\s

fratema, 'foremost', superlative oi fra.

'

As

a noun

means

chief

'

',

leader

'.

In

Achaemenian the
men'.

word \sfrata?na,

'first':

fratamd
in

viartiyd, 'leading

Dahvytmdm fratemd-dhdtd
(prae-fectus) provinciarum
'.

Yasht X, 18

'

prae-positus

The

certainty of this derivation

has recently been proved by the occurrence of the comparative of the

same word fra

in the
is

Elephantine papyri.

Fratama [fratema,
and
its

Skt. pratha?na)
in

the superlative o^ fra,

comparative

Avestic

is

fraiara.
I,

In Sachau's
occurs l-im2,

Drei aramdische Papyrus-Urkiinden,

Avhich

would he fratara-ka
is

in either dialect of

Old Persian.

The -ka
'

an adjectival termination (compare

in Sanskrit), not
'

/'r^///^r;;/^-/&^,

foremost

',

here a diminutive, and the word

is

rendered

prefect

'.

VOL.

IV.

97

98
II.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

In

ham
'

(Avestic ham, &c.

')

Skt.

i-^;;z,

Gk.

^vv, (tvv,

Lat. cum,

together with

we

find three words, 0"^^, ?'?9'^,

and xnns.
I.

The
2.

first

of these,

D'^l",

occurs in the plural (Aram.)

of Dan.

3. 29,

and

is

rightly explained in B. D. B. as
in

from the Persian word which

Mediaeval times was

'

Jianddm and
it

is

now anddm.

formerly meant also 'a

farther back.

now means the body but But we can trace the limb'.
It
',

word
It

In the Avesta

it is

hahddma,

'

a limb

'.

does not occur in the Achaemenian inscriptions as yet

found.
'

to put,

The word comes from make (Skt. sam + dhd).

'

lidm, 'together',
It
is

and da,

was taken

into Syriac,

as well as into Aramaic,

and

there hadddmd, 'limb',

it

haddem, 'to dismember'.

'

In Arabic

comes to mean

symmetry

'

',

stature

'

{handdm).

The

assimilation of the u

to the

in

Syr. and

Aram,

words.

In
(in

kardan

Modern Persian Armenian audam

common enough in other anddm zadan or anddm andam

is

hoshel)

means

'

to dismember',

just as the equivalent phrase in Daniel does.

2.

The word

5<3^?9lI,

Dan.

5. 7,

16,29,
S*33i?Dn

is
:

variously read.

The

received text has XSiJrpn and

Ginsburg gives
^'^t^^.
Tj^iD.

also the

Knib form
word
is

SD-^icn.

Andreas reads

The
In

Syriac the

hamnikd, and

the Targ. has

p^3^c,

Talmud
word
is

the forms ss^Jpn,

and

V^i^ occur.
juaytdxrj?,

The
used used
'.

latter

borrowed from the Greek form

in

Dan. by the

LXX

and Theodotion.
'

Mai/toK?]? is

by Polybius

to denote the Celts' torques,

armlet

'

',

necklet

The meaning

of the word in

Dan.

is

evidently 'necklace',

as has long been

known

but what

is its

etymology?
in
its

The
is is

B. D. B. Lexicon suggests that the

word

simple and
it

indefinite form should be read hamydnak, and that

a diminutive of the

'

Persian Jidmydn

'.

But Jianiydn

THE ARYAN WORDS

IN

OLD TESTAMENT

TISDALL

99

merely the modern Persian pronunciation of the modern

Arabic

Jiiinydn,

which

is

a genuine Arabic derivative of the

fall',
'

Arabic verb liama. 'to

cloth
',

&c.,

and means

(i)

*a loin'.

(2)

'

a girdle

',

(3)

a purse hanging from the girdle

Arabic words taken into modern Persian do (very occasionally)

take the Persian diminutive -ak.

But we lack proof

into

that Arabic vocables

had won an entrance

Old Persian

and there undergone such a change.

The
In

derivation of

^''J'on,

however,
inaini

is
(

really quite clear.

Avestic
',

we have

word
'

= Skt.
In
is

mani), 'an
the Avesta

ornament
a vulture
'

and specially

necklace

'.

with a golden collar' {zarenu-inaini)

this

mentioned.

Combining
have
in

with the prefix hani^

together',

we should

Avestic /lanunami (which in Achaemenian would

be ha{m)mani).

The

-ka termination

is

usual enough, not

always having a diminutive sense

(see above).
in

Hence the

Achaemenian form of the word used

Jiain{vi)anika^ *a collection

Daniel would be

of necklets', a 'neck-chain':
is

probably therefore
right.

^'?'P'^

or T^fL" in the Masoretic text

The

Targ. form

^''3'?

is

derived from the

same word
In

matii (nmini), with the -ka but without the prefix.

Armenian the word

inatieak,

'

a necklace

',

occurs, this being

the natural form of the vocable in that tongue.

From

this

came the Greek loan-word

other forms in Greek,

ixaviaKris
ixdvos,

(also iiaviaKov).
ixovvos,

The

ixdvvos,

are possibly

loan-words from Persian, or possibly original, like the Latin

7nonile.

In any case they are from the same root as mani.

'

In Avestic the forms inina and mimi,

necklace

',

also occur

hence the derivative verb inanely

'

to twist, spin,

weave

',

in

Armenian.
3.

The

third word, NntpOK^

is

the proper

name of a

city,

lOO

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

none the
less

but

the

same

prefix Jiani enters into

N, the n is
is

its

composition.
for n,

It
final

has a prosthetic
\

an early error

and a

is lost.

All this

clear from
is
;

comparing

the different forms in

Peshitta has

which the name

found.

The

Ahmatan, the
it

LXX

Wjxada

Tiglath Pileser

about
("nan.

ICO B.C. writes

is,

Auiaddna, and the Talmud has

This

of course, the city of

it

Hamadan

in

Persia.
h,

Dr. Driver and some others write

equivalent to the Heb. n.
written in Persian.

with the hard Arabic

But

have never met

is

it

so

{Hauiddn with the h

the

name

of an

Arabian
N'ncns).

tribe,

the Bmil Hainddn, having no connexion with

II,

Darius {Bcsitun Inscription,

76-8) writes the

'

name Ha{n)gviatdna. It comes from Junn, together root gam, 'to go', and a termination denoting the
where anything
holding
a.

',

the

place

is

done:

hence

it

means 'the place of

/iariga7na

(modern anju7;mn} or assembly'.

is

The

form 'AylBdrava used by Herodotus

the more
III.

more

correct than

common Greek
This
is

'EK^Sarava.

perhaps the best place to deal with two

proper names of men, Hainan and Havunedatha. though

they have no connexion with the root

I.

Jiavt.

Hanian,

Jon, Esther 3.
is

i,

&c. &c.

The B.

D. B. Lexicon

says that the etymology

dubious, but on Jensen's authority

is

suggests that the word

the

name
we

of the Elamite

god

Humban

or Htiuinian.

Surely

should not accept such

are quite certain that

a most unlikely derivation

until

we

no simple Persian source can be found from which the

name can come.

In this case, however, the explanation

and derivation are quite evident.

Hanian
(

is

the Avestic
su,

word /unnanZi (nom.

'weir, and
Avestic
inaji,

sing.),

from hn

= Skt.

Gk.

ev),

'to think' (Achaemenian, Sanskrit, and

ixivos,

alike),

whence Lat. mens, Gk.

Skt. manas, &;c.

THE ARYAN WORDS

IN

OLD TESTAMENT
(

TISDALL

lOI

Hence Jmmaii^ means 'well-disposed'

Gk.
(Vfxevris).

= Skt.

siiuiaiias,

As an

appellation in

its

Greek form the word

is fairly

well known.

In the Masoretic text only the vowels

need be changed.
2.

Haman's
3. i,

father's

name was Hammedatha,

i.e.

i^JH'Jlsn

Esther

&c.
'

from maJia^

The B. D. B. Lexicon month and data, given

' '

suggests that this

',
'

is
',

Moon-given

and compares the forms

it

MaSarTjs, MaSaras, Mabirrjs.

first

But

would be

difficult to

account for the

syllable in this

way,

in fact impossible.
in

The name

is

doubtless Homa-ddta

(which
'

Avestic would be Haoma-ddta, Skt. Soina-daita)^

'.

created

by Haoma

Haoma was
in

the yazata of the haomaits

plant,

which corresponds

the form of
is

name

to the

Sanskrit 6'(9Wrt-plant.

Sonia-datta

name which The

not

unfrequently occurs in Sanskrit. With Haonia-ddta compare

MWira-ddta

{MtdpabaTr}^), 'created
in

by Mithra'.

ao in

Avestic presupposes an au or
hence, doubtless, Honia-ddta
is

Achaemenian

Persian,
:

the

name we need

in the

nom. Hdiiia-ddto would be a common form.

That the

haoma
the

or

its

Genius should be thus honoured will not seem

strange to students of the Avesta (compare the worship of

Soma

in

Vedic times).

Tradition says that Zoroaster

{Zaratlmsird) was born to reward his father Pourushaspa

for

making copious

libations of

haoma.

IV.

We

come now

to deal with

some words which

are

not really Persian, though they have been thought to belong

to that

language.

Perhaps we should here remind our

readers that loan-words in the

Bible,
if

Hebrew-Aramaic text of the

cannot have come from
in

derived from

Persian,

the shortened and corrupted forms

use in the modern

language, for these were not yet in existence at the time

when the

Biblical

books were written.

They must have


I02

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

been derived from either Avestic or Achaemenian Persian.

compare modern Persian words with them, unless we are sure that these have not been The modern word Shah, altered since ancient days.

Hence

it

is

unscientific to

'

Achaemenian times Khshdyathiya hence the form to suggest that any Biblical word comes from Shah would be absurd, just as it would be to say that the
a king
',

was

in

taken from the French sauvagc, or the Arabic kamls from the French chemise, instead of from
Italian selvatico
is

the Latin silva and camisia respectively.

I.

Bearing

this in

mind,

let

us examine the proposed

in the plural (n'l^E) in
*

etymology of the word nn^Q, found

Nahum

2. 4,

Heb.
its

It is

now
is
it

usually rendered

steel

'.

The

B. D. B. says

origin

dubious, but doubtfully gives

Lagarde's suggestion that

with that meaning.

comes from the Persian piddd

a corruption of an older and
its
'

But

this derivation is impossible for

is

the simple reason that puldd

longer form, and did not exist in

present shape
is

when
get

Nahum

wrote.

In Armenian,

'

steel

poghopat, pogJiovat.
/;

Now

gJi in

Armenian represents an antique

so

we

the old forms polopat and polovat.

especially the latter, the

From

either of these,
is

Modern Persian /f//^?^

derived,

unless both languages take the word from an ancient Persian word. In the latter case, as Old Persian had no / (another rea-

son against Lagarde's proposed etymology), the word would probably be ponm-pat or pouru-vat, the a being short or
long.

Pdnru

in

Avestic
voll,

is

pant

in
:

Achaemenian (Greek

ttoAv,

S\^t.puru, Germ,

onx fjdl)
'

pat
',

may be from

the same

root as the Sanskrit patii,

sharp

or from the root pat,

found
'

in
'

Avestic and
to fly
',

Sanskrit

with such
pct-ere).

meanings as

to fall

',

&c.

(cf. T.^r-a.vvv\i.i,

Vat

may

be

the Avestic root vad, vadh (Skt. vadJi), 'to wound', 'to

THE ARYAN WORDS

hurt
',

IN

OLD TESTAMENT
'

TISDALL
*

I03

whence Avestic vadare,

'

weapon

',

blow

'.

'

Very

sharp

or

much smiting

'

might describe

steel not amiss.

However
was not
in

this

may
if

be, the fact that steel in

h\x\.

Nahum's time

called //7/^<^ in Persian,

pdiirupat^ poiiriivat (or,

Achaemenian,

we may

similarly reconstruct the word,

panipat, pariivat), shows that Nahum's nnpe cannot come

from

pfcldd,
is

whatever

its

etymology may
for such
is

be.
Is
it

But

there any need

a search?

not

simpler to suppose that n'lbs

for either rinns

(agreeing

with

K't?)

or

rihl'^,

referring to 23in?

In either case this

amounts merely to the suggestion that

for 1 in a

Nahum

substitutes 7
in several in

well-known Hebrew verb.

(He indulges

departures from the usual practice in vv. 4

case.)
B'sa,

and 5

any
for

If with

Wellhausen and Nowack we read ^^2

25Tin n'lpb IJ'SB

we may render
',
'

'like

fire

flash

the

chariots

as the Russian version does.

Or, reading ^nbb,

'.

we

have,

like flashing fire are the chariots

'

In Assyrian

the root
'

Nma means
word
to

to be bright
'.

',

while parddii means

to be impetuous, to hasten

This seems better than to

',

invent

mean

'

steel

for

which

no

proper

etymology can be found.

The

puzzle afforded by ni^Q

it

is
'

an ancient one.
{rjvMi),

The

LXX

guessed that
suit.

meant

'

reins

and the Vulgate

that

follows

The

Peshitta conjectured

the word

should be

n'T-ab 'torches',

but this occurs just below.

The
this

M^sudot David
idea,

takes the

same

view.

Rashi mentions

but admits he does not

'{"^o]

know what rro^ means.

Nn::'X3,

The
'^

Targum has
'with
fire

nn''3''m

''!j''D

which seems to mean,

are the elephants of their war-chariots prepared

!

truly a remarkable idea

It

yet

may Nahum makes

be noted that, though

"y^l is

usually masc. sing.,

the collective noun plural feminine

by

I04
his use of
'

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the/^w.
plur.

pronominal suffix
justifies

in ver. 5 (in''X1P),

their appearance'.

This
ri'"ip:3

our suggestion that

mpQ

should be punctuated
It

as a fern. plur. present Participle.

may

be noticed that Luther's version completely agrees

'

with this view, rendering

Seine

Wagen
former

leuchten wie Feuer

to

'.

There

is

really

no necessity, however,
t^'???,

change

the

Masoretic ^^!^ into

as well.
a.

for the

suits the sense quite

In Deut. 33. 2 occurs the strange word which in the

is
'

Masoretic text
'

read

nv'.^'S,
'.

and which used

to be rendered
JTi

fire

of law

',

a fiery law

This rendering took

for

the Old Persian data, which occurs in later books, but would

hardly be expected
that this
is

in

Deut.

The

B. D. B. Lexicon admits

erroneous, and gives various suggested correc-

tions of the text,

which we need not

discuss.

According

to Ginsburg the K''iib has TPZ%.

We

need not try to

it

trace an

Aryan etymology

for the word, but

its

may

not

be out of place to investigate

meaning and

derivation.

There seem to be two possible derivations, each of which

appears
to

give a not

unsuitable
Vi/,
'

sense.

(i)

Ancient
',

Egyptian has the word

seat,

throne, place
in

which

comes from a Semitic root

isddaJi,

it^i,

whence

Arabic we have
'

asddaJi,

'

cushion

'

zvisddah,

zvasddaJi,
in
i

cushion,
10. 19,

pillow, couch, throne',

Nn'^B'S
T\r\\.
'

and
'

in

theTargum
is

Kings

stays

' ',

arms

(of a throne)

used for the Heb.

in
*

If derived
'

from this
',

root,

mc^'wS

Deut. would

mean
tion
is

seat, throne
is

and we should render,

At His
'

right

hand there
',

a seat for
isdit.

them
(2)

'

cf.

the Heb. I'f 5<

founda-

in

Assyrian

The
is

other possible derivation

Ti?'?<
'

the root which

in

Aramaic

to

pour out
'

'.

It

occurs in Syriac, too, where esdd

dmd means

effusion of

blood

'.

In Assyrian from this root comes sadutii [Muss-

THE ARYAN WORDS

Arnolt, p. 1017],
'

IN

OLD TESTAMENT
'

TISDALL
this
is

I05

grace

',

favour
'

'.

If

we accept

view
grace

we should render the

for

text,

At His

right

hand there

them

'.

In either case there seems to be no need of deeming the text

corrupt and

adopting conjectural emendations.

The
help.

ancient versions

and commentators render no

'

real

The Targum has The book

avTov.

of His right hand gave

fire
'.

us instruction from the midst of the

(K
'

The

LXX

have

b^LS)v avTov ayyeXot, [xer

The

Peshitta renders,

And

with

Him

from myriads of His saints at His right

'.

hand.

He

gave to them

The Vulgate has a

'

fiery

law

',

and even Ibn Ezra and Rashi accept

rendering.

this

now exploded
in

The

difficulty

which many have thus found

the passage
it

may

perhaps excuse

my

venturing to deal with

here.

OUR EDITION OF THE PALESTINIAN TALMUD

Compared with the Leyden MS.

By
It
has

L.

Grunhut,

Jerusalem.
that
the
editio

been

repeatedly maintained
Palestinian

princeps of the

Talmud

(Venice,

1523)

was
to

based on the Leyden

MS.

Z. Frankel

was the

first

promulgate
p. vii.

this

view in his

JerusJialmi, Vienna,

1873,

However,
'

this assertion

can hardly be regarded

as

decisive.

To

Frankel,
as
I

the

commentator

of

the

Palestinian Talmud,'

have said elsewhere {ZDPV.,

out

1909,

183),

'who

started

with the
to

conviction

that

none of the manuscripts subsequent

century are correct,
it

the

thirteenth

may have
another

been of no

moment

whether, for instance, a word begins or ends with N in

one place and with n

in

,'
.
.
.

More
in

precise

is

the opinion of Strack on this question,

his

Einleitung in den

Tahmid

(reprinted
TJieologie,
'

from

the
ed.,

Real-Encyclopddie fiir protestantische

vol.

2nd

XVIII), 1887,
i.

p.

49.

He
.
. .

says:

{b)

Palastinischer

Talmud,
ist

Die einzige Hs. von bedeutendem Umfang

Dieses
palast.

die in Leiden Scaliger 3

fiir

MS. war

eines der

vier

den ersten Druck des

Talmuds benutzten
zeigt,

und zwar, wie Vergleichung mit der Ausgabe

fiir

das

das beste gehaltene

zu

die drei andern scheinen nicht

. .

mehr vorhanden
postscript

sein

.'

(Comp.
editio

herewith

the
of

of

the editor of the

princeps,

end

tractate m:).

107

io8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Accordingly, Strack
is

not of the view that the

first

edition of the Palestinian

Talmud was

printed from the

Leyden MS., as indeed

tioned postscript
;

this

would contradict the above-men-

only this

much he assumes
it

as established,

that in the preparation of that edition, besides three other

manuscripts which now, as

the

seems, no longer exist, also

Leyden MS. was

used.

This
is

may
in

be

true

but

whoever maintains Frankel's view

before

the wrong.

have

me

one chapter of the Palestinian Talmud printed

from the Leyden MS., the eighth chapter of Shabbat,

published as a dissertation for the doctorate by Isaac Levy,
Breslau, 1891.^
editio princeps

comparison of

this

edition

with the

goes far to disprove the above-mentioned

hypothesis.

In the following the

two texts are contrasted

ED. PRINC.
(

MS. LEYDEN.

Y
n^nnn ^y

mnan

^y

^x^n
n"'''n

nvtry!?

coaiD

Tw'p

rby ains^

poaiD

-iirp

v^y ninsb

nvniN*
::'snn jn>^

[n^ pm]

'"i

^333 nvcy^ "13

1

The

full

title

is

Dcv

acliic

Abscliniti

aus deni Tractate Sabbath :Babli

behandelt nebst Wiedergabe dcs

und Yeruschalmi)
2

iibersctst

Jtnd philologisch

Textcs des Yertischalnii nach dein Leydener Manuscript.

ever,

The round brackets indicate the missing ''y"3D' pID. In reality, howthe it should be named ^y^'aZ\ since indeed it is the eighth and not

seventh p"1D.
^

The

large letters indicate the

number

of the mishnah.

EDITIO PRINCEPS OF PALESTINIAN

pav"ir:n onin^

TALMUD GRUNHUT
pDiv-ir:n

109

n
ninn

omnD 'n
'D'-vy

DD^^sn minji
ni::'i;^

n^

"i

m
['i3

1^

-ION

Di3n n:nr3

n^

p^

N^xion]
-3-1

N-nyr

-13

*DV

'-I

'-13

HDV

^3-1

rniN nmtt' [xin]

nx

here entered by a second hand

[i'3n

n3

^c'i3j ^^n

jmnj

''1SX

^'^nDD

added as marginal gloss

Nmn

xnnix \sd ^'x

'3:5?

p^^o]

[nyrx"

p-itrn

DT

fXD
nn^nj

^iDv 3-1

-inx

nonax

[n-i]

^-in'-nj

nr2n3x 31
(.T'y^jvn^

p3-n bv
['ID]...

^jni

:n[n3^n]

'13

naip^ ... '1

n-iisv
D''Vy^

mcy^
Dx

DX1

n^vy^

[xn]

"3^

noir

x*:fin

*
''

Read

in

accordance with the manuscript

Frankel,
Introdnctio
in

Dify.

Comp.
I.

Talmud

Hierosolymitaniiiu,

s.v.

3T

xom3x
^

The

editor objects to the reading inX-inCi*!3, not being

9,
'

aware of the

Tosefta Shabbat

Why
he
is

should he present a promissory note to his

creditor?' simply, as pointed out by Rashi [h. Shabbat 79a), in order to

show

his creditors that

an honest

man

no

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

['"ID]

3[n3^n]

'13

rop

':i

p'i^b ns'i'n

p)^h KVV1
J)

n [n^bn]

'1

['i3]...n[nDH
ny "yn
N-iiyr

'n

n:p 'n

'n
"1

fjn

XI no
iri:^"'

nn inD
"n:"'

"Nr

'i ntrn n^^'n 'i

'nn du'3 n^"'N

"m

naino

^n

ni^cd

i:c^

Y'n

'n-'otra

^c

njJ2p

N"':jn
'-)

'-\

n^2:n
!

'3-1

[Nine'

cnn] r[n3^n]

['^

Q^^;^

pn

jn^^

n3

:^-in] 'T

pnv
;

pm'' 'an

appears here as marginal

|

y-'DD
I

Til''

pyoC'

^3"!

""Jn]

gloss

pc'v^

i'ly'^^

'2-1^

Such
not
to
all

is

the extent of the variations of the two texts,

mention
this
is

minor
found
in

and

unimportant

discrepancies.

And

a single chapter!

Can

it

still

be maintained that the one text had descended from the

other?

The

future student

of the

Palestinian

will certainly reap a rich harvest from the Leyden

Talmud Codex

when examined
'

in

its

entirety.

Tosafot
I

b.

Shabbat 8i

a, 5. v.

DX1 read

D'JDU'a.

Comp.

also Alfasi,

ad he.

"

have not been able

Mschr.

to locate this Baraita,

whereas the preceding

.

"Jn (rT'-n

'l) refers to Tosefta

Israelit.

Kelim

7,

end
to

InD

p'^"IpO"l

....

Comp.
13,

Grunhut,
p. 51 a.

(supplement

Die Jud. Presse), 1907, No.

is

At any

rate the reading of the manuscript

is

more

correct.
it.

To

discuss other emendations

beyond

my

aim, nor

is

this the place for

A MISUNDERSTOOD WORD
By Samuel Krauss,
Vienna.

Not

onl}^ the

Greek and

Roman

loan-words

in

the

Talmud and Midrash,

work, but even quite
literature are
still

to which I have devoted a separate

common

Semitic terms of the same

misinterpreted, for the simple reason that

life

the facts and data constituting the

are given no consideration.

of the ancient Jews

This somewhat
following

bitter truth will

be illustrated by the

example

R. Nathan of
for us,

Rome, author of the "Arnk, has preserved among many other treasures for which we are indebted
old Midrash
:

to him, an

(from the
nnyi
n^jja
'r>-i2

Yelamdenu),^ which
pyoDTi i^v
r\'^r\'\

reads as follows
patrr
p-i2nt:'

n?D fjxnc'^

liic^^n
't\

d-c>3

/nnan
^jni

nac-vn ij?n
^jn

h^y^:^

-^rh^

Viwm

rh\ph

3^*j.'p

dH'n -nv

mma

o^poiyi

nni3: nvIiFj

In this otherwise simple statement

nvji:j

it is

only the word

that offers

perplexed.

quote

it

at

some difficulty. The lexicographers are Levy disregarded it altogether and does not all. Kohut endeavours to explain it by the
It
is

Greek KOLV(avia=comnmnio?i.
that this
is

hardly necessary to prove

supports his opinion

wrong.

Kohut,

it is

true,

by quoting a
1

similar

Midrash
a,

to

the
II,

same

passage

in

'Aruk,

]i

6 (ed. Venice 53

ed.

Kohut

315).

Cant. 8. 13.

The
D"'JJ3.

citation includes

nn3n

and does

not,

as

Kohut

believes,

end with

Ill

112
Canticles,^

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

which reads thus
:

N^^oai ^JX
nvji::

DnHn imp

DnsiTD

l^ip^ D^^irpD 'h^,

and accordingly

should be on a par

with onan.

But Kohut
difficult

himself remarks that in the

Rabba

passage the
failed to

word was omitted because the copyists

it.

understand

Who

will

vouch then that they

have rendered correctly the sense of the passage by the use

of
O'linn ?

To me

it

is

evident that there are several hag;

gadic explanations to the same verse in Canticles

the

one made use of the expression

nv213J

the other employed

identical terms.

Dnin.

These are indeed similar but not

Ben Jehuda,

the author of the very useful and scholarly

dictionary of the entire

Hebrew
word

literature,^
is

admits openly
to him, yet he
it

that the etymology of the

believes that he hit
'

unknown

upon the sense by translating

n''3l3:

with

class

'.

He

is

right in giving

as the singular.

It is

the merit of Jastrow to have

come much nearer

it
' :

to

the meaning of the word."^

He

derives

from

P3a

coitch,

and translates the sentence as follows

at

when

the students
forms).'

college

sit

':

'a

arranged by

coitcJies

(school
is

According to

this interpretation an allusion

made

to

a definite arrangement of seats in the rabbinic schools,

it is

and
such

conceivable that the haggadists would

life,

utilize just

a feature of the scholarly

especially dear to them.

since indeed the latter

was

The
(the

similarity with the sentence

that one should

read

yDC>

nsnp

or

other biblical

extracts) in conjunction with friends (Dnnn) suggests itself

at once, since

haberim are primarily men of the learned

Cant, rabba to

8. 13.

As

a matter of fact there are several interpretations in Cant, rabba,

loc. cit.
''

nnayn

]y^br\

])b^,

p.

sn.

Dictionary 0/ ihe Targuniiin, Sec, p. 258.

A MISUNDERSTOOD
guild,

WORD

KRAUSS

II3

and since

this

word

is

actually found in the scriptural

text as well as in the fragment of the Yelamdenu.

We
idiom
is

continue

now on

this

road and explain

life.

n'':!"iJJ

as

a feature of the ancient scholarly

built

The Neo-Hebraic
lanif

upon the vocabulary of the Aramaic

it

guage/ and hence

recourse to the

must not be surprising

also this time.
little

we have
or
Nn"'J1J"'j

Aramaic

Nn^JIJJ

means

in

Aramaic or Syriac a
Formations

garden, garden of the

(fr.

house, /wj't?dus.^
(fr.

like n>JlJJ
(fr.

pj) are e.g. n'h'hn

bbn), n'h'h'^ (fr. hb^>),

and n^Jun

:n).^

As

a matter of

fact

the

Hebrew

n^JlJ: ^o

has been combined by Segal with

plural nvJU:
this the
is

the

Aramaic

NJT'JIJJ.

The
With

formed exactly as

the plural TW'h'bn.

grammatical side of the

is

word

is

sufficiently explained.

But there

also no reason

why
word

the meaning should be sought elsewhere than in the

itself;

the word denotes, as stated above, a small

garden, a bed.

From
know
open
field

the

life

of the ancient rabbis

it

is

necessary to

that they exercised their preceptorial activities in the

and

in

gardens."

have proved ^^ t^^t the

expression nniB> nniB' 'in single rows', occurring in the

arrangement of
this

seats for the rabbis

is

to be explained in

way, that the assemblies of the rabbis actually took

place in vineyards, where the sitting in rows was a natural

consequence.

In the open field such an arrangement of

M. H. Segal, Mihiaic Hebrew (Oxford, 1909, reprinted from

Levy,
I, 348 Kohut, II, 313 See Segal, op. cit., p. 65 f,
;
,

JQR.

for

July, 1908), p. 8.
8 '
;

Jastrow, p, 238.

" pl^ b^ n>Ji:j b. Berakot 43 b. " See my Talmndische Archaologie,

^2
'

III,

205.
'

Die Versammlungsstatte der Talmudgelehrten

in

Lewy- Festschrift

(Breslau, 1911^, p. 2a.

VOL.

IV.

114

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

seats

called TrpaaLul -paaiai

(Mark

6,

40),

in

Hebrew

perhaps niJny nijny.

To

these expressions, formed always

is

by the
beds

iteration of the word, there

now added
'

as third in

number our equally doubled

'.

nvJiJJ nV31]:
its

in

form of small
force.
:

The word

thus obtains

meaning without
is

The meaning

of the whole Midrash

now

as follows

voices of those

The passage in who

Cant.
sit

8.

13 speaks of listening to the

together as friends (onnn).

The

mere word Dnan

reminds the haggadists of the learned

school-house or

men

who

raise their voices either in the

in the

house of worship.

The Midrash ad locum has haggadic

Yet
it is

sayings for both of these alternatives.

to think of the seating

preferable

arrangement

for the scholars in

the

school-house, and
says:

it

is

in reference to this that the haggadist

'Those who
in the

sit

there in

form of small
I

gardens,^"'

indulging

study of the

law to them

(God) descend,

listen to their voice, and hear them.'

'"

1.

e. in

groups or classes.

MACDONALD'S 'ASPECTS OF ISLAM

Aspects of Islam.

'

By DuxXcan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D., sometime Scholar and Fellow of the University of Glasgow'
Professor of

Semitic

Languages
:

in

Hartford Theological
191
1.

Seminary.
PP- 375-

New York

The Macmillan Company,

consist of a series of ten lectures delivered by the author at the Hartford Theological Seminary under the auspices of the Lamson Fund. They address
'
'

The

Aspects of Islam

them-

selves

primarily to the Christian

missionary in
is

Mohammedan

countries, but they contain

much

that

of interest and value to the

is

general reader.

Professor Macdonald,

who

the author of several

books on

Mohammedan
made

present volume

theology and jurisprudence, has in the excellent use of his personal experiences

gathered on a recent journey through the East.

The author

is

keen observer, with a remarkable fitness for theological and he approaches the complicated problems of a
with that sympathy

intricacies,

strange religion

and reverence which alone can unlock the

soul.
It is gratifying to find that

hidden recesses of the human

Professor Macdonald, free from that superficial rationalism which is fond of generalizing, fully appreciates the role of mysticism in

Islam and even finds genuine religious values in the much abused practices of the Dervishes, although he very probably emphasizes too strongly the importance of the mystic element as contained
in the

Koran.
this Revietv, the most interesting chapter no doubt Lecture VII, dealing with the attitude ot

For the readers of

of the

book

is

Islam towards the Scriptures.

relies

Here Professor Macdonald mainly on Goldziher's well-known contributions, but, in contra^15

distinction from his authority, he completely ignores the influence

13

Il6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

presentation of the Haggadah, Jewish as well as Christian, on the

of

biblical

subjects,

both

in

the

Koran and
full

in

subsequent
for

Mohammedan

literature.

Making

allowance

the

un-

doubted mendacity of the professional converts from Judaism and Christianity,

story-tellers
it

and
be

the

may

yet

safely

asserted that the bulk of biblical legends recorded in Mohammedan literature can directly or indirectly be traced back to

a haggadic source.

Thus the
is

story of
is

Korah quoted by our

author on

p.

225

f.

as a curiosity

based upon a well-known

passage of the Midrash and

even alluded to in the Koran, as

(

was already pointed out by Geiger

JVas hat

Mohammed

aus dem

Jiidenhmie aufgeno7nmen1, second edition, p. 165). The same tendency to confound the biblical accounts with the haggadic

elements clustering around them

stories of later theologians,

is

no doubt responsible
'

for the

who

certainly did not

play fast

and
from

loose in this fashion

'

and
In

are, at least in this respect, free

is
it

the demoralization with which our author

inclined to charge

them

(cp.

p.

227).
if

this

connexion
2.

might perhaps be

pointed out that

the verse, Joel

13, is

quoted by Gazali (not

the

in Gazzali, as our author consistently writes) as contained

of Moses (p. 2 2 8), it may in some circuitous way go back to Mishnah Ta'anit 2. i, where the same verse is quoted as the If the being contained in the Kabbalah (-i)21S* Nin nbpni).

Law

author had paid greater attention

within Islam, he would have

to

this

haggadic influence
'

referred, in speaking of

the most

picturesque figure of

all

in the mythology of Islam, the saint

al-Khadir (pp. 206

'

ff.),

to the corresponding elements in the postis

biblical Elijah legend which to a large extent

the source of the

Khadir legend

(cp.

Archiv
the

fiir Religmmvisseiischaft,

XIII, 96

ff.).

In a similar manner Christianity, though casually referred

doctrines

and legends of heterodox

to,

are

not

sufficiently

drawn upon
safely

as sources of Islam.

With

reference to
(p. 239),

Ibn Hazm's

famous polemics against the Scriptures

the conjecture

be ventured that many of the objections pointed out may by him were drawn from some older source and were probably of those ages the stock-in-trade with which the rationalists

MACDONALD'S 'ASPECTS OF ISLAM'

operated against the Bible,
biblical
text (cp.
or,

FRIEDLAENDER 117
accepted
III

more

correctly, against the

my

remarks

in this
in

Review,

New

Series,

291

f.).

Similarly the

same author

his attacks

on rabbinical

literature in all probability

already suggested by Steinschneider.

draws upon Karaitic sources, as was The supposed references

Mohammed Mohammedan
to

in the

Scriptures which form the backbone of

polemics against Judaism and Christianity are

dealt with in the

same

lecture

and are

faithfully

though

briefly

summed up and
whole
series

characterized.

It is interesting to

note that the

(p.

of arguments
in

quoted from Biruni

234

ff.)

is

found unabridged

Maimonides' Iggeret Temdn.

Cp. in part

Steinschneider, Polemische

und
is

apologetische Literatur, p. 326f,

Professor

Macdonald

interested not only in the past of

Islam but also in its present and future. His observations in this regard are exceedingly instructive and show insight and foresight.

His characterization of the Young Turks as contrasted with the Egyptian Nationalists (pp. 254 f., 277) is illuminating. The former are thinking of Turkey and not of Islam The latter
' '.

'are thinking
agree,

more of Islam than of Egypt'. But not all will and the latest events seem to speak in their favour, to see
source of weakness.
the
disintegrating

with our author in this latter attribute a

Professor

Macdonald

eloquently describes

influence of the

modern world upon the

religion of Islam.

He

points out the tendency in

'

certain sections of Islam to allow

all

the wheels of progress to crush out

life'
(p.

ideals

'

and

to accept

'the lower facts of

256).

But, as our author rightly

they
'

remarks,

'religions

are

never ended;

develop into new

forms, absorb

new
in

life,

and go on again

(p.

in), and so

it

may

be hoped that
Islam

spite of all external

and

internal difficulties,

will survive

the levelling influences of

its

modern

civilization

and

will

carry

on

message as one of the great

religions of

humanity.
I.

Friedlaender.

Jewish Theological Seminary of America.

SOM1-:

REMARKS TO SAADYA'S TOKEHAH

the great

The
in the

following remarks

poem by

may help to understand some passages Gaon which was published by H. Brody
83
ff.

in the/<2i^.,

New

Series, vol. Ill, p.

Page 90,
7

b.

Instead of nsnD^O (from Mishnah Ta'anit 3, Ta'anit lya) read nsnt^n (pari, of the Hithpa'el). Rashi
line 6.

has naniDD (part, of Pu'al).

lb.,
1.

10.

The obscure groups

to n,

of letters n>r

NDD should
v'^lH'?'?

perhaps,
'at her

after

an emendation of N
'.

be joined and read

sight

lb.

The words
i\sb' in

'\\'i^z'r\

|c

~\\'^^r\

^^-^-^i

are

best

explamed by

impulse, according to the well-known designation of the bad impulse as

construing

the

sense of leaven, the wicked

HD-Wk^

TiXC'.

The words
i.

then

mean

confinement

is

removed
free

from the bad impulse,

rules unbridled.
lb.

e,

the bad impulse has

become

and

Instead of

nxOD we should probably read

nn).
instead of
P.^D^

'"iNr:t3

(corre-

sponding
P. 91
P. 92,
lb.,
1.
;

to the parallel
1-

8-

Read
Read

fe

(comp. Gen, 49.

27),

1.

3.

3S; instead of 3; (see Ps. 119. 131).

instead of inc'3\
ib.,
'
:

9.

Read nbs;

Comp.
nnDDH

Lev. 13. 6;

"^lyn yj:.-;

ne'e n^i, also

verse

"iiyn

Ti^'sn n::'D qxi.

Thus
body."

the phrase

means the eruption is spreading over his Here the eruption is named as punishment for the sins
in

of the tongue,

accordance with the well-known proposition

(see 'Arakin 15 b, yniVDH

= yi
yjJ.

DC^ N>^'1ttn).
is

The masculine

n^'Q'

as predicate of the feminine

nnSD

explained by the fact that

the latter
P. 93,
lb.,

is
1.

construed as
7.

Read

^B'l'^:

instead of

IB'!?:.

12.

nstin read n3D;i (prd, see

Lam.

2.

22).

119

I20
P. 94,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

1.

I.

psJT'l finds

its

explanation in Ezek. i8. lo (n^7ini

KHD
('.r,

p).
1.

lb.,
'J),

8.

The

verbs

lyryr

and

"lyjyj

should be read as passives

first

as the manuscript indeed has the

of these written

lyryn (Pulpal).

p. 95,

1.

6.

Read

l^'V

instead of

t^'V.

It

is

the substantive

found
pnn3.

in

Isa. 53. 8

and

Ps. 107. 39.

nnpn should probably be

P. 96,

1.

7.

i??^^?l

yields

no

sense.
so'.

No

doubt

it

is

the

Talmudic expression
p. 98,
1.

|2K'-i?3

'more

Also

further

below,

5,

the poet employs a Talmudic formula for the con-

clusion a minore

ad mains

in the abbreviated

way HDD nns bv

(with the omission of n?i3l),

while p. 97,

1.

10,
is

he uses the biblical

: '

phrase

"3 f^X.

In our passage the sense

its

as follows

It the

soul is separated from

P. 97,
2.

corporeal sheath, the

more so from
8.

brother and noble patron.'

1.

^Ve should think of Ps. 49.

I^STl^

I'Sn^

read

(Niph'al as at the source of the

expression, Ps. 102. 28).

lb.,
1.

10.

inn should perhaps be

, corresponding to

the

following 11DX.
P. 98,
1.

3.

Read

IlI^^ instead of 1"J|.

Budapest.

^V.

Backer.

/^^

THE RIGHTLESSNESS OF MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY*

By Frank
'

I.

Schechter, New York.

... of

The wrong
is all

wrought upon the Jews under the law

a note of pride in these words of Professor Dicey/ prefatory to

is

Russia

but incredible to Englishmen.'

There

certainly not

an account of Russian anti-Jewish legislation, that should be begrudged to one of the leading jurists

of a country that has selected a

Jew

as

its

attorney-general,

and that has given to a Jessel the opportunity of making great and fundamental contributions to its system of equity
jurisprudence.

But, nevertheless, to the student of Jewish

is in

and of

legal history there

this censure of

Russia some-

thing vaguely and reminiscently ironical. has a melancholy sameness

',

'Jewish history
in his

remarks Dean Milman

History of the Jezus.

as the pleader for the

And

so,

when we

think of an Isaacs
startled

Crown

in

London, we are

by

at

* This Essay was submitted at a Seminar on English Legal History the School of Law, Columbia University, and read in part at the annual

meeting of the American Jewish

Historical

Society,

New

York,

1912.

The

principal original sources used

were

the Calendars of the Patent, Close,

Charter and Fine Rolls, published by the Record Commission, London, and the three volumes edited by Rigg for the Jewish Historical Society
of England, Select Pleas,

Starrs

and

other Records

from

the Rolls

of the

Exchequer of

the

Jews

(cited as Rigg, Sel. Pleas),

Plea Rolls of the Exchequer of the Jews (cited

^

and the Calendar of the as Rigg, Exch. Jews, I and II,.

i.

Wolf, Legal Sufferings of

IV.

the

Jews of Russia, Introduction,

VOL.

121

122

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

or his historical the manes, by the shades of Isaac of York become the prototype Kishineff, Byelostock, and Odessa centuries ago, London and Norwich and Lynn of many
;

the

May Laws

and we behold

of 1882 echo the Statutes of Jewry of 1275, again the martyrs of the Isles of the Sea'.
'

In the England that was mediaeval

the legal
condition
of

we

shall find reflected

the

Jew

in

the

Russia that

is

himself For, as a great Russian scholar has mediaeval. antiquarian admitted, questions entirely surrendered to
'

research in the

West
'

of Europe are

still

topics of contem-

porary interest

in the

Empire of the Tsars.

in discussing the condition of

An

Anglo-Jewish writer

their expulsion by the Jews of England at the time of mainly Edward I, and lamenting the fact that we have

the Jews in the only legal records of the persecutions of of their century, and but few literary expressions
thirteenth
sufferings, tells us that for
this

reason

'

the sufferers are

to us

patriotic or mere shadows, and not even the most can enter for the most imaginative of the Jews to-day It is not my feelings '.^ a moment into their thoughts and

intention to endeavour to rewrite history.

It will

be

my

aim simply

to

present

certain

legal

phenomena of the

though twelfth and thirteenth centuries, w^hich,

even the

we assume
from the

utmost

judicial

objectiveness,

must,

common

enable fund of experience of suffering humanity, merely the legal, but the us to appreciate somewhat, not My task has mental outlook of the Jew in those days. the gohis of been that of a student of law, to approach England through sources certainly not
pre- Expulsion
Vinogradoft", Villaiiiage in England,

i.

England in 1290'; Abrahams. 'The Condition of the Jews in England, 1894-5, at p. 84. Transactions. Jeidsh Historical Society of
3

B. L.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

123

biased in favour of Jewry, and hardly prone to overstate

the case against the owners of the Jewry.

The first Jews probably came into England from Rouen with, or at any rate under the aegis of, William
the Conqueror, about 1066.

There

are,

it is

true, provisions

concerning the Jews

of

in

Anglo-Saxon

ecclesiastical

laws

Theodore and of Ecgberht,^ laws forbidding intercourse between Jews and Christians, &c., but 'some of these', Freeman tells us, 'are, on the face of them, copied from
the decrees of ancient councils, and
while Liebermann, in discussing
all of them maybe so 7 King Alfred and the Mosaic

law, thinks that 'about the year 890 there

was probably
'.^

no soul

living

in Britain

that

knew Hebrew
to

On
in

the
civil

other hand, the

legislation
is

earliest

reference

the Jews

famous

passage in

the so-called

Leges

Edivardi, or Laws of Edward the Confessor, compiled in the twelfth century, which, to quote Freeman again, 'of course represent the state of things rather

under William

than under Edward 'J

'

It is to

be known

',

runs our

first

indication of the legal

'

condition of mediaeval English Jewry,

that all the Jews,

wheresoever they be

in
;

the

realm, are under the liege

of them, without the
rich

wardship of the king

nor

may any
any

king's licence,^ subject himself to

*
''

man,

for the

Jews

For these laws see Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England,

Hist.

1-4.

Norman

Conquest, V, note Q, 818-19.

Transactions. Jewish Historical Society of England, 1907-8, at p. 22.

Op.

cit.,

English

Law

V, note Q, 818-19. See Pollock and (Cambridge, 1907), I, 468.

Maitland, History oj

387,

For example of a licence to keep Jews, see where the following grant to Benedict of

Cal. Pat. Rolls, 14

Hen.
:

Ill,

Mauritania appears

'

Con-

Judeos

cessimus etiam eidem B. quod ipse et heredes sui habeant in perpetuum in terra sua commorantes, sicut R. de Pontibus et ceteri barones Pictavenses habent in terris suis.'

124

"^^^

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

have are the king's^ and should any one

and

all that they

detain

them
^"^

or their chattels, the king

'

may demand them

as his own.'

They came

as the king's special men,' says

Freeman,

'

or

more truly

as his special chattels, strangers

alike to the

Church and the Commonwealth of England,

the protection of a master

but strong
found
it

in

who commonly
all others.'
^^

to his interest to defend

them

against

Why,
them
?

then,
It

was
is,

it

to the king's interest thus to protect

on the

of course, unnecessary here to dwell at length oft-explained prohibition of usury, or the taking

regarded as, of any interest whatsoever, which was then the canons of and termed, usury. Suffice it to say that

Canon Law the Church forbade usury, and that, as the nonapplied to Christians only, the Jews were the only
illegal usurers

in

England.
the

It

is

true the
in

names of the
the usurious

clergy

are

among

most prominent
It is

transactions of the Jewries.

true that

we can

find

records wherein a licence

is

granted to a Jew to

sell

to

a king's clerk, an archdeacon

of Dorset, a certain debt,^^ q^

where the great Robert Burnel himself, Edward I's Chanof the Jews, cellor of England, is present in the Exchequer
'

though not under writ

',

the plea says cautiously, to press

payment of
the

a debt purchased from a ]t\v}^ but these relate

frailties of

human
is

beings and not the sanctioned acts

of ecclesiastics.
Christian usury
9

For the present we must assume that forbidden even to the clergy and that
V, note Q, 819
:
' .

Freeman,

op.

cit.,

the

Jews
I,

are just as under the

Frankish kings declared to be the king's property.'

10
11

Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law,

468.

Reign o/lViUiam Rufus,

Cal. Pat. Rolls, 16 Ed.
I,

I,

160.

12

116.

"

Rigg,

Sel. Pleas,

39-40.

For other dealings of Robert Burnel with the

II, 41,

Jewish Exchequer, see Rigg, Exch. Jews,

42, 238.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY

Coke
that
'

SCHECHTER

125

when he says no usury was then permitted, but by Jews only '.^^ Here, then, at the outset, are two distinct ideas affecting

correctly states the law of the land

the relations of the

Jew with
usurers

the Crown.
or

The Jews
in

are

the only non-criminal

money-lenders

the

kingdom, and, on the other hand, they must ply their

usury, not for themselves, but for the Crown,
'

for the

Jews

and

all

that they have

first

are the king's'.

We

shall

now
is

consider the

proposition.

The
for

fact

that

Jewish usury

is

not prohibited

an

all-important one in determining the status of the Jews,

on

it

will

rest

our

insistence

that

the doctrine of

Glanvil, a twelfth-century law-writer, that 'all the effects

of a usurer belong to the king 7^

for

jg

^ot the true ground

the king's control, not only over Jewish usury, but

itself.

over Jewry

We

use the term control, rather than

In

jurisdiction, advisedly.

making

this distinction, I fear

that

find

myself obliged to disagree with a scholar, who,

as a pioneer in this field of inquiry, has

been the light

and the guide of every one seeking to tread thereon, and whose researches must be the starting-point of every new
investigation.

May

venture
of

to

differ

from

Professor

Jacobs's
practice

interpretation

mediaeval

legal

theory

and

did not enter into any special relations with his Jews qua Jews',^^
that, since the personalty

when he says

that 'the king as king

of every usurer as such became

his death, with the

escheat to the

Crown on

Jews

it

was

merely from

this principle of escheat in perpetual applica-

tion (because
i*

their property could

only be acquired by
to

2 Inst., 89.

Among

pleas of the

Crown
i6

be heard
Lib.
,n^^
I,

at

the Sherift"'s

tourii
1^

were those concerning usurers.

VII, C. 16.

See Britton,

C. xxx.

Op

XX.

126
usury)
that

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the general

presumption

arose,

-which was
the Con-

inserted even in the so-called

fessor, that

Laws

of

Edward

"the Jews themselves and

This
generalization
in

all

theirs belong to

the king'".^"^

is

made even more

emphatically by Professor Jacobs

another place, when,

'

that from the denying the serfdom of the Jew. he writes rate in the twelfth point of view of the State, a Jew, at any

century, had no disabilities qua

I

Jew

'

}^

the learned have given prominence to the view of because, if it be the historian of the Jews of England,
correct one,
it

seems to
at

me

impliedly to give colour to

writers,
'

the

notion
I's

hinted

by many English

that

Edward

decree of expulsion was really a

self-denying

ordinance

'" in the interests of religion and political science, rights of the Crown to the fruits a generous surrender of the which rights, it is intimated, were exercised
of^'jewish usury,

and reluctance, by Edward with almost painful diffidence of a resource that instead of a mere brutal discarding husbanding ',2 was steadily decreasing, and was not worth
'

of the Crown, since a mere casting off of a perquisite

new

Christian,

and even Papal, usurers were

'

at

hand

''^

to

encroach upon the

royal preserve

'-^

of Jews.
is

What
"
18

all

these writers

overlook

the fact that the

Social England, ed. Trail,

I,

473.

'Aaron of Lincoln
'

'

in
'

Jewish Quarterly Revien; X, 632.

See also his

article
19

Aaron

of Lincoln

in

Jewish Encyclopedia, V,

1.

Prynne, Inst.. 507 See, for expression of this sentiment, Coke, 2 B. L. Abrahams, iii; Rigg, Sel. Pleas, xliii Short Demurrer, part 2, Quarterly Review, VII, 'Expulsion of the Jews of England in 1290', Jewish Trans. Royal Historical Leonard, Expulsion of the Jews',
;

95. 443, 449;

'

Society of England,
20
51

New
;

Sen, vol
cit.,

5,

103-46.

B. L. Abrahams,

op.

444cit.,

See

ibid.,

457

Rigg. op.

xxxiv.

22

McKechnie, Magna Carta,

271.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY

provision
in

SCHECHTER

I27

against

usury of the Canon Law, incorporated

the

Common Law,
'

which

itself
',

was

Christian,23 does

not apply to Jews.^^

*

Our law
his

say Pollock and Maitland,

did not regard usury as any offence in a

it

Jew

on the
him.'
^^

contrary,

enforced

usurious

contracts

for

Only the

effects of a Christian usurer

dying in sin^^

i.e.

dying as a usurer, went to the king, but the whole history of this epoch is a testimony to the development of a royal

monopoly
living

of usury, through

the agency of the

Jewry,

and dying

in usury, that is

recognized

by law and
Further-

hated by the barons and the Church accordingly. more, the notion of escheat cannot at
for
'

all

be applied to Jews,

If

is intimately bound up with feudal tenure of land, any one be convicted of a felony,' writes Glanvil, or has
it
'

confessed to felony in open court, he becomes disinherited

by the law
observed
',

of the

land
'

as

an escheat.'
if

'

It

is

to

be
in

he continues,

that

any such person holds

chief from our lord, the king, then not only his lands, but
also his

moveable goods and

chattels, in

whosesoever hands

they

may be

found, shall be seized for the benefit of our

lord the king,

entitled to

and the

heir
^7

of such person shall not be

any of them.'

The passage

at first blush
is

seems applicable.
separable incident
in

But to every tenure

',^^

fealty

'an

in-

and though by the early

charters,

ordinary legal processes, the Jew could take his oath

on the Pentateuch, so sacred a ceremony and investiture

See Pollock, Genius of the Common Law, 78. See Holdsworth, History of English Lan; I, 30; Pollock, op. cit., 78; Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins, 273-4 Cunningham,
-^

2*

Growth of English Industry and Commerce,

25 2s "*

I,

204.
i.

Pollock and Maitland, History of English Laiv, 469, n.

Dial, de Scac.
ii,

x.

-"

VII, 17.

Co.-Litt., Sec. 131.

128

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Jew could
take.-'

required an oath that no

Hence he

could do

homage

or fealty to no one, and the theory that

the Jewish status

much resembles

that of the great barons,

the tenants in capite, and that on this account Jewish lands

and chattels acquired through usury are escheatable, falls As Professor Ames has shown, only that to the ground.
'

could escheat which was capable of being held by a feudal

tenure
'.^'^

It is

not only inaccurate but unnecessary to invoke the

principle of escheat.

The

chattels in the hands of the

If

Jew

are the chattels of the king.

we

are inclined to

doubt

the weight of the Leges Edzuardi, we can bring the great Bracton himself, whose treatise on the Laws of England,
written

about the middle of the thirteenth century, has

been called the flower of mediaeval English jurisprudence, anything of to testify as follows: 'But a Jew cannot have
his

own, because whatever he acquires he acquires not himself but for the king, because they do not live
themselves but
for others,

for
for

and so they acquire

for others

and

not

for

themselves.' ^^

Here

is

enforced

altruism
self-

with a vengeance, a compulsory self-abnegation and

subordination that would dismay even the

most
Israel

fervent

and consistent preachers of the mission of

the nations.
It

among
by one
legal

supports the soundness of a dictum uttered

of the justices in 37 Hen.

HI

(1243), 'Catalla

Judeorum

sunt
29 30 31

Domini
Rigg, op.
Cit.,

Regis
XIII.

propria',"-

and

is

merely a

Ames, 'The Disseisin F. 386b(Twiss Ed.).

Rigg,
Sel.

of Chattels

'.

3 Harvard Lauj Revieuj. 26.

32

Picas, 24

Gross, Exchequer of the Jews,

n. 83.

Papers Anglo-

Jewish Historical Exhibition, 203.

Jews wherein

the

Jews

are declared to

See also John's Charter to the be free of toll, 'sicut nostrum

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

crystallization

129

much

earlier

condition well illustrated by a very passage from the histories of William of

of a

Newburgh, written about 1194.

explaining the wrath of Richard

The mediaeval
I

chronicler,

at the

massacre of the

Jews of York

in 1190,

and the destruction of the acknowin

ledgements by Christians of debts to Jews kept

cathedral
there,

the

says

that

these

documents were kept

there by the royal usurers ('a Judeis foenatoribus regiis

ibidem reposita
continues,
'

').

'

He

[Richard]

is

indignant

',

the writer

and

in

a rage, both for the insult to his royal

for to the

majesty and for the great loss to the treasury,

treasury belonged whatever the Jews,

be the

ro}-al usurers,

seem

to possess in the

who are known to way of goods.' ^^

The king not only

dying
in
sin,

gets escheats from Christian usurers

but has his

own

royal usurers, the 'Judei,

'.

quos foenatores constat esse regios The brutal attacks on the Jews do not wound the royal sense of humanity
they are merely a
his royal majesty.
'

laesio regiae majestatis

',

an

insult to

Professor Jacobs has happily described

him

as

'

the Arch-Usurer of the

Kingdom ',2* and

and

it

is

in

that capacity that Richard's feelings are outraged.

The theory
two
extracts,

of

royal

impartiality
is,

Jewish

civil

equality mentioned above

to

some

extent, based

on

one from the Dialogtis de

I

Scaceario and

another from Roger de Hoveden.

these passages,
proprium catallum
that

have carefully examined

and cannot but derive from them additional

".

Jacobs, op.

cit,

214, thinks that the 'sicut' implies

Jewish chattels were not the kings property.

: '

But see Liebermann,

keinen

Leges Edivardi Confessoris, 67 Gegensatz zu E. C. F.'

33

Streng

iibersetzt bildet es aber

William of Newburgh, Historia Reritm Aiiglicanim R.

Op.
cif.,

S.), Lib. IV,

C. X.
2*

13 1 -2.

130

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the Crown proof that the Jews were legally controlled by to do with merely q^tci Jews, and that usury has nothing the matter.
In the Dialogue

we

read,

'When any one

deals in public

who

has a lay estate, or citizen

if

{sic)

who

usury,

having he dies intestate or made a will zuithout

to the

zvhom he hath defrauded, his money and brought and his moveables are immediately confiscated the Treasury '.-^ Is it not very evident that, from

made

those satisfaction

of the Jew royal standpoint, the whole raison d'etre to make England is usury, and that, had he attempted the royal will satisfaction to any one for taking usury, 'In every town frustrated such intention?

would have
in

which they

settled

',

says Mr. Pike,^

'

they sat continually

the king,

at

the receipt of custom', custom

of extortion they became.

for

whose

weapon

The

passage from
list

Hoveden

is

also

significant.

He

recites a long

of Pleas of the

Crown

for the itinerant

justices of

194.

They concern

escheats, wardships, aides,

the crimes and other sources of royal income, and also

to be investigated.to In Article IX, the judges are and other towns, inquire concerning the massacres of York are, and of the 'of the slayers of the Jews, who they and lands and pledges of the slain Jews and their chattels

debts and deeds, and

who has them and who owed them

And all the pledges of the slain Jews are to be taken into In Article XV, the judges are to inquire the king's lands
'.
'

likewise of the usurers that are dead

and
I

their chattels'.

In a comparison of these two

'

articles,

cannot see any

escheated confirmation of the view that the goods of Jews

35
se 37

Dial, dc Scac,

ii,

x.

History of Crime in England, I, 159. Roger de Hoveden ,/?. 5.), HI, 263-4.

THE iMEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

at their

131
'?^

death to the King

in

qiui usurers

and not qua Jews

There was no purpose

in

putting the debts of dead Jews

in another, unless

one article and the chattels of usurers

distinction
in

there was a very clear

the

judges'

mind

between the two.

It

must, therefore, be our conclusion that the establishor chests in the Jewries for the registration

ment of Archae
of
at
all

Jewish bonds, effected by Richard after the massacres

(the insult to his royal majesty)
in

York

and on his return

from exile sadly

need of money, was but a recognition

of these two great principles of the tutelage of the Jews by the king and of the legal Jewish monopoly of the usury.

In the harsh language of the ordinances organizing the English Jewry, we have this monopoly practically made
a part of the financial system of the kingdom.
debts, pledges, mortgages, lands, houses, rents,
'

All the

and posses-

sions

of the

ordinances.
shall forfeit

Jew shall be registered', commences the 'The Jew who shall conceal any of these to the king his body and the thing concealed
all his

and likewise
it

possessions and chattels, neither shall

.
.

be lawful for the Jew to recover the thing concealed

charters shall be
',

And

made
him

of their contracts
'

by way

of

indenture

one part of which

shall

remain with the Jew,

the

sealed with the seal of

to

whom
in

money

is

lent,
',

and the other part

until the debt
is

shall

remain

the

paid.

No

alterations are to

common chest be made in

the

charters, except

before the chirographers in charge

of the chest.
effect

And

finally

we come
office

to a clause which in
for the

prescribes an

oath of

Jew

as royal
roll

usurer.
(i.e.

'Moreover, every Jew shall

scroll

swear on his
all

on the

of the Pentateuch) that

'^

his debts

Jacobs, op.

cit.,

156.

132

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

all

and pledges and rents and

his

goods and possessions

he shall cause to be enrolled, and that he shall conceal

nothing as
is

aforesaid.

And

if

he shall know that any

it

one shall conceal anything, he shall secretly reveal

the justices sent to them, and they shall detect and

to

show
where
false

unto them
or

all

falsifiers or forgers of the charters

when they

shall

know them, and

likewise

all

charters.'

The system

of registration and espionage

is

not wholeIt
is

sale escheat based

on the presumption of usury.

'

It is more than a sleeping a governmentalized industry. partnership in Jewish usury'; it is a very wakeful and

active

participation

in
it

To what

an extent

and superintendence of usury went is very clearly shown b>- a writ

of the parts
of

.-^'^

of 3 Hen. Ill (121 8) to the custodians

England, commanding them to encourage the immigration the of Jews (though, according to the laws of Edward
Confessor, usurers had been banished from the kingdom^"),
licence. but to prohibit Jewish emigration without a royal allow free These custodes portuum Angliae are to
'
'

therein, passage into England of the Jews coming to dwell sufficient but only 'after having received from them
security, after the
is

law of Jewry, that as soon as each one

able, they are to

come

to our justices assigned to the

in custody of the Jews, for the enrollment of their names those our rolls '.^^ The rolls referred to are, of course,

mentioned

in

the ordinances of the

Jewry.

Need we

wonder, then, that in the very next year (1219) Pandulph, in the van the Papal Legate to England, who was always
'

39

For striking examples of the difference

I,

in

treatment of Jewish and

other usury, see Cal. Close Rolls, 3 Ed.

108, 144 {b's).

.

41

Glanvil, VII,

c. 16,

n. i, tr.

by Beames ^English Legal Classics Series

Cal. Pat. Rolls, 3

Hen.

Ill, 180.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

133

of persecution V" writes to the Bishop of Winchester and

Hubert de Burgh concerning

certain usurious claims

which

the Jews are pressing against the

Abbot

of Westminster

and others, that 'being desirous to

honour, which
is

further
.
.

the
.

kings

ask and counsel

much lowered by all this, you for your own honour to

above cases
until

we warmly

order the said

justices not to judge the

we come

into

those parts
virtue

\*'^

Verily, his lament over the decline of kingly

elegist

would be as touching as that of a Hebrew

of the martyrs of York,

the sea have

who

exclaims,

'

All the princes of

',^^

come down from

'

their thrones

did

we

not

know

that
for

'

the scandal

of the case of the indebted eccle-

siastics

whom Pandulph
'

pleads 'did not suggest' (to

the legate)

that the debt should be paid and the debtors

should be more prudent in the future, but that the debt should remain unpaid and the creditors should be exiled

beyond the seas

\^'

From

the establishment of the Archae or registry chests

for Jewish deeds, the

Crown proceeds

to

the formation,

as intimated above, of a special branch of the

for the

exchequer

complete centralization of

its

control, not only of

the Jewry as an agent of usury, but of the

Jews

in general'^^

The exact
and

process of formation of this governmental judicial

financial bureau,

which came into existence some time

Pike, op. cit., 188. Royal Letters R. 5.%

the Church, 46.

I,

27,

quoted by Gasquet,

Hemy

the

Third and

" From 'A Hebrew "

*^

Elegy', edited by Prof. Schechter, Transactions.

Jewish Historical Society of England, 1903-4.

Pike, op. cit, 189.

The number

of archae given in Hoveden's Capitula de Jiideis

later on,

is

six or

seven, but that

number was increased

when

the residence of the

Jews was
op.
cit.,

restricted to certain towns, to about

twenty-six.

See Gross,

187.

134

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

last

during the
clear.

decade of the twelfth century,"

it

is

not very

Xor, indeed, will

be our purpose here to give an

or, in fact,

account of the Exchequer,

of

any of the govern-

mental instrumentalities or methods of exerting control The over the Jews or of making their life a burden.
sufferings of the

Jews of mediaeval England have been Prynne. well recounted by the mediaeval annalists, later by Pollock and Tovey, and Madox, and in our day by Gross,
Maitland, B. Lionel
task
legal
is

Abrahams and

Professor Jacobs.

Our

merely to attempt to approximate some central

idea,

some

constitutional basis for these sufferings,

to

determine the significance in mediaeval English law

of the Exchequer of the Jews."^"

We
in

have thus

far

considered the legal status of the

its

mediaeval England only from

is

negative aspect.

Jew The
he

Jew
then,

not an illegal

usurer, and whatever

disabilities

suffers are not incidental to the practice of usury.

is

What,
position

positively the Jew's legal condition

in

'

The
in

of the Jews

mediaeval Europe, and therefore

'

Angevin

p:ngland,' writes a scholar oft quoted above,

was entirely

determined by the attitude

of the Church towards them.

the State and Church were one, and none could belong to

<^ 48

Gross, op.

cit.,

174.

Evidentlj' Richard must have recognized the possibilities of his

in

when

one year
from
the

,1187;;

20.000
Lincoln,

who
xvii\

had,

made
{op.

the whole of

Jewry some estate of a single great Jewish financier, Aaron of and Prof. Jacobs tells us, 'first organized the Jewry the English Jews his agents throughout the country'
he took possession of debts amounting
to

cit.,

The

collection of these debts,

which amounted
'

to

more than

a special branch of half of the royal income for that year, actually required Scaccarium Aaronis, with two treasurers and two clerks the exchequer, the In this Scaccarium to look after them for many years to come" {Hid.,.

Aaronis and the Ordinances of Jewry

of the Jews.

we

have the germ of the Exchequer

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY

State

SCHECHTER
-^^

135

who

did not

belong to the State Church.'

The
is

resuhant rejection of the Jew by the feudal organism

happily and
succinctly explained
in

by Miss Bateson, an
the
following words,
efforts

English co-worker of Maitland,

'

Nature herself offers no quainter spectacle than the

of the feudal organism to adapt itself to the Jewish intruder.

In

a
.

societ}'
.
.

that

oaths
oaths.

came a group

was bound together by a system of of men, incapable of taking Christian

To

find a place for this

.
.

new category strained

feudal

subtlety to the utmost.

villains,

The Jews have been

it

called royal

but more apt, perhaps,

'-ferae naturae",

would be to describe them

as

men

protected by a quasi-forest law.

Like the roe and the deer they form an order apart, are the king's property, and though protected by him as against
others, nothing save the uncertain royal prudence protected

them from

their protector.'
'

^"

Miss Bateson's
naturae
"
',

classification

of the Jews as
trifle

men

" ferae

though perhaps a

harsh,

is

very suggestive, especially when we remember

of one species of fera natitra as
'."^

Blackstone's definition
'a

movable wandering thing

is

But the point of her

analysis

the futility of placing the

It
is

Jew

in

any of the

feudal categories.

just

by

this

attempt to classify

mediaeval Jewry in one of those purely feudal categories,

all

of which

are

based on

Christian

economics and a

Christian oath,

by

this effort, as

Gross says, 'to squeeze

the mediaeval
defined

Jew

of England into

some one of the

jurists,

well-

classes

enumerated by the old

Glanvil,

Bracton, and Fleta, that law writers, with their ponderous

legal nomenclature, have raised so

much

dust

that they

and their readers can see but

little

of the truth
50

'."^

Prynne,

"
5^

Jacobs, op.
2

cit..

XI.
52

Mediaeval England, 139.

202, 3.

Comm.

18.

Qp

^if^^

136

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

and antiquarian
erudition

writer to cite but one instance, a learned law

of the seventeenth century,

who brought

all his

of the to bear in opposition to Cromwell's restoration

likens the to England, adopting Coke's terminology
to a 'villain in gross, that
is

Jews

Jew

a villain which belongs to

to any manor, the person of the lord and belongeth not lands, &c.',
''^

i.

e.

a personal dependant unattached to any

specific place.

But no sooner have we comfortably endowed

all

the

Jew with

the supposed legal attributes of the villain

in gross,
is

than comes Vinogradoff, the great Russian who and, teaching the English their legal history at Oxford,
'

by a few not content with having, as Maitland laments, of its strokes of his pen deprived the English nation ...
folk-land \^^ disposes of their villains-in-gross

by showing

gross or unthat the terms regardant or attached, and

to do with attached, as applied to villainage, 'have nothing the modes of a legal distinction of status ', but only with that they pleading and proof in the fourteenth century, and

may
'

of apply to the same person from different points

view.^^

Rights, duties, capacities, or incapacities

'

',

we read

in

Austin's famous Lectures on Jurisprjidencc,

can hardly be

they impart said to create a status or condition, unless unless they run to the person a conspicuous character: unless through his position in a continued vein or stratum
:

they tinge his legal being with a distinctive

colour.'
in
^'^

and obvious

think that

we must conclude The sound

that the

Jew
of

mediaeval England has a status composed of

alone.

legal duties
is

and incapacities
'-^

position

that

Co.-Litt., Sec. 181.

54 56

Domesday Book and Beyond,

vi.

^''

Villainage in England. 555-6.

Lectures on Jurisprudence, 3rd

ed., II,

976-7-

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

Scherer,

137

comparative study of mediaeval antiJewish legislation characterizes the Jew in England as a rightless financial object (or agency) absolutely dependent on the arbitrary will of the king (' ein rechtloses, von der Willkur des Konigs ganz abhangiges Finanzobjekt ').'^^
in his

who

Gneist's view

is

similar.

He
'

explains the origin of the

original absence of legal

Exchequer

of the

Jews by the

rights in the Jews,

whose position may be compared

des Kaisers
',^^

to

that of the

German Kammerknecht
'.-59

and

finds that 'their legal capacity

depends upon the royal

In this latter quotation from Gneist we have the most accurate and general summary of the whole situation, one that brings the mediaeval English Jew in

favour alone

touch with, and at the same time

in striking
I

contrast

to,

his nearest feudal equivalent, the villain.

do not intend

to raise the dust of which Gross complains, but once

we

have the basic idea established, that

the

in

mediaeval England

Jew
shall

is

legally sui -e/iens,

we must

not forget that what

legal capacity of the Jew was exercised through mediaeval legal institutions, founded on feudal conceptions. To understand the legal

we

term the rightless

machinery
the ideas

of the

Exchequer

of the Jews,

we must seek out

as to villainage

and other feudal

institutions possessed

by

the justices of the Jewish

officials,

Exchequer, who were royal

often learned in the laws.

'In
his

theory and

in

practice',
in

writes

Vinogradoff
'
. . .

in

work

on

Villainage

England,

whatever
the

was
"
58 59

acquired

by the

bondman was acquired by

Dte Rechfsverhiiltmsse der tide n in den deiitsch-osterreichischen J Ldndern

ConstitutioKal History of England
Ibid.

(Leipzig, 1901), 89.

{tv.

Ash\vonh\

I,

228 n 4

VOL.

IV.

138
lord.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

.
.

The bondman had no money

rules

or chattels of his

own.

But the working of these

was limited by the

or goods acquired

medieval doctrine of possession.

Land

by the

serf
if

do not

eo ipso lapse into his lord's possession,

but only

the latter has taken

them

into his hand.

If

the
as

lord has not done so for

any reason, ... the bondman

respect of third persons.
;

is

good
give

as the

owner

in

He

can

away

or otherwise alienate land or chattels

he has

land, and leaves the assize of novel disseisin to defend the a third person the assize of mort d'ancestor to his heirs ...

ground cannot except against a plaintiff merely on the

of his personal status.
said to be free

As

to third persons, a villain

all actions.'
<^

is

and capable to sue

have

gives us quoted Vinogradoff at length because here he of Jewish serfthe essence of villain status. The analogy

dom
it

is

out

tempting, and Pollock and Maitland have carried 'This servility is a as far as it may safely go.
'
;

relative servility,' they say

in relation to all other

is

men
and

the

Jew

is

free.'

"

The Jew
'

in possession of land

chattels as against all others, except the king.

find
at a

In fact,

we

some Jews building

in the

middle of the city of York

.

very great expense large houses like royal palaces . 'with behaving', as the mediaeval chronicler complains,
.

almost royal state and pomp';*^^ ^yhUe

in

Stamford the
were

youths, who sight of their wealth drove four Christian on their way to the Crusades, to commit pillage

and

murder to get the wherewithal the pilgrimage they had undertaken

'

for the necessary uses of

'.^^

Vinogradoff, op.

cit.,

68.

"
62 63

I, 468. Pollock and Maitland, Hhtory of English Law, from Jacobs, op. cit., T17. William of Newburgh, I, 312,

Ibid.,

I,

310, fr^m Jacobs, op.

cit.,

5.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

'Again,' say Pollock and
justice

139

Maitland,

'the king does

upon and between

his Jews, as the lord

. . .

does justice

upon and between

his

his villains

Lastly, the lord,

is

when

own

interests

are

not at stake,

content that his

villains

should settle their

own

disputes in their

own way

under the supervision of his steward, and so the king is content that, as between his Jews, Jewish law shall be
administered by Jewish judges,'*'*

The analogy

is

attractive,

and

it

holds good in

all

the
It

particulars cited above, with one important exception.

is

generally believed that the Jews in pre-Expulsion England

limited juridical

had a

autonomy throughout the whole

I

period of their sojourn therein. that

do not think, however,

we

can safely assert even a limited juridical autonomy

for the

Jews

after the

year 1242, despite the clause in

John's Charter giving the Jews the right in pleas, other than those of the Crown, to administer their own Talmudical law in their own courts. The two writs printed in the

note 6^ below

now make

it

very doubtful whether the

Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, I, 471-2. ^Pro David\ Judeo Ojtom'. Rex Magistris Mosseo de London', Aaron de Cantuar' et Jacobo de Oxon', Judeis, salutem. Prohibemus vobis ne
<55

"

decetero placitum teneatis de David', Judeo Oxon", et Muriel" que

ipsius

fuit uxor nee ipsum ad uxorem ipsam vel aliam capiendam vel tenendam
;

aliquatenus distringatis

scituri

pro certo quod

si

secus egeritis gravem

penam exinde
patris
est

incurretis-

Teste ut supra.

'Pro David", Judeo Oxoii.Qma. de consilio venerabilis

W.

in Christo Eboracensis archiepiscopi, et aliorum de consilio regis provisum

cetero

quod de

mdla

capitula teneantiir de Judeis in Anglia,

mandatum

est jiisticiariis

ad

custodiatn

omnibus Judeis Anglie ex parte

tciieant

regis firmiter

vihibeant

ne

decetero

capitula
fuit

in

Anglia.

Et

Peytevinum de
filium

Lincolnia,

Muriel'

que

uxor David' de

Oxon',

Benedictum

Peitevini de Lincolnia et Vaalyn' et

faciant

Mosseum de Barbun', Judeos, venire

coram prefato archiepiscopo et aliis de consilio regis in octabis Sancti Michaelis, ubicumque fuerint in Anglia, responsuri quare miserunt

I40

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

judicial tribunal
it

Beth-Din as a

had the royal sanction and

authority behind
writs

after the

year above mentioned.

These

of 26

Henry
i.e.

III (1242)

clearly intimate that no

'chapters',

no Jewish

ecclesiastical courts,

may, since

have thus far the passage of a certain ordinance, which I England, been unable to find, be held concerning Jews in

and that would-be

brethren abroad
(in

litigants

may

not even send to their

this case in

France) for legal advice.

Any

attempt of the Beth-Din

its

to hold unauthorized sittings

is

and to enforce

judgements

to be severely dealt with.

later to

The Jewish

tribunals

would seem

have become

merely consultative bodies, whose advice is taken on points enforceable except at of law, but whose decrees were not

As the Jews. the pleasure of and through the justices of Beth-Din, an illustration of the consultative character of the
we have
a case

reported
(I,

in

Rigg's

Plea

Rolls of the

Exchequer of the Jews

widow, seeks
goods.
'

152), wherein in 1267 Milla, a

free administration of her

deceased husband's

But Samuel of Bohun claimed the widow to wife by reason of contract and commerce. The Masters of the most Jewish Law (who, as has repeatedly been shown,
recently

an admirable chapter on the Masters of the Law History, constituted in Stokes's Studies in Anglo- Jewish pronounced the the Beth-Din) came before the justices and is allowed to have marriage null and void, therefore Milla
in

free administration of her

husband's goods without the said

Samuel's consent.'

But returning

to

the analogy, just as there

is

a legal

in

Anglie. Franciam ad Judeos Francie pro capitulo tenendo super Judeos permittant predictum David' Et mandatum est predictis justiciariis quod non nisi de voluntate sua. de Oxon' distringi ad aliquam uxorem capiendam, ',Cal. Close Rolls, 26 Hen. Ill, 465.) Teste ut supra.'

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

difference

141

between Jewish and Christian usury, so are there

Christian villainage and

certain vital differences between

Jewish serfdom.

To

and Vinogradoff's analysis

the
the

Christian villainage in Bracton's

is

day

largely based on

Bracton
villain

Common Law Common Law

applies,

and to the Christian

no action against
:

to

a certain extent offers protection.

his

The

rule that the villain has

lord

has one important exception

if

the defendant had taken

'

away the
would be

plaintiff's

plough and plough-team, then wainage

'

for the recovery of these in the

Royal Courts. ^^
villains

Here
were

is

evidently a survival of the time

when the
rights

free

Anglo-Saxon peasants, having

In
fact,

in

their

land and oxen.

villains before

Maitland has shown that the

the ownership of their land
soil

Domesday had
Not

and

oxen,<^'

and that they were not tied to the

till

as in

the days of Bracton. ^^

Henry H's day can we

lord's

say that 'the land he occupied was part of his

demesne

',

and that

'

his chattels

were

his lord's

'J'^

On
is

the

other hand, the Jew, as

we have
The

said

above,

not in

the protection of the King's Courts, and has no remedy

whatsoever against his lord.

principle that
'

'

the Jews

and

all

that they have are the king's

came

into

England

with the Conqueror as the consensus of mediaeval Christian

Europe.'*^ Here, then, is the fundamental distinction between Jewish serfdom and Christian villainage. The law of villainage contained heterogeneous elements, and had
'

been derived partly from the status of

6 8
"''^

free

ceorls''^ of
cil.,

Vinogradoff,
Ibid., 51.

oj>. cit.,

74-5.

c7 C3

Maitland, op.
Ji,;^^

54.

England, and

'The Normans had then no written law to bring with them to we may safely acquit them of much that may be called
(Pollock and Maitland, History of English
op.
cit.,

jurisprudence.'

Law,

I,

" Vinogradoff,

77.)

421.

142

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

serfdom has times, while the law of Jewish

Anglo-Saxon
no source
in

any

free institution.

'^

The
of
'

status of the

any feudal

Jew is unique, different from that 'The Jews,' says Bishop Stubbs, category.

were the special property of the king, and, cultivation, they had peculiar as property worth careful "^ It is interprivileges and a very dangerous protection.'
like the forests,

esting to see

how

often scholars have

compared the status

England. Nor is there of the Jews to that of the forests in Miss Bateson, fanciful in this analogy of Stubbs,
anything

and

many

others.'^

It

would

certainly

appear

sound

looked at through the royal eyes. of 40 Hen. Ill, we find an appointment

to

In the Patent Rolls of

Guy de Rupe
the

Forti,

keep the

castle

of Colcestre with

hundred and

revenues and demesnes appertaining thereto and certain his heirs (among escheats therefrom, saving to the king and
'

other things) the

of that town'.""'

wood

of

Kyngeswoode' and

'the

Jewry

royal preserve Well, indeed, did the king protect his Jews are to be of Jewry, and well did he cultivate it. and to plead only 'before Us' {coram nobis),-"

impleaded

and to wage his according to the charter of King John,

"

It is

not strange, therefore, that, while Article

and villain in the king's mercy, Articles of 1215 protects the wainage of a Gross, the Jews as at their royal proprietor (see XI, aimed, not so much at considerable income (see Adams, o/.'nV., 209), deprived the Jews of
of
the English Constitution, 260).
3

XX of the great Charter X

On^m

Constitutional History of England, II, 558-9- See Lyte, History of University of Oxford, 58-9 Davis, op. cit., 173-4 (^Cambridge, 1907): i- 472Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law
;

" "

Cal. Pat. Rolls, 40

Hen.
op.

Ill,

482.
;

See Holdsworth,
2.

cit.,

31

Jacobs, op.

cit..

216; Rigg,

Scl. Fleas,

XXI-XXII,

THE iMEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

law on the Scroll of the Pentateuch [super rotuluvi

43

siium);"'

and a

little

later the justices of the

Jews have exclusive

in Pleas of
'

jurisdiction in all cases affecting

Jews save

the

Crown.

All poachers on the

'

royal preserve

of the Jewryeccle-

are emphatically sent about their business,

siastics,

and the

who ache

to get jurisdiction
is

of the Jews, suffer

most thereby.

There

a significant writ of 1218 to the

Sheriff of Hereford, wherein, despite the prohibition of the

bishop, the Jews are

allowed to continue to hold their

'commune'
of our lord,

as in the time of John.

'

They

are to have
in the

the same privileges

as they

were accustomed to

time

King John'.
'

And

the writ continues:

[We

command you]
out
all

to cause proclamation to be

made throughprohibition

your bailiwick that we have granted to them (the

our
firm

Jews)
issued
to our

peace,

notwithstanding any

by the Bishop of Hereford,

Jews concerns him.

since nothing pertaining

And we
them

prohibit

you to lay

hands upon them or their

or implead

chattels, or to take or imprison

them

or to allow

to be

impleaded by
impleaded

another.
in

And you

are not to allow

them

to be

Court Christian.''^

The
is

exclusive jurisdiction of the justices of the Jews

maintained, not only through such writs, but by justices

themselves by right of supersedeas and prohibition,'^ and

by giving Jews wrongfully impleaded a remedy against the

"'''

See note 70 above,

also Bracton's Note Book,

ed. Maitland, II, plea

918,
"^

and Rigg, Exch.

Jen's, II, 56.

Cal. Pat. Rolls, 2

Hen.

Ill,

157.

The same wiit

is

issued to the

Sheriff,

Constables,

or citizens

of Worcester, York,

Lincoln, Stamford,

Bristol, Gloucester,

Northampton, Southampton, and Winchester.

2,

Prynne,
Sel.

Short Demurrer, part

Pleas, 78
"^
;

42; Cal. Pat. Rolls, 5 Hen.

I,

Ill,

290; Rigg,

Cal. Close Rolls, 16 Ed.

497.

SeeTovey, Anglia Judaica, 48

Prynne, Short Deutrrcr. part

2, 48,

51.

144
offender.
'

"^"^

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

Thus a day

assigned to Richard de Colleshul,

for that

he wronged Solomon, causing him to be impleaded

in the

Court of the Bishop of Sarum's manor of Ramesbury,

receive judgement,
','''

and

to

against

the

Crown and the

king's dignity

and a commission of oyer and terminer of Henna, is issued to investigate the wrongful impleader a Jewess, before the archdeacon's court in Nottingham for

blasphemy. ^^

How

independent
of the

legal

and

financial

entity

the
it

Exchequer

Jews becomes, despite the

fact that

is

connected with and controlled by the great Exchequer,^^

jg

well brought out in a writ of 1 280 that seeks to end the custom

of directly petitioning the king as the source and fountain

of justice.
'

Whereas

are frequently

men coming to Parliament delayed and disturbed by the multitude of

',

it

runs,

'

petitions brought before the king,

most of which might

justices, it is
[le sel)

be disposed of by the Chancellor or

that
all

provided
shall first

petitions that concern the seal

come

to

the
shall

chancellor,

and

those

that

concern

the

exchequer

come

to the exchequer,

and those that

concern the justices or law of the land shall come to the

justices,

and those that concern the Jewry

^'^

shall

come

to
is

the justices of the Jewry.'

The Jewish Exchequer

is

thus a separate royal court, which

the law of the land.

not concerned with

With what

law, then,

is

the Jewish Exchequer concerned

What
i-o

law did the justices administer for the Jews, and how
I,

Rigg, Exclt. Jews,

Cal.

234.
I,

81

Pat. Rolls, 6 Ed.

287.

See also Rigg, Exch. Jens,

II,

129;

XIII -XIV.
82 83

See Madox, 249-55.

Extracts from the Close Rolls, Ed.
I

(1278-88;

Transacdons, Jewish

Historical Society of England, 1899-1901, 204-5.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY SCHECHTER

could any law be administered for them,
if

I45

our contention
'

be correct that the Jew

standi in iudicio
',

is

rightless, that

he has no persona
? ^*

no capacity to sue as of right

am

not about to commit that most dire of legal heresies, to attempt to conceive of a legal remedy that is not based

on a legal

right.

The

legal rights

were there,

in the court-

room, but they belonged to the Crown, and were merely

exercised by the

Crown through
had no
',s^

his

chattels, the Jews.

The 'feudal name of his

lord

right to bring an action in the

his
serfs

villain

and also with

the king

usually allowed the Jews to sue in their

own name.

When

the royal interests are not immediately involved, the justices

apply the Consuettido

ct

Assisa hidaismi, the law and

in accordance with the king's will and the peculiar legal condition and

custom of Jewry, as developed by the justices

financial

methods of the Jews.^

of London, reading
civitatem
et

The

spirit of this

law

is

practically that of a charter of 52

citizens
:
'

Hen. Ill (1368) to the

ludaeis

De

autem

nostris

nos

et

nostram

praedictam tangentibus pro-

videbimus nos

heredes nostri, prout melius nobis vide-

bimus expedire'^' (Concerning our Jews coming to us and

our aforesaid
city,

we and our

heirs shall

provide as

we

shall see will profit us to our better advantage).

The king
of their

gives

them an elaborate
and strenuous

legal machinery, over

which he has

strict

control.

He

directs

many

financial operations,*^

and sometimes takes these out of the

228, n. 4.
',

^*

See Gneist,

op.

cit., I,

*5
^^

Ames,

'

Disseisin of Chattels
Sel. Pleas, xxi.

18,

Harvard Law Review,

27.

See Rigg,

"
^^

Liber Custumarum {R.S.), 251.

For extension of time of payment of debts owed to Jews by such as are abroad on the king's service, see Gal. Close Rolls, 12 Hen. Ill, 410, 414,
415
{bis),

439, and 26

Hen.

Ill,

503.

For orders

to

make proclamation

in

146

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

his

hands of

usurers

altogether.^^

Benedict of Lincoln
to

and
'

six other

Jews have to pay him

make

sure that he

will

quittance not cause any extent, prorogations of terms,

or gift to be
five years.9'^

made of Edward

debts which are owing to

I

them

'

for

assigns a debt due to one of his

in

Jews

to a citizen of

Genoa

part

payment

of

moneys

he (Edward) owes the

Genoese.^^

He

not only assigns

that member Jewish debts but Jews themselves to this or all their goods, of his family to have and to hold with
debts,,

and

chattels,

free

and quit of
all

all

aids,

tallages,

imprests and

demands, with

the

liberties, laws,

and

customs of the Jewry/^^

en masse,
first

And Henry HI

assigns the Jewry

to Prince Edward,^^^ his son,

who was

later

to expel the Jews,

Cahorsin

and then, by way of mortgage, to the Papal money-lenders, who plied their usury under
^^

protection.

Edward

grants to Eleanor, his mother, that

'

no Jew shall

',^^ in dower dwell or stay in any towns which she holds order to the and in view of this grant we have a brutal

justices 'that the

town

of

Marlborough be deported to our town of Devizes, the Jews of Gloucester to our Jews
of

the Synagogues that

Jews holding

the Justices at Westminster regarding Sel. Pleas, 12. 112, 113, 115, 183, 263, and Rigg,
89

before certain chirographs are to appear Rigg, Exch. Jen's. 101, 106, them, see
debts due from
I,

For an assignment
to the

to

Edward's Consort, Eleanor, of

Eleanor of debts
I,

all

Norman d'Arcy
-o
;

Exchequer of the Jews,

to

see Cal. Close Rolls, 9 Ed.

for a

wholesale assignment

in the chirograph-chests

at Ely,
so
91
'2

see Cal. Pat. Rolls, 13 Ed,

212.

Cal. Pat. Rolls,

46-7 Hen.
I,
I,

Ill, 205.

For a similar grant, see

Ed.

ibid.,

201.

Cal. Close Rolls, 4 Ed.

259.
466.

Cal. Close Rolls, 6 Ed.

II,

See also

ibid., 1 1

I,

245, and Rigg,

Exck. Jews,
93 94
''3

170.
Sliort

See Prynne,
See
ibid., 55,

Demurrer, part

2, 52.

and note 21 above.

I,

Cal. Pat. Rolls, 3 Ed.

76.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY

Bristol, the

SCHECHTER

I47

Jews of Worcester

to our

town of Hereford,
goods
will
^

and the Jews of Cambridge to our town of Norwich, with

their chirograph chests

and

all

their

'

This

heartless root

and branch deportation

hardly support

the notion that the Jews had either the rights of property,

which constitute ownership or dominion, or those

rights

'

personal

which belong to every person as such

in

'.

Now,

conceiving the Jewish status to be that of what

call
'

Maitland would
I

the rightless slave that

is

a thing

',

am

perfectly aware that

sense of proportion, that

stance, time,

we must not lose our historical we must remember the circumlegal

and place of

phenomena before
In the

setting

them down

as agencies of oppression.

England

of the epoch under discussion perhaps the only thoroughly

non-sectarian
say, Christian
institution

was royal extortion

that
In

is

to

and Jew were often mulcted

the

alike with utter

impartiality

by

Crown

in the course of their business

operations, litigation, and even social relations.

Appendix

of his 'Jews of

Angevin England' Professor Jacobs has

every one of the payments

shown

us that

'

for nearly
'

made

by an English Jew he can produce evidence (from Madox's

History of the Exchequer) of similar
other Englishmen.'
fines,

&c.,

made by

good idea of the

from such writs

king's financial
as, for instance,

instruments

is

to be gained

we
(p.

find in the 138},

Calendar of the Patent Rolls for 4 Edward

is

wherein there

recorded

a 'mandate to the

mayor,

bailifis,

and

citizens of

York, on complaint of the

commonalty of

that city, that the smaller

men

are rated

to tallages, fines, contributions,

and amercements out of

proportion to their means, to charge them justly henceforth,

lest

the king have to apply other measures,'

'":

Rigg, Sel. Pleas, 85

cf.

CaL Fine

Rolls,

I,

48 (3 Ed.

I,.

148

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

But the
fact that Christians also

were made to pay

for

operations does not various legal processes and business on as low a legal justify the conclusion that they were that the Jews plane as the Jews, and, likewise, the fact were also used used certain common legal processes that quoted above, by Christians hardly warrants the assertion at any from the point of view of the State, a Jew,
that,
'

rate in the twelfth century,

had no

disabilities qiid

Jew

'.

The
and

rights of

Englishmen may

have been slight enough,

onerous enough, when viewed from the but they were the point of view of the twentieth century, in these categories rights and duties of Englishmen, and
their duties

and the heavy rethe ephemeral privileges and licences Indeed included. sponsibilities of the Jews cannot be
the very phrase
'

Englishmen of Jewish
least

faith'

has a tragi-

comic ring to me, at

York.

when

used of the martyrs of

come, therefore, to the conclusion that the Jew the mediaeval system has not mere 'disabilities' under does not exist at all for that of English law, but that he

We

inanimate financial system except as what we might call an well protected, agency of the Crown. In this capacity he is
as, for instance, in

a grant recorded
'

in

the Patent Rolls of

Edward

I (p.

433),

with the assent of the commonalty

son of Deulacres, shall of the Jews of England that Hagin, said Jews (presbiterafor life the office of priest of the hold
tus

directed to all justices and Judeorum eorundem) who are to protect the others and to the Jews of England, And if any offence shall be done said Hagin in his office.
.

to him,

it

shall

be amended to him as
in

to the

kings demesne
office,

Jew,

whom

he specially retains

the said

saving

to the king the

amends due

to the king as his forfeiture.'

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY

Even
final
if

SCHECHTER
in fee,^'^

J49

we

find a

Jew getting a grant

toft

making a

concord ,^^ buying and selling manors,^^ succeeding to

lands/*^'^

a father's
with the

purchasing a
'

and a bovate

in

Ref ham
all

men

there dwelling

',^'

and 'performing

the

legal processes in

connexion with the tenure of land, exactly

as all the rest of the king's lieges'

on the one hand, and

if,

on the other hand, the pleas

rolls

of the Jewish Exchequer

detinue,^*^-

and other documents give us actions of

of covenant,^*^
dower,^-*^
all
'

breach

trespass,^***

writ

of

battery,^^

claims of
debt,^^

wrongful

defamation,^**'^

replevin,^'^^

and

these

do not

affect

fundamentally the Jewish status.

The Jew,

of course, conducts the king's business through

in use,

the legal processes then

but he uses these processes

it

of grace, or rather as long as

suits his

royal master.
it is

The

fountain of justice

is

as uncertain in flow as

muddy
right,

in contents.

In the formidable catalogue of actions given

above, he does not sue in maintenance of his

own

but as a medium through which the right of the Crown

is

exercised.

It is

the right of the

Crown

that his Jews

'''

Jacobs, op.
Ibid.,gg.

ctt.,

177; see Bracton,

99

f.

113.
'

''^

/6/rf.,

80.

Ibid., 145.

101 10^
^03

Cal. Charter Rolls, II, 21 (43

Hen.

III).

See Rigg, Exch. Jews,

Ibid., 123, 4.

I,

120, 131, 132, 139, 143 {bis), 145.

104

/i2-^_^

1-8.
I,

105

/^/^.^

82.

"s
19^

Ibid., 192, 232,

283

Cal. Close Rolls, 8 Ed.

;

47-8.
is

Rigg, Exc/i. Jews,

ii

Sel. Pleas,

70.

Defamation

brought here
This
is

nearly a century before

it

appears in any other royal court.

an
its

excellent example of the consistency with which the

Crown maintained

exclusive jurisdiction over the

courts.

Jews

at the

expense of the ecclesiastical

Pollock and

The

ecclesiastical

and also the seignorial courts then had jurisdiction

in all pleas of defamation.

See Holdsworth,

op.

cit.,

316-17

Maitland, History of English

Law,

I,

130

Veeder,

History of the
III,

Law

of

Defamation'
108

in Select

Essays in Anglo- Ante) ican Legal History,

II,

446-7.

Rigg, Exch. Jews,

Ibid., 289, 298.

175, 254.

199

150
shall

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

acquire wealth for the
royal use, and
that in this

acquisition they be not injured

by

either
is

Jews or Christians,

and

in the exercise of this right

he

not averse to making

them to pay the Jews parties to his actions, and allowing

heavily for the
privilege.^^*^

at

the bridge grant to the Sheriff of Salop, in aid of toll, with Moneford, of pontage, i. e. the right of charging

The

power of

fining for rafts of firewood or timber

'

damaging

the bridge, and

a special custom on every

i^.,
'

Jew and Jewess

crossing the bridge, on horse-back

on foot *^.?^' the

grant in return for a

sum

of

money

to the Burgesses of

Derby, they and their heirs

for ever, that

no Jew or Jewess
remain
in

by the king and

the said town'
;

his heirs {sic) shall henceforth

^^2

the mandate to

all

the Jews of England

to take care of as the king

'

Seman, the king's

;

balister,

equipping him

^^^ the acknowledgement had formerly ordered of the Jews by Hagin on behalf of the whole community Peter Ercaurd, Merchant, of England of a debt of ^9 to ^^^ and the had from him to the use of the king

for

wines

'

to wear the law that, not only were Jews and Jewesses and eating yellow badge, but to refrain from purchasing

meat during Lent

;^^'^

these are

some

of the true indicia

England, qua Jews, of the legal condition of the Jews in Truly they are as men ferae naturae in the ]\Iiddle Ages.
(wild beasts), the chattels of the king,
110

who

protects

them

II, 13). for paid for a proclamation of debts (Rigg, Exch. Jews, preliminaries to actions, and of the Rolls {ibid.), and many other a scrutiny Patent with the course of justice as adfor direct interference by Letters

They

Pleas, 19-26). ministered in the Exchequer (see Rigg, Sel

"1 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 12 Ed. I, 116. "2 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 45 Hen. Ill, 153.

See

also ibid., 50

Hen

III, 613.

"3 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 22 Hen. 1" Rigg, Exch. Jews, I, 201.
115

Ill,

229.

See Rigg, Exch.

Jcivs, XLix.

THE MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JEWRY

mercilessly
till

SCHECHTER
some
to perish

I51

he expels them.

In

1290 they go forth

again on their march through the golus,

and

many

to

fall

a prey to

some new

protector.

Here

again,

in their

subsequent history, their

lot is that of the roe

and

the deer in the royal forests,

for,

as Blackstone tells us,

when the king

'voluntarily abandons

the

use' of these

animals, 'they return to the

common

stock and every

man

has an equal right to seize and enjoy them afterwards'."*^

1^"

2 B!.

Comm.

i^.

THE SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL HEBREW POETRY

By
B.

Halper, Dropsie
I

College.

of the essential characteristics of poetic compoapart from the aesthetic beauty of their contents IS the harmonious structure of their outward form. Besides' polishing every sentence, poets throughout all ages sou<.ht to arrange syllables in such a way as to obtain a
sitions,

One

formerly poems were composed for recitation they had to be made pleasant to the ear, and hence metre' and rhyme developed. Incidentally metre

flow.

As

rhythmic

and rhyme

especially the former, helped to preserve the

poems from
For
in
for

being corrupted

in

the mouths of the reciters.

is

most

cases
is

when one word

disturbed.

substituted

another

the metre

Hebrew poetry, owing to the peculiar history of this branch of literature, an accurate knowledge of scansion is of vital importance. Composed by writers whose aim was to imitate the Arabian poets, the Hebrew
Dlwans were up
till

In mediaeval

recently copied

who had
and
it

and edited by men

little

or no

knowledge of Arabic prosody.

cases corrupted

The

texts were in
is

many

beyond recognition,

only with the help of the metre that

lines as

we can

hope to restore the original

of the author.

they

left

the hands

Thus as an apparatus for textual criticism a knowledge of the metres is indispensable. This knowVOL. IV. Tco

154

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

must be accurate, otherwise
us. It is
it

ledge, however,

is

apt to

mislead rather than guide

across notes in

exasperating to

come

modern

editions of Diwans, where the editor

with informs us that he emended the text in accordance

the metre,

when

the

metre was entirely misunderstood

by him.
Alive to the importance of this subject, Jewish writers,
at different times

and from different points of view, made

attempts to describe and classify the metres emwas ployed by the Hebrew poets whose mother tongue

many

Arabic.

Foremost
in

among
his

early

writers

is

Saadya
^

b.

Dannan^ who

chapter on the

metres

gives an

exhaustive account of this subject.

rightly be called a skilful versifier,

But although he and

it

may
slight

must likewise
its

be admitted that
harshness
in

his

Hebrew
is

style,

despite

many

places,

quite fluent, he failed to grasp

It is cer-

the fundamental principles of Arabic prosody.

tainly true that he
is

versed in the language and literature

it

of the Arabs.

But

is

equally true that he often mis-

understands his models.

To

prove this assertion

we need

only mention the fact that Sa adya in the above-named chapter gives the following two verses as Wafir and Kamil
respectively
^
:

n-i'intp

n-mni? dVs

d-'K'JX

nriitp

(i)

!]^3ns Nin -3

nin''

ns
ii^s

''k;d3

13^1 (2)
N'ln

Vb'IP iVyer? S'^pn n'.b'yb

"qnSf

The
.

transcription

Danan

is

certainly inaccurate, as in
spelt in this
is

Hebrew

it

is

H:-[

On

analogy of
I

many proper nouns

way,

as, for instance,

Hassan, Hajjaj,
2

think the correct pronunciation

Dannan.

Meleket ha-S'tr, ed. Neubauer, 1865.

Op.

cii.,

pp. 14, 15-

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

I55

He

even misunderstands the significations of some of the

metres.

Thus

it

is

well

known

that BasTt
it

means extended,

outspread.

Yet Sa'adya

translates

into
'

Hebrew by
simple
'

^iK'a

simple^

Now

bas'it

happens to signify

in collo-

quial Arabic

and

in

philosophic terminology, but the very

its

compound
by
stated
error.

character of this metre excludes

being called
it

that name.
that

As an apology

for

Sa adya

may be

some Arabian
renders

writers

committed the same

sand^"

He

ramal by hn

confusing rami

with ramal.
In recent years this subject was again taken up, and
in

some cases treated more

it

scientifically.

But the remarka matter of this

able feature about

is

that,

although
is

in

nature only one

interpretation

possible,

unanimity of

opinion

who has devoted a great deal of energy to this investigation, and has done praiseworthy work in the field of mediaeval
secured.

has

not

been

H. Brody,

Hebrew

poetry, published a pamphlet entitled Stiuiien zu

den DicJitiingen

Jehiida ha- Levis.

I.

Uber die Metra

der Versgedichte (Berlin, 1895).

In this treatise he gives

scientific

account of the introduction and development

in

of the

Had the treatment of the various metres been accurate Brody would
the

Arabic metres

Holy Tongue.

have
in

left

nothing to be desired.

Unfortunately, however,
is

many

cases his classification of the metres

based on

opinions

which

cannot

be

substantiated,

and

he

was

therefore driven to resort to

anomalous vocalizations.

The

reason of his failure to give a final solution to this simple

matter must be attributed to his having resorted to theory

^

Ibid.,

p. II.

It

is

unlikely that Sa'ad^a meant the

rare usage of

DK^3 he stretched.
'"

Op.

cit..

p. 13.

156

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Instead of studying the Arabic metres

instead of practice.
at first hand,

he merely consulted Freytag.

der
its

Now

Freytag's
it

Darstelhing
excellent for

arabischen

Verskunst,
in

though

was

time

(it

was published

1830), has long

ago become antiquated.

Moreover, he follows Sa adya

It is

the latter. too blindly, and takes over the errors of

^ that through these circumstances that he is led to state impossible in the feet miifailaUin and mntafailnn are

other. Hebrew, since two moving '^wds cannot follow each of As a matter of fact the two consecutive short syllables

they may only these two feet are not the rule in Arabic, description of this full be substituted for a long one.

point will be

given later

be dealt with, and

a

my

on when Kamil and Wafir will contention will be proved beyond

It is also his

shadow of a doubt.

opinion that a watid

can be no sivd mafrfik must be excluded, because there

mobile at the end of the word.

But no
as
is

line

in

Arabic

poetry ends

in

a short syllable,
line is
It

for,

well known, every

it

vowel concluding the

regarded as long, though

is

may be
optional

naturally short.

thus evident that

all

the

forms can be easily transferred to

combinations,

Hebrew, only some

such as the substitution of two

not always be short syllables for a long one, could ployed.

Altogether,

em-

whenever the Arab

poet had the

the option of using a long or short syllable,

for reasons

Hebrew

poet,

which

will

become apparent
employ a long

later on, almost

invariably preferred to

syllable.

This, of

often been observed, course, accounts for the fact that has than the Arabic. that the Hebrew metre is less fluctuating

show that Brody's any further proof were needed to enough to call attention treatise is inadequate it would be
If
6

Metva, p. ar.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
to the fact that

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

157

two out of the four metres which he^

terms imbestivnnte, and states that he cannot trace them,

are well

known

in

Arabic

{c)

is

Munsarih, and {d)

in

is

the shorter Kamil.

Levi's

There are also a few metres

takes no account at
all.

ha-

Dlwan of which Brody

It is

my

object to give here a concise account of the

writers.

metres employed by mediaeval Hebrew

far the greater

As by

bulk of the metres are taken directly from

Arabic,
In order

shall

quote

examples from
statements,
I

both

languages.
refer to

to

prove

my

shall

not

authorities, but shall

rules.

show the

practical application of the

After

all,

the concrete

embodiment

of abstract rules

gives the reader a better opportunity of judging for himself

than a mere reference to a famous authority.

shall also

make

use of this occasion to explain some obscure passages

satisfactorily treated, especially

which have not been hitherto

those on which light

may be thrown by

quoting parallels

from Arabic poetry.

That the Hebrew metres consisting of vowels and moving swds were
directly

borrowed from the Arabs, and

is

are the product of a conscious imitation,

a truism which

needs only to be formally stated to be appreciated.

the question

Yet

may be

raised

how

far

we can
in

rely on the

metres of the Arab poets to guide us

poetical creations of their

analysing the

Hebrew
while

followers.

For
to

it

may

well

be

the

case

that,

attempting

introduce

a foreign metre into Hebrew, the representatives of the

Spanish

school

of

Hebrew
upon

poets

failed

to

grasp

the

fundamental
based.

principles
b.

which Arabic metres are

to be a

Sa'adya

Dannan ought

warning example.
in

We

in

our turn should therefore be wrong

"^

applying

Op.

cit.,

pp. 48, 49.

158

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

its

the rigid rules governing the Arabic metre to

offspring. If

Hebrew
we must
from

we wish

to understand our poets

take account of their errors.

their point of view, not

We

must look

at things

from ours.

We

have to analyse

the metres as they are, and not as they should have been.

To

this

we may

reply that whereas later writers failed to

earlier

comprehend the rhythmic flow of Arabic poetry, the

poets who are responsible for popularizing these metres Judah ha-Levi in Hebrew, have fully understood them. employed almost every kind of the Arabic metres with
great
skill.

And
all,
life,

even

in

his

poems

which

are

not
later

numerous

at

and were probably composed at the

part of his

when he repented having followed the

'customs' of a people

whom

he detested

which

are in

metres not conforming with the hard and

fast rules of the

Arabs,

it is

easily seen that they are intentional deviations.

This

is

likewise true in

the case of Samuel ha-Nagid,

Ibn Gabirol, Moses Ibn Ezra, Abraham Ibn Ezra, and

al-Harizi.

Reproaches have repeatedly been

heaped upon

the

representatives of that school of poets for having intro-

duced into the Holy Tongue a system of foreign metres which are against its inherent characteristics, and thereby
corrupted
its

purity.

The
It

latter part

of this complaint

cannot be substantiated.

may

readily be conceded that

a metre depending on the quantity of the syllables does

not contribute to render Hebrew poetry rhythmic, since that language possesses no short vowels, as far as quantity
is

concerned.
is

To

substitute the

swa

mobile for a short

vowel

an

artificial

device which could have

made no
It

impression on the ear

when the poem was

recited.

may

be compared with the method of writing acrostics.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

I59

One may perhaps be led to admire the skill of the writer, but the poem is not made sublimer in tone. On the other hand, we must repudiate the assertion that the Spanish poets corrupted the purity of Hebrew style. As regards the rudiments of languages we can safely say that all are equal in being against all metres. The tendency of metre
is

to arrange
it

words
absurd

differently

from their natural order.

particular

Hence

is

to

consider a

system of
Poetry,

metres more suitable for a language than another.

however,
freely
is

likes to

be

fettered.

Pegasus seems to run more

when

chained.

This

may

sound paradoxical, but

nevertheless true.

The very
This
is

restraint

seems to stimulate
poetry
is

the poetical mind.

the reason

why

more

polished than prose.

There are

certain frames of
is

mind

which can only become active when their area

limited

and
call

restricted.

The Arabs with

('strung'

their characteristic insight

poetry
('

manzum
').

or

'joined')

and

prose

mantur

scattered

Oscar Wilde candidly admits that

a thought often suggested itself to

for a

him while

in

search

rhyme.

We have
deprived

therefore

no cause to regret that the

Spanish school of poets adopted a system of metres which

apparently

them

of

their

freedom.
as

For

it

awakened
stimulus.

their

energies,

and

served

an

excellent

The

result of that activity

was gems of thought

and polished
I shall

style.

now proceed

to give a short account of the system

of metres employed

by the Arabs.

Like those of the

Greek and Latin

poets, the

Arabic metres are based on

is

the quantity of syllables, that

to say, a

number

of long
certain

and short
rules.

syllables occur regularly according to

earliest

Although the

Arabic

poetic
era,

literature
it

transmitted to us dates after the Christian

is

quite

l6o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

certain that neither the Greeks nor the

Romans

influenced
in

the

Arab

poets.

For the Arabic metre sprang forth

the desert, and the desert-dweller even to-day repels anyforeign influence.
It
is,

however, a striking feature that

there are

many

points of resemblance between the systems

literatures.
in

of

prosody of these

Evidently the poetic

instinct

works independently

the

same

direction

among

different races.

The Arab

poets divide syllables into two

(2)

classes

(i)

those that are long, and

is

those that are

short.

A long syllable
closed.

one which contains a long vowel,

English example, go and got
syllables in Arabic.

or

is

To

use an

would be considered long

syllable
is

A
is

short

one which contains a short vowel and

divided into

open.

verse

is

two hemistichs each containing

a certain

amount

of feet.

foot

consists

of a

certain

number
Feet

of syllables, short and long, disposed in a certain

order in accordance with the rules appertaining to them

may

be roughly divided into two chief classes

of four syllables
;

(i)
(2)

Composed

Composed

of three syllables.

Feet of four syllables have

{a)
its

many

variations

Diiamhus

is is

the one occurring most frequently, and

normal form

>^ .^

Here, as

in

the Greek and

long,

Latin literatures^ the

first

syllable

may be
\.o

and

its

form

is

then

The Arabs
be

call this foot

nmstaf^ihrn. ox

This foot

may sometimes

reduced

^ ^

\j

y^

{b) Epitritiis tertitis,

consisting of a spondee and iambus.

Its

normal form
^

is

v--

-.

The

first

syllable

may

be

These

lines are throughout to be read

from right

to left, as

they are

to be applied to a language written in that direction.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
substituted

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

ones,
this

l6l

by two

short

and

the

foot

is

then

- w- ^
it

^.

On

account of

pecuharity the Arabs call

inutafaihin.
{c)

Epitritus primus,
Its ordinary

consisting
is

of an
v^.

iambus and
third syllable

spondee.

form

The

may

be substituted by two short ones, when the foot

>^

becomes

w a

^,

This foot

is

known
^
^.

as nmfailatun.

{d) loniais

minore,
is

consisting

of

pyrrhic
first

and

spondee.

Its

form

ordinarily
this

The

syllable
call
it

may

'be

long,

and on

account the Arabs

faildtun.
ie)

Antispast, consisting of an iamb and choree, and

is

its

form

^^.

The

last

syllable
It

is

usually long,

and hence

its

name

is

majdilun.

may

be changed into

\J

Of
{a)

w.

the feet consisting of three syllables the variations

less.
is

are naturally

Brachucs, whose normal form

^.

The

third

syllable
{b)

may

be long, hence

Anapaest^ whose normal form

syllable

may be

long,

named fdulun. '^. is The and hence its name is failnn.

it is
--

first

In

some

cases this foot

may

be substituted by a spondee.

The hemistichs

contain a certain

number

of these feet.
feet,

metre

may

be simple, composed of one class of

feet.

or

compound, composed of two kinds of

According to
long, for, as
is

this principle all syllables in

Hebrew

are

well

known,
it

in that

language no short vowel

can be open unless

to

has the accent.

Then, according
accented

the conception
are

of mediaeval grammarians,
far

syllables

long as

as

metre

is

concerned.

The
by the

short syllables, therefore,

light vowels

would have

to be furnished

which are extremely

rare,

and would scarcely

l62

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

sufficient

supply anything like a

accordingly, had to

number.
its

The kvd

mobile,

be raised to

former glory, and

given the rank of a short vowel.

Arabic-speaking Jews

probably did not

in

fail

to notice that

many moving hvds

and
this

Hebrew correspond
them

to short vowels in Arabic,

influenced

to adopt this principle.

it,

The
was
in

light vowel,

together with the hvd which follows

some

cases

regarded as a long syllable, as

if

the

>izvd

were quiescent.

But there are some passages,

think, in

which the poets

intended them to be considered as two short syllables. This fact has hitherto been overlooked. But if this obvious
suggestion be adopted, the

number

of cases where a iiwd

mobile was taken for a quiescent reduced.

light

would be appreciably
instances in

There are a few rare

which the

vowel was employed as a long syllable and the hwd

as a short one.

These
arises.

details will

be pointed out

later

on when occasion

Apart from the

latitude

which was allowed to the Arab

poets in forming their verses, they frequently

poetical licence.

Now

that our dictionaries

made use of and grammars

are based on those poetical monuments,

tion to realize the extent to

we

are not in posi-

which the Arabs took liberty

is

with their language.

But

it

quite certain that

fact that the

many

forms owe their existence to the

the metre, he simply changed

poet wanted
did not

a certain arrangement of syllables.

fit
it

Thus

\{ yiiblii/n

into yuballigii.

Although

lexicographers are careful to register all possible forms,

which a reader of poetry often comes across conjugations Then the are not to be found in the standard lexica.
broken plurals could not all have been used in practical the multiplicity of life, and there can be no doubt that
forms existing of one noun
is

due

to this circumstance.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

163

When
had
to

the

first

syllable of ritdtiui (broken phiral of rain)

be long, the poet simply

made

the

word sound

rn"dt!tn.

There are also numerous cases where a Jiamza

into xvasla.

The Hebrew poets, however, were less fortunately situated. They wrote in a dead language which had long become stereotyped. They were fettered by a masorah and a very limited vocabulary. Some of
was changed

them were even too timid

to use a

word

in
It

the plural
is

if its

singular alone occurred in the

Bible.

only

in

ex-

tremely rare instances that

or
expression.

we meet
afraid

a post-biblical word

They were

of

being branded as

ignoramuses or corrupters of the Holy Tongue.

The

poet
at

wants to say

"i^Q^ but the

metre requires a short syllable

It is quite natural for

the beginning of the word. use the Pu"al and say

"i2D^

him
and

to

on the analogy of

"i?^'

i^l^

and

Isa. 19. 4.

But a learned grammarian comes along

">3?^

with his concordance and conclusively proves that

not exist in the Old Testament.

does

Our admiration

is

aroused

when we

see that in spite of these discouraging circum-

stances the Spanish poets produced sublime verses which

contain no flaws whatsoever.

It

makes us think with

been

regret

of the wealth which these gifted poets would have bestowed

on the Hebrew language had

being stretched.

it

alive

and capable of

The

poetic licence that the

Hebrew
in a

poets

sometimes allowed themselves was to regard a swd mobile

as quiescent

and vice

versa,

and to use a word

form

which does not occur

in the Bible.

They

were, of course,

severely reproached for these aberrations

by

later

gram-

marians.
It

has justly been observed that the metre

fixed, that is to say,
it

in

Hebrew

is

more

offers less option

is

than the

Arabic.

The

reason of this

phenomenon

not far to seek.

64

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

We

have seen that the Arabs often used a short syllable which the Hebrew instead of a long one. This is an option

Arabic the short poets could easily dispense with, for in proportion, whereas kuas and long syllables occur in equal

must occur much more rarely than

together.

all

the other vowels put

Then the
is

substitution of two short syllables for

in the case of a light

a long one

only possible
it.

vowel and

the ki'd which follows

preferred to use as
shall see later

The Hebrew

poets, therefore,

many

long syllables as possible.

We

on that two important metres which are extremely frequent in Arabic occur rarely in Hebrew,
simply because
too
also

many

short syllables

are

required.
will

Then

there

is

a psychological

reason which

account for the fact

why

the

Hebrew poet

preferred to

adhere to a fixed form.

The

imitator likes to observe as

strictly as possible all restrictions

imposed on him.

It is

his desire to

out-Herod Herod.

The Arabian poet had

and realized that nothing
if

sufficient confidence in himself,

will

be detracted from his value

all feet identical in

he breaks the monotony

of having

form.

But the Hebrew poet

his
skill

hesitated
versifier

in

resorting

to variations, lest

as a

should be questioned.
in

Nevertheless deviations

do exist

Hebrew

poetry.

Editors were unnecessarily

driven to resort to anomalous vocalizations and even to

emendations.

Brody^ recognizes
it.

this

fact,

but

makes

wrong use

of

tafihm

(-

He is right in quoting Freytag that wusmay become mufaihin (- ^ - ^), and yet

nnnzi instead of be cannot see his way to vocalize ^Ti^-ri] and On nnnii which is in the middle of a sentence.^^ '3^2T'': and

the other hand,

9

in his

edition of
'

Judah ha-Levi's Dlwan^^

cit.,

Mcira, p.

7. II,

op.

p. 39.

Cp. below,

p. 206.

11

See especially

notes, p. 122.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER
^.

165

he observes that mustafihm

fixed to
assertion
it,

that

is

to say,

it

may have a hvd may become - ^

mobile pre-

This

is

utterly groundless, for the

Arabs never per-

mitted that.

No

poet

is

recorded to have allowed himself to

make

use of this privilege of giving vmstafHlun more than

four syllables.

The fundamental

rules of

Arabic prosody

permit the shortening of a foot or the substitution of two short syllables for a long one, but never tolerate the
addition of a superfluous syllable.

Should such a principle

be adopted, we could take almost any piece of prose and make it agree with any metre we choose. I shall revert to
this point

when

treating of each metre individually.

II

Writers on prosody in
variance as to

Hebrew and Arabic

of

are at

the arrangement

the

several metres.

This subject was

approached by Oriental writers from

gave the order
It
is,

peculiar points of view, and every one

which suited

his

preconceived theory.

however, a
I

minor question which need not detain us here.

adopt the order which
is

prefer to

in

accordance with the relative

frequency the metres occur in Arabic.

Sixteen metres are recognized by the Arabs, four of

which

may be

called favourites

which are seldom,

four are
:

if ever,

absent from any Diwan.

These

Tawil, Basit,

Kamil, and Wafir.

I.

Tawil, long.
consisting of four feet in

(a)

This

is

compound metre

each hemistich, two of which

feet are inafallun,

Its

and the
normal

other two are fafilun, occurring alternately.

form

is

l66

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

length of the line gives the poet an opportunity of

The

developing his thought, for Arabs are careful to have a

complete idea

in

every

line.

This
metre.
:^^

is

probably the reason

blind poet Bassar

why

every poet sang

in this

The

has the following beautiful line

'

If turbid drinks

you never

tasted, thirst

you did endure,

For on our earth no man

pure.'

exists

whose drinks are always

In this form the

minimum number
and
it

of short syllables in

each hemistich
it

is

five,

is

therefore no w^onder that

is

extremely rare in

Hebrew.

Judah ha-Levi has the

follow^ing piyyut:^"

^"liDii

nvj'23n

njibyn

-j^si

It

should be noticed here that whenever the choice lay

short
syllable,

between a long and a

invariably
{b)

the former was

employed by the Hebrew

poet.

Sometimes the Arabian poets made the fourth foot identical in form with the second, especially in the rhymebearing hemistich.

This
is

is

necessary

when
form

a ridf 'that
is

which rides behind',

^2 1^

introduced.^'^

Its

then

Kiiabu-l-Agdni,

III, p. 28,

1.

7.

" Harkavy's
to

ed., II, p. 98.

This

is

a technical
it

X,

Ij

V when

one of the letters of prolongation immediately precedes the 7-awt, or unchangeable part of the
II, p.

name given

rhyme.

See Wright, ^-habic Gmniinar,

353.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER
^'^

167

Mustim

b. al-\Valld

has the following line:

-O -

--

,9

'She of bewitching eyes, unskilled

in

the enchanter's

art,

She

clings to

me

in private,

openly keeps

me

apart.'

This mode, reducing the number of short syllables to

four,
is

more frequently met with

it.

in

Hebrew, and almost

several

every poet of note attempted

short

Ha-Nagid has

poems

in this

metre

r^*'

"b

"ipxb

Vro

yc'D

''J'3

Tianji

One
which
is

at

once notices

in njn!?,

Arabic badr iwW moon',

'

always used figuratively of a beautiful woman.

is

Ibn Gabirol has the following poem which

in

abounding

Arabic expressions and colouring

"'ri:;333

:^'^

niDX

"^tp

lyc^ 'nn^

^nypnn n33x

'iib

n-'ntj'

'^^is'i

Ibn Gabirol's addressing himself to

us of halilayyd, with which
love poems.
is

his friends

reminds

many Arabic
I

poets begin their

ff.)

The

description of a sleepless night (line 3

also

borrowed from the Arabs.^^

suspect that
it

'nr:in?o in

line 5

b has a different meaning from what

has in the

Bible.
^5

My
p.

tinniilt or

confusion hardly
^^ ^*

suits the context.

ed., p. 8.
p. 200.

DTwdn,
Dukes,

ed.

De
;

Goeje,

p. 37.

Harkavy's
Cp. below,

^^

46

Brod}-, p. 26.

'

l68

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

not unlikely that the poet intended this word to stand
'

It is

for

Arabic Jnnnum

cares

'.

a favourite theme with the Arabs.

for there
is

The cooing dove (line 6) is also Read iC'S^B in line 8 a,

no sense

in saying,

my
is

life

and my

seairiiy is in
in line lo a.

my
It

soul iv/iick

I love.

A glaring Arabism
often

is p^!^\

represents zvalilldhi, which

lilldJii

met with
are you

in
!'

such

expressions as

anta

'

How admirable

When
it
'

an Arab quotes a pithy saying he usually introduces

ivalilldhi

by

man
is

kdla

or ivalilldJii darrn
!'

man

kdla

How
!',

admirable

The line in question ought to who says be rendered, 'How admirable are my friends, my beloved Brody, who misses this point, vocalizes &c., reading "'piti'n. The ^Nb"! in vain, which is against the tenor of the poem.
he
picture of the beloved departing on camels (line ii
to be
ff.)

is

found

Mu'allaka of

many kasidas. Compare 'Amr b. KultOm ^^

in
:

especially the

'

recalled youth's love

at eventide I
"1^1

and yearned
their

for

days gone by,

When
For

saw

camels

hie.'

line 15,
b.

n;np 733
^'^
:

Dipsj'^i,

compare the words of

Tauba

Humayyir

May

the rain from the pure morning clouds give you to

!

drink

The famous poem,

is

^?n b'Vco

fji:

na^,

by Judah ha-Levi,

also in this metre, although all editors without exception

19

Lyall, Ten Aiideiit Arali'c

Poems,
8.

p. iir,

1.

15.

20

Noldeke, Dehctiis,

p. 5,

1.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
failed to recognize
it,

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

169

and hence many corruptions

arose.

Harkavy,^^

in addition to the printed errors, suggests a

few

more which would conceal the

nition.

real

metre beyond recogis

Brody thinks

that

its

metre

that

is

to say, a variation of Baslt.

is

The

objection to this
szcja

scansion

obvious, for the

poem

begins with a

mobile.

In his notes^^ Brody meets this objection with the assertion

that the prefixed swds are not to be counted.

As

I re-

marked

above,^^ no mustaf'ihin can have

more than four

syllables.

In Brody's edition there are in five lines thirteen

superfluous hvds occurring at the beginning of words, and

can by no stretch of imagination be taken as quiescent

ones.

Now

in order to

make

this

poem agree with

this

mode

of Tawll seven

more

siuds are required.

proper
that

analysis of each line individually will at once

show

these swds were there originally, but were

failure of editors

lost

through the
It is

and copyists to recognize the metre.

all

a significant fact that

the acrostic-bearing words are

szvds.

quite in order, and have

moving
'

It

is

only some of

the other words which had no

suffered corruption.

fence' to protect

them

that

Now

out of the seven moving hvds

altering
it

that have to be restored,

two can be obtained by

(line
1

the vocalization.
ni-iipn

Read nnp
and '^
(line

la), deriving

from
ns;^

(Jer. 48. 28)

is

b),

referring

it

to

'T3

which

masculine.

In line 4 b
Dil.

we should read ^^\,

thus

preparing for the climax

Editors have sometimes

found
as
''23|

it

necessary to offer such anomalous punctuations

line
(cp.

in

3a

but
fj^i,

think that originally

39. 13).
ji^ p,

it

was

Dne^an
21

^^
Notes,

D^3:-i

Job
22

Copyists probably
23

I,

p. 170.

122.

165.

VOL.

IV.

lyo

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

it

considered
the

their

duty to emend
occurring

it

in

accordance with
Bible.

familiar

expression

in

the

Such

found very frequently in biblical reminiscences are to be disregarded. My suggestion editions in which the metre is by the fact that variant readings is rendered more certain recorded by editors. It has been my
of this

word are

corruptions arose under observation that the majority of the poet for exigences of such circumstances. Whenever familiar phrases, the metre was compelled to deviate from
copyists were ready to
correct the error.
^3

in

line

2 a

should be read
of Ps. 77. 12.

y^
8.

or

m.
TjB

Here again the copyist knew

^^?

Similarly
19,

^sbp

(line

a) is

a reminis-

cence of Jer.
Tl^rb??.2^

For

^n^'?P

and the poet probably wrote ^? r read nsso nkrp. Here again editors
as follows
:

record variations.
y]

The whole poem should run

'^'2^'?

^pi? ^^^

"^^'^'r

^^^

'"^":

Dip nn3ix nyn los? ^pni lien

^"in
-i:.:'S

i])3i

rbi

Tf t< ^nn3

be better should be observed that in line 3 a nv will meaning of understood when we know that it has the
It

Arabic kat/d with the subjunctive =

24

'

in order that

'.-^

Cp.

T|"'"1.1J'K,

Eccles. ii. 17.

II, p. 29.

*5

See Wright, Arabic Gmtmnar,

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

mode

I7I

Those who object

should bear
in

to this

of treating the text

mind

that a careful study of this

poem

will

convince any one that a regular metre was intended by the

poet,

and

this

is

the only one possible.

For another probable variation of Tawil, see below,

P- 183.
2.

Basit, outspread.

{a)

This

is

regarded as a
syllables
is

compound metre which may be companion to Tawll. The number of its

also

the same as that of the latter.

It

is

composed
its

of imtstafihm and fifihiu, occurring alternately, and

normal form

is

The

following line

is

attributed to

Abu

Adhlna.-*^

'

man

attains not ev'ry

day

his quest,

Nor 's he allowed with

fate's gift to

be

blest.'

The minimum number

the

of short syllables
its

is

four in each

hemistich, and this excludes

becoming a favourite with

almost
every
poet

Hebrew

poets.
it.

Nevertheless

attempted to master

Ha-Nagid has the following poem

in

which has been transmitted

metre
is,

a very corrupt form.

-'^
:

The

however, quite evident

ni?yif
"^h
''K'23

2py: Tns*

nsa

-^
2''

Abul Feda, Hisforia

Harkavy's

anteislainica, ed. Fleischer, p. 124,.

1.

8.

ed., p. 107.

172

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

pi}-yut
^*
:

Ha-Levi has the following

It
is

should be observed that the kud quiescent of noyjl

regarded here as mohile.

{b)

Arabian poets allow the rhyme-bearing faihm to

This
is

be reduced to a spondee.
introduction of a ridfP
'"
:

necessitated

by the
lyrical

Hassan

b.

Thabit has a

poem

in this

metre
4^^

A^l

Li.fl

Jl: jOTj

'

And

wealth doth overwhelm those

men who

are not staid,

As sweeps away

a flood the stems that are decayed.'

is

In this form the metre

more frequently met with

the following lines
^^
:

in

Hebrew.

Abraham Ibn Ezra has

iBin

5]i^t;'

ny

iiz;p inynz npl:";

i2X's2 ^2b' ry?

pi'ipt;':'!

y"=jo

Ha-Levi's panegyric to Solomon

b.

Farosal

is

in

this

metre

32

23
315

Harkavy,

II, p. 141.

^'^

See above,
1.

p. 166.

Diudn,
Egers's

ed. Hirschfeld, p. 69, no. 159,

ed., p. 10.
^-

7I,

Si

Brody,

p. 14.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER
It is

173

Like most of the poems of

is

this class, the present

one

full

of Arabic colouring and imagery.

true that

D"'E)B'3

npp
is

occurs in

Nahum

3. 4,

but the sense required

here
it

not quite identical with that of the Bible.

Here

is

an enchantress of a different kind, and reminds us

of

the Arabic sahir{ic7i).

Then

0"*!''^^'

does

not

mean

wandering

in the biblical sense,

'

but corresponds to Arabic

separation
'.

hajr{wi) or hijrdii\un)

departure,

This

is

the signification of this word in the majority of cases in

mediaeval Hebrew poetry, where

suffers,

it

is

not the
first

*TliJ

who

but the one

is

left

behind.

The

verse of our

poem

to be found, in one form or another, in almost

every Arabic Dlwan.

^Muslim

b.

al-Walld says

^^
:

'

Her absence

is

near,

and her company

is

far,'

that

is

to say, her separation lasts longer than her friendship.

Line 2 a

is

almost a

literal translation of

another verse

by Muslim
says
"*
:

b.

al-VValid.

lady vaunting her beauty

>

'

I'm the illuminating sun when

it

doth shine,

But

am

never

known
^^
:

to set or decline.'

The same lady says

'

desire no

perfume but

my

own,'

and
S2

this explains line 2 b.

Diwdn,

p. 155,

1.

II.

34

Op.

cit.,

p. 153,

1.

8.

35

/,

^^^ i_

5,

174

"^"^

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

7,
is

Brody"^ has rightly pointed out that hnes

extremely
familiar in
is

are

difficult.

The
for

expression

nn2

^r'SJ

quite
it

Hebrew

as well as in Arabic from

which

borrowed, and
think
if

no special explanation. we try to get the Arabic expressions which these

calls

But

lines

represent,

we may
'

obtain

satisfactory

solution.

One

often meets

some such sentence

I

as nafsi fidd leilin soul as a

yufakku bihi astuiki

for the

would

offer

my
is

ransom

night in which your prisoner

released'.

Now

when Arabian poets

their expressions
(i)

talk of releasing this kind of prisoner

may

be interpreted
to

in

two ways
to be freed

The poet wishes

is

become

indifferent to the object

is

of his affection, that

to say, his desire

from her bewitching influence.

appointed
'

We

often

hear the discaptivator:

lover

arguing

logically

with

his

Either requite
of

me

with your love, or give

me

back

my
be

heart

which

you deprived me.'

'neither

And

cruel

Venus
will

mockingly
granted.'

replies:

of

your requests

other occasions the poet in asking for freedom here wishes to have his desire gratified. That our poet is quite evident from intends to convey the latter meaning is artistically the following lines in which love's revelry
(2)

On

described.

The

greatest difficulty lies in line 7 b

n^-icnp ban? nDisri pi

To my mind

bnn has been misunderstood.

It

does not

D'lpna denote region or district, but rope, and together with

which represents Arabic hablu-l-hawd 'the rope of love',

one meets so
D'?V^7
se

often.

Ibn Gabirol translates

this phrase

by

\^?0,=^'^

which renders

my
"

suggestion more certain,

ed., p. 42, no. 30,
1.

Notes,

p. 26.

Dukes'

9a.

'

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
since the
is

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

all

75

Hebrew

poets used

these synonyms.

'^^"J*:?^!

very likely a metaphor for body, which in prose would

"l^n.

be

The hemistich should accordingly be rendered

is

Only the body

in the rope of her love.

is

The
for.

poet thus

explains what kind of freedom he

asking

Let the
still

soul alone be free from anxiety, but the

body should

be enslaved by her love.

riotous revelry for

He
is

then goes on depicting the

longing
7\r\^

which he

fl^i*3

nini Dix nsb' n'iw

This

verse

has also
u'"i2^
D"'

been misunderstood.
.
.

Brody

^^

remarks
iTn:o Nin

mm
'a

''biNi

Dn

n^2.T]7\

't^'p

n^Nn onnnn

-tax niyn ;iii2 nihe^ n^a ?iivn.

Let the reader

far the difficulty

try to construe this verse,

is

and see how

that
D''1JJ? is

solved.

It

seems to
lips.

me

here used meta-

phorically for
this
it

It

should be noted that in the Bible

word has no fixed meaning.

identical with

There
'

is

no doubt that
',

is

Arabic majd{tin)

honour, glory

and

very likely has the signification of

transition to the
(line
is

choice, excellence.

The
'21

metaphor

is,

therefore, not very far.

8 b)

is

not construct state, depending on Disn^ but

with pronominal sufiix ist person singular.

:

The

line

should be translated
'

To

quaff and drain her rosy

lips,

and sate

My
Her

mouth and

lips

with her mouth's honeycomb

lips will serve as

cup

In the note quoted above,

n-s

Brody proceeds
n?n

Djnjn n'm

^^nb

on

p'-^rh

nynv
(136

n\tj'
1"-^

;
n"n

D-j-aj

nainx

nx

hhrh

nav

-i2y 'an

on

^a

n:^'

'd)

C'"r3ai.

Here again

^*

I,

notes, p. 26.

'

'

176

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

point.

Brody misses the

runs
^^
:

His note to the

^an ois ^3
n^r?^
''Tl

latter

poem

nss

-iD'y

na b^ ns in

ip-:'j

i^w ncn
r^'i ^i^i

T"m Disn 'D in^32i

'"i^y
^i:')'n3roi

nay nx nx-n

T^^y

^*^

^''^

(D133
I

-i::>s*

(nsy -an tj'x pnn>y^ nns ns,

wonder whether the reader could follow this description. In this case also ^D = 7;y/ vio^a/i, and the verse should be
rendered
'
:

Watch my mouth

is

cup

in

an antelope's mouth,
!

My
What
who
a

wine and his

beautiful
it

lip,

mouth to mouth
and

metaphor,

how befogged and

Those

mutilated

emerges from a faulty construing!

are acquainted with the figurative expressions of the

will,
I

Arabs
which

hope, have no objection to

'

my
*

explanation.

An Arab
is

says

the

swimmer

'

(sadi/i)

and means the camel

says the fettered

the ship of the desert.

foot.

He

[mukayyad) and means the

of apples and means the

Ha-Levi himself speaks

Sometimes Hebrew

breasts.^

poets say pomegranates instead

this
b.

of apples.^^

Of course
Muslim

metaphor

is
:

also
^'^

borrowed from the Arabs.

al-Walid says

\.^\ ^\^j

^^ ^\^\ ^j

'

Love's pomegranates did youth plant

Upon
3
40
41

their chests,

adorned with bones.'

op.

cit.,

p. 223.
cit.,

See

op.

II, p.

i8,

and

still

more

explicit

II, p. 6.
I,

Moses ibn Ezra, Tarsls, p. 36, no. 106, and also ha-Levi,
Ditvdn, p. 149,
1

p. 100.

42

30.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

77

Ya'kob
lip in

b.

Erazar has the metaphor of the cup and

more expHcit terms i**^

.Tyi

nab ^pb
.

njn;

-rp

nipOT '^3 _ ...

I

b3i2 npnro ^
't
;

'3

To
is

return to our poem.

In line
is
it

7 a,

both Brody and

Harkavy punctuate nna which

intransitive in

impossible, since this

word

Hebrew, and
^''"y^p]

certainly cannot be taken

plural.
It
is

as

predicate

to

which
nzis.

is

therefore

necessary to vocalize

This expression can only be

In the

properly understood with the help of Arabic.

Bible the extinction of one's light
as
is
is

supposed to be a curse,

plainly seen from Prov. 20. 30;

Job

18. 4,

and a few
repre'

more passages.
sents

But the expression

in this

poem

Arabic ahmada nlrdnaJia or atfda nlrdnaJia

he

quenched her flames'.

The woe-begone

lover often
'

com-

plains fl ftiddl ndr{iui) leisa laJia lminud{7in)

within
or
'

my
not

heart there

is
'.

a flame which does not abate

',

is

extinguished

When
is

his

hope

is

realized

he

may

say
of

uhmida-n-nar{u) or ntji'a-7i-ndr{n).
Canticles
8.

The

expression

not to the point here, for in that verse

love's hope.
*^
:

there

is

no reference to the realization of

is

In this metre

also ha-Levi's

famous poem
|i>^

Tjn^DN n\bp^ 'S'^lbn Nbn

nsb^

fD^ni

pDxipi nnirpi n>?3

niij^i

Tjnny ^3?p 'Kb

pin-;

Al-Harizi evidently had this

*3 ^*

poem

in

mind when he

Brody and Albrecht, Saar

Brody's
ed., II, p. 155.

ha-Slr, p. 163.

178

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

metre and wrote the following lines which have the same

approximately the same rhyme

*^
:

?]n2yc Diy^i T]y-n n)b^

=];";

n2> S'n >si5]n; PI

-TJ^

nns
is*

^^nisi? '^2 f2^ pn"J'2

ris?

(c)

But even

in

this
line.

form several short syllables are

necessary for each

Hence

a further step
all

was taken.
anapaests

On

analogy of the rhyme-bearing anapaest,

variation of were reduced to spondees, and the following

Basit was the result

employed in only four short syllables are to be could not very well a line of eight feet, the Arabian poets poems in this metre, and writers do not

As

compose
classify
it

their

it

among

the proper metres.

In Hebrew, however,
Isloses

could be employed with advantage.

Ibn Ezra

in his Tar^I^

has the following

lines

"'^
:

The

following

poem by Ibn

Gabirol

is in

this

metre

:'*^

n^iLi n\t2 bv

nbin^

]^i

n^nj? 'bv nyr?^

jb'ib'

\^s.;

b^2'^

*'

Tahketnom. Dukes'

p. 140.

"
See
also Geiger.

P- ^4-

ed., p. 35.

Salomo

Gabirol, pp. 67, 134.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY
is

HALPER

179

In Dukes' edition the metre

in

some

places not clear.

difficulty.

But one can

in

most cases restore the text without

In the above lines ^y had to be changed into vV and the

hemistichs differently divided.

nize an
like

In

^bN*ri

(line 2 a)

recog-

Arabism.

It

does not signify gather, but combine

Arabic javicia.

The whole

line

should be rendered

WJien seeing a living-dead

weeping,

man
a few

she combines mirth

is

and
are

and

like dezu ?ipon

a rose

a tear npon her cheek.

For the

rest of the

poem

more emendations

necessary to
sense.
HLon
Hinri

make

it

agree with the metre and yield good

niisni?.

In line 4 a delete b of

The preceding word

In line

can scarcely be right. should be read.

1

Perhaps some such word as

1

Delete
pnj:i.

of

mr2''"i

(line
i

b).
nnwS"i

6 delete

of

nniJi

and

In line 7 b
T\}2\^ or

of

should

be deleted.
Vocalize

Either punctuate

read

njDiC' in line 9 a.

n*3i:i (line

10

b),

not as in the text.

In line 13 a

read
'^I^V,

=iC3n

instead of
'i2C'.

''i2-2n,

and

in the
is

second hemistich point

obviously corrupt, but

not

The end
is

of line 14

the scansion

quite correct.
riNi.

n'^nnNl

should

perhaps be

divided into

rm

But the whole

line is doubtful.-*^

If

men were
soids,

divided they woidd form

tzuo

companies with two

is

but yon. are the moving spirit of both

iox
is

too

much

cir-

cumlocution
line 15 nvjia

yon are
against

the

moving

spirit

of mankind.

In

grammar.

^~2 (abstract noun, as in

Prov.

I.

22) probably was the original reading which was

afterwards substituted

by the more usual word.

'"ispz

Sense

and metre demand the reading

vague niD3
be deleted,
line 18 a,
1

riN

''i)

instead of the

h^-2 (line 15 b).

The
is

^ of

np^ (line 17 a)

should
In

for the imperative

obviously intended.

of D^ixi should be deleted.

*^

See, however, Geiger, p. 134.

l8o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

To

the

same

metre

belongs

ha-Levi's

panegyric

addressed to Moses Ibn Ezra:"*^

'

b'b^ nxEtt

'lob'zi

^n''-i.

jri

have advisedly omitted to punctuate

it

ns-j*.

All editions

take

to be IS^'

f/ie

rest;

but

am

not sure whether

^^^ flesh would not

of the metre of this
dispute.

suit the context better.

The

assigning
is

poem,

it

should be observed,
is

open to

Brody thinks the metre

This metre
is

is

quite

unknown, and
for

do not think there

sufficient

ground

making

this

poem an
is

exception,

and the insertion of the short syllable

This poem consists of twenty

scarcely justifiable.

lines, thirteen

out of which

have kvds, moving and

resting, in the
lines

middle of words, and

whichever way we scan the

violated.
is

grammatical rules are

The
But

real objection to

my

method

of scansion

the fact that five lines contain swds at the beginning

this objection is
^i^iji

of words.

only apparent.

In line 3
In line 6
in

read bs^rh instead of

delete
line 7.
1

^V (cp. Jer. 22. 10).

of ^^\.

Editors have found great

difficulty

Some
all

manuscripts have nyn which cannot be

made
this

to

fit

the supposed metre.

Brody has a long note on

are

line,

but

the explanations he quotes

admittedly

inadequate.
editors

The
and

difficulty

is,

however, only created by

who

are compelled to read

I

nyn

to

get an extra
is

short .syllable,

think the proper reading

The night of

his

hair
^3

(i.

e.

his
I.

black hair) covers him

p. 122.

Brody's

ed.,

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

l8l

from
^2ii:

viy eye

(lit.

is

a covering for

my

eye).

For the meta-

phorical use of
V.s

naii* cp.

niNiin (Eccles. 12. 3).

it is

Brody reads
difficult.
''Sii'.

'ip, and tacitly admits that

All

kinds of fanciful explanations were suggested for

way

vocalize

it

we have
Line 12
is

in

1^3 an instance of
nj?3px.

v--

The w.

In line 8 read VV^^ instead of

instead of nn^.

In line 10 read "in

difficulty.

has

again caused

Harkavy has
It

ivVl' ^vhich

against either

way

of scanning.

has therefore been suggested to read

all

\?yi,

and numerous

suggestions were offered,

far-fetched.

of which are, to say the least,

is

But the simplest thing

:

to read vby^and this

the choice zvords
If
-iv"'

clause should be rendered

About him are

line
is

of my mouth.
rect,

Another obscure

is

13.

be coror

the only possible vocalization

1'i*;:

zvill be hostile,

vex

(cp. Isa.

n.
"ix;.

13).
is

Harkavy's

"i^; is

certainly unintelligible,
ivill

and Brody's
in straits.

inadequate, for this word denotes

"1^*^

be

Whichever way we take

I

the h of b3^

is

indis-

pensable.

therefore think that

:

we should

delete ^?, and

translate the line his company.

If Time

is hostile

I shall take reftge in

is*

According to

this

conception
to QX.

in

the follow-

ing line will have to be

emended

If,

however, the
is

conception of this

line as

given by commentators

right,

the best reading would be

In line 15

"ivai

seems to have a meaning slightly

different

from that
persist,

in the Bible.
it

For

it

evidently signifies here

and

is

not unlikely that the mediaeval writers

were influenced by Arabic asarra 'he persisted, persevered'.

Instead of

''J?^,

which

is

a biblical reminiscence,

read

D"^.

The two Arabic

lines at the

end of

this

poem have been

l82
slightly

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

misunderstood

former translates ^n

The by Harkavy and Brody. Now in by r^*^ and the latter by sSi.

Arabic hal introduces an open question, so that both renBrody is nearer the right meaning derings are inaccurate.
of the second line, which

Harkavy renders very vaguely.

:

The proper reading, however, is that of Geiger The lines are to be translated dwelled.
: '

bn

he

Ye at the van of knowledge, glory, and high rank, Turn to the rear when Alusa dwelleth in your midst.'
skilfully

The poet has

but

used the two antitheses kdid 'a

leader' and half (tin) 'rear'.

Halla

may

be conditional;
&c.

we may

also render

for Mfisd

dn'clleth,

As

scansion.

these lines stand they agree with neither method of But in few poems do the Arabic lines agree with

the metre.
the copyists

This

is

certainly

due to the

fact that

many

of

knew no Arabic, and paid no

attention to the

scansion of the lines, and hence

many

corruptions arose.
first

These
is

lines,

however, are straightforward, and the

one

more an ordinary Basit, and this makes my scansion should have to alter the In the second line we probable.
to

arrangement of the words

make

it fit

the ordinary Baslt.

insignificant

But

the

following reading

which

involves

changes

may

be suggested to make the lines agree with the

rest of the
?1TJ'^N*1

metre of the

poem

^N^:^N Q^y^N ^-^^^

'h^

N^

^b
The
this

ynsD

'did

cm

^n

singular

ynN2 would

refer to

each one separately.

b.

It

should be noted here that Sa adya

In this

metre as the third Tawll.

Dannan ^^ gives case we have to

which
is

assume that fdnlun became

50

a spondee,

at

first

Meleket ha-Sir. p.

n.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
sight hardly possible.

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

in Tavvll to

183

The Arabs allow

This
is

drop

the

first

short syllable only.

sometimes the case at

the beginning of the

first line

of the poem.

For then the

audience
beat
is

may
it

not notice the omission, and the rhythmic

not thereby disturbed.

is

In the middle of the

line,

however,

inadmissible.

Some

writers

on prosody

record rare exceptions where later poets allow themselves

to drop the short syllable at the beginning of a hemistich
in the

middle of a poem.
intended.

But

think in these cases a

new

poem was

For those who arranged the Diwans

Rosin ^^ follows
170) supports this

sometimes made two separate poems run into one, when

both had the same rhyme and metre.
Sa'adya, and observes that Freytag
rule.
(p.

But Freytag does nothing of the kind.

He

explicitly
is

states that only at the beginning of the hemistich

one

allowed to omit the short syllable.

not be altogether wrong.
in this

However, Sa'adya

may
some

There are a few poems apparently

difficulty, as

metre which have caused some

of the supposed vutstafilnn feet are prefixed by hud mobile.

Brody
one

asserts that this

is

permissible, but
is

have sufficiently

explained above that this view

is

untenable.

At
and
in

first
it

sight

inclined

to resort to emendations,

is

my

opinion

that

if

emendations are

justified

any

field,

mediaeval Hebrew poetry should come

In

in for a large share.

some

cases this

may

be effected with more success.

in

But there are many poems

are present,
it is

which these unnecessary swds

justified.

and no emendations are

Moreover,

remarkable that
in

this peculiarity of

having a superfluous
is

swd seldom occurs

in this

Kamil or Wafir, but

I

usually present

kind of metre.

am

therefore inclined to believe

justification, of

that the

Hebrew poets proceeded, without

5^

Reime und

Gedichte, p. 8.

M
1

84

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

to a spondee, or better course, to reduce the fcxuhin foot The syllable oi fdidun optional. still, to make the first

scansion would then be

___^ !--(.)!
When

w;--M!I

^i_-(^)i ^i

secondary Tawll no short syllable occurred at all this Basit, and this accounts for coincided with the secondary

Sa adya's

opinion.

But since there

I

is

more

justification for
all

reducing failnn to a spondee,

prefer to assign

poems

the BasIt metre. which have no superfluous syllables to syllables occur must Those, however, in which superfluous Ibn secondary Tawll. be re<^arded as belonging to a ^^ metre Gabirol's following poem is in this
:

-"

nxc nnn

r^r^n

n-isi

n^sn

For obvious reasons

(above
p. ijo)

cannot assign the poems

JD?

^^^

'^s'

The

(above p. 178) to this metre. analysis be former, as was shown above, can by proper

and

nW

made

to be a regular Tawll,

and

in the latter

many

of the

emendations are necessitated by the context independently

of scansion.
3.

Kamil, perfect.
Epitritiis tertius repeated

This metre

is

composed of

three times in each hemistich.

For the

first

syllable of

every foot two short ones

may be
For

substituted,
it is

which are
circum-

regarded as equal to a long one, and

stance that
its

from

this

name

is

derived.

it

has more compulsory

exception of long syllables than any other metre with the

5-

Dukes'

ed., p.

40

Sa'ar ha-Sir,

p. 38.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
Wafir, which
is

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

It
is

185

its

companion.
has
could

of very frequent
well-established
it

occurrence
variations.
facility, as

in

Arabic, and

several

Hebrew
the
in

poets

handle

with

great

number of compulsory
a hemistich
therefore no

short syllables does

not

exceed three

containing nine

long
it

syllables,

and

it is

wonder that one meets

very frequently.
confused
it

Jewish writers on prosody, however, have with Rajaz, and Kamil is entirely excluded.
also takes all the
'

Sa'adya

b.

Dannan
and

Hebrew poems

in

Kamil

as Rajaz,

invents

'

new combination which he

at

imagines to be Kamil.^^
standing
is

jj^g reason of this misunder-

not far to seek.

In Arabic the Kamil

is

once
in

recognized by the peculiarity referred to above.

But

Hebrew
cession,

it is

im.possible to

have two moving kvds

in suc-

light

and hence imistafihin and mutafaihm coincide. vowel with its swd mobile, which very likely repre.

sents

But a careful study of Arabic prove beyond doubt that the view to exclude Kamil and make Rajaz occur often is untenable. The
prosody
will

w w was taken as -

latter

metre in Arabic
in

is

mostly of two

feet,

and allows of
on prosody
no doubt the
as saf

so

many variations
it

each foot that

many

writers
It is

deny

the rank of a developed metre.

connecting-link between the

rhymed prose known

later on.

and the metres which were developed

affinity

Its close

with rhymed prose

is

quite evident from the fact

that one and the

and three

feet.

pore poetry.

same poem may have hemistichs of two Altogether it is to be employed for extemWhenever I read a poem in Rajaz I have

the same impression as

outbursts.

when reading

the short Kuranic

illustration of the above remarks will be found later on when Rajaz will be treated of. On the
^^

Ample

See above,

p. 154.

VOL.

IV.

'

l86

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Kamil
all
is

Other hand,

a metre

of

full

dignity,

and

is

favourite with

Arabian poets.

Two

of the Mu'allakat
it.

those

of Labid

and

'Antara are written in

It

is,

therefore, quite impossible that the

Hebrew

poets should

adopt Rajaz. and leave Kamil out. metres of this type which have no equivalent
are well-known forms of Kamil.^
{a)

Furthermore, there are

in

Rajaz, but

Its

normal form

is

Labld's MiCallaka

is in

this

metre

^^
:

ujy-

^-j^jj

'>-aJ^--^

oJ^y

'

it to beseech stood beseeching them, but what avails is their Those deaf and stolid things? not to be fathomed

speech

Moses Ibn Ezra has the following

lines in his Tarsis\''^

"^^'y

iM

^rpsb *nVt
rh)^?;

"^'^^

n;3

T:^y\_

ihb'

This

is

a favourite picture in Arabic love

poems and

panegyrics,

inp obviously represents badr

'

full

moon

'.

Judah ha-Levi has expressed

of the Jewish race in this metre
5*
:

his belief in the immortality

'"'^

See below under

d.

55

LyalK Ten Ancient Arabic Poems,

30.
II,

p. 69,

1.

24.

56 p.
57

Brody,

307.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

187

inoif3
npj;:

i6

nb'bi

DV3 nipn

vytb niniN ijnj on

N^i M3
ab'iv'p

^n-13^

nvnb
-'^
:

Ha-Nagid has the following

'"int^J^n
'n'^isp

lines

nNiJb' nsjjo

\ry ^n^i^ri

n^ix

-i^3b'

may
bn;^}

n-iiynn

nwnn
Itiel

^bn

Al-Harizi

in his

Mahberet
i?yi

says

^9
:

ra^^'v ^3

n;33 Di^B'

Almost every poet of note attempted

the same time, to

this metre.

At
it

make

it

more extensively employed,

was advisable

to elide a short syllable.

The Arabian

poets

often allow the rhyme-bearing foot to consist of three long

syllables.
{b)

This must be the case when a ridf^^

is

required.

Its

form

is

then

Muslim
Zeid
b.

b.

al-Walid has his long panegyric addressed to

in this

Mushm

metre

*^^
:

^^ ^^ ^"

Harkavy's
Chenery's

ed., p. 8.

ed,, p. 12.
p. 166.
1.

See above,

"

DiiLdn, p. 165,

83.

l88

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

'

I I

see calamities from

me do

not depart,
their arrows at
in this

am

their

goal they aim

my
:

heart.'
^^

Ha-Levi has the following poem

metre

nsbno n:3^nn Tf ^<

"ins

nsniK^ ^nyc'^

nv~ ins

Like the majority of

contains

all

other love

poems

this

one

many Arabisms. To
it

begin with, nnb: cannot have

the Bible, for the question

here the signification

has

in

would not be
no need
for

to the point.

When
youth
;

man

is

young there

is

him
is

to long for

it is

just

when he grows

aged that he
are no more.
right sense
su'^res is

that inspired with yearnings for the days

Brody

in his notes

approximately gets the

all its

when he remarks
here.

that youth with

plea-

meant

But the meaning of the line becomes

that nvhl here
is

infinitely clearer

when we know
siba{u),

a trans-

lation of

which denotes 'youth' as well as The question then becomes 'ardour of youthly love'. your lock grew forceful Do you long for youthly love after
Arabic
:

grey

?
it

what

nsbnn also has a slightly different meaning from 'forelock', and has in the Bible. It means here

represents

Arabic dudbat{nn).

One

often

comes across

such an expression 2L^8amila-l-inasibii-d-dawaiba'\iOZXVCiQ,ss

covered the forelocks
'.

In Dukes' edition of Ibn Gabirol's

62

Diwan

(p. 20)

there

Brody's ed

I,

p. 129.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
is

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

full

189

a contemplative
this metre,

poem

of sublime reflections
its

which

is in

but owing to

deplorably corrupt state

there are

many

obscure passages which require radical

fit

changes in order to yield a suitable meaning and

metre.
S.

the

D. Luzzatto and Senior Sachs

difficulties,

^'^

have made

attempts to explain some of the

mittedly
left

but have ad-

a great deal to be desired.

in his treatise

Geiger has a free

translation,

and some notes

of the

on Ibn Gabirol.^*

My conception

poem

differs

fundamentally from that

of these scholars:

Even

in these four hemistichs

some

slight

changes are
it

necessary.

Dukes has

^hx,

and Luzzatto has emended

to \?;x drops.

Senior Sachs in Ozar

Hokmah

^^

reads l^N

but withdrew his suggestion in Ha-Zophe Le-Ha-Maggid,^^

because he found
V^N*

in a

book of a mediaeval grammarian that

This, of

here

is

to be understood in the sense of 'hb.

course,

makes no

difference in regard to the sense.

if,

As
'f'^N.

Ibn Gabirol certainly wanted to say

1^

is

better than

For no one would attach any weight to the reading of the manuscript used by Dukes. Instead of ^intDnnn^ and IJ??^
(line 2 a)

Dukes has

inonDni and

lyj:).

The poet

declares that he does not

weep now.

His

tears tarry, because

3

they are weary of flowing, and seeing

me
with a
list

Professor Israel Davidson kindly supplied

of places

where some of Ibn Gabirol's poems were published. The poem in question was commented upon in Ha-Maggzd, III, pp. 146, 150 Ha-Zophe le-HaMaggJd, VI, pp. 253, 276; Ozar Hokmah, II, p. 35.
;

pp. 45, 122.

Co

ii_ p^

3__

66

VI, p. 276.

190

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Had he {lit. flee). a sigh which follows them they retreat tears, and wept his cheeks would have been saturated with
metaphor would have produced sprouts. This exaggerating occurs in Muslim b. al-Wahd's Diwan
'^^
:

upon my cheek from weeping

Luxuriant upon

grass did

grow

my

liver

was

love's bough.'

The

poet's silence, however,

is

must not be taken

is

for

a sign that his grief

abated, or that he

unable to weep.
in

He

goes on to describe a night which he spent

^OTH
5|n^S

weeping:

^W?

'?'y

^"i??

^'.'?

V3Di3 HTJOi?

-|^2'^3

This,

think,

is

the right reading instead of

is
:

mn^y

T^c^a.
eyes

The meaning accordingly

The night in ivhich

my

at a standstill shed tears zvas such as if the stars were (or waiting took silence) like a hireling of standing (lit.
;

cp.
is

Arabic wakafa).

The

description of a sleepless night

a great favourite with

Arabian kasida writers who wish

audience to attract the attention of the

grief.

by recounting
shall

their

The

poet usually complains that the night appeared

to be everlasting.

When

treating of Wafir

quote

one or two passages

which

illustrating this figure of speech.

refers to Vh,

The
Dukes

pronominal suffix of V331D

thinks, to "ry,
is

and

not, as

feminine plural.

The

poet's thoughts

now
nnsio

turn to describe the stars:

iron: ^^IQC ^^

w-r inns n^Dri "qpo

CT

No.

64, p. 218,

1.

3.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

1rDI^^

I91

The
that
it

printed edition has

and Dukes rightly remarks

1D?-|\

should be changed into

prefixed
!0

On

account of the

metre

to nnx.

This is a very difficult verse, and many emendations were suggested, none of which can claim any degree of
probability.
right.

The MS.

vocalizes

Vpn

which,
is

think,

is
is

The last word

of this verse in the text

to
^nj^.

inp^

which

against the metre,

and was emended

Now
fj?

this
.
.

word
,

hardly gives any sense.

is

Luzzatto's reading

yj^ri

ingenious, but does not suit the context.

inb.

therefore
is

suggest the reading

biblical,

It

is

true that the verb

ini^.cs

not

but the same objection applies to

||,

jt

seems
is

to

me

that

which

in

the Bible means a pedestal,

used

here for the peg of the tent.

The

poet thus describes the

departure of his friends.

The
was

verse should be translated

My heart greiv
was
zvhile

sick

(lit.

dislocated) ivhen the pedestal

raised, (out of grief) lest they be destroyed^

and

in

my clothes grezv
to cease,
''3

wet.
:

This translation

is

strengthened

by the following

line

Had

not the mornhig star

made

my

grief

my

neighbotirs zuoidd have

swwn

in tears.

In this

line

is

to

be deleted as dittography.

The

following four lines form a digression of a contemplative

character

which
is

is

quite

usual

in
all

any Arabic kaslda.

emendations are quite
is
:

The

sense

straightforward, and

unnecessary, except that in line 9 a ni|

of ny on account of the metre.

to be read instead

Line 10

^*

For 7 can only be dropped when

it

has a swd.

192

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the line
of

should be compared with

Hisam

b.

'Ukba

al-Adawi

^^
:

'

The death
he
left
;

of

him whose deeds were noble was announced

No

peer

the tidings wellnigh caused the mountains to

be

cleft.'

Line

1 1

contains an Arabism, and hence was misunderin^;-!

stood by the above-mentioned scholars,

represents

Arabic kaia/a which means besides 'he killed', (i) 'he he tempered wine with (2) inspired with vehement love
' '

water

'.

The

purport of the line then

is

t/iey

killed their lover

or beloved (by inspiring

him with
(lit.

love) zvith a goblet into

which they poured wine

'Aner,
that
is i.e.

the blood of the brother of

Eskol, a cluster of grapes) which

was

not killed;

to say, was not

mixed with water.

He

goes on:

Then

they breathed into

him

(or better read me) the spirit

of God, and fanned the flame of of perfnme.

my
a

heart with the scent

description

This

is,

of

course,
p. 177.

of his

vehement

love.

See above,

But

in

the

midst
evil,

of his intoxicating ecstasy the poet's heart forebodes

and he

feels that all is vanity.

He

asks

inn ^D^i

p;j'n

^pt^'n

^\^
to iNm'.

Luzzatto unnecessarily emends

then explains the cause of his
'''

1J<>'9

The poet

grief,

and says: For lovers

Hamdsa,

p.

369.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
zvhcn seeing

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

193

men

(i.e.

openly) laugh, but in their tent they

weep and cry

bitterly.

The

unintelligible D^pxai
is

is

obviously

a misprint for D^nNn^

is

This foot

-^ -

v.

^,

and there
rules

no need

to

say that the poet violated the

of

grammar.
Another contemplative poem by Ibn Gabirol
metre
is

in

this

the following

""

nbxity

Dyn

'^^^i

nn^n

'Av? n??i

[nriy] 6yN: tj^n

On
by the
famous

reading this
fact
lines
:

poem one cannot help being

underlying
idea
is

struck

that
'^^

the

Imru'-l-Keis's

J^J'^-0

>>Ss^

ij''^'

l-^iXjo

^_5JLi.*l

Jj^l
I

Jl^*^J1

djAJ Ajj
sufficed

'

Little

wealth which

seek

not would have

lower plane
highest glory,

me,

Had my

search been in

life's
is

But the object of

my

quest

And my
The

like high glory will attain.'

line
is

idea of the second

to

be found

in

the

continuation of Ibn Gabirol's poem, line 17:

^^y-

W'^\
ii^^n

^^HN
^y

-ii^n

^y
c:?d3

nbpin
'"

-y^i^^

Dukes'

ed., p. 37.

7i

Al-FakhrT, ed. Derenbourg, p. 52.

194

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

In line 6 b read rib;ri2 nriE3.

In line 8 a read nnnis instead of nnniD. sense, and does Instead of liy^ (line 9 b) which gives no
lyi.'^ not scan, read some such word as metre. In line 11 a 'Or^'^^ gives no sense and no
!iB>n_''.

Read

"212]

''nb

Siobi

nioK

Line

12 a

is

and perhaps the

instead of

obscure, but the metre will be restored, removed, if we read nnonj^n

difficulty

nmsn, and m'\^ instead

of V^sn^.

wonder
p. 17 5-

whether

^D^^ does not

mean

here
:

l?ody.

Cp. above,
does

The meaning would then be

//

s/ie

not make me

master of her body, the earth HOTS would accordingly be used

as
is

zvill

not destroy

my

love.

in

two
is

different senses,

usually the case

line.

when a word

repeated twice in

the same
simple.

The

following line would then be quite

is

The

poet complains that he

not appreciated,
is

and the

loftiness

which

his soul
is

attained
(I

unknown
^K^??,
is is

to

the outer world.

as object)

His soul

despised

take

line 7 a,

anxious to
question.

by one whose good What is meant by acquire.

Instead of np^
(line

opinion he
she

especially

an open
certainly
;

15 b)

we should

read

r\y;.,

which

is

more idiomatic and

restores the metre

in the second hemistich nn^i (line 16 a) should be ni^i, and be ncN, which gives no sense and does not scan, should

changed into

v-l9^5.
'^

Al-Harizi has the following satire:

yij-iD

nx>-9

^nb

^3

ny

y33|?
72

^bnn

nhnan
""

in

See. however, Geiger, p. 131.

Tahkemonl.

p. 171.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

I95

The Arabian
their

poets in their satires {hija) often accuse

is

enemies of niggardliness, which

BithKjm) or hi'm{im)
'

considered as the
'

greatest vice.

'

meanness
',
'

is
'.

usually
It
is

the contrary of kirdma{tnn)

nobility

liberality

with them a favourite idea to say that

if

baseness or greed
like
'*
:

assumed human form,

it

would look

their

enemy.

Hassan

b.

Thabit

in satirizing

Jidam says

Seest thou not that meanness, treachery, and guilt

From Mu'ein

to

'Ard their

habitation

built.'

On

rare occasions the

Hebrew poets allowed

stammering
'ay
:

the short

syllable to be elided in the last foot of both hemistichs.

Ha-Nagid's famous
liarity
'^^
:

'

girl

'

has this pecu-

njs njNi 3^y ' TT T T

:

n>{<

njinb^ liT^

id

-itsDjp

nay

nja^n li^rp nD3 nby:

in
and
explained

This

poem

has

been

translated

by
last-

Kaempf, Geiger, Egers, and named got hold of the right

Lagarde."''
sense.

Only the

The

other scholars

attempted to read into these humoristic lines some ideas and allusions which are alien to them. I should, however,
like to

add a few remarks.

The

last

line

has not been

characteristic

adequately explained.

Lagarde, with

his

contempt
'^ 's

for

anything Jewish, dismisses

1.

this line with the

Diwdn,

ed. Hirschfeld, p. 82, no. 190,

III, pp.

i.

"

^^'ar ha-^tr,

p. 33.

See Mittheihmgen,

28

fl'.,

where

all

translations are quoted.

196

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

'^'
: '

remark

Schiverlich ilbersetze ich n:iD der Deiitiing dieses

" Dichters "

gemdss: But

it

seems
'

to

me that

n:iD in line 5 a

represents the Arabic root saga

venient'.

was good, pleasant, consTird

Thus when the

girl

wanted to say

('be

gone'), she said sugd, which

made

the poet think of the

Arabic word, and hence he hastened to her who was For if njiD should have the same fenced in like a lily
'

'.

both hemistichs, there could be no reason why The joke must the writer should have hastened to her. have suggested itself to ha-Nagid when he heard a foreigner

meaning

in

talk Arabic.

Gain and Ra are often confused by Europeans. The French r sounds like the Arabic Gain, and Arabs tell

many an anecdote
{c)

similar to ha-Nagid's.
this

Another kind of
foot

metre consists

in

having the

third

of both

hemistichs reduced to a spondee or

b.

anapaest.

Hassan
,

Thabit has a few kasTdas

,

in

this

metre

"^
:

,,

os -

'

swore your discourse never to forget

thirsts thinks of the taste of wine.'

As he who

In this form the

in

Hebrew poets had

and
it is

still

greater facility

forming their

lines,

frequently met with.

lines to a friend ^"4?^
"^
:

Ha-Levi addressed the following

riD^V'?
'^5'^''^

"'^'^^

nD"'3ri

mi

dxi

ni?'^

"

op.

cit,

p. 33.

'^^

Dlwan,

p. ii, no. 8,

1.

25.

"

Brody,

I,

181.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
Al-Harizi
in his "Ajidk
jba'B'

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

has the following epigram
njn n>'^
T]-;>'v
:

197

so

hvii -t?iy

Dinsi

n^i^i ^Nia

Dv T-Q
It

Ni?i

^'b

ni^^Dnns

should be observed that nni2nn in the

is

last line

has

meaning which
It

not quite identical with that of the

vicissitudes,

Bible.

does not denote perversities, but

for

and stands

Arabic

siirufijin)

'

vicissitudes,
'

turnings

',

which occurs often followed by dahr time

',

Ha-Nagid has

a long

poem

in this

metre

^^

nby

ii^^x

Dny

r\^^ jj^nn

^y: N^i n^j nhi

p^n

as Sari*.

This mode of Kamil has been given by Jewish writers There is no real objection to this explanation,
it

and

is

hard to say which metre the poet had

in

mind,

since the contracted Sarf

{d)

would have the same appearance.

as the shorter Kamil,
is

What

is

known

a metre

consisting of four feet instead of six in each line.

The

rhyme-bearing hemistich has an extra long syllable added

to
it.

The
'.

last

foot
is
:

is

then said to be umraffal

'

having

a train

Its

form

The
80
*2

<j

b.

following lines are attributed to Sureih

ed., no. 222.
p. 4.
si

'Imran:^^

Brody's

Harkavy's

ed, p. 20.

Noldeke, Delectus,

198

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Let noble people be your friends

When you
Drink from

sought not their love in vain,

their cup,

and do not
it

fear,

Though deadly poison

contain.'
^"^
:

Ha-Levi has the following poem

nnyn
Dnny

in
bir?

^l^

Qi^?'
^'^^^^

'^

m3K

nriDtp fipX3 T]3

Dnnp
^^

nnarp

fi3

"'n^i

Brody
For a
p. 320.

classes this

metre among the iinbestimmte

fifth

probable kind of this metre, see below,

4,

Wafir, ample.
Its

This metre
feet are built

may

be called a companion to Kamil.

on the same principle, that is a short one. The order must have three long syllables and It is the EpitriUcs is different. of the syllables, however,
(

to say, they

pyi.nus

-),

may

be substituted.
is

short ones but for the third syllable two hemistich is composed of such

three feet, and

Its form
is

always catalectic.

_-w|-^--l- -^11--^
s^

Brodysed,II,p.i59.

../., F- 49 d.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL HEBREW

POETRY HALPER

199

The Arabian poets employed it very frequently, and their Hebrew followers have a special predilection for
it.

Obviously the

fact that the short syllable

it

is

to be at the

beginning of the foot makes

poet.

an easy task for the Hebrew

)

For

letters of

it is usually possible to add D"b3 whenever a .km mobile is

or one of the
required.

The
and
it

greater bulk of ha-Nagid's

is

poems are

in this metre,

quite a favourite with most poets.

Brody and Rosin,

metre Hazaj.'

however, exclude Wafir entirely, and

call this

They
is

follow Sa'adya

b.

Dannan
it

in this respect.

Kaempf

the only one

who

considers

possible to call this metre

Wafir, but even he seems to be undecided.

of the Hazaj

A
it

comparison
certain that
is

and Wafir

in

Arabic

will

make now
their

the

Hebrew metre with which we

are

dealing

the

latter.
feet.

To

begin with, the Hazaj never occurs with six

with

The Arab grammarians

in

harmonizing

may be allowed, but in practice only four should be employed.

But no mention
catalectic, a
is

tendency have suggested that

theory six feet

made
in

of this
it

imaginary form
in

being

form which

always assumes
is

Hebrew.

Moreover, the Hazaj

any form
it

so rare in Arabic that

many Diwans do
ought to be

not contain

at

all,

and

this fact in itself

sufficient

to reject
it

the hypothesis that the

Hebrew

poets employed
is

exceedingly frequently.
is

On

the other hand Wafir

catalectic, as in

composed of six feet, and Hebrew. It is one of the most

always

dignified

metres in Arabic, and

Hebrew

poets were right in intro-

ducing

it

into their language.

Here

again, as

the case
its

of Kamil, in

many

instances a light vowel with

kvd

mobile will be regarded as two short syllables.

200

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW 'Amr

b.

Kulthum's Muallaka

is

in this

metre

^^
:

'

Thou who

art departing, stand awhile

in

and wait

We'll converse

truth before

we

separate.'

The famous poem

of

Joseph

b.

Hasdai

is

in this

metre: ^'^

Goldziher in his brilliant article

in

JQR-, XIV,

734,

of herding has sufficiently explained this figure of speech

the stars.

He
some
I
:*'

quotes,

among

others, a

poem by Hassan

b.

Thabit's

sister, in

which she describes her

inability to sleep

owing

to

grief.

But Hassan

b.

Thabit himself has a

illustrate this

poem

which,

think, will

most appropriately

metaphor

iCl

"i

jy jZX\\

JjLks

85
87

Lyall, p.

no,

].

9.

^^

Sa'ar ha-Sir,

p. 27.

Dtwan,

p. 27.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
'While
at

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

20I

Hamman my

night seemed long without an end,

As though
Till then

the foremost stars to set did not intend

I
!

Until they disappeared

tended heaven's hordes;

no sleep

for

me

as though they were my wards

was
vanishing: from sio-ht
last star of

And when

star after star

vigil

My eye
It

kept

on the

the night.'

should be added that

tJie flock

nid

in

Arabic has the meaning

in

of tending
general.
literally

(as in

Hebrew) as well as watchijig

The
in

expression rad-n-mijuina has been taken

by Lane.

Other scholars take

stars
is,

it

as a figure of

speech

which the

are

represented as sheep.^^
is

Whatever the explanation

the meaning
this

quite clear.

metaphor that a contemporary of Harun al-RasId (Muslim b. al-Walld)

says
^"^
:

The Arabs were

so familiar with

^~r^^_y
'

t^^-i"-^

\J^y*^

^;;l-*JJ

If

my

feelings

were like yours

should not spend the night

stars.'

companion of sadness, comrade to the

Ha-Nagid has the following poem

^^
:

n>5na isnn ib'xd tvo^i

nyijo ^NK'n ib'xo

b''d3i

Line

of this

poem

requires explanation.

It is

Brody

in his notes to ha-Levi's

Dlwan

(I, p.

164) quotes
this

numerous passages from other poets who made use of

**
^''

See Noldeke,

Delectus, p. 94, note to lines 2, 3.

1.

Dlwdn,

p. 148,

6.

so

Brody's ed.,

p. 108.

VOL.

IV.

202
expression.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

But the explanation remains incomplete till we know the purport of this metaphor in Arabic, whence it was directly borrowed. As is well known, it is the custom
in the Orient to insert stibium into the eyes.

When

a person

spends the night without sleep he

night's stibium, that
is

is

said to have inserted

to say, the blackness of the night,

^^

into his

eyes.

Both the Lisan al-'Arab

and Taj

al-

'Arus^^ attribute the following statement to

1j-^'1

Abu 'Amr:

S^\

S'^-'.

u'-^-^

^^

3^

'^i'^

^-^ j~^' ^^y-^ ^^^~

// is said of a

man

^vho spends the night zi'ithont sleep,

travelling or zvorking, he
is to say,

made

the night his stibium, that

he ivatehes,

and pnts

the blackness of night into his

eyes like stibium.

Ibn Gabirol also has

many poems

in this

metre

:^^

In Dukes' edition the metre

is

in

some

places corrupt,
I

and Egers
in
V'ln'!

^*

has restored the text.

is

In line 12 b

recognize

an Arabism which
poetry.

very frequent in mediaeval

is

Hebrew

Whether Hebrew T[
is

to

be connected

with Arabic dtirra{tnn)

philologists are not

a matter open to dispute,

this point.

and

unanimous on
'^'^.

But

it is

quite

certain that in the Bible

denotes a kind of stone, whereas

here

it

obviously means a pearl

IV,
p. 75.

=
'' **

Arabic durra{tnu).
II' P-

Ibn

81

312-

Dukes'

ed., p. 22,

Ziinz, Jubdschrift, p. 197.

SCANSION OF iMEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

203

Gabirol's line reminds us of Al-Hariri's grammatical treatise

d2u-ratu-l-(jaivivds
'

the Pearl of the Diver

'.

Line

o,"]

has been misunderstood by Egers,

who was

therefore driven to

emend

it

violently

Dukes has
20. 41 in

rightly pointed out that the poet has

i
:

Kings

mind.

We

should accordingly translate

I shall

remove the coverings from

eyes
line
I

my

heart's

(i.e.

perhaps, mind's)

when

night's covering is sjtspended.

See the preceding

and Goldziher's explanation of it in 7QR., XIV, 720. have rendered "12> by covering in accordance with the
It
is,

opinion of the best authorities.

however, likely that

"13S* ashes. Should view be right we should have here the metaphor of b^b T]B which was explained above. similar expression occurs

Ibn Gabirol took

it

to be identical with

this

in the

Dlwan

of Muslim b. al-Walld

'

He was communing
The ashy

with the stars until

night deprived his eyes of sleep.'

Egers suggests the following reading

After

my

explanation of the text there

is

no need to

comment on

this emendation.

fi

Dizvau,

p. 59,

1.

3.

P 3

204

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Ha-Levi has the following poem
i'^*'

p.

Here nny: probably represents Arabic ;z'^(;/) (see above, i88). About n^vbp (line 14 a) it should be remarked that
^y!"P

althouo-h nrsDH
of
it
'

occurs

in

Mishnic Hebrew

in the sense

sails

',

it

is

doubtful whether ha-Levi would have used

in that

signification

without ny^D, had he not been

influenced

by Arabic

kir2c{n).

Moses Ibn Ezra

in his

Tarsls has the following lines

^'^
:

flDD^i

vbs nxr? rb2 nn>

is

The

'

quarreller

'

here
in

'ddilyiin)

'

reviler

',

who

plays
air

such an important part

Arabic love poems.

b.

For na3

compare the

line of

Simma

'Abdullah

^^
:

^ii ^
LcJwaJ'
'

^ir^Q js'35
^J-^

jjl

i-^-i-a-

\S-^<r.si LS

When
I

I recall

the days which at

liver, fearing it

Hima
rent.'

spent

turn unto

my

be

Al-Harizi

in his

Tahkemonl has the following epigram

nnn-i pC'''? nn???
'^J'??^

^^
:

T t:

v:

tt

't

D"'">iN^

I'^aPl

l!?'?^

ti'33

"^^

<:

Harkavy's

ed., I, p. 28.

"
^

P- 61.

88

Hamasa,

p.

540

Delectus, p. 16.

186.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

205

Goldziher in his article referred to above

plained the figure of speech in which a liberal

^^^

fully exis

man

com-

pared to the rain and

rivers.

It

should be added that in

signify liberality.
'

Arabic almost

all

words denoting moisture

'

One need only mention jdda was

'

kind, liberal

',

rained

abundantly'; nada{fi) 'moisture', 'liberality'; gainr{im)

deep

',

'

copious rain

',

'

liberal,

generous

',

especially in the

expression
=i3t^

/(^;w7/-/-//?//X'/.

in line 3 a is
'

an Arabism.
'.

It

corresponds to Arabic

sdra

he returned, became
l^n

Biblical
this

Hebrew would have

required

followed

by
5.

b,

and

would have disturbed

the metre.
Hafif,
lig/it.

This

is

miistaf^ilun

compound metre composed in the following way

101
:

of faildtun and

Keis

b.

Darih says

'

spent the night with care as the companion of

since

my
I

bed,
shed.'

And

you from

my side departed copious

poem
:

tears

Ha-Nagid has

the following

^^^

loo

JOR., XIV,

724.

101

Noldeke, Delectus,

p. 6.

"2 Harkavy's ed.,

p. 7,

2o6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Ha-Levi's

poem which Brody quotes

nnzi
'J^^il^

^''"

should be thus

vocalized

^^1^^

I-*

T T

':

Al-Harizi in his Mahberet Itiel has this

'?

poem

^^^
:

nyn niDn nby^

"55X1:^

n^nx

nhD3

ni^yo "^bn

Tib

nnrri p^t<3 nionb nn-iy ^2

The metre and rhyme

unsuccessfully.

of the original

is

imitated not
of Chenery's
sense.

In line

emended mnx

edition into n|nN on account of the

rhyme and

Moses Ibn Ezra

also has a few lines in this

metre

i^"^

n;NO

T]niNn ^^33 n^njn

Here

also

^2^

Arabic

sdi-a.

See above,

p. 205.

Abraham Ibn Ezra

has the following line

^^^
:

103
i5

Metra,

p. 39.

"*
"*=

p. 87.

Tarsjs, p. 21.

Egers's ed., p.

6.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER

207

6.
(a)
is

Sari',

szi'iff.

This metre, which occurs now and again

feet of

in

Arabic,
its

composed of two
normal form
I

the mustafilun kind with

incidental variations, followed

Its
is

by -

->

in

each hemistich.

W \^ "^ \U w|j \^

|-

^
:

^17

y_)

Abu-l-'Atahiya has the following

0J

line
-J

^^

-^ -o

JJ,*

L^.ll &riJ^
'

5^^j

'r-o^

man

resolves to act, but fate

All his intentions will frustrate.'

It
is

not

frequent

in

Hebrew, but ha-Levi has the

^^
:

following lines in this metre

Al-Harizi

in his

Mahberet

Itiel

has this

poem

^"^'^
:

3'yy: in^iN D3

vnniN

n?3

"rtwS

(line 2 a)

stands for Arabic aha, which

is

often used

in

the sense of possessor.

This usage occurs quite frequently

phrase
"IDID *nN.

in this literature, especially in the

{b)

The Arabs
Dlwdn, Beyrout
p. 60.

allow sometimes, for reasons which were

ed., p. 4.
^"^

1^ 1"^

Harkav3''s ed., p. 60.

'

208

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

explained abov^e,^^ the rhyme-bearing foot to be reduced

to a spondee.

The

forn:i

of the metre

is

then

Abu-l-'Atahiya says

^^^
:

'

He who And lo
in

seeks glory shall remain in

it

man's glory
Itiel

is

his piety.'
^^:

Al-Harizi

Mahberet

says

For another possible

variation of Sarf see above, p. 197.

7.

IMatakarib, tripping,

(a)

This

is

a simple metre composed oifdfdiin repeated

Its

four times in each hemistich.

normal form

is

Muslim

b.

al-Walid has this

line

^^^
:

'

My
I

friends, I see in love

no cause

for

shame,

cast off all restraint, withhold your

" See above,
1^-

blame

p. i66.

"^ D'livan, p. 12.

^'^

p. 60.

Diwdn,

p. 151.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL HEBREW POETRY

HALPER
^^'^
:

209

Ha-Levi has

this

poem composed on

a wedding

n^piNri bras .T3>' ^cNnJ)

The Hebrew poets

rhyming with each
ha-Levi's
following

in

employing

this

metre were fond

of dividing the hemistichs into two equal parts, usually

other.

Instances

may

be found

in

Dlwan (Brody's edition, poem by al-Harizi: ^^^

II, p. 184),

and

in the

D-'ipini

D-'aiii?

on'-Dni-i

bsi

As
first

in the case of Tawll, the

first line
^^*^
:

Arabian poets allow the

to be omitted.

short syllable of the

Al-Hutei'a has this

poem
iilxc

-J-Jl

^js

^j.A

^_^1

'

Ibn Kurt gave munificent

gifts

On
:^^^

the morning

we met

at Suleim.'
this

Moses Ibn Ezra made use of

verse

privilege in this

vnon

pbm nnDn

pbn

i-i^ip

n^^> nniyn n: nyi

115

'" Brody's ed., II, p. 14. "s Dlwdn, ed. Goldziher,

Tahkemom,
jfl^-i^j^^ p.

p. 15.

p. i8i.

"^

25.

2IO
[b)

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Very
often this metre
is

catalectic, especially in the

rhymeless hemistich. The ridp^^ usually causes the second

hemistich to remain acatalectic.
^^^
:

Hassan Ibn Thabit

glorifies his clan in this

metre

'

We

inherited their dwelling-places

After them, and ceased not to be masters.'

In

Hebrew
'^-^
:

this

metre

is

rare.
,

Ha-Levi has

also this

variation

8.

Ramal, ntnning.

{a)

This metre consists of the foot faildtim repeated

It is

three times in each hemistich.

its

usually catalectic,

and

normal form

is

Abu-l-'Atahiya has

this line
o

^-^
:

'Whoever
Will die
;

lives

grows

old,

and he whose hair

is

hoary

and

fate cares not

whom
God
""T

it is

overtaking.'

Ha-Levi expressed
'"iPDP

his trust in

in this
^>*

metre

^^^
:

'^
i3

''0^

'f

^^

npnn
"8 See above, p. i66.
121 ^^^

npxi

D'')2n3

Dx
"<>

Dlzvan, p. 12,

I.

20.

Harkavy,
II, p.

II,

p. 5.

Diudti,

p. 39.

122

Harkavy,

147-

'

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY
this line
^^^
:

HALPER

211

Abraham

Ibii

Ezra has

nyyhr.x n^i noa nnscrx

{b)

Sometimes
then

this

metre

is

of

two

feet in

each hemistich,

and

is

Abu-l-'Atahiya says

^-^
:

slave,

how

long will you barter rectitude for error

in this

Ha-Levi has a piyyut

metre

i^^-*

Abraham Ibn Ezra

Tj-'nVPy'

has this prayer

ybt'b

^-^
:

JIN

^x

p?:^

^ri-iu:

\s;

9.

Munsarih,_/f<?zt'/;/^.

This
Its

is

compound metre
is

closely resembling Baslt.

normal form

Muslim

b.

al-Walid says

127

'

My

sleep has fled,

my

eye kept on inviting

it,

Out of anxiety, but

123

sleeplessness did visit me.'

p. 86.
I.

Egers's ed., p.

i.

12*

Drudn,

10.
'2t

12^

Harkavy,

II, p. 5.
1.

126

Egers's ed., p. 50.

D'ncdn, p. 218,

4.

212

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in

This metre hardly ever occurs ^-* however, has a few poems in it
:

Hebrew.

Ha-Levi,

Brody, who classes this metre among the

thinks
b.
it

iinbcstiinvite,

possible that ha-Levi

gives Munsarih
in

was

its

'

inventor '.^-^

Sa adya

Dannan

as one of the four metres which

do not exist

Hebrew.^"
'
:

At

the end follows the contra-

dictory remark
literature.'

I saw some poems in this metre in our However, Sa'adya's Munsarih does not agree

with that employed by the Arabs.

10.

Hazaj, trilling.

This metre
hemistich.
Its

is

antispastic,

and consists of two

is

feet in

each

normal form

w
Al-Find says
^"^
:

'

There may be safety

succour.'

in evil,

when doing good

brings no

In

Hebrew

this

metre
:

is

not rarely met with.

Ha-Nagid

has the following dirge

^2-

Brody
n^b^jjE

in his

notes to ha-Xagid's Dlivdn remarks that

denotes device.

But such a

signification

is

unwar-

ranted.
128 130

It is likely that n>b^b? represents

p. 57.
^^i
'-''

Arabic kada{un),
c.
i.

Harkavy,

I,

Metra, p. 48
^^-

Meleket ha-Str, p. 17.

Haiiidsa, p. ir.

Brodj''s ed., p.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
which means
translate
:

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

213

decision, mastery, poiver.

We

should therefore

Is there any poiver against death ?

Ibn Gabirol has a love

metre
*"'
:

poem

in

a light vein in this

This

is

the ordinary description

this

one meets
is

in

most

poems of
Line
7

type

in

which the poet's hope

realized.

is

almost a

literal translation

of Muslim

b.

al-Walld's line -P^

'

The eyes

\\ere closed

{lit.

quiet)

and every watchman

has these lines
^-^-^
:

slept.'

Moses Ibn Ezra

in his Tarsls

sjis

nyo3 ioyp

-i;j'n

The

expression

D^.| ri3

as
b.

a designation for wine

is

frequent in Arabic.

Muslim
(yA^^

al-Walid says

^^^^
:

A^Lo
*

'^^-^ rr! ij4-^J

Pure wine from the daughters of the vineyard.'

lines

Ha- Levi has the following

addressed to a friend

^"'
:

r^r,iNi c'-qpn

li^o

122

Dukes'
p- 34-

ed., p. 55.
'^"^

'34

Damn,

p. 149, no. 23,

1.

1.

26
a.

b.

^^

Dliidn,

p. 178, no. 32,

19

'" Brody's

ed.,

I,

p. 38.

214

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

II.

'Slujts.tt,

co7JiJ)n^aUd.
in

This metre does not occur

poets,

the Duvans of the earlier

in-

and some scholars are of opinion that al-Halil

it.

vented

It is

compound metre
form
is

consisting of Mitstafihin

d^ndfaildtmi.

Its

The

following line

is

quoted

in

al-Fakhri

^"^^
:

'

Go and

tell

the Caliph

be not rash,

Something which you

like not

comes

to you.'

Hebrew

poets
this

employed
epigram
:

this

metre now and again.

Ha-Xagid has

^"^

2"'ir'?:?

2")?1

^^'^'V^

"^C^r" ^^""'P^

'''^V^

Ibn Gabirol's famous poem, written

Saragossa,
is

on

his

leaving

in this

metre

'^^'^
:

There are
should be

in

the printed edition a k\v corruptions which

In line 2 a read
''^V\

rectified.

'^njj.

''JN*

(in line

13 b)

should be changed perhaps to

(cp. Ps. 25. 16) or ^T'p?.

Instead of i^X3 (line 17 a) read ixb.

instead of
Dn-iJlS,

Read
It

Dn3]K (line 28 a)

Line 31

is

corrupt.
,

should perhaps

be read

^38

Derenbourg's i Dukes, p. I.

ed.. p. 64,

^^-

Harkavy.

p. 128.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
10^-l:>^

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

\^^'b).

215
of

(line
^ri^'

3s
in

a)

should be

In line 35 b transfer

'\^'r2m

to

accordance with Hebrew idiom and metre.

^Jii")

Insert
V.3,

nx before

(line

37

b).

In line 42 insert

'b

before
^bj?.

and na after
liy (line

nn?^.

Instead of bv (line 43) read

Change

44

a) into nnj?.

Delete 3 of niV03

(line 50b).

Al-Harizi has in his

OS?)
^1'??1

Tahkemdm
^""^a

the following lines :^"

^yoT ^y^'s an py

The
line
^^^
:

following

poem by ha-Levi

is

interesting, as

it

shows

the optional use of the long syllable at the beginning of the

^333

n^yf)

n>M

riN

n^h >3nN

pjp^

12.
(a)

Madid, extended,
built

This metre

is

on the same principle as Tawll

It is

and

Basit, but occurs very rarely.

compound, and
alternately.
Its

consists oifaildtiin,

and faihin occurring

is

form when of four

feet

Wv^ \^>^

v^^
^"^^

woman

bewailing the death of her son says

CiLL*

(Llc

sj.^^ if-Lw (c-J^

ioIJ

(SUA-)

IjLuJJ

cj^^

(_5

e^.l

Would

that

my

heart controlled

its

grief;

would

in

your

stead

My

soul as victim to relentless fate were led.'

'"
^^^

P- 51.

i Harkavy,
p. 415.

I,

p. 56.

Hamdsa,

2l6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Hebrew
is

poets had

little

reason to employ this metre;

it

it

hard to wield, and since

it

was not popular with the

Ha-Levi has
for a IMadld.

masters,

had no attraction

for the followers.

the following piyyut,^^"^ which

may

be taken

Faihin, as

is

sometimes the case with Basit, was reduced to

a spondee, and the metre then became

wC;
I

^^^^

^^i

^^
i

(/;)

More

frequently this metre

is

of three

feet.

It is

then

WW

WW

W^J WW,
line
^^'^
:

Abu-l-'Atahiya has the following

'

Lo, you are dwelling in

fate's vale,
it

When
Abraham Ibn
for rare metres,

death strikes you,

will

not

fail.'

Ezra,

who seems

to have a special fondness

^^^
:

has the following piyyut

Ha-Levi"s following

poem seems

to be in this

metre.^'*'^
is

The concluding
independent.

line

of each

strophe, however,

quite

1" Brody,
1*6

III, p. 13.
p. 20.

"^ DTudn, "" Brody's ed.,

p. 28,
II, p.

1.

9.

Egers's ed.,

320.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER 217

Modern Jewish
this

writers

on prosody make no mention of

metre

in either form.

Even

Rosin,!'*^

who

is

supposed

to give an exhaustive account of Ibn Ezra's metres,

makes

no allusion to

Sa adya b. Dannan, however, after enumerating twelve metres which Hebrew poets employed,
this one.

gives four

more which, he

asserts, are
is

only to be found in
four,

Arabic poetry.i^^
accurate.
It is

Madid

one of the
is

and
:

is

quite

the second kind, and

as follows

^^o

After this follows the statement

I have

seen very fezu

poems

in this metre in Hebreiv.

This

flatly contradicts

the

assertion of the preceding page,

and can hardly be

right.

Perhaps he meant to say in Arabic.

13.

Mutadarik, continuous, or Mutadarak, supplied.

is

This metre

rare in Arabic.

Its

normal form

is

-^C7|-^u|-w;:;|-wo'[-v^o[-^^u[-c/o|-v.^C7
In

Hebrew it

is

certainly rarer than in Arabic.

Kaempf ^^^

quotes the following line by Ibn Gabirol

The Arabs allow some

spondees.

of the feet to be reduced to

In this secondary form ha- Levi has a piyyut,^^^

^^8

Reune unci Gedidife des Abraham

ibn Ezra, 1885.

iso

^" Melekct ha-Sir, p. 15. "1 Die ersten Makamen,

Qp.

cit.,

p. 16.

p. 44.

152

Harkavy,

II, p.

128.

VOL.

IV.

'

2i8
in

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

which failnn and fdlnn occur alternately.
It

may,

therefore, be regarded as a Matadarik.

This piyyut
in

may

also be regarded as a secondary Haflf,

which the

last foot

was shortened.
Rajaz, trembling.
last,
its

14.
I

place this

metre

not because

it

is

the least
It

frequent, but because of

peculiar character.

hardly

which show possesses all the features of the other metres, that high stage of development. There is no doubt
a
it

forms the connecting-link between rhymed prose {saf) It is chiefly employed, as was and the other metres.

remarked above,^^^
lation

extempore

lines.

The only
lines

stipu-

to be that the and this differentiates it from be approximately equal, rhymed prose. Its feet are composed of four syllables,

of this metre seems

should

and almost every possible combination

is

is

permitted.

It

also catalectic.

As a

rule the hemistichs

is

rhyme with
same

each other.

Furthermore, a poet

even allowed to have

feet in the

a hemistich of three feet

and one of two

poem.
one

This

is

best illustrated

by the

following lines

by

of al-Find's daughters,

who was
U_5

inciting her clan to

wage

war:^^''
^

,-^

\^\'^)P>\j^

^j ^J ^J

'

War, war, war, war the fire was kindled and The mounts were filled with it
!

it

raged

How

fair in
15S

midday splendour
''"'

are the shaven heads

p. 47.

p. 185.

Noldeke, Delectus,

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
In

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

may
be assigned
lines,
all

219

Hebrew

to this metre

those

not exceeding twelve syllables in each hemistich, and do not fit in any other metre. In Egers's edition of Ibn Ezra's

poems which have approximately equal

Dlwan

there

poem which composed a poem

IS

bears the superscription

in

xrjxn

kxpl

he

the

Rajaz form.
refers

Egers remarks

that
it

it

is

incorrect,

and
with

to

Kaempf.
Rajaz.

Of

course

does

not

agree
is

Kaempf's

But then

Kaempf's Rajaz
is

perhaps
^'^^
:

as

Kami^^^ and Ibn Ezra's poem good a Rajaz as any other. It is as

really a

follows

D''*n3 ti\hn

tShd

D'^ntsp

Ha-Nagid has
lectic
^'''^
:

the following epigram which

is

cata-

T\Tpr\

13^"!

nn-in

Perhaps to the same metre belongs the following piyyut

by ha-Levi

^^^
:

liN nsnj

niw ^x
j'^'n

-j-iixii

in:

T]^n -IK'S

Dyn

jK'ij

NDn
n^'

inpy n^r

nix

fSK'j

nix

h^_

nns r^y
isa

^^^

See above, 1" Harkavy's

p. 185.

p_ g^
II, p. 9.

ed., p. 150.

iss

Harkavy,

220

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

We

thus have an example of dimeter and trimeter

hemistichs in one and the same poem.

another class of poems which could be assigned but may also to the shorter Kamil without the imiraffal,

There

is

belong to
follows
:

the

Rajaz.

That variation

of

Kamil

is

as

\-i

Thabit praising
his family says
, ^
f

Hassan

153

b.

'

Who

provide food when the years of drought

afflict

the

land' (literally: become fixed).

Owing

to the rarity of this metre in Arabic

hesitated

in assigning the

Hebrew poems

to

it,

and

am

prepared

them to yield to the opinion of other scholars to consider Ibn Gabirol has a as Rajaz, in spite of their uniformity.
long

poem

in this

metre

^'^'^
:

>-2m Tjbos

non
in

^yp^

r\'yr}\_

ti^-hd

Moses Ibn Ezra

nzb
c^l)b'

Tarsis says :^"

nyi)

Kafj iiiiy

^n^n-n^ ^l^V
^linn

n^b D^cn Dni xnj

tos nn>'

nnx

HI
The
fourteen

metres enumerated above are directly

borrowed from the Arabs, and practically cover the field of Arabic prosody. The remaining two metres mentioned

by Arabian grammarians

are

Mudari'

and

IMuktadab.

They
i'9

are extremely rare in Arabic, and

Dlwan,
p. 77, no. 176,
"<>

as far as

now have
"' p. 16.

I.

5.

Dukes' ed.,

p. 4.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL

HEBREW POETRY HALPER

221

not been found prior to the grammarian al-Halll, who is the first to name them. It is the opinion of some scholars that these two metres together with Mujtatt were invented

Sa'adya b. Dannan gives a Mudari', which, however, does not correspond to the Arabic. The normal form of the latter is

by

that grammarian."^

But Sa'adya's

line is as follows

"^

2b bv

Db'

tj'\y

pxi ins* p'^'^n

Brody agrees with Sa'adya, and considers the following

riddle as a Mudari'
""^
:

33-jn

nx

n:i

^^nn

nx

7\hn

It

is,

however, quite obvious that this

is

no Mudari'

w^hich in

Hebrew would have

usually been,

if

we divided

the feet differently

If a
it

poem whose

syllables are thus disposed be found,

would be a Mudari', but those given above cannot claim to be recognized as belonging to this metre.

The metre given by Sa'adya

as

Muktadab on
in

p.

16

does not resemble the one bearing that name

Arabic.

Apart from these fourteen metres the Hebrew poets employed other combinations of short and long syllables. There is no need to give an exhaustive account of all of
the variations.
^'i^s

The Diwans

of ha-Levi and
II, p.

Abraham Ibn

See Wright, Arabic Grammar, Mtkket ha-Sir,

p. 12.

36S,

Rem.
ic4

Meira, p. 40.

222

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in

Ezra abound

instances.

Some

of these
It

combinations

closely resemble the regular metres.

should be noted

that also the later Arabian poets have

employed

similar

metres, and

it

is

were the inventors

models.

hard to say whether the Hebrew poets Arabic of these combinations or followed
however, a

This

is,

minor point, since those

variations were not sanctioned

by the grammarians.

A
(a)

few of the most typical of these variations

may

be

given here.

The

following

^''^

is

a combination of

Madid and

Basit

n?.y3

">'>*'

''">>'^'

^^np n? '^W

Tawil with the second fdidun omitted ^^^ recognized in the following prayer by ha-Levi
{b)

may be

nipn

"T'ips

Din^ "^s nn-)^

The

concluding line of each strophe

is

half a Tawil

As
tions,

given

in

but

in

Harkavy's text there are numerous corrupi" he quotes variations which give his notes

better

sense,

and scan accurately.

is

Thus

instead of niD3
sense,

(line 17 a)

which

substantiated

by the rhyme and

his text has n33.

In line 2 a vocalize nirjno (cp. Isa. 30. 18).

also

Abraham Ibn Ezra

metre
i^*^^

has a prayer in a similar

,

-l

les
16T

Ha-Levi, ed. Harkavy,

II, p. 170.

II, p. 6.
^'^^

'''

Op.

cit.,

p. 19.

Egers's

ed., p. 56.

SCANSION OF MEDIAEVAL
{c)

HEBREW POETRY

HALPER 223

In a similar

metre with the addition of an iamb

is

at the

end of the hemistich

^^'^
:

the following contemplative

poem by ha-Levi

'sstj'ri

"noi? nn5': p-'ns n3B'>

^iy;3

nny33 an^yj

--p

iy^

(^)

Ha-Levi

also has a shortened Basit

^~^
:

{e)

Ha-Nagid has a

peculiar kind of Basit in which the

^"^^
:

imcstafihin feet succeed each other without interruption

-m^

b'D3

nnon %i\

n;jix

nnx
-inp

C'^nv

SJ-13

inDH \hD:ni

(/)

A peculiar
^'-

kind of the shorter Kamil

first

is

the follow-

ing in which the second foot of the

a vmraffal'.

hemistich has

mx';

nn^ nnx
:

(^)

shortened Haflf

is

ha-Levi's piyyut

"^

^^"""J

''j!!'^!??

j^n ci>33iD

(//)

A
:

lengthened Munsarih
^'^

is

the following piyyut

by

ha-Levi

169 i'2

Harkavy, Harkavy,

II, p.

149.

ito

/^,v/_^ jj^

p j^^.

Sa'arha-Sir,
174

p. 33.

II, p. 27.

"3 q^_

y^^ p_ ^g.

/^^^.^ p_

^g.

224
In the
(i)

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

same metre
is

the

poem beginning

'^i^;

^ynv.^'^
'^'^
:

Abraham Ibn Ezra

has a shortened Munsarih

See also ha-Levi's poem beginning

D3^l

''^

no.'^''

In addition to these metres there exist some in which

the moving ^wds are entirely neglected.

In some cases
b.

the poets skilfully avoided those kcds.

calls
it

Sa'adya

Dannan

^/le

vowel metre OV^^nn

in this

nnj).

good deal of the

poems composed
in each

kind of metre have seven syllables

hemistich.

This remarkably coincides with the

Syriac metre.

For the majority of the Homilies {inemre)

of the Syriac writers have seven vowels in each hemistich.

This, however, docs not signify that the Syrians influenced

the

Hebrew
its dull,

poets.

Syriac poetry

is

chiefly christological,

and

unattractive tone

would scarcely appeal

to the

keen imagination of the Hebrew poets.

There

is

no need to quote examples of

ascertain
I
it

this

metre.

Every reader can

In conclusion,
in publishing

for himself.

should like to point out that editors

well to divide the hemistichs

Diwans would do

into feet.

The custom
and straight

prevailing
lines

now

is

to prefix a

row

of curved

which make the reader no

wiser, since those lines can

difficulty.
'75
^'i^

be supplied by himself without

Ibid., p. 15.

Egers's

ed., p. 24.

i" Brody's ed.,

II, p.

25t.

A CHARTER OF PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN ANXONA OF THE YEAR 1535

By Max Radin, New York
In 1880, M. Isidore Loeb wrote
jfuivcs
la
(I, p.

City.

in the Reiuu^ des

Etudes

114): 'L'histoire des relations des Juifs avec

faire.'

papaute reste encore a

it is

That

fact

is

the
'

more

unfortunate, since

clear that the attitude of the

Head

of Christendom
Christian

'

served very largely as a model for other

states. Indeed, the position of the Jews in Western Europe was consciously based upon the formulation of their rights and disabilities prepared at Rome on

the basis of the Decretals of Gregory

history, therefore,

IX

(1234):! That
viz.

which

is

yet to be written,

of the

is of fundamental importance for any adequate treatment of Jewish history during the Middle Ages.

relations of

Jews

to the Papacy,

The document
June

before us, a charter of privileges granted

29, 1535, for five years to certain

German and
in

other

Jews residing

at

Ancona

is

extraordinary

the

number

and character of the privileges conferred.

tolerant policy toward
is

The

fact of the

Jews on the part of Pope Paul III

not merely reconfirmed, but

we can

see indications of

that particular favour which earned for

him while Cardinal

the gibes of Julius

Decretals,

II.

It is

a special indication of the gaps

Sarracenis et eorum servis.
Cf.

X,

5,

De Judaeis

S. E. Scherer, Die Rechtsverhdltnisse der

Judcn

in

den

deiitsch-ost.

Landcrn,

[1901], pp. 24, 32-50.

225

226
in

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

papal documents, no our sources that no collection of of the Jews in Italy, general or special study of the history
reference to it. contains either this charter or any so folded as to consists of three parchment leaves
It

make
the

a book of twelve pages.

first
is

Its size

is

by

8 in.

The

cover, containing the

notarial

few sections and

missing.

the end of

attestation,

little

above the

centre, a hole has

by mice.
been
lost.

book been gnawed through the entire importance has However, practically nothing of
of the

The provenance
it

book

is

unknown.

At

the present

is

the property of the

it

Jewish Theological
the

Seminary

of America, and

is

to

courtesy of the Librarian

I

of that institution, Professor

Alexander Marx, that

owe

and publishing it. the opportunity of examining text, parentheses, In the printing of the following
have been
have been
omitted by
[ ],

),

in the text used to indicate that the letters carelessness or for abbreviation.

Square brackets,
text.

the indicate corrections of errors in

fill

Words

supplied to
italics.

the

above-mentioned gap

are printed in

Otherwise, care has been taken to text even to its orthopreserve the exact reading of the to avoid misundergraphical inconsistencies, except that separated in those cases standing the article has been a following or where it was written continuously with

preceding word

e. g.

chel for che 7. lutile for VutUe.

Text.
I.

del loco
far

dove habitaran(n)o
far far(e) alcu(no)

et sui offitiali p(er)

alcuna

cagione

ne

decreto o r(e)formanze in

fatti siano nulli. loro p(re)iuditio et q(ue)lli /

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN ANCONA

2.

RADIN
p(refa)ti,

227
ut

It{em)

supplicamo
est),

[supplicanno]

li

s(uprascriptum

che

sia

data plena et indubitata /fede

et piccoli tanto/fatti

ad

tutti

libri

et b(2j-/ardelli grandi

quanto da

farsi

qu

essero prestiti di denari

prestito et del
riscotere

re-

ceptione de pegni
detti pegni

di

com
si

de diverse cose et mer/cantie

fusse et patti et co(n)ditio/ni quali

con qualunq
si
si

soglio

tra contrahenti et

che

in essi libri no(n)

testimonii quali libri et bastardelli

li

hab

executione parata co(n)tra

debitori in essi descritti et

nominati come

si

fussero publici et auctentici instrumenti

no(n) obstanti constitutioni decreti consuetudino reforma(n)ze

et altr(e) cose fussero in co(n)trario.
3.

It(em)

supp(lica)no gli sia lecito et possano prestare

et senza et co(n)

securamente et liberamente
con contratti piacendo a loro
stabili et in ogni altro

alcuno impedimento

pegni

sopra beni

modo

a essi piacesse in la citta terre

et luochi predetti
4.

ad

utile et usura.
li

Item

supplicano
li

prefati gli sia lecito et

possano

togliere

sopra
el

pegni

mobili

per prodo et utile uno

fiorino

bolognino

mese per ciaschun

ad

ragione de
gli

bolognini quaranta per fiorino, et da un fiorino in giu

sia lecito togliere

per

utile
'1

uno dinaro bono

bolognino
s'

el

mese per

ciaschun bolognino et che

entenda de venti-

quattoro dinari et sia

et

licito

mettere mese rotto per sano

fare

non vogliono esser tenuti

mese sano
la

se

non o sano
delli

o rotto secondo che occurresse in

et

ragione

pegni

che quanto

al prestito

da

farsi

ad

Pag.

2.

contratti ouero sopra beni stabili possano togliere et gli

sia licito

/per ciaschun

fiorino

uno bolognino

et

mezo

el

228

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

prestito montasse tanto de dinar!
stabili

mese per quanto / decto

prestati

ad contratti senza beni

in

et

piu

et

meno
o
altri
.
.

secondo se pattuiranno
5.

sieme decti contracti.

gli

Item:

supplicano

sia

licito

dar bovi

animali ad soccita et ad collatico ad

grano secondo

accordaranno,
6.

Item

supplicano
altri

che

nessuno
ouero

delli
delli

potesta

quanto

offitiali

priori

pre(detti

ecclesiastic!

ouero

seculari

tanto

presenti

quanto

futuri
fattori

constre(n)gere detti prefati hebrei ne soi

ne famegli

almente ne

far

constrengere ne

per executione reale contra

citati et

prima non siano

audite

le

tentia

condennati

senloro ragioni et juridicalmente per maxime havendo el valore della

et
nelli
essi

quantita venissero condennati

7.

predetti lochi.

Item

supplicano che ad
et

prenominati
el

sia licito

ad

coptumare

dare

ad

coptumo

banco quale

tenessero in

hebrei senza
pretii tra

overo ad piu ditti lochi ad un' altro hebreo pena alcuna con quelli patti conventioni et
si

loro

accordaranno non obstanti alcun' altra

constitutioni statuti et legge tanto hebraica quanto latina che et ordini fussero in contrario, et

reformanze capitoli
detti coptumarii

godano tutte executioni

senza
altra

et priuilegii

che

godano
superiori.
8.

essi

capitulanti

confirmatione

de

Item: supplicano

li

prefati
et

che siano exempti da

delli

ogni obsequio personale

reale

detti

lochi

tanto

ogni et ordinario quanto extraordinario et da

altra imposita che per alchun
alii

qualonque
si

modo

accadesse

ponesse

huomini de

detti lochi et

similmente siano exenti da

gabelle passaggi tratte ogni datio et nova impositione de vita loro messe de cavar grani da li ditti lochi per la
et

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

durante
el

ANCONA RADIN

229

tempo de

detti capitoli, attento che loro

pagano

le taglie alia

S(anti)ta di N(ostro) S(igno)re.

Pag.
9.

3.

Item

supplicano che non possano esser molestati

da alcuna persona ecclesiastica overo seculare de qualonque dignita se sia ad pagare alcuna decima in qualonque mode
si

fusse,

durante

il

tempo

di decti capitoli.
di tutti

10.

Item: supplicano che

pegni che sono im-

pegnati et da impegnarsi a lo loro banco et fusse passato r anno del giorno che furono impegnati dalli homini
delli

prefati lochi overo forastieri

li

possano vendere et fame

et

tanto quanto fosse cosa loro propria

non

piacendo vendere detti pegni ad

overo soi fattori et ministri et
di
essi

essi

del
et

banco

do poi

li

patroni
lo

volessino
1'

riscotere

tenuti
quelli

pagare

capitale et
e piacendo
11.

utile in sino

ad

racoglie cio

alii
:

patroni del banco predetto ad compiacerli.

Item

supplicano

li

prefatti

non volere

esser astretti

ad prestare alcuna quantita de dinari ultra

bilita et

la loro possistabili

volunta tanto sopra

li

pegni mobili quanto

delli

overo ad contratti ad nessuna persona

lochi o forastieri

prenominati

ma

solo prestar quel tanto a loro piacera

le
si

tanto sopra pegni quanto sopra

li

prenominate cose et che

fussero
si

di

qualonque maniera
il

licito pigliarli
1'

che vagliano

doppio piu

delli

denari che

impresta-

ranno ne possano esser

astretti al prestar piu.

Et accadendo
tolti

che detti pegni fussero forati overo robbati et

per

executioni da alcuno offitiale non possano essere astretti

ad renderli se prima non e satisfacto

el

banco integramente
gli sia

tanto della sorte principale quanto del usura et piu

230
licito

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

recevere pegni da ogni persona
ecclesiastica

overo

mogliere et da ogni altra persona seculare da fanti figlioli et ordinamenti et constitutioni non obstanti statuti reformanze

che

in contrario facessero.

Pag.
12.

4-

pegno et 1' anno del Item: supplicano che passato capitale licito metter prodo a tenendolo piu del anno li sia delh se preiudichi al vender non perho per questo capitolo poserh anno quali vogliono pe-ni predetti in la fine del questo capitolo habbia loco vender piacendoli et similmente quanto in altri contanto sopra beni stabili
in
li

contratti

in tratti et private scritture

qualonque

modo

si sia.

libri supplicano che a loro scritture quanto tempo tanto per il passato et bastardelli per nessun ne obstare alcuna exceptione per il venire possa nocere non obstante ragione commune

13.

Item:

de prescr(iptione

fussero in contrario. constitutioni et ordinamenti

14.

Item

supplicano che nessuno

offitiale (nelli) prefati

prestar dinari essi prefati hebrei ad lochi possa constrengere

ad alcuna persona contra la sopra pegni et senza pegni

loro volonta.
15.

Item:

supplicano

si

alcun pegno

li

fusse

furato

rubbato non vogliono esser overo smarito o per alcun caso doppio di quello fussero imtenuto ad pagar si non el
pegnati.
16.

Item:
et

supplicano
si

che-dio
gli

cessi

tal

caso .-la
^

lor casa

pegni

ardessero o

fussero
la

per

guerra

rubbati overo sforzati o

di
.
.

gli fusse rotta

casa

tempo

fusse non vogliono esser o per altra controversia che

tenuti ad alcuna

emenda.

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

:

ANCONA RADIN

231

17. Item supplicano che loro non vogliono esser tenuti ne obligati ad alcuna emenda di panni che si guastassero

per sorici brattule et altre tigne.

18.

Item

che

li

beccari del loco dove habitaranno siano

i

tenuti et obh'gati vender!

di hebrei sotto

la

carne et admazarla ad usanza

pena de

fiorini

cinque per ogni volta che

gH

rinuntiassero

Pag.
la

5.

carne et lo admazar delle bestie d' aplicarsi per

al

la

mita

al

potesta et altra mita

comune
gli

di dicto loco et

non faccenel

dola

al preditto

mode

sia licito

comprare

bestiame

per uso loro et admazarlo a lor

et gabelle
et si

modo

senza pena bando

per caso la bestia che uccidessero non

fusse legitima al

modo

hebraico

gli sia licito

venderla ad

ogni persona.
19.

Item

che nel venerdi santo

rati nelle loro

case non possano ne debbiano esser m(olestati) da alcuna

persona tanto ecclesiastica quanto seculare

et

li

prifori del)

loco done [dove] habitaranno siano tenuti et obligati sotto

pena

(di

c)ento

ducati d' oro da applicarsi

al

alia

camera

apostolica uno
li

venerdi santo
loco,

mandar bandi per

lochi consueti

.... esso

che nulla persona tanto

la

ecclesiastica

quanto seculare ardisca ne presuma sotto

fare

dicta pena

ne

far

fare

contra
li

li

predetti hebrei et

loro beni alcuna molestia et

et che
el
'1

contrafacienti siano puniti

p(at)re sia tenuto per el figliolo, et patrone per

garzone, et lo maggiore per lo minore di casa.

20.

Item

supplicano che bisognando per sostenimento

del banco overo salvatione delli pegni quali non fossero

riscossi

o per altra cagione trare o rimettere detti pegni

in dicto loco

dove habitassero

gli sia licito trare et reportarli

ad loro ben

placito.

232
21.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Item:
supplicano che passato
il

tempo

di

detti

capitoli per

qualonque

modo
ad

si

fusse che detti pegni

1'

non

fussero riscossi possano pigliare

in essi

utile

secondo

si

contiene
finito el

capitoli per insino

di quali sei

sei
;

mesi dopoi sara

tempo
ad

mesi passati

la fine di quelli sia licito

essi

capitulanti fare di detti pegni

come

di

cosa loro

singoli presenti capitoli. propria et possere goder tutti et

Pag.
22.

6.

Item:

supplicano

che accadendo in dicto

tempo

di loro fusse accusato overo de detti capitoli che alcuno judice tanto ecclesiastico denuntiato davanti al qualsivoglia non esso accusante overo denuntiante

quanto seculare ad
sia

ditta accusa et denuntia non data fede alcuna excetto

fide

testimonii fusse provata per tre

stare a

digni quali debiano

et
:

denuntiati paragone con esse accusati overo

intenda preiudicare alia bulla per questo capitolo non se favor delli hebrei della P(apa) Alexandro in dutta in
del

Marca
23.

et

confirmata per
:

li

altri pontifici.
li

Item

supplicano che essendo

prefatti ...

quo

che overo ad nomine ricercati ad prestare ad carta bolognino et mezo per fiorino gli sia licito togliere uno overo contiene in li preinserti capitoli el mese secondo si

secondo
dinari et

si

loro li accordaranno con quelli che voranno quanto deposito che tutti li loro contratti tanto de

de
el
li

di altre private scritture overo

robbe vendute giongendo

li

tempo

riscotere delli detti contratti di

loro dinari et
et tra loro

loro debitori

non pagassero
essi
il

al

tempo deputato

convenuto siano tenuti

r utile
detti

debitori et

debbiano pagare
li

dinari

tutto

tempo che

teneranno et

haveranno tenuti

ragion et sia gli fatta detti oratori

sum-

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

maria tanto del
statuti
utile

ANCONARADIN

233

quanto del primo capitale non obstante

reformanze et ordinamenti che in contiario disponessero et pagandosi alcuna quantita de dinari

per
li

loro

debitori se intenda per V utile corso per

et

il

tempo passato

pagandosi piu se scompoti nel capitale. 24. Item supplicano che ad essi prenominati quibus ut suprascriptum est nominibus sia licito prestare ad ogni
:

et
si

qualunque forastiero con pegni

contiene in
li

et

ad contratti secondo

predicti capitoli et piu et

meno secondo

tra

loro saranno concord i.

Pag.
25.

7.

Item

che

li

sia licito

vendere et

far

vendere ogni

sorte

de frumenti et

biadi,
li

panni di lino et di lana et altre

patti che faranno

cose in credenza secondo

pratori senza
26.
calcoli

con

li

com-

pena alcuna.
:

Item

supplicano che accadendo alcuno errore in

in

li

overo nel togliere del utile o

si

qualunque altro

modo
alcuna

fusse

non vogliono esser tenuti ne incorrano pena

refare
li

ma

solum ad

conti et restituire quel tanto

fusse prestato fuora del dovere.

27.

Item

et sia lor licito

supplicano che essi et la lor famiglia possano andare senza segno per tutte le citte ^erre et

luochi predetti.
esser

Et non portando
da
marescallo

dicto segno non possano

offitiali

molestati

ne da alchuni
lochi.
li

commune
28.

et superiori
:

de detti

Item

supplicano che contra

prenominati et

lor

famiglia nelle loro facende et occurentie per nessun

modo
sia,

alcuno potesta o altro

offitiale di

qualonque dignita se

tanto presente quanto futuro, possa procedere in alcuno

atto ignominioso ne fare executione alcuna reale o personale

sotto

alcuno quesito colore

IV.

ma solum

possa contra lor

j^

VOL.

234

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

locotenente

procedere lo signore

de

detti

lochi

et

soi

loro essere judici competenti a auditor! quali habbiano da preiuditio della Bulla preditta.
et questo senza

29.

Item
li

ad

far fare

bandimenti

tenuti ne obhgati supplicano non volere esser havessero passato delH pegni quali
forsi e stato

r anno secondo

consueto per

el

passato

ma

vogliono essere in loro liberta. siano tenuti in tempo di Item: supplicano che non

30

morbo o

di

guerra o

d' alcun' altra

suspitione stare et fare

residentia in dicti lochi.

31. Item:

esser tenuti ne supplicano che non vogliono

obligati far alcun scam-

PaG.

8.

volonta. bio di pegni contra la loro

32

Item:

supplicano che

'1

potesta et

altri

offitiali

et debbiano de detti lochi siano tenuti forma judiciana sed summaria et expedita,-non servata secondo li loro libn et veritate inspecta-et

administrare ragione

sola

facti

scritture et

che

li

detti offitiali

siano

tenuti

et

obligati

ad osservare

singoli presenti capitoli et far osservare tutti et

inviolabili sotto

et

ciascuna

per ciascuno pena de cinquanta ducati d' oro apphcarsi ipso da volta che contrafacessero
et similimente nessun

facto alia

camera apostolica
altro
di
offitiale

com-

missario et

overo seculare

qualonque grado
alii

presente et futuro ecclesiastico et dignita se sia ardisca

di presenti capitoli sotto pena

ne presuma contravenire

camera applicarsi ipso facto alia cento ducati d'oro da ciascuna volta se contravemsse. apostolica per ciascuno et ^ altri capitoli privilegii Item: supplicano che tutti 33 usate et havessero havute ottenute et gratie che loro passati et confirmati da god^iite per li tempi

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

overo da
present!
altri

ANCONA RADIN

235

superiori possano godere et usare

capitoli

per dicto

obstanti fusse passato et

et alcun' altra

come li tempo de cinque anni non finito il tempo di usarli et goderli

cosa

in contrario.

34. Item: supplicano che in alcun tempo li prefati hebrei non siano vexati ne constretti overo in alcun modo

molestati dalle
et altri officiali

communita

dei detti lochi overo da potesta

ad persuasione de predicatori ad audire et andare audire loro predicationi non obstanti cosa fusse
incontrario.
35-

Item

perche

li

prefati hebrei allegano

havere alcuna
li

loro controversia et inimicitie et dubitano

non

sia fatta

alcuna violentia, per questo supplicano per le loro securita

gli sia licito

Pag.
in in

9.

detti

lochi a ciascuno di
le

loro et a d[o]i loro famegli

et

compagnia portare

arme honeste

fuora de detti

lochi portarle al

modo

loro et per questo

non possano esser

molestati ne puniti da Marescallo alcuno overo potesta et

offitiali

de detti lochi non obstanti

in contrario.

statuti

ordinamenti

et

Bandimenti fussero
^6.

li prefatti hebrei non siano tenuti ad prestare contra la loro volonta dinari panni letti cavalli o alcun' altra cosa ne ad locatenenti
:

Item

che

ne ad priori ne ad
;

altra persona tanto ecclesiastica

li
.
.

quanto seculare

et
li

quando
quali
li

ducati d'oro da camera apostolica per ogni volta che dicto caso intravenisse non obstanti alcuna cosa gli fusse
applicarsi alia
in

saranno sforzati alle predicte cose quelli sforzaranno cadano in pena de ducento
.

contrario,
?>7'

Item
:

che nel

di

delle

feste,

loro

et

lor

donna
2

236

REVIEW THE JEWISH QUARTERLY

in le loro case

possano lavorare
et

senza pagar pena alcuna

pena molestati incorrano in la ogni volta che saranno

predicta da applicarse

come

di sopra.

Item: liprefatti andare corte de dicti lochi pena alcuna possano sforzare ad pagare
38

suppHcano Che essendotrovatidalla non gli di notte senza lume

et quello

che h

oro pena di vinticinque ducati d sforzaranno incorrano la apostolica non obstanti facto alia camera

da

applicarsi ipso

statuti

bandl et alcun' altra cosa ordinamenti consuetudini

li

in contrario

fusse.

,0

Item

suppHcano che

s!

per caso durante

,1

tempo

de

detti capitoli le

essi

prohibesse a detti capitulanti

d. communita di detti lochi o alcuno che non prestassero sopra

pegni ne ad

Pag.
Mcunaltro

10.

modo
li

et gli

per justa rompesse detti capitoli

causa, possano
la

non obstanti communita ne incorrano perho prohibitione de dicta

prefati prestare alii forastieri
li

pena che
40

imponesse.
li

Item: suppHcano

prefati che

accadendogh

esser

overo obligatione di fatta permissione o altre et frumenti o vini

detti lochi

alcuna sorte de b.ad.

cose che fussero da

riscoterli

hommr

d.

possano exeguirli et

quanto

essa

oro incarissero o eonventione sara quantumche et de piano fatta ragion summaria pretio et per questo li sia potesta [de] singuli offitiali et
invilissero

sine figura iudicii

detti

da
.

tutti et

lochi

in

tale executione
in

non obstanti
contrario

statut, et

fusse bandimenti o altra cosa

tanto fatto

quanto da

farsi.

loro sopra pegni non havendo alcuno ad prestar dinari

H 41. Item: suppHcano

prefati

che essendo ncerch, da

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN ANCONA

RADIN
et

237

dinari gli sia licito portare detti pegni in altri banchi et

quelli

impegnare
di

di consentimento del
di

patrone

che a

tempo

morbo o

guerra non siano tenuti exercitare

alchun negotio.
43.

Item

supplicano
et

che a detti
fattori
sia

oratori o
licito
il

loro

famegli administratori

di

festivo

vendere et comprare
case honestamente et

et
si

far
el

tutte le faccende

nelle

loro

potesta o
farli

altri offitiali gli

desse

molestia o

gli

astrengessero ad

pagare alcuna pena

d'

incorrano la pena de cinquanta ducati

oro da applicarsi

come

di sopra.

43. Item:

supplicano

li

prefati

che a loro
sorte

crediti

non

possa nocere

ne obstare

alcuna

de

moratorie o

cinquine ne alcun' al-

Pag.

II.

tra dilatione che in preiuditio de detti hebrei fussero per

alcun

tempo

et

da alcun superiore concedute,

li

ma

quelle

non obstante possano liberamente exigere

attento che a loro bisogna pagare
alia Santita di
le

loro crediti

loro taglie et vigesime

di detti

Nostro Signore
alii

et

volendo alcuno

debitori cedere
si

beni ad
in

tal

cessione non siano admessi

non osservaranno

tutto et per tutto la

forma

delli

statuti delli predicti lochi.

44. Item

perche molte volte e accaduto che passando

per detti lochi soldati et altre gente quale la communita

e

obligata overo necessitata allogiarli nelle proprie case

delli

homini de
tal

detti lochi et

li

priori et altri che

li

regono

per

peso dalle spalle

.

hanno per
il

bolettini

altrimente in ...

alle case

de

detti hebrei per

che hanno

sostenuto grande danno et pero supplicano che accadendo

simil caso

non possano esser gravati a ricevere

in le loro

238
case

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

soldati o altre genti

ad allogiare

alle

loro

proprie

fusse generale in dicti spese eccetto quando tale allogiare priori o altri che reggeranno lochi et facendosi altrimente li

removere detti soldati et ad quel tempo siano obligati hebrei et contrafaciendo altre gente da le case de detti
incorrano
tal la

pena de

tutti

danni spese

et interessi

che per

detti lochi sia ter^uto causa patissero et ogni judice de

in questo caso farli ragione

sommaria.
S(anc)ti Apollinaris
presbiter

AUGUSTINUS Spinola
Cardinalis

S(anctae)

R(omanae)

E(cclesiae) Camerarius

et

Isac de Magis Suprascripta capitula pro parte prefatorum in civitate Simonis theutonicorum habitantium

Lustri

Ancone

suprascriptum est provincie Marchie et aliorum ut et presentata hebreorum nobis per nos toleranda porretta
modificata, ac per nos visa corretta et

De

Pag.

12.

mandate

S(ancti) D(omini) N(ostri)

Vive vocis
nostri

oraculo super hoc

officii

nobis facto, et

auctoritate

Cameriatus

prout supra notata et scripta sunt

filiis

predictis hebreis

eorumque

et

heredibus sociis

insti-

toribus factoribus famulis et

ministris per quinque annos

computan(dos), eo a dat(ione) presentium

peccato possumus
toleramus,
et

modo quo

sine

s(anc)ta

Mater

ecclesia

consuevit,

Mandaxtes
ceterisque

quibusvis
potestatibus,
offitialibus

gubernatoribus, locabarisellis,

tenentibus, auditoribus,

schalchis,

executoribus

quocunque

nomine

nunc et pro tempore nuncupatis secularibus et ecclesiasticis

existentibus
C(uriae)
et

ubilibet

in

locis

S(anctae)
subiecte

R(omanae)
constitutis,
et faciant

mediate

vel

immediate

observent quatenus premissa omnia inviolabiliter

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

ANCONA RADIN

239

ab

aliis

observari sub excommunicationis et mille ducaappli-

torum pro quolibet contrafaciente camere apostolice

candorum penis

irritum decernentes et inane quicquid in

contraiium contigerit attemptari, constitutionibus et ordinationibus

apostolicis ac capitulis hebreis in locis predictis
si

toleratis sen tolerandis, et

in

illis

expresse caveat quod

nullus

alius

hebreus
nisi

in

eisdem

locis

mutuare

et

fenus

exercere possit
illorum tenores
alias in
liter

persone dicta capitula habentes, quibus

expressis
[habentes],
illis

persufficienter

et

suo robore permansuris ac vice, dumtaxat speciaexpresse derogamus, ceterisque contrariis non

obstantibus quibuscumque.
stolica die vigesima

Datum Rome
junii

in

camera apo-

nona mensis

MDXXXV pontificatus
primo.

santissimi

in

Christo patris et

D(omini) Nostri Domini

Pauli divina providentia papae

tertii

Anno

the end of the last page appears the phrase visa Philippus Below appear the words omisso sigillo in
.

At

capsnla stan{n)ea pendente, and then the attestation, which

was completed on the missing

leaf.

Ego Thomas de Monacis de Aug[ustino

transuntum [transumptum]
After the

ordine] publicus

apostolica auctoritate notarius supradictum

. .

exemplum

seu

last capitolo there is written in a slightly

more

Gothic hand, and in different ink, the following.

the
right
left
: :

Toward

Vidi Claudius

Sarbossus pretor
Cens.

toward the

Vidi

David Lo-ly

mdxxxv.

At

the bottom of page 11, in a hand similar to that

of Sarbossus, and in the same ink,

statement,

we

find the following

evidently incomplete
li

In vedendo et

previditi et

li

sudditti execution! delli

offitio
.

ordini delli patroni nostri che

non havendo

alcuno

di exeguire controli su dicti hebrei

non vogliono

240

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

after similarly incomplete section has been inserted

cap. 41

on
:

p.

10:
li

Item
exer
. .
.

supplicano che siano exeguiti

ordini per poter

Also at the bottom of

vi

p. 7

sono alcuni uomini che sotto specie di

the bottom of
p. 6,

At

and

after

cap. 30, disjointed

of the phrases are written, some of which are repetitions

words immediately over them.

The

latter

undoubtedly

to practise create the impression of being written in order At any rate all these sentences and the handwriting. left phrases were obviously added after the document

the Papal of
it.

Chancellery,

and

are

therefore

no real part

Marginal notes

in

Hebrew

are found at the side of

some

capitoli in order to indicate the contents.

So

at the side of
in

cap. II, p. 3, appears the

word
4,

nn;:.

Other words occur

(p. 4),

the margin near cap. 13, p.

are illegible.

and cap. 15

but they

Either the holder of the document, or the clerk

who

executed

has directed special attention by marks or words underlining to cap. 6 (p. 2) and 13 (p. 4), and to the et da ogni altra piu gli sia licito recevere pegni
it,

'et

persona non obstanti statuti

'

&c. in 11

(p. 3).

The
1.

following

is

a brief

summary

of the contents of

each capitolo

The

local authorities are to

make no laws

or regula-

tions to the prejudice of the

2.

Jews herein

referred to.

Their books and memoranda shall be valid evidence

for transactions of
3.

any

sort.

They may make

contracts of

any

sort secured

by

pledges of either realty or personalty.

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

4.

ANCOXA RADIX
i

24I

They may charge

florin
I

as interest

bolognino a month
for

for
I

every

(30% per annum),

sums

less

than

florin,

dinaro a

month

for

every bolognino (50 % per

annum), on pledges of personalty.

to count as a full to be
5.
I

A fraction

of a

month
is

month.

On

pledges of realty the rate

i bolognini per florin (45 % per annum).

They may make

contracts for the keep

and care of

oxen and other

6.

live-stock.
ecclesiastic

No

official,

or

secular,

may

confiscate

their

money

or property except in execution of a

judgement

duly obtained from a competent tribunal.

7.

They may

assign their banking privileges to one or

;

more Jews upon any terms they please

the assignees to

stand in exactly the position they themselves occupied.

8.

They
They

are

exempt from
pay no

all

taxes or imposts of every

description except the faille to the

9.

Roman

See.
ecclesiastic

are to

tithes to

any person

or secular.
10. If pledges are not

redeemed within one year, they

may

be sold as though they were the banker's property.

If the latter chooses to

keep them he

may

charge interest

as heretofore.
11.

The Jews

are not to be required or forced to loan

If the pledge
is

upon security more than they choose.

lost or stolen,

may deduct amount loaned and interest, making compensation. They may loan to any person,
they

ecclesiastic or secular, to servants, children,

12.

and women.

After the year of redemption has passed they

may

add the accrued

interest to the capital without prejudice to

their right of selling the pledge.

13. Statutes of limitations are not to run against their

written contracts.

242
14.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

No

official

is

to

compel them

to

make

a loan

against their will.

they are not In case of loss or theft of the pledge, loaned under any to pay more than twice the amount
15.

circumstances.
16. In case of

Act

of

God

ox force majeure (fire, which

God

forbid

war,

hurricane), they are not to

be responsible

for the pledges.

17.

They
The

are not

responsible

for

damage done by
cattle of the

vermin or decay to pledged clothing.

18.

local butchers are to slaughter

under pain of 5 fl. Jews according to the Jewish ritual, otherwise, slaughter The Jews may, fine for every offence. and them themselves without payment of any licence-fees,
sell

what
19.

their dietary laws forbid

them

to use.

On Good
any
fine,

Friday they are to be free from molesta-

tion of

sort.

The

local officials,

under pain of 100 gold

ducats
safety

by

secure their are to take special precaution to The head of the appropriate proclamations.

household

will

be responsible

for acts

committed by minors

under his
20.

care.

They may
At

take their pledges with them whenever

is

change of residence
21.

necessitated.

have six the expiration of this charter, they

for all

months' grace

pledges not yet redeemed, and they

may

sell

months. these pledges at the end of those six

22. In

any

suit,

civil

or criminal, in which they are

witnesses of equal defendants, at least three trustworthy support the comrank with the defendant are necessary to
plaint.

This

is

the bull to be the case without prejudice to

of

Pope Alexander.
23. In

loans

without

security

they

may

charge

\\

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN

bolognini per florin a

ANXONA RADIN

243

month

(45 % per

annum), or as per

agreement.

Their debtors of every sort must pay for the

actual time elapsed, whatever

in

may be

the period mentioned

the

agreement.

The

petitioners

may have summary

upon any terms

execution for principal and interest due.

24.

They may They may

loan

money
grain

to foreigners

they can agree upon.

25.
sell

or merchandise on cash or

credit without
26.

payment of a

fine.

In case of error in calculation, whether of debt or

interest,

they are simply to correct the mistake without

additional penalty.
27.
28.

They need

not wear a badge of any sort.

is

No
levies

official

to

inflict

punishment on them or

make
29.

on their property except the Papal Vicar

of the districts and his duly commissioned judges.

They

are not

bound

to give notice of the expiration

of the year of redemption, which previous local custom had

required.
30.

They need
They need

not dwell in their present locality in

case of war or pestilence.

31.

not

exchange

pledges,

unless

they

wish

to.

32.

They may demand from

the local officials

in

summary

procedure to collect their debts,

sections of this charter.
failure to

accordance with the

the officials for

The penalty upon

gold ducats
for

do so

is

fifty

each person and

each offence.

In general, the penalty for direct violation

is

of these provisions

to be one hundred gold ducats for

each person and each offence.

^^. All

their

former

or

other

rights,

favours,

and

privileges are hereby continued for the term of this charter.

244
34.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

They
For

conversionist, are not to be compelled to hear

or other, sermons.
35.

their security,

they

may

bear arms in or out of

the places mentioned.

36.

They

are not to be required to loan

money, horses,

furniture, or other things to

any

official,

under pain of two

hundred gold ducats

37.

fine.

On

(Christian) holidays

they

may work

in

their

homes without

molestation.

found without a light at night, they are Those who force them to do so incur to pay no penalty.
38. If they are

a fine of twenty-five gold ducats.

good ground, loans of money upon pledges may, under all are forbidden in any community, the Jews
39. If for

circumstances, do so to strangers.
40. If they

have acquired

rights

in

food,

wine,

or

other things, they

judicial procedure.

may
is

obtain the articles

by summary

41. If application

made

for a loan
article

and they have no

money, they may take the

order to pledge
consent.
in
it

offered as security in

They
The

with another banker, with the owners' business shall not be compelled to transact

times of war or pestilence.

42.

petitioners
in their

and

their agents

may buy and

who

sell

on holidays

own

house.

Any

official

molests

them while
43.

so doing, incurs a fine of fifty gold ducats.

delays or dilatory pleas shall be permitted when debtors avoid they sue for moneys due to them, nor can except in statutory their obligations by general assignment,

No

form.
44.

Inasmuch

as

it

is

a practice to quarter soldiers and

is

others

upon the Jews, that

hereby forbidden unless such

PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN ANCONA

quartering
is

RADIN
The

245
local

general throughout the district.

officials will

upon demand remove the

soldiers or be held

liable for all

damages

sustained.

Stern's Urk. BeiU\,

in

No.

78, contains a charter,

granted

of

the name of Paul III by Cardinal Spinola Romagna, and bearing the date Feb. 10,

to the

Jews
It
is

1535.

considerably shorter than the one under discussion, but

contains

some

provisions like
herette gialle,
'

it.

So we

find that the

'.

Jews

need not wear

the yellow gaberdine

all festivals

They
-

may work
Christi,

in their

houses on

except Corpus
(sic
!)

Assumption, Christmas, and the

first

days

of Easter.

They

are not obliged to furnish officials with

money

or commodities.

Two

witnesses are needed against

scudi,

them, each having

defendants
;

one hundred

when they
justice,

are

and they are entitled to summary

when
Local

they are

plaintiffs, sine strcpitii

kill

figiira di iudicio.

butchers are required to

cattle of

Jews according to

Jewish law.
It will

be seen that the Pope's liegemen receive con-

siderably more restricted privileges than do these foreigners

at

Ancona.

The

right of

summary justice

{iits

sinmnariwn)

is

granted

to the Jews of

Piedmont by Duke Carlo on

May

31, 1553."

Without, however, such specific injunctions as are contained

here,
it

is

not

likely

to

have been more than purely

formal.

Otherwise

this

document,

in

its

length,
is

nature, and

source, has scarcely a parallel.

2

There

no apologetic
first.

One would

expect the

last

days, rather than the

It

may be

a clerical error, or the reading

^ Jost,

may

be wrong.

Gesch. n. Darstellimg der Rechtsvcrh'dltnisse der Israeliten, Berlin

(1847).

246

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

we
find
in

phrase in the sanction, such as

published
Christiana

the charter

by Stern
affecti.

(supra), viz.

lit

qiiandoquc inansnetudine

The head

of the Christian church

interest,

whose
every
'

predecessors

forbade

usury, even

of

description,* permits the exaction of

30-45 %

interest

from
'.=

any person,

ecclesiastic

or lay,
all

man, woman, or child

The Jews

are relieved from

personal disabilities, they

litigants

may

freely bear

arms;

their rights as

are both

specially protected and expedited.

On Good

Friday, the

day par
vision
is

excellence of massacres, especial

and drastic pro-

made

for their security.

They may work and

transact business on the holiest of Christian festivals.

Nor need we suppose

mere
like

this

document to have been a

a keen and energetic ruler

rhetorical flourish.

With

Paul III, orders were likely to be obeyed, and

'

we may

be sure there were few who

dared or presumed to contra'

vene these provisions or any of them

!'

point that calls for special notice

is

that this charter

supersedes the express stipulation of other documents to

the effect that no other Jews besides those to

whom

these

previous charters were granted, are to receive banking It helps us understand, though it privileges in Ancona.
is

far

from justifying, the protest of the

famous
bull of

Roman Jews
I,

to

*
5

Cf. the

Alexander IV, Aug. 23, 1258, RJ.,

in

296-7.

The Jews of Florence

1430 took

only 20 %.

Cf.

Giidemann,
Fior.,
II,

Ersiehimgswesen der Juden in

1063.
''

Italieu, p. 246.

Ammirato, Istone

It is

the Popes of the

very likely that the views current in Protestant countries about later Renaissance, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X,

Paul

III,

are as exaggerated as those long current about the early

Roman

emperors.

Roscoe's Leo

long dominated the English-speaking world's

conception of that time

of these

For a fairer estimate of the character and capacity

is in

men, one which

no sense a 'rehabilitation', cf.

Prof. Pastor's

monumental

Geschichte der Pnpste, especially vols. Ill and IV.


PRIVILEGES OF THE JEWS IN ANCONA

RADIN

247

Alexander VI against the settlement of Spanish refugees in Rome. It was not blind jealousy of intruders as Gratz
seems to believe/ but fear of a competition that might
easily endanger their livelihood.

These German Jews

were much

less

refugees from
pressure.

oppression than brought to Italy

by economic

The condition of Germany

i.

at the

time of the Reformation,

e.

just the period of this

document,
Isac

was

distinctly not

promising, and

our Simon and

were demonstrably

not the only ones of their countrymen

conditions elsewhere.^

who sought
in this

better

bull of

Alexander VI
It
it

is

mentioned

document

[cap. 23

and 28].
Unless

seems to have been a bull of general

is

privileges.

identical with the

for the

well-known one

that
is

imposed a tax on the Jews

it is still

Turkish war (which

scarcely probable),

unpublished.

Besides the light this charter throws on the condition

of the Jews at the time, valuable information
afforded on
It is
is

likewise

many

general legal and economic questions.

Ordinarily,
in

even of importance for Italian philology.

this character are

documents of

wholly technical

phrasing
this

and forms, but the very carelessness with which

is

one

prepared permits inferences as to pronunciation which

may
it

be utilized.

Under

all

circumstances,

we can through
ever

better understand

the letter which

:
'

Sadolet wrote to

Cardinal Alessandro Farnese

received from

No

Christians have

any pope such

favours, privileges,

and con-

cessions as those which

Pope Paul

III has, during these

7
^

Gratz, VIIF, pp. 364-5.

Cf. the

Jews

nationis Theiitonicae

Stern, Urkiaiden, No. 80.

Cf. J. S. Shapiro, 'Social

Reform and the Reformation', Columbia

University Studies in PoUtteal, Science,

XXXIV,

2 (1909).

248
years,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

heaped upon the Jews, with which he has armed
^'

them.'

The

representatives of the

community

are

named

in

Latin, Isac de

Magis and Simon Luster.

It

can be identified with individuals

Whether these otherwise known must be

is

determined from other sources.

that the censor,

interesting to note

David Loly, bears a name constantly

Trieste. recurring in the well-known LoUi family of

" Quoted by

Gratz^ ^Leipzig. 1891), vol. IX. p. 262.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

The Internatio7ial Bible Dictionary. Based on Wm. Smith's onevolume work. Edited by F. N. Peloubet, D.D., assisted by Alice D. Adams, M.A.
Philadelphia:

The John

C.

Winston Company,

[1912], pp. 799.

Sir William Smith's Dictionary of the Bible {\Z^o-^)\n four volumes was condensed by himself into a concise one-volume edition, which was revised for the American public more than

a quarter of a century ago by the principal editor of the present work. The latter, while based on the older publication of 1881, is to a large extent a new book, having been re-written and
enlarged,

and embodying the

results

of ^the most recent and

that

accepted research'.

The

editors

aver

'every article has

been tested by the best and most modern authority, and there is scarcely an article which has not been changed in some
respect, while in many cases the changes have been great and important, or the articles wholly re-written'. Naturally in a concise Bible Dictionary, which is intended for Sunday school teachers and the laity, long discussions are out of place. Questions

which are
still
'

still

under debate
',

or,

as the Preface expresses

it,

are

in the melting-pot

have been entirely ignored.

articles contain chiefly

The

truth

IS

that for the

most part the

any kind.

the Bible

material arranged in order

at criticism of

and systematized without much attempt

work
it

will

It is perhaps for this reason that the prove eminently useful for the class ot readers for whom

has been designed.

VOL.

IV.

249

250

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

By John Sutherland London: Adam and

The Life of William Robertson Smith. Black and George Chrystal.

Charles Black, mcmxii.

Lectures

pp. ix

+ 638.

Edited by and Essays of William Robertson Smith. Chrystal. London John Sutherland Black and George

Adam and Charles Black,

The
work.
interest in Bible workers
is

mcmxii.

pp. xii

+ 622.

a bye-product of that in Bible

and master builders of the modern most part submerged in their science of the Bible are for the mediMen of the type of Lagarde who in a somewhat books.

The

great pathfinders

of literary productions the thread aeval fashion weave into their Yet even in the case the exception. the personal and human are wife, who shared with his Life, from the pen of his of Lagarde, and above all his scholarly

him

his struggles

and

his honours,

notice the aims and ambitions, brings to our

scholar, the
less

man behind

the

man

prejudices no with his foibles and faults and

William Robertson investigator. than the great and patient In a short Bible students. Smith is a name familiar enough to several monumental vicissitudes, he gave to the world
life

full

of

volumes which

will live

after

him.

His biography, the work

friends, makes exceedingly interestmg of two lifelong and devoted There is enough of the typical in the reading.

and
life

profitable

of

W. R. Smith
the personal

to
is

engage the attention of the historian to

whom

perchance of small moment. It is true, the stirring days of the 'libel' heresy trials have multiplied since his theological chair ; we can which drove out W. R. Smith from own generation that are within the memory of our
recall several

the battle for

academic freedom in theological schools

is

well-

of criticism are not only freely nigh won, and the teachings nowadays encouraged to the promulgated but, it would seem, are that It may perhaps be avowed the opposite views.

exclusion of

the conservative teacher

is

quite often in our

own day

shut out

which are against the prefrom the free expression of opinions first of its Smith's heresy trial, however, was the fashion.
vailing

kind.*

It

aroused

at

the time world-wide interest.

Forced out

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

251

of a career for conscience' sake, Smith was nobly and generously

assisted

by

friends.

He

accepted only half of the

'

gift

it

placed

him

in a position to enlarge his library, to

buy books

',

and thus

to prepare himself for the Arabic chair at

Cambridge, which he

came

to

hold after the death of William Wright.

course, he

had
fifty

to be satisfied with a

At first, of mere readership to which

a salary of

pounds a year was attached.

it

The

appointing

authorities found
'

necessary to ascertain whether the gentleman

'

under a theological cloud was

at least a Christian.

Testimonials
in

as to the fitness of the future author of Kiiiship

and Marriage

Early Arabia came from world-renowned Semitists on the continent. Nature had not endowed him with a robust physique, and
his life

was cut short

at fifty, after years of suffering.

He

never

ceased to work.

Beside his great books, he found time and

energy to engage in the editorial work connected with the ninth

edition of the Encyclopaedia Briiannica

and

to contribute a great

number of
Biblica.

articles

himself.

He

planned

the

Encyclopaedia

Though
his

his

fame

will rest

on
to

his four great works,

he

made

in

early life contributions

mathematics and the

together in the com-

science of physics which are

now gathered

panion volume containing his Lectures and Essays.

contains, besides, theological

The volume
will

and Oriental essays which

be

read with interest by

all

those

who know Smith from

his

more

monumental works.
*

Of

capital importance are

'

Animal Tribes

in the

Old Testament

his papers on and the two reviews of

in the

Wellhausen and Renan.

interesting reading.

The 'Journey

Hejaz

'

affords

Nieuw licht over het Oude Testament. Van Dr. G. Wildeboer, hoogleerar F. BoHN, igii. pp. xi + 312.

Verspreide opstellen.
te

Leiden.

Haarlem

Stand und Aiifgabe der Alttestamentiichen

Gegenwart.
der Universitat Bern

IVissenschqft in

der

Rektoratsrede gehalten an der 77. Stiftungsfeier

am

25.
:

November

191

1.

Von

Professor
pp. 27.

D.

Karl Martl

Bern

Max

Drechsel, 191 2.

Ci

252
The
Scientific

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Study of the Old Testament.
Its principal results,

and

their bearing

upon

religious instruction.

By

Dr.

Rudolf

of Leipzig, Germany. KiTTEL, Professor at the University Ph.D. With eleven Translated by J. Caleb Hughes, M.A., New York G. P. Putnam & text. and sketches in the
plates
:

Sons, 1910.

pp.

xvi+301.

Israel. History of the Literature of Ancient

times to 135 B.C.

Professor
University.
pp. xiv

From the Thatcher Fowler, By Henry

Literature
:

earliest

Ph.D.,

of

Bibhcal

and

History

in

Brown
1912.

New York

The Macmillan Company,

+ 392.
in das Alte

Zur Einleitung
Cornill.

Testament.
C. B.

Tubingen

J.

Von Carl Heinrich Mohr, 1912. PP- 124. Von

Prof. Dr. E. Sellin.

Zur Einleitung
Leipzig:

in das Alte Testament.

Schrift C. H. Cornills. Fine Erwiderung auf die gleichnamige

Quelle & Meyer,

1912.

pp.

iii

+ 105.

of an Introduction into G. Wildeboer, the well-known author and of The Origin the Old Testament (German translation, 1895) (English translation, 1895), of the Canon of the Old Testament Commentary on Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Esther as well as of a
in

Marti's series (1897-8),

passed away Sept.

4,

iQ^^

i^ his

fifty-sixth year.

191

1.

New
and

in this

The volume before us was concluded in April, the collection of essays is the translation of
embodying
emendations

thirty-second
Ehrlich,
tential

Psalm

borrowed

from

Psalms.

penichosen as a counterpart to the Babylonian other essays which have been all previously

The

printed deal in a dignified popular

manner with a number of

While such subjects questions more or less recently debated. the popular religion, the as the relation of the Jahveh religion to

Amarna

Babel and Bible, the Hammurabi Code, specifiTestament patriarchs cally the Hammurabi Code and the Old
tablets,

have been discussed by others

at great length,

and

will

not so

for the sober point readily claim the reader's attention except approached, there is an element of view from which the topics are

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

of freshness
in

MARGOLIS

253

the essays on recent excavations in

Palestine

where the
biblical

results in their bearing

upon

biblical history

and the
status

religion are interestingly presented,

in Israel

and on the

wherein a remark of Stade's that the Jahveh religion was essentially a masculine religion is successfully refuted.
Antifeministic tendencies

of

woman

but the Bible as a whole

attitude to
in

may be traced in post-exilic Judaism, may be exculpated from any disrespectful

is

woman.

Nay, the reverse

true that

woman

is

held

high honour in the Scriptures.

Scholars will be most interested

2,

in the introductory essay,

an inaugural lecture delivered October

the

1907,

when

the author succeeded to the chair of the

in

Hebrew

Language and Archaeology

Faculty of Letters of the

University of Leiden, vacated by Oort.

The

lecture dealing with

is

the present status of the Old Testament problem

of a retrospect. of his
career

in the nature

While a younger man standing

will

at the

beginning

indulge in a programme of future visions,

a maturer
to

man

with an established reputation will take occasion

lies

sum up

a period which

behind him.
past

After an historical

survey of the labours

of the

generation represented by

masters of the type of Reuss, Graf,

the
lecturer

Kuenen, and Wellhausen,

proceeds to an analysis of the attacks upon the

criticism of

dominant Hterary
the type of

more recent
well

date.

Apologists of

meaning enough, but good intentions must be coupled with sound knowledge. More formidable are the attacks which have come from the quarters of
It has been said had Kuenen known of the Code of Hammurabi and the

James Robertson are

archaeologists of repute, notably Assyriologists.

that

Amarna

finds at the time

when he wrote

his

O^iderzoek he might

have arrived

at totally different conclusions.

Hommel

prophesies

the advent of a
will

new

era

when modern

criticism of the Pentateuch

attention.

be looked upon as antiquated and hardly worth while serious Wildeboer is far from denying that the results of
Babylonia, Egypt, and

archaeology, of excavations in Assyria,

Palestine have shed

new

light

on

biblical problems.
critics

He

is

also

ready to admit that the literary

sidedness.

have been guilty of onetradition

The

trustworthiness

of oral

which both

254

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

literary

preceded and followed the

compositions was not highly

enough appreciated.

The

fact that at

one and the same period

tendencies and cross-currents there^iiay have co-existed divergent argument ^luch, far too much was made of the

was

lost sight of.

from

silence.

of literary dependence,

assumption Similar phraseology led to the hasty and contradictions and incongruities to

the theory of interpolations.

We know now
of

that the literary

process

of,

let

us say, the

cated and lengthy one.

Book The date

Deuteronomy was a compliof composition

is

one thing,

and the date of the sources which

another.
It

ascend to oral tradition quite

may be

that the Priests'

Code

lay at the foundation

time the close it marked at the same of post-exilic Judaism, but pre-exilic development, the codification and summing up of the torot handed down by word of and systematization of priestly a critic as Stade makes use of the Priests

mouth.

So

radical

But Israel's ancient rehgion. Code to describe the conditions of in the provisions of Deut. 20. 5-8 Schwally is quite right in seeing instead of regarding the passage remnants of very ancient customs, It is vain, however, to interpolation. with Wellhausen as a late Babylonia and Egypt as exin point to monotheistic currents
planatory of Jewish monotheism.

of solving the riddle

how

it

Wellhausen long ago despaired was that the God of Israel alone, and

not the gods of

Moab and

the neighbouring peoples,

became the
Surely the

God

of justice, the Creator of heaven

and

earth.

operated there as well as in influences from Babylonia and Egypt school There is much to be conceded to Gunkel and his Israel.
that

Wellhausen
era,
is

being according to the prophetic eschatology, instead of apocalyptic a reflex of later times opening up the
in point

of fact older than the prophets.

to

Gressmann's

monograph deserves

be

taken seriously.
It

Literary criticism
it

has been too facile with dates.

to the exact time in history

believed that

could point

had

its

birth.

Literary

when a certain religious conception criticism may learn from the newer com-

parative method.

of the

But we must guard against the extravagances To regard with Winckler the prophets Pan-Babylonists.

service of Babylon, and the of Israel as political agents in the


RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE
Trinity as
'

MARGOLIS
',

255
or with

the unity of the three great constellations

in the lives of the patriarchs reflex

Jensen to see

and prophets, nay,

life

even of Jesus, nothing but a

of the

of Gilgamesh,
in

means

to

ask of every non-Assyriologist a faith

the

all-

sufficiency of the comparative

method which he cannot and

us

will

not have.
generation
fact that

What
is

distinguishes

from the

men

of the past

not so

much
is

a shifting of principles as merely the

we have a

richer array of facts at our

command and
light
will
still

that

our circle of vision

enlarged.
;

The newer
other respects

prevent

us from one-sidedness

in

all

we
say,

continue

on the road opened up by the disciples of Reuss.

Marti's
'

Rektoratsrede

',

or,

as

we should

'

presidential

address
is

',

offers

many

parallels to the essay just sketched.

There

the

same

insistence

on the cogency of the

the

results of the

historico-critical

school,

same

resolute

brushing

aside

of

pan-Babylonist vagaries.
'

Far from counselling an Old Testament

myopia

'

which

will

exclude the light which comes from

many
him

quarters,

he

is

emphatic in urging upon the student of the

Scriptures a degree of independence which will safeguard

against sacrificing the unique character of the religion of Israel to

the analogy of foreign standards.

against

Marti

may be

a bit too severe

assent to

Gunkel and

his school, but

we cannot but
is

him

in his critique of that

method which on the

great

basis of
in

meagre

analogy pronounces everything that

religion to

the Scriptural

be a

reflex of extraneous conceptions.

bit of satire

Nor

is

Marti

wrong when with a

he avers that the Pan-Babylonism

of Winckler and Jensen has given way to a species of Pan-

Germanism whose

protagonists

are

dilettanti

of the

type

of

Chamberlain, but also serious scholars of

whom

a greater stability

of judgement and less proneness to sensational theories might

with reason be expected.

Bewildered as the layman naturally

is

by the theories con-

cerning the origin of Israel's religion and literature, which

their

make

way from learned publications

due course turn

into the daily newspaper

is

sometimes the road

he
will

to the popular press

much

shorter one
for

in

to

sober-minded scholars

an

256
authoritative
cally certain.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

pronouncement on what may be accepted as
scientifi-

To
will

all

such inquirers

after the truth as

to the

results of the scientific study of the

Kittel's

volume

prove indeed welcome.

Old Testament, Professor The volume had its

of the Ministry
instruction

origin in a course of six lectures delivered before the elementary

school teachers

in

Saxony

at the request

of

Education and Public Worship.

Religious
felt

being

compulsory

in the schools,

it

was

by the government that the

an expert

teachers should

come

in direct contact with

who might

results of the modern study tell them what are the authentic Testament with which the elementary instruction in of the Old

the schools would require to be harmonized.

The author

starts

out with a query as to what

is

really meant by authentic results.

He
first

distinguishes various degrees of certainty.

certainty of the

degree

is

based upon documentary evidence; a certainty

of the second degree amounting to a likely probability results from documents which are ambiguous or incomplete, for in the
elucidation of obscurities or the filling up of gaps an element

of subjectivity necessarily enters

the

same

is

true of

documents
;

which are remote

if

in

time from the events narrated in them

the interval of time between the events and the documents

describing

them

is far

too great,

we have a

certainty of the third

dec^ree resting upon hypotheses which are naturally of the subjective

kind with various degrees of

;

plausibility.
;

Hypotheses have
it is

their justification

they are indispensable

rest

but

well to

know

the data

upon which they

a

and the
it

line of reasoning

by which

they are reached.

Above

all,

is

important

to

distinguish

between

theory widely accepted

and a proposition

which

scholars hold as an individual opinion.

Throughout the volume,

whether discussing the results based upon excavation or those arrived at by literary criticism or historical research, Kittel maintains the
seize

same cautious conservative

are

attitude

which knows how to

cavil or doubt,

upon the elements which

beyond

and

discriminates between the

certain, probable,

and

possible.

The

reader will do well to read the supplement in which

some of the

questions which were put to the lecturer by his audience are

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

answered.
Kittel

MARGOLIS

257

scientific specialist

on the whole keeps within the Hmits of the that much I know, but all the other things
:

do not come within my province.

When

confronted with a peda-

gogical question he pleads inexperience.

For though Kittel was engaged in teaching elementary and secondary classes at an
earlier period of his career, his pursuits

during his academic years

Nevertheless his answers

have been those of the investigator.

contain wise counsel.

The

teacher must possess tact.

He

must must

always
his

tell

the truth, but he must not raise questions of doubt on

own

account.

He

must be above
is

all

positive.

He

never forget that his province

but religion.
strongly

not to teach criticism or history,

And the same applies to the preacher. Kittel condemns the tendencies in certain quarters which are
Old Testament from the
schools.

directed towards the exclusion of the

religious instruction in Christian

He

falls

back upon

the idea of progressive revelation to explain the inferior standards of morality which Christians are wont to find in the Old Testament
religion.

Fowler presents a survey of the

chronological

literature of ancient Israel in

order

within

the

framework of Jewish

history.

Naturally this

method imposes upon the author the

necessity

of committing himself to a definite opinion.

results of the

He

follows the

dominant school of

criticism.

Parts of the Scriptures

are placed in

Maccabean
and

times.

The

author has

made good
in

use of the

critical

historical literature.

He

writes

an

interesting style.

Copious extracts from the Scriptures are

illustration.

intro-

duced by way of
place.
Sellin's

Similar

productions from

the

cognate and other literatures of the world are given a prominent

'Introduction to the Old Testament

f.)

'

(see/QJ^.,

New
many

Series,

I,

550

is

made

the subject of a vigorous onslaught by

Cornill.

According

to Cornill, Sellin,

though adhering

to

critical results, is

on the whole biased

in favour of assigning to
earliest dates

the literary productions of the

possible.

Old Testament the

The tendency

is

a pronounced apologetic one.

Cornill

takes

it

that the apologete's

weapons are aimed

at himself, the

258

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

author of a well-known Introduction which has gone through

many
of the

editions.

And

so he proceeds to examine in detail

Sellin

some
this

more important propositions of

It

and

to controvert

them.

cannot be our province to enter into the details of

Suffice
it

controversy.

to say that Cornill

and

Sellin represent

two different points of view

the joint labours of
is

for the definitive disposition of

which

the

Sellin more than two men will be required. more modern. He believes in Gunkel and Gressmann.

Cornill adheres to the literary criticism of the past generation.

The

future alone will decide

Sellin,
it

who

is

the winner in this clash of

opinions.

by the way, has answered Cornill in a brochure

of his own, and,

tone.

must be owned,
will

in a

calmer and

less

personal

There

is

The student much to be

do

well to give

them both a hearing.

learned from either.

Pentateuchal Studies.
Oberlin
:

By Harold M. Wiener, M.A., LL.B. Bibliothecw Sacra Company, 1912. pp. xvi + 353.

Textkritische

Materialien zur Hexateuchfrage.

Pfarrer in Freirachdorf (Westerwald).

Von Johannes
I.

Dahse,

Die Gottes-

namen

der Genesis.
:

Jakob und

Israel.

in Genesis 12-50.

Giessen

Alfred Topelmann,

19 12.

pp. viii+iSi. studie naar aanleiding

De

7iaam Gods in den Pentateuch.

Eene
vv.

en

tot toelichting

van Ex. 6
J.

Door Dr. A. Troelstra,

pp.
viii

Predikant.

Utrecht: G.
Studien.

A. Ruvs, 1912.

+ 77.

Alttestamentliche

Von

B.

D. Eerdmans,
IV.

ordentlicher
Leviticus.

Professor der Theologie in Leiden.

Das Buch
pp.

Giessen:
Tlie Antiquity

Alfred Topelmann,

19 12.

iv+144.

Pentateuchal Criticism.

of Hebrew Writing aftd Literature or Problems in By Alvin Sylvester Zerbe, Ph.D.,

D.D., Professor of Old Testament Criticism and Theology

in the Central Theological Seminary,

Dayton, Ohio.
pp. xxiv

Cleve-

land

Central Publishing House, 191 i.

+ 297.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

The Deciding

MARGOLIS

259

Voice of the Monuments in Biblical Criticism. By Melvin Grove Kyle, D.D., LL.D., Lecturer on Biblical

Archaeology, Xenia Theological Seminary.

Oberlin

Biblio-

THECA Sacra Company, 1912.

Wiener
of the
(see

pp. xvii
I,

+ 320.
f.),

JQR-,

Troelstra have this in

New common

Series,

561

Dahse,

and

that

they employ the weapons

lower or textual criticism to defeat the higher.

in

Thus

Wiener disposes of the anachronism

Gen.

22.
is

14 ('in the
the correct

mount where the Lord

'

is

seen

'

this,

of course,

rendering, see Dillmann) by adopting the Septuagintal rendering

In the mount the Lord was seen

"1lI3.

'

implying the pointing "1^3

is

in the place of
istic
:

But the Greek rendering

clearly har mon-

comp, Targum and Rashbam.

prefers the
for 'the

Nor can we
'

follow Wiener

when he
Amorite'

reading of the Peshitta,

',

the land of the

land of Moriah

22.2.

Aquila,

Symmachus,
'high land'
is

and Vulgate
a view to

certainly read

'Moriah' which they translate with

the Septuagint with
its

ver. 14.

Nor does
:

go back to a
rendered Gen.

different text
12.

with the same adjective ^ly^

11. 30.

6; Deut.
i

Moreover, there
I will

is

a play

on

'

Moriah

'

already in 12.

('

unto the land that

i-'^,

shew thee

JN"IN*').

To remove
is

the doublet, Gen. 21.

on the authority
is

of one lone Greek manuscript (n

contractions)

75 which

known

for its

hazardous.

This

is

one example of many.

On

the basis of omissions in certain manuscripts an element of the

Hebrew text is pronounced a Hebrew has been glossed nor

original Septuagint

gloss.

No

one

will

deny

that our

that omissions were found in the

filled

which the recensions have

up

after the

current Hebrew.

But the investigation cannot be carried on

ambulando.

In order to reconstruct the three or more recensions

of the Greek text an infinite

amount of labour

will

be found to
critically

be requisite.

Only when the recensions have been

it

reconstructed and placed in juxtaposition will

say,

be possible to

This was missing in the original Septuagint.

And

even then

a study will have to be

made

of the translator's mannerisms, not

the least being his exercise of harmonistic exegesis.

For a

diffi-

culty arising, as the critics believe, out of the welding together

26o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

smoothed

of parallel and slightly contradictory accounts can be

over by
this

many

a deft manipulation, notably

to the

by omissions.
so studiously
;

And
and
the
as

must be said with reference

lists

thoroughly elaborated by Wiener and Dahse

grateful
is

student must be for their painstaking labour, there

of isolation about them.
serve
to

an element
which

Out of the multitude of

divergence
of the

criteria

establish

the

recensions

and the
is

attitude of the translator to his text only

selected.
all

one or the other

Until the

lists

have been brought into association with

the other criteria of textual differentiation

we must

reserve

our judgement.
niiT 'jIN.
I
7.

Dahse discusses on pp. 11-13 the combination

have come to some conclusions and have also

have made a study of the subject with a view to

I

Joshua

7.

a few guesses.

Thus

have been considering the possibility that

in the original Septuagint the

at all

tetragrammaton was not translated

(as

but transcribed in

Hebrew

we know

to

have been the

manner not only of Aquila but

the

also

of Symmachus).

The
all

subsequent scribes either substituted Kvpios (the kere) or ignored

Hebrew

altogether.

Thus we may not be

sure at

that

an omission goes back to the original translator.

Origen supplied the omission
;

To

be sure,

but that merely proves that the

omission was found in the current manuscripts of the Septuagint,

not
necessarily
7.

that

it

dates

from the translator's copy.

KvpLe.

In

Joshua

Origen indeed added a second

His

text
is

must
still

have taUied with

far
I

B which

has Kvpu only once.

k

But that
our miT'

from saying that the translator wrote

left

for

""inN.

have

my

study for the present uncompleted because

in

I feel

that the

problem

Ezekiel,

despite

Cornill, requires a neat

edition of the recensions.

9.

To

say with

Dahse
is

that in

Deut.

26 the Greek presupposes a reading *]7D

to mistake the

paraphrastic character of the translation.

original
atojvwv
;

Oemv,

by the way,

is

the

next

corruption

was eOvwv which again led to

Wiener, operates with glosses in
is

(=

eoi'wv).

Dahse,

like

the Hebrew,

He

has an interesting theory that what

called

is

but the liturgical additions introduced by Ezra,

ancient text in a

who

thus

fitted the

manner

to

be

'

understanded of the

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

people
'.

MARGOLIS

261

With that theory goes a conjecture concerning the

Troelstra intersperses

division of the text into pericopes {sedarim).

his treatise

on the name of God

in the

Pentateuch with instances

of difficulties which
textual criticism.
(priests

may be

got out of the

way by recourse

to

Thus

the anachronism in Exod. 19. 22, 24

their institution,
:

mentioned before

Exod. 28)

is

disposed

of by citing Aquila's rendering

elders.

Troelstra (with

whom

Wiener coincides) would have us believe that Aquila read D^^pT, which is the original of which D^:n3 is a corruption due to scribal
carelessness.
It
is

safe

to

say

that

Aquila read

D"'jn3
'

for
',

harmonistic purposes he gave the word the meaning of

just as the

elder

Talmud

believes that the

'

firstborn

'

are meant.

But

Troelstra paves the divine

way

for distrusting the

text,

correctness of the
for

names

in the

Masoretic

and thus

undermining

the Astruc theory of composite redaction. shares

So much Troelstra

lists he relies and now with What is peculiar to him is his exegesis of Exod. 6. 2. Not the name Jahveh is new^ for men had known of it since the days of Enosh but new is the formula I am Jahveh For

with Wiener upon whose

Dahse.

'

'.

the

first

time in His relations with Israel does

of that formula.

Whereas

to the patriarchs

God make use God offered His

Omnipotence (El Shaddai)

promises,

as a pledge for the fulfilment of His

He now

presents to the oppressed people His constant

It
is

faithfulness as surety.
for then

not the question of a mere

name

God
far

should have

said, I

appeared unto Abraham, Isaac,

the antithesis to
;

and Jacob
Both are

as Elohim.

Jahveh

is

El

Shaddai.

from being proper names

It
is

they are appellatives with

find the formula 'I
13).

a significant meaning.

true,

we

am

Jahveh' twice

in

Genesis (15.

7;

28.

In

both cases,

according to Troelstra, the Septuagint proves that the tetragram-

maton

written originally with one or two yods

""JN.

(''

or

"')

represents

a dittogram of the closing yod of

Wiener devotes several chapters

to

the subjects of Priests

and

Levites, the

High

Priest,

and the Endowment of the Clergy.

of the

In the fourth part of his Alttestameiitliche Studien (see JQR-.

New

Series,

I^

554

ff.)

Eerdmans submits the views

262

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

criticism
to a searching review

dominant school of

concerning
well

the composition of the

the whole of Leviticus

Book
is

of Leviticus.

As

is

known,

assigned by the

critics

to the Priests'

Code

(P),

specifically

to

an older

source

(H,

the

Law

of

Holiness, comprising chapters 17-26, but also stray matter in the rest of the book) written in the exile after Ezekiel's time,

and

to the

more
still

recent

document

(the

groundwork of P) of

post-exilic

date Avith a

number

of supplements from the same

the side of the history of the

school but of

later date.

On
it is

development of

religious ideas,

maintained that Deuteronomy

was followed by Ezekiel, Ezekiel by the Law of Holiness, and

the

Law
it

of Holiness by the Priests' Code.

While here and

there

is

conceded that the compilers have incorporated many

it

a description of the ritual as

was

in

vogue

in pre-exilic times,

on the whole

it

is

averred that the priestly writer draws largely

upon

his

own
and

imagination, that he has in view not the past but

that

the future,

he theorizes on the past so as to bring

is

it

into

accord with the practices of which he

an eyewitness. Eerdmans

minutely analyses the whole of Leviticus on the literary and

historical
sides.

He comes

to the
17,

conclusion

that

no

fresh

document commences
is

at chapter

and

that the

whole book

the work of one

and the same hand.

Only
7
is

in chapters

8-10
traces

and in a few pericopes of chapters 6 and

of post-exilic literary activity.
pre-exilic.

may be found

The

rest

homogeneous and
Just as the

Leviticus

is

anterior to

Deuteronomy.

Deuteronomic Code formed the basis of the Josianic reform,

so was Leviticus the substratum of the reform under Hezekiah
in

the

eighth century.

The

material there

is

much

older than the

compiler who added

references
to the

here and
cult

a few touches like the

Melech

with a view to his

own

times.

In this period of religious revival

many

old and almost forgotten

laws, as those referring to the jubilee year

for the

and the ancient

rules

endowment

of the clergy, were brought once

more

to the

forefront.

had

in

The author that penned mind the deportation of a

5,

the concluding speech 26. 3-46

portion of the population East
Israel.

of the Jordan (i Chron.

26)

and of Northern

Accord-

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

263

mgly, the altar of incense reflects the conditions in the Solomonic

temple

in fact,

Eerdmans makes

it

plausible that the golden

altar as little as

the ark had a place in the post-exilic temple.

The

high-priesthood was

a pre-exilic

institution.

The
their

priests

already in pre-exilic times claimed descent from Aaron.

Wiener
main

and Eerdmans have much

historical conclusions go, but in a

in

common

so

far as

Eerdmans pursues
Whether
not,

his investigation

more calm and

dignified tone.

his theories will

commend
is

themselves to

scholars

or

no student of the
judgement, and

Pentateuchal problem can pass by this latest contribution which

replete with
in

sound exegetical and

illustration

historical

abounds

parallel

from

the whole range of the

history of religion.

In order to vindicate the essentially Mosaic origin of the

Pentateuch, Zerbe devotes the greater part of his work to a discussion of the
rise

and development of the Phoenician alphabet.

completed form as early

The
as

latter, it is

reasoned on the basis of the evidence obtainable

its

from epigraphy, must have reached 1500 B.C.

According to the author, the problem of the

Pentateuch hinges,
'

origin of the

not on a priori and

alike

critical

analysis of the contents (the

tives

method pursued
in the

by conserva-

and

radicals),

but on the prior question of the language and

script

employed by the Hebrews

Mosaic and pre-Davidic

their

periods, or,

more

specifically,
'.

on the date of

adoption of
with

the

Phoenician alphabet

The book
believe,

is

written

much
to

learning

and
is

skill,

but,

we

the importance of internal

evidence

not

sufficiently

estimated

with

reference

the

problems of date and composition.

The

bearings of archaeology on the critical questions are the

subject of Professor Kyle's work.

Driver and George

Adam

Smith come

in for

most of the

criticism,

and the fourteenth

foreground of the

chapter of Genesis seems

controversy.
to say

to stand in

the

renewed investigation of what archaeology has

on the

intricate questions of criticism

would indeed be
Instead, the author

timely.

But then a minute discussion of points of detail with

references to the sources

would be

in place.

264
appears

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

to have rather had in mind the general question about which of course there can be no difference of opinion

among
subject

all
is

seekers
likely to

after

truth.

The

reader interested in the

Kittel's work,

learn more from

is

referred to

above, where the material

placed at our disposal in a judicious

and

lucid manner.

History of Civilization in Palestine.

M.A., F.S.A.
pp. viii+ 139.

Cambridge

at the

By R. A. S. Macalister, University Press, 1912.

Mountains of the

By J. J. Summerbell. Boston man, French & Company, 1912. pp. vii + 86.
Bible.

Sher-

Life

and Times of

the

Patriarchs,
'

Abraham,

Isaac,

and

Jacob.
'.

By The Land and the Book William Hanna Thomson, M.D., LL.D. With illustraBeing a supplement to
tions

furnished

by

the

author.
2.

New York

Funk &

Wagnalls Company,

191

pp. 285.

Diefiidischen Exulanten in Babylonien.

Lie. Theol.

Von Erich Klamroth,

pp. v-f 107.

Leipzig:
is

J.

Hinrichs, 1912.

While the war

criticism,

raging about the verdict of archaeology on

we

are eager to listen to one

digging.

who has

himself been

on the spot and done the actual

Gezer (Professor Macalister)
to
in

But the excavator of

Palestine

the booklet before us sets out

of

narrate

the

successive

civilizations

from

the

prehistoric

man down
built

to the as
it

Young Turks.

Fascinating as this

narrative
logist,
it

is
is

and showing

does the hand of a master archaeo-

up

to a large extent

upon the

results of literary

criticism

and

rests

upon

theories

which

to say

the

least

are

debatable.
Palestine
is

In materialistic

civilization,

the arts and the crafts,

;

pronounced a perpetual borrower

even the so-called

religion of Israel

Phoenician alphabet came from Crete.

develops from polydaemonism to

The

henotheism
a miracle

and thence

to

monotheism.

But the process

is

pure and simple

considering the inferiority of the race in works of civilization.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

The Siloam

MARGOLIS

265

tunnelling was a poor piece of work

compared with

the Gezer tunnel antedating the arrival of the Hebrews.

writer's objection to the

The

Jewish re-peopling of Palestine

should be taken as a personal opinion.

The

(p. 93) subject does not

come

within the province of archaeology.

offers

Mr. Summerbell

himself as a guide on a

trip

to the

His descriptions into which the history and momentous happenings are woven with skill rest on the study of books and maps rather than on personal observation.

mountains of the Bible.

'The Land and the Book' by the

is

late

Rev. William

Thomson
;

a well-known book.
personal

His son
while

relates in

an additional volume
with
his father

his

experiences

travelling

by

means of them he endeavours

of the patriarchs.

to

shed

light

on the past

history

Klamroth's monograph on the Jewish exiles in Babylonia

a praiseworthy effort to put together

is

the scanty data bearing

upon the
in

political

and economic condition of the expatriated

Jews representing the material basis for the spiritual evolution

religion

and morals.

The monuments

offer

but

meagre
;

references to the facts claiming the investigator's interest

indirectly they are of great service,

but

and analogy

steps in

where

direct evidence

is

wanting.

The aim

of deporting entire national

bodies the author finds to have been none other than a measure
dictated by imperial prudence for the levelling of national distinctions

and the creation of a homogeneous

nationalities
to

citizenry out of the

mass of warring
of his

and

races.
first

Klamroth has a theory

deportation
(the

own according
but even the
It

which the

one

which preceded the

stages
;

final

deportation in 586) was effected in two

final

deportation was followed by another

in 582.

was a

political
in

blunder on the part of the Babylonian

failed

king,

it is

maintained

agreement with Winckler, that he

deserted land

to throw

into the wellnigh

of Judah a foreign

body of people from some quarter of the empire.

Jews
land
;

Thus

the

settled in Babylonia kept

it

up a longing

for the old

home-

was that that warded

off the fate that

all

had befallen the

re-nationaliza-

Israelitish exiles

who, having given up

hope of

VOL.

IV.

266
tion, lost

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

themselves completely in their new environment.
settled

The

Jewish exiles were

in

country

districts.

They were
lot

scattered so as to form isolated

communities a process which

destruction.
'

was

to

facilitate
;

their national

Their

was an

they were by no means They were subject to all sorts of imposts. Nor was their land an communal autonomy regulated by law. If it existed, it was The college of elders may have maintained internal matter.

unenviable one
'.

free citizens in a free

'

'

itself in

the Golah, but

it

had no

jurisdiction granted to

it

by the

state.

The economic conditions were of the poorest

some
of
assimilation

sort,

though

naturally in the course of time

individuals rose to affluence.

in language

Slowly but inevitably the process

(the

Aramaic) and manners was enacted.

Some

stripped

off

all vestiges of Jewish nationality

and became merged with

their

neighbours.

Others at least

outwardly (in the assumption of

were Babylonian names) imitated the population by which they there was room for surrounded. The nation was dead at best
;

of the nation a religious community which rose on the grave Prophets and leaders arose to sustain the courage (Wellhausen).

of the exiles

when

the empire was nearing

its

collapse,

and a new

conqueror was preparing for mastery over Babylon.

The

syna-

gogue was a creation of the

regeneration and

exile.

In

it

the scribes and teachers

exhorted and taught the people.

Withal the process of religious

communal
'

organization remains obscure

and

the 'rise of Judaism

still

unexplained.

The

Scholastic

View of Biblical Inspiration.

of

(Reprinted from the

1.)

Irish Theological Quarterly, July, 191

O.P.,

By Hugh Pope,

S.T.M.,

Prof,

Collegio
1912.

Angelico,

Rome.

New Testament Exegesis in the Rome: Riccardo Garroni,

pp. 52.
the

The Ethics of

Professor of

Old Testament. By Hinckley G. Mitchell, Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis in Tufts Edited by {Handbooks of Ethics and Religion. College. The University of Chicago Shailer Mathews.) Chicago
:

Press, 191

2.

pp. x

+ 417.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

Bibel iind Naturwissenschaff.
Naturforschers.

267
eines

Gedanken und Bekenntnisse

Halle
^fose

a. S.

Von Professor Dr. phil. E. Dexnert. Richard Muhlmann, 191 i. pp. lxi + 321.
Nebst einem Anhang
Brill, 1912.
liber

und

die iv-yptische Mythologie.

Simson.
in

Von

Dr.

Daniel Volter,
J.

Professor der Theologie

pp. 59.

Amsterdam.
Zeit.

Leiden: E.

Mose und seine

Ein Kommentar zu den Mose-Sagen.

a.-o.

Von

Hugo Gressmann,
Universitat zu Berlin.

Professor der Theologie

einer Doppelkarte

an der

j\Iit

von

Paliistina

und der Sinai-Halbinsel.

Gottingen

Vandenhoeck &

Ruprecht, 1913.

pp.
is,

viii

+ 485.

The

scholastic, that

Thomistic, view of biblical inspiration

in a divine illumination which enables the recipient to pass judgement, authoritative judgement, upon matters received either naturally or supernaturally. If received supernaturally, then we are dealing with the prophecy of the highest order. Supernatural facts are necessarily revealed.

consists according to

Pope

But

an inspired
revealed.

biblical author

may

deal with matter not necessarily

The

authority then attaches to the judgements pro-

nounced upon them.

man's
is

The author
'

of the judgement

is

God;

only instrumental authorship.

Ethics of the Old Testament
'

Professor Mitchell's

proceeds

along the lines of the

and dating of the biblical literature, and in a chronological framework outlines in each given author or document the contribution to ethics. It might
critical analysis

have been advisable

in a

summary

at the

end of the book

to

put together the total content of ethical teaching in the Bible. Professor Dennert is a believing Christian of the orthodox type. But he speaks as a student of science. His general discussion of the nature of scientific hypothesis which has its
counterpart in what
or religion,
conflicts
is

called a
his

dogma

in the

realm of theology

as

well as

specific

treatment of the supposed

between science and

religion, are
all

recommended

to the

closest attention

on the part of

such as are perplexed by

the weighty problems under discussion.

T 2

268
In his

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

treatise

on :Moses and Egyptian mythology Professor

Volter defends against

(see

Erman
I,

his previously

published theory

569) that Moses and Samson represent humanized deities whose originals may be found in Egyptian mythology. Moses is Thot and Samson is Ra.

JQR., New

Series,

Gressmann's volume on Moses and

his times

makes

fascinating

his reading, no matter what one may think of his method or pupil of Gunkel's, the method As is becoming a conclusions.
is

that

of

comparative

literature

{lUerargeschichtlich)

grafted

upon the older method of literary criticism {Jiterarkritiscli). The Wellhausen analysis into J and E and P inherited from the
school maintains
its

force throughout

but in addition the original

in

legends both in

their isolation

and

their

concatenation to

literary legend clusters, long antedating in oral transmission the analysis which takes are submitted to a penetrating

documents,
its

cues from diversity of

artistic
;

form

{^Stil).

Intrinsic merits

decide the antiquity of a legend

sometimes J and sometimes

may have

retained the

more archaic form.

poetic.

The

oldest literary

form of the legend was A real epic in poetry embracing a long period never existed. given were songs given to definite episodes. Some were

But few remnants are extant.

There

to the celebration of heroes,

some were

descriptive

there were

While none of the songs of victory and hymns to the Deity. poems extant may be ascribed to Moses, a few may be assigned
to

So the song of the well (Num. 21. 17 f.), the ark conceived song of Miriam (Exod. 15. 21), the song of the
Mosaic times.
as

an empty throne (Num.

17. 16

10.

35

ff.),

the song of the standard

(Exod.

wth

D3 for D2), Aaron's blessing

(Num.

6.

24-6),

which in

its tripartite

form has

its

analogy in Babylonian invoca-

tions of divine triads.

As

for the prose legends

which predominate,

betray Egyptian the bulk is of Israelitish origin, though some historical results both of the Midianite antecedents. The

and

secular
sort are

{profangeschichtlkh)

and

religious
skill

{religionsgeschichilicli)

summed up

with great
first

The Habiru

represent the

end of the volume. tremendous wave of Aramaic

at the

migration in Canaan.

They

are the Hebrews,

and

their

advent

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

in Palestine dates

MARGOLIS
A
my

269

from the year 1400

b. c.

second and milder

father') overlater.

wave of Arameans ('a wandering Aramean was

spread specifically the south of the country a century

They

were domiciled as semi-nomads in the Negeb and the desert of From thence they drifted into Goshen. The sojourn Judah.

Egypt lasted about half a century, and the exodus took place about 1260. The Red Sea was crossed at the gulf of Akaba,
in

and
the

Sinai, a volcanic

mountain,
to Arabia.

is

the road from

Edom

to be sought in Midian on At Kadesh Moses instituted

worship of Jahveh,

a volcanic

deity

borrowed from the

Midianites.

Jethro was Closes' teacher.

The

passage through

the

Red Sea was accompanied by

a volcanic manifestation which

won over

the people, hitherto given to a polytheistic worship of

various Elim, to the service of Jahveh.

The ground

for

mono-

theism was

laid,

though

at first

it

was
is

in the

form of monolatry.
the older and
is,

The

Decalogue of Exod. 20
It

after all
in

moreover, of Mosaic origin.

religion.

fits

well

with the Mosaic

The

inculcation of monolatry, the prohibition of images

and of the magic misuse of the name of God, the institution of the sabbath all are a creation of the man who led the people out of Egypt and won them for the new God who from a local
Midianite deity became the
is

God

of Israel.

The

religion of Israel

the work of Moses.

Moses and the prophets

that

is

indeed

the true order, not the reverse.

Hebraisclie

Grammatik.

Von Arthur Ungnad,

den hebrdischen Unterricht.
1912.
pp. xii-f 201.

Dr.

phil.,

Professor der orientalischen

Jena.
(^Hilfsbiicher filr
J.

Philologie an der Universitat

Band

I.)

Tubingen:

C. B.

Mohr,

Praktische EiiifUhrung in die hebrdische Lektiire des Alien Testaments.

Von Arthur Ungnad. Tubingen

pp. iv

J.

C. B.

Mohr,

1912.

+ 63.
Grammar.
With
examples

The

Principles

of Hebrew

and

exercises for the use of students.

By

the Rev. D. Tyssil

Evans, M.A., B.Sc, Lecturer

in Semitic

Languages

at the

270

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

University
Cardiff.

College
Part
I.

of South

^Vales

and Monmouthshire,

Signs and Sounds.

Co.,

Words and
191
2.

their

Inflections.

London: Luzac &

pp.

xvi

382

120*.

Florilegium Hebraician.

Locos selectos librorum Veteris Testaet disciplinae

menti in usum scholarum

appendice
Professor in

domesticae adiuncta

quinquepartita

edidit

Dr.

Hub. Lindemann,
Friburgi

Gymnasio Trium Regum Coloniensi.

Brisgoviae: B.

Herder, r^ICMXII.

pp. xii

+ 215.
AVith
J.

The Book of Ruth.

full

literal translation

from the Hebrew.

grammatical
S.J.

notes

and vocabularies.
1912.

By R. H.

Steu.\rt,

London: David NuTT,

the Alphabet.

pp. vii+ioS.

The Formation of

By W.

^l.

Flinders Petrie.

London: ]\L\cmillan &

Co., 1912.

pp.

iv+ 20 + plates IX.

Research into the

Origin

of the

Third Personal Pronoun

its

Epicene in the Pentateuch and

Connexion

tvith

Semitic

A contribution to philoand Indo-European Languages. By J. Iverach Munro, M.A. London: logical science.
Henry Frowde,
191 2.
pp. 32.

De poesi

Hebraeorum

in Veteri Testamento cofiservata.

In usum
altera,

scholarum.

Auctore V. Zapletal,
Friburgi Helvetiorum
1
:

O.P.

Editio

emendata.

sumptibus Bibliopolae
pp. 46.

Universitatis (O. Gschwend),

91 2.

The Early Poetry of Israel in its Physical and Social Origins. (The By George Adam Smith, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D.
Schweich Lectures.
1912.
pp.
1910.)

London: Henry Frowde,

xi+

102.

The Poets of the Old Testament. By Alex. R. Gordon, D.Litt., D.D., Professor of Old Testament Literature, Presbyterian New York: Hodder & Stoughton, College, Montreal.
1912.
pp.
xiii

+ 368.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

IVurzelforsc/iungen
zie

MARGOLIS
der

27I Ruhe.
1912.

den

hebrdischen

Syfionyjnen

Von
pp.

Dr. Julius

Cohen.

Berlin

M. Poppelauer,

vii

+ S5.
Hebretv

Ungnad's

Grammar

is

intermediate

between the

small manual in which the rules are set forth with a mechanical

dryness and the large

grammar which overwhelms the student

Moreover, the author believes that
fail

by

its

fullness of material.

even the comprehensive text-books

to

come up

to the require-

ments of the present

Accordingly, what
is

state

of comparative

Semitic grammar.

aimed

at is a delineation of the principal

factors in the structure of the

Hebrew language and

the sub-

sumption of the

linguistic

phenomena under

the heads of either

is

phonetic law or analogy.

While the comparative method

is

employed throughout,
requiring

it

not obtruded upon the student by

him
It

to

go through paradigms or forms of the cognate

expectation
to dispense

languages.
that his

may be doubted whether Ungnad's work will be used by learners who are forced

with the aid of a teacher will be realized.

With a competent

teacher to guide, any of the existing text-books

into the student's hands.

may be

placed

Ungnad's work
:

will naturally

recom-

mend
which

itself
is

on two sides
to date,

the

underlying comparative basis

up

and the numerous paradigms which occupy

a prominent place in the body of the book.

is

The

latter feature

highly praiseworthy, though

size.

it

is

not lacking in other text-

books of moderate

As

for the

comparative theories,
is

much
is

newer doctrine finds a

also a

place, but as debate

excluded there

good deal of questionable matter about which

scholars will
is

naturally differ.

The

parallel

and shorter work which

through-

out accompanied by references to the larger

for

beginners.

The method

is

inductive.

Grammar is intended The student begins

consist of a

immediately to read connected

texts.

They

number
other

of Psalms and of portions from the early chapters of Genesis.

The

author concedes that other texts

It

may be chosen by

teachers.

seems

to

me

that

it

is

possible to select texts which

illustrate the best

and

easiest prose writing

which are moreover

graded.

Every one

will

agree with the author that the student

272

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

start to consult

ought to be trained right from the

dictionary.

a standard

Steuart

has selected the short book of Ruth as an

inductive introduction to the study of

is

Hebrew Grammar.

There
ought

decidedly a merit even for a beginner to become thus acquainted

with one whole book of the Scriptures.

to

]\Iore serviceable

prove Lindemann's

Florilegiuin.

The
is

texts

are numerous,

representing

many

varieties

of style.

While the arrangement

follows the order of the Bible, there

no reason why the teacher

may
a

not vary the order to suit his

own method.
left

The

choice of

grammar

or

of

no grammar is

open.

In an appendix
for the

we

find several unpointed texts

which can be used

purpose

of testing the student's mastery of the nikkud; then specimens

from the Hebrew Ben

Sira,

on the whole correctly edited and

D^33 for DV33, D^np

vocalized (write, however,

for C'^no, script
"'T.'?'!

V^^p^y\ for HDiroi,

for

"'^'r'l),

the Siloam inscription in the original

and

in square transliteration, a

specimen
is

text of superlinear

vocalization together with a table

(it

a pity that a specimen

was not given of the

text in cursive.

'

third

'

system), and lastly a Jiidisch-Deutsch

Mr. Evans's Principles of Hebrew

Grammar

is

a pretentious
;

volume intended

for students in intermediate stages

it

stands

midway between Davidson and Kautzsch-Cowley. The author the shows familiarity with the problems of Hebrew grammar
;

rules are presented with a degree of fullness

and with clearness

ample exercises (Hebrew-English and English-Hebrew) are subjoined.

The hand

of the

experienced

teacher

may be

seen

throughout the volume.

the

Like Ungnad, the author intersperses

with

morphological

part

many

syntactical
is

observations,
in the

though a separate volume on the syntax

future.

promised

near

The
of finds

question as to the origin of

'

our

'

alphabet (the Phoenician

and Greek with

in

their ramifications) is

an old one.
to

On

the basis

ancient

Egypt belonging

times antedating the

hieroglyphs (pictorial writing), and of a renewed study of the

Iberian

and Karian systems of

writing, Professor Elinders Petrie

advances the theory that pictorial writing was preceded by a

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS
Whereas

273

system of signs with a conventionalized meaning, and that out

of
this

primitive

signary

arose

the

alphabet.

the

deviations from the assumed Phoenician prototype have hitherto

been explained as due

to

enlargement and corruption,

it

is

now
far

assumed

that 'a gradually

formed signary, spread by

thus happens that
in

traffic
it

and wide, was slowly contracted and systematized

reduced to a fixed alphabet'.
original
It

until

was

many

of the

signs

which were excised

in this

the Phoenician

alphabet

were retained
theory,
in

or the other

corner.

very interesting
is

part

premised by older investigators,

developed

concerning the primitive arrangement of the alphabet, and the

home

of this arrangement

is

located in Northern Syria.

In order to explain the form xin used in the Pentateuch both

for the masculine

and the feminine, Mr. Munro constructs a

primitive feminine of the third person singular hhva, which itself

goes back to hahva, and

still
is

more

primitively to haiivathum.

The

root

is

N*in

and the ai
is

the characteristic vowel of the

passive, just as

an
'

said to have

been the characteristic vowel

originally passives in ai'
will

of the active.
I

Piel

and Hiphil were

fear

that
;

the

theories

of the author

hardly meet with

much less is his method to be recommended. Whatever may be the true answer to the problem of the relationacceptance
ship of the Indo-European
will

and Semitic languages, the author

in his future treatises of

have

to

adopt a sounder method

is

which the present which

it

'a small instalment'.

it

As a contribution

to philological science
is

can only serve to discredit a science

ministered to by efforts like the present.

As a

curiosity

may

pass, but hardly as a

specimen of what English scholarship

has to say on comparative grammar.

Zapletal's treatise

on Hebrew poetry deals

in succinct

language

and by
put

well chosen examples with the uses to which poetry was

among

the ancient Hebrews, the metrical laws, the forms

of the metre, the strophic structure,

and other

artifices

of poetry

(rhyme, acrostic, refrain, alliteration, paronomasia, onomatopoeia).

With

Sievers

and others
of the

it is

assumed

that the final vowel of the

masculine

suffix

second person was not sounded, see

274

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

JBL., XXX (191 1), 43, note 57. But '^''nN is clearly impossible. Read 'ahaik {'ahalik). By Ear/y Poetry of Israel Principal George Adam Smith means 'all pieces which are generally and reasonably though

not always

conclusively
b. c.',

assigned
is

to the centuries
all

before the

eighth century

that

pretty nearly

of the

poems

or

poetic fragments incorporated in the historical books of the Bible

(Genesis

Kings).

Physical origins denote the formal side of

that poetry, language, structure,

and rhythms.
is

What
in

Zapletal has

condensed

in a few paragraphs

here,

owing to the exigencies

a

of a popular audience

(the

book reproduces

somewhat
forth
in
is

amplified form the Schweich Lectures for 19 10), set

detail

and with copious

illustration,

and the whole subject

a pleasure.

handled with a mastery which makes

the reading of the Lecture

It

which

treats of the externals of

Hebrew Poetry
is

may be observed
metres.

that

Smith speaks of rhythms rather than of

given to a delineation Early

But the bulk of the book

of the social conditions as revealed in

Hebrew

Poetry.

Here
from

the author brings to his subject a preparation resulting

his

own

personal acquaintance with the East, which in the

past has yielded the two great geographical (topographical) works

for

which the author

is

rightly famed.

There

is

one interesting

point which cannot

as the

fail

to arrest the reader's attention.

life

Much
of the

Hebrew

Scriptures have entered into the very

particularly the

Englishman and
felt

Scotchman, they are nevertheless

as something foreign, foreign in language, foreign in structure,

and

foreign in

the social conditions which they betray.

is

The

Hebrew

genius

of the East, and the East

lies

is

not the West.

Perhaps the main feature of the work

veil is lifted

just in this that the

from the Hebrew Scriptures and that they are made

disputed, but

to appear as they were in their strange Eastern historical setting.

The justification of the point of view cannot be a symptom which gives food for thought.
Prof.

it is

Gordon's work on The Poets of the Old Testament has

It is

many

points of contact with Principal Smith's Lectures.

interesting to observe

how much

the two scholars working inde-

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

pendently

MARGOLIS
'.
'

275

make

of the sound effect of certain consonants, though

Gordon
student

is

quality of

The musical Hebrew may be appreciated even by the Western who listens sympathetically to the rendering of the
less severe

on the Semitic

'

gutturals

Sabbath service in the Synagogues, especially of the Spanish

Jews.'

Gordon's book
the

is

naturally

more comprehensive, dealing

While the
included, probably

with

whole range of Old Testament poetry.

is

prophetic lyric

excluded,

Ecclesiastes

is

because

it

was desirable to complete the picture of Hebrew

Wisdom.

Gordon

is

interested not only in the formal side of

;

the poetry of the Old Testament

he devotes considerable space

to the thoughts or problems with which the Psalms or the

Book

of Job deals.

But withal the author has an eye

to the artistic

and poetic

in these great literary productions.

'

Cohen's study of the Hebrew synonyms denoting

rest

'

was
it

concluded as

far

ago as 1899.
with

It is

presented practically as

was then

written,

additions

introduced
the

by

N. B.

As
is

a contribution to the study of synonyms

valuable, but the root theory with
will

monograph

which the author operates

with a view

hardly

recommend

itself as trustworthy, especially

to the semantic results to

which

it

leads.

Randglosseii ziir hebrdischen BibeL

Textkritisches, Sprachliches

und
J.

Sachliches.

Von Arnold
IV.

B.

Ehrlich.
191
2. 2.

Leipzig
pp.

C. HiNRiCHS.
Ezechiel

Jesaia, Jeremia,

374.

V.

und

die kleinen Propheten, 191

pp. 363.

Die Heilige
.

Schrift des Alien

Testaments.

In Verbindung mit

iibersetzt

Auflage.

und herausgegeben von E. Kautzsch. Dritte Register. Bearbeitet von Professor D. H. HolJ.

ziNGER.
Ehrlich's

Tubingen:

C. B.

Mohr,

1912.

pp.

iv+143.
first

monumental

exegetical

work of which the

three

volumes were noticed previously {JQR., New Series, I, 577) has now advanced in the order of the Hebrew Bible as far as the

Minor Prophets.

Author and publisher are

to

be congratulated

on the speed with which the volumes

follow each other.

We

276
hope

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

to review the

work

at length

when

the last volume shall

ibid?)

have appeared.

To

Kautzsch's Bible work (see

Professor

Holzinger has contributed in a separate volume an Index which

will

prove very useful and cannot but enhance the value of the

third edition.

iN

ai?n2

n: V^it\

s*^

(Exod.

z^.

19;
le

24.

26;
pj^'n
.

Deut. 14. 21).

Suite d'
S.
'

Lei-reur de traduction proiivce par

erreur

mot
'.

Une

de traduction dans

la

Bible

Par

Ferares.

{^\\x-dAiiS.Q.\A.

Revue Lingu is iiq lie, 191 2.) Paris: Durlacher,

1912.

pp. 39.

Deuteronomy,

its

Place in Revelation.

By A. H. M^Neile, D.D.,

Fellow and

Dean of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1912. pp. ix+136.
Ferares contributes a sequel to a previous

M.

paper duly

noticed in this

Review (New
boil
'

Series, III, 136).

7L*'3,
'

In the present

study the author deals with the verb

the meanings
'

for

which he vindicates
'.

',

roast
is

'

',

cook

',

prepare
'

In Exod. 23.19
'.

and

parallels the verb

is

to

be rendered
free

prepare

The

linguistic

exposition

by no means
if

from inaccuracies.

But the chief

it

objection remains that

suckling',

the law refers to 'a kid while

as

is

some such verb

to the point.

nnm N?

or ^nt^'n N?

would have

been more

As we
treating
is

are dealing with a linguistic

of the presumable

study, the second

part

motive of

the prohibition of a^nn "ica

irrelevant.
in revelation, in the

M^Neile's volume on the place of Deuteronomy

to

which Professor Driver has written a preface,

critical

is

main

a defence of the

position

against the attacks

of the

Rev.

J. S. Griffith

in a

volume

entitled

The Problem of Deutero-

nomy (191 1).

The Book of Judges.
late

Professor

of

Yale University.

By Edward Lewis Curtis, Ph.D., D.D., the Hebrew Language and Literature, The Bible for Home and School.) New (
pp. 201.

York: The Macmillan Company, 1913.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS

277

The First Book of Samuel. The Revised Version. Edited with introduction and notes. By W. O. E. Oesterlev, D.D., Jesus College, Cambridge. Cambridge at the University
:

Press, 1913.

pp. xii+158.

Both volumes are models of succinctness on the basis of sound

learning.
Prof.

Curtis's

posthumous work was completed by

his

Dr.

Albert

A.

Madsen,

collaborator

in

the

volume

on

Chronicles in the International Critical Commentary.

Der

alttestamentliche PropJietismus.

Drei Studien.
2.

Von D. Ernst

Sellin,

Leipzig: A. Deichert, 191

pp. viii+252.

Notes

on

the

Hebrezv

Prophets.

Compiled
St.

by

G.

WvnnkSt.

Edwards,

Assistant Mistress,

Leonards School,

An-

drews, and K.

H. McCutcheon, B.A.,
Andrews.
Oxford

Certificated Student,
St.

Girton College, Cambridge, late Assistant Mistress,

nards School,
1912.
St.
:

Leo-

Clarendon

Press,

pp. 128.

The History of the Prophets of Israel. By Eleanor D. Wood. With Introduction by Tom Bryan, M.A. London Headley Brothers. {The Adult School Study Series, No. i.)
:

pp. 225.

The Hebrezv Prophets for English Readers.

poetical

In the language of

the Revised Version of the English Bible, printed in their

with headings and brief annotation. By Francis H. Woods, B.D., and Francis Ep. Powell, M.A.
IV.

form,

Volume
1912.

Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Joel, Deutero-

Zechariah, Jonah, and Daniel.

pp.

Oxford

Clarendon

Press,

xv+264.
In
photo-

Die Konsta7iz-Weingartener Propheten-Fragniente.

typischer Reproduktion.

Einleitung von

Paul Lehmann.

Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1912.

pp. xii-f plates 79.

The Book of Isaiah.

D.D., D.Litt,
Exegesis
in

I-XXXIX
of

by George Buchanan Gray,

Professor

Hebrew and Old Testament

Oxford;

Mansfield

College,

XL-LXVI

by

278

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Arthur
Vol.
I.

S.

Exegesis in

Peake, D.D., Rylands Professor of Biblical In two volumes. the University of Manchester.

Introduction and commentary on

International Critical Commentary.)

I-XXVII. {^The New York Charles

:

Scribner's Sons, 19 12.

pp.

ci

+ 472.
the Rev. T. K.

The Mines of Isaiah Re-explored.

D.Litt.,

By

Cheyne,
1912.

&c.

London:

Adam & Charles Black,

pp.

X+199.
lift
it.

to The Veil of Hebreiu History. A further attempt London U.Litt. the Rev. T. K. Cheyne,

By

Adam &

Charles Black,

191

3.

pp. xiii+ 161.

The First Tivelve Chapters of Isaiah.

commentary.

A
S.

new

translation

and

By

the Rev.

George

Hitchcock, D.D.,
:

Doctor of Sacred Scripture, Rome.

Gates, 191 2.
pp. ix

London

Burns &

+ 210.
iibersetzt

Das Buch
Dr.

Jona.

Nach dem Urtext

und

erklart.
k. k.

Von
Univiii

Johannes Doller, ord. Professor an der Wien Carl Fromme, 1912. versitat in Wien.
:

pp.

112.

The Twelve Prophets.

of
the
original

A version
writings.

in the various poetical

measures
D.D.,

By Bernhard Duhm,

Professor of Gld

Testament Theology in the University of

Authorized translation by Dr. Archi-

Basle, Switzerland.

bald Duff, Professor of Gld Testament Theology in the Adam and Charles United College, Bradford. London
:

Black, 1912.
Sellin's tripartite

pp.

viii

263.

structive

work

in

volume on Gld Testament Prophecy is a conwhich the methods and results of the modern

comparative study of religion are

estimate
of the
religion of the

made

fruitful for a

conservative
parts

Bible.

All three

were

delivered in the form of lectures before popular

audiences in

1909-10,

the

first

in

the

house of Frau Reich skanzler von

in their amplified

Bethmann-Hollweg.

While the lectures even

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

form are meant
student will find
his

MARGOLIS

279

for lay readers, the theologian

and professional

much

to learn

from the author as he delineates

own

point of view in matters which are in the forefront of

present-day discussion.
of a progressive

We

are

made

to see

the unfoldment

revelation through the

various stages of Old

Testament prophecy.
even

prophets are set forth clearly.

in its older

The main contributions of What is new is the

is

the individual
assertion that

forms prophecy

an indigenous product of the

without.

Israelite

mind and not imported from

Over against

Gressmann, whose work on the origins

eschatology

of

Israelitish-Jewish

he adopts

is commended to serious thinkers, Sellin, though many of the theories propounded by Gressmann,

emphasizes the independent character of the biblical eschatology

which, despite

many

traits

which

it

has in

common

with Oriental

conceptions, rests ultimately on divine revelation communicated

to Israel alone.

Thus

the most important question concerning

the character of the biblical revelation

the

is answered positively Old Testament revelation stands unique and above comparison

with the parallel

phenomena

in

Egypt, Babylonia, or elsewhere.

Two

popular text-books for use in secondary schools, the one

published in America the other in England, deal with the Old

Testament

prophets

arranged

chronologically.
will

The

English
inter-

volume

is

more

succinct.

Both

prove useful for the

mediate pupil's range of intelligence.

Of
{sQQ

the

Hebrew Prophets for English Readers begun

in

1909

JQR., New Series, I, 578; III, 139) the concluding fourth volume has now appeared. The excellent standard has been
maintained throughout.

A
in

beautiful uncial manuscript of the

Old Latin

{Itala) con-

taining the Prophets

and written

in the fifth century,

presumably

Upper
up

Italy,

with glosses by a hand of the sixth century, was

the fourteenth century

cut

into leaves or smaller pieces in

at the

Library of the Constance

for the

Cathedral,

where they were

employed

binding of twenty-five manuscripts, which then

wandered into

five

German

libraries.

The

remains, covering

a meagre tenth of the original codex, have been skilfully removed

280

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Scherer.
is

and edited by Ranke, Vogel, Corssen, Lehmann, and

The

present publication in splendid phototypic reproduction

part of the well-known series got up by Sijthoff in

Leiden.
a strip

In addition

to

the material previously edited there

is

hitherto unpublished.

It would be a meritorious piece of

work
six

to re-edit the fragments so inconveniently scattered in

some

publications, in one volume.

The volume on
was
it

Isaiah in the International Critical

Commentary

originally assigned to Dr. A. B. Davidson.

After his death

was given over

to the

two scholars whose names appear on the

1-27 now out.

title-page

of the fust part comprising chapters

Professor G. B. Gray,

who

is

the author of the

commentary on
first

Numbers

in the

same

series, will

complete the

thirty-nine

chapters, the remainder to be

done by Professor Peake.

An

elaborate introduction to the

to chapters
all

whole book (a special introduction

40-66

will

appear in the second part) deals with

the intricate questions of composition, date, text, history of

exegesis.

The commentator on

Isaiah cannot

complain of a

dearth of old and recent literature.

While

Isaiah, in the language

'

of Zwingli, chose for himself the worst possible translator

among

the Seventy', he can boast of a stately array of the very best

expositors.

need only mention Vitringa, Gesenius, Luzzatto, Professor Gray is quite Dillmann-Kittel, Duhm, Cheyne, Marti. right that a selection of the exegetical material becomes imperative.

We

And

Gray's mastery of the subject shows

itself in this

very selec-

tion with which goes a goodly portion of original contribution. As one glances at a page here and there he is filled with admiration for the painstaking

manner

in

which the commentator has

Nothing helpful has escaped his And while we may at times differ with him in attention. be there. his conclusions, the exegetical data will be found to
handled a vast
literature.

The

editors
is

may be
number
are

congratulated on this latest volume of a series

which

indispensable to English-reading students, and which

of
its

in a great

parts

is

commanding

the respect of

scholars abroad.

That there

still

mines

in Isaiah to

be explored no one

will

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

gainsay.

MARGOLIS
man who

281
in the

And

that the explorer should

be a

past century was

will

among them

that delved

deep into the shaft

be readily understood.
is

But the Cheyne of the twentieth

the

century

quite a different

man from

Cheyne of the nineteenth.

which to say the

The
then.

beginnings of the present obsession were discernible even

With methods of
and

textual criticism,

least

are of the most subjective order,

civilization

and a theory of North Arabian

religion profoundly influencing the sacred writers

texts are
fiv-e

to

which the 'reconstructed'

made
The

to minister,

it

is

not a question of two or three or

Isaiahs, but of

new

Isaiahs

born of imagination pure and simple.

to spell out the

student

who

learned
earlier

meaning of the great prophet from the

in

works of Cheyne, the older Commentary and even the

later

Text

and Translation

Haupt's Bible,

will

on approaching

his latest

works have no need of consulting the traditional or the emended text ; he will require no text at all, for the quotations in Cheyne
are from a text of his

own

of which the recurring ingredients are

such-like

Yerahmeel and Kasliram and Ramshah and other

names
result
is

of places

and

deities

hitherto

undreamt

of.

The

net

proceeding from the new exploration of the Later Isaiahs

Jews was not the Persian king Cyrus, but a successful North Arabian adventurer, and, on the side of Jews 'were what may be called Monarchical and worshipped a small divine company under a supreme director'. While the parallel volume deals with prereligion,

that the liberator of the

that the

Polytheists,

exilic
it

times

it

may be

fittingly

mentioned

in this
is

connexion as

presents the

same point of view.

There

a pathetic note
scholar

at the close as the author looks forward to

some younger
fall

undertaking the task which

will

probably soon

from Cheyne's

own hands.

younger scholar, a Catholic, in presenting a fresh translation

first

and exposition of the

his indebtedness to

twelve chapters of Isaiah, acknowledges

'

Cheyne who

has done

much

to

open a new

era in
field,

Hebrew
is

learning, not only

by

his constant labour in that

but also by communicating his

the older (or shall

own enthusiasm
?)

to others

'.

But

it

we

say younger

Cheyne whom he

VOL.

IV.

282

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

has in mind, and even then he albeit in honesty of purpose.

constrained to differ from him,

translation
is

The

woven

into the

running commentary which

is

replete with historical information,

The judgement. and bears witness to a maturity of exegetical technicalities of the ordinary commentary, whole, free from the makes the study of the prophet a pleasant task.
Another Catholic scholar has devoted a monograph
to the

book of Jonah.
accompanied

The Hebrew

text

is

printed in such a

manner

emendation or glosses, and is as to indicate elements requiring minute by a translation. At the foot of both is a
the beginner. commentary which does not overlook the needs of of the volume discusses all the An introduction covering half
critical

questions.

In

lo no less than

241

titles

of works

directly or indirectly relating to

Duhm's
Prof. Duff.

translation of the

Jonah are enumerated. Minor Prophets in the metres of

to

the original has

been made accessible

English readers by
Jonah,

The
at

books are arranged chronologically.

written 130 B.C.

the

last,

is

said to have

have been

been work within the various books.

Supplementers

They

freely

prophets upon whom operated with the oracles of the pre-exilic Hence no single they looked as preachers of Apocalypse.
prophetic writing exists in
its

original form.

Indeed, more than

all the work of once we find that what was originally not at altered by this supplementing Prophets has been thoroughly So when as prophecy. process, and has come to be regarded

in Israel, the scribes there did arise again a genuine revelation unable to recognize scholars were for the most part quite

and
it

as real

prophecy

and they became the most

bitter

opponents

of the Prophet
these

of Nazareth.

And

yet,

nevertheless,

we have

men

literature.

the old prophetic to thank for the preservation of explanatory translation is accompanied by short

The

notes

culled

from Duhm's 'Notes on the Twelve Prophets',

published in

ZAW.,

191

1-

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

The Psalms.

283

Translated from the Latin Vulgate, and with the other translations diligently compared, being a revised and
edition

Douay Version. By Francis Archbishop of Baltimore. Published with the approbation of His Eminence James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore. Baltimore:
the

corrected

of

Patrick Kenrick,

late

John

Murphy Company,

pp. 296.

Erlciutenmoen zu dunkeln Stellen im Buche Hiob.

Von Georg
C. Hinrichs,

Richter, Pfarrer
1912.
pp.

in Gollantsch.

Leipzig

J.

iv+82.
Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sadduuntersucht,
iibersetzt

Das Buck
Dr.

Qoheleth.

zaismus.

Kritisch

und

erklart
J.

von
C.

LuDwiG Levy, Rabbiner

pp.

in

Brunn.

Leipzig:

Hinrichs, 1912.

iv+152.

De

theologie

van Kronieken.

Academisch
:

proefschrift.

Door
191
i.

Jelte Swart.
pp. viii+ 104.

Groningen

Gebroeders Hoitsema,

The translation of the Psalms incorporated in the Vulgate represents Jerome's second revision of an older Latin version made from the Septuagint, and is generally used in the liturgy of the Catholic Church, a former revision by the same Father
being
still

employed
but

in the basilica of St. Peter.

Jerome
the

also

made an independent
original
;

translation

straight

from

Hebrew

it

has not gained canonicity.

translation

rests

the

English

known by

the

Upon the Vulgate name of Douay,

'.

'from the place where

priests,
fault,

exiles

it was prepared by learned and holy from England on account of their religion Its

due

to

the

necessity of vindicating
is

the
its

Catholic

truth

against the innovations of the Reformers,

to the Latin.
It
is

slavish adherence

quite natural
to

that

enlightened
its

Catholics

of
if

modern times should seek

present
revision

improve

style
1.

by borrowing,

needs be, from the Anglican Version of 161

of

The author
the

of

the

the

Douay

Psalter,

predecessor

of Cardinal Gibbons in the archbishopric of Baltimore, concedes

284

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

King James Version deserve
'

that the translators of the

in

praise

what regards opportunity of acknowledging that

beauty and force of language.

I

take this

have

freely

borrowed from

them whenever
to express the

and conceived that their diction was purer translators, and adapted more felicitous than that of the Douay It is important that all Vulgate. meaning of the
I

to their version does not should understand that our opposition

arise

from any prejudice against

its

literary

merit,

much

less

but merely from a disagainst the diffusion of the Scriptures, conceived and executed, of the spirit in which it was
approval
of which the traces
are

here and there

discoverable by the

there is truth It cannot be gainsaid that attentive observer.' Version shows traces of that the King James
in the contention

directed against Romanism. a Protestant bias which of course was that while point of view it may perhaps be said

From

a Jewish

we must welcome the return of the Hebrew text as preserved by the Synagogue
incorporation
of the best Jewish

Anglican Version to the

with which went the
as

exegesis

summed up by

residue of reminiscences Kimhi, there remained nevertheless a directly dependent upon the from the earlier English versions of The Church of Rome is bound by the decrees Vulgate. the Vulgate as authoritative, the Tridentine Council to regard preclude a zealous study of the Hebrew which, however, does not learned But the comparison of the Hebrew serves original.

the conscience, just as the purposes and in a certain sense eases of the Revised the ancient versions on the margin
references to

may be inferior. In the Version indicate that the Hebrew text the whole was rendered by the case of the Psalter, which on
Greek
translator with skill,

the reader will find himself at

no

though perusing a translation great distance from the original, the Latin, and though in which goes back to the Greek through vessel to vessel' of this repeated 'emptying from
the process

much

of the

original flavour has

been

lost.

For

after all the

to those of the received Septuagint embodies readings superior As for the exegesis, the instances. Hebrew text in not a few bargain renderings which it must take into the

Church

of

Rome

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

would gladly exchange
of nn

MARGOLIS
which
'.

285

for those of the Protestants.

To mention
quite jejune,

one example, the Catholics must be

"iptTJ,

satisfied with a translatioi:

'),

Ps.

2.

12

('

Embrace
'

discipline

is

compared with the Anglican

Kiss the son

Here and there

revised)
(see

Jerome
followed

(or rather the

Old Latin which he

in

may have

corrupt

Ps. 30(31). 16).

note on Archbishop Kenrick's notes which are concise

Septuagint

reading

the

are

on the whole illuminating.

'

He

does not disdain to record

the views of a
well
if

the

It would have been volume had undergone revision with a view to bringing
'

RationaUst

like

Olshausen.

the Notes up to date.

especially in the
nj:b

In a future edition the disfiguring misprints,

(e. g.

Hebrew

on

p.

20

nn^ n^b 3^ should read

corrected.

2? nnD), should by
is

all

means be

While the

volume

intended for the Catholic clergy and

as are

laity, outsiders,

particularly such

engaged

in the task of translating the

it.

Scriptures, will

do well

to refer to

Briggs's pious wish that

Jews, Catholics, and Protestants

may some day

will
let

unite in producing

an adequate rendition of the Psalter

for

probably not be realized

us willingly learn from

some time

to

come

meanwhile

one another.

A
many

difficult verse in

difficult

book

like

Job

of them

requires on

and

there are

the part of the Bible exegete a fine

feeling for the

Hebrew language begotten

of a penetrating study

of biblical and also of post-biblical literature, considering that

critics

are

prone to place the production of the poem and

especially of

an interpolation

like the

Elihu speeches in post-exilic

is

times.
of,

Even when the

scalpel of textual criticism

made use

emendations reveal themselves as plausible only when the

restored text reads like

Hebrew.

Emendations, moreover, are

not made, they

ill

come

of themselves.

The modern

student

is

equipped

for the task.

Teachers of Old Testament exegesis

devote their time and energy principally to literary questions and

nowadays
tion
is

to

comparative
for the
is

religion.

Very

little

time and inclina-

left

arduous questions of mere interpretation.

a case in point.

Richter's

volume

The

author has

many good
f.

suggestions

compare,

for instance, the exposition of 6. 2

but

286
in the

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

main he operates with
textual emendations which,

on the
It

whole, are not felicitous.

It is futile to cite

examples.

must

be

conceded, however, that the author has used

;

modern comfor the ancient

mentaries to advantage
versions

he

is

well informed.
particular

As

which he

cites,

in

the

Septuagint,

despite

many
to

preliminary excellent Vorarbeiten which are available, the

in a settled state.

problems cannot be said to be

Much

remains

be done.

study of the Septuagint and the other

Greek

versions

on a comprehensive
of translation,
for

scale with a view especially to the

manner

the degree of freedom or the character

is
still

of exegesis

example,

desideratum,

and no

safe

conclusions can be drawn until that work shall have been done. what Levy's volume on Koheleth shows on the other hand

can be accomplished by a

man who

is

well versed in post-biblical

Hebrew and at the same time has learned the method of modern He quotes ancient versions and Midrash, mediaeval philology.
and modern commentaries; but above
exegetical thinking of his own.
all

he has done some

in principle

Although

he has

multino scruples about analysing a biblical book with a view to he does not see any necessity for splitting plicity of documents
'

',

The up Koheleth into fragments after the manner of Siegfried. remarks which yielded volume abounds in original exegetical Such details must many a novel rendering or interpretation. But the author is more than naturally be left to future tests.
a translator and exegete.
authorship of the Preacher.

He

has a new theory concerning the The book was written by no other

about than either Zadok or Boethus, the founders of Sadduceeism rationalist aristo203 B. c. The Sadducees are taken to be the and favoring a view crats, given to a love for foreign culture Accordingly Levy devotes a conis Epicurean. of life which
siderable part of introduction

and commentary

to the proof of
is

Greek philosophical terms in Koheleth.

one, and

The attempt

an old

we doubt

that the thesis in

its

recent formulation has

gained

in

probability.

Nevertheless, the volume

may he com-

mended

to all students

who have

wrestled with the problems

or presented by Koheleth, whether on the purely exegetical side

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

on the
side of the underlying thought

MARGOLIS

287
that

and main purpose of

unique production in the Bible.

Swart's dissertation

on the theology of Chronicles

is

in the

nature of a polemic against the view that the aim of the Chronicler

was merely to represent the past in the terms of the

post-exilic

community which was of a

to Swart, the high-priest
real
is

priestly, hierocratic type.

According

rather kept in the background.

The

purpose of the Chronicler was not so

much

to depict a confuture.

dition that existed as to outline a

that

programme of the

And

programme was grounded

in

a theocratic theology in the

but king David as

centre of which stood not the high-priest,

the representative of the scion from his house that was to come.
'

The Davidic

theocracy

is

not the end but a point of transition

bearing in

itself

the seed out of which shall grow up

is

upon a

higher level the theocracy which

limitations.'

emancipated from

legalistic

The

Chronicler

is

free

from formalism, and cult

and

piety have for

him

a theocratic purpose.

The Wisdom of Jesus

the

Son of Sirach, or

Ecclesiasticus.

In the
E.

Revised Version, with introduction and notes.

By W. O.

Oesterley, D.D., Jesus College, Cambridge. ^The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges.) Cambridge at the
:

University Press, 1912.

The Book of Wisdom.
the Rev. A. T. S.
Bristol.

pp. civ

+ 367.
notes.

With introduction and

Edited by

Goodrick, M.A., Rector of Winterbourne,

{The Oxford Church Bible Commentary.)

London

RiviNGTONS;
pp.
xii

New

York: The Macmillan Company, 19 13.

+ 437.
Translated from the editor's
notes,

The Book of Enoch, or i Enoch.

Ethiopia
text,

and edited with the introduction,

first

and
re-

indexes of the
written.

edition wholly re-cast, enlarged,

and

Together with a reprint from the

editor's text of

the Greek fragments.

By R. H. Charles,
Oxford
:

D.Litt.,

D.D.,

Fellow of Merton College.

Press, 1912.
pp. ex
-f

at

the

Clarendon

331.

288

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Being chapters 3-14 of the book com4 Ezra (or 2 Esdras). Translated from

The Ezra- Apocalypse.

monly known

as

a critically revised text, with critical introductions, notes, and explanations ; with a general introduction to the apocalypse,

and an appendix containing the Latin text. By G. H. Box, M. A., Lecturer in Rabbinic Hebrew, King's College, London.
Together with a prefatory note by W. Sanday, D.D., LL.D., Christ Litt.D., Lady Margaret Professor and Canon of
Church, Oxford.
1912.
pp. i4*

London

Sir Isaac Pitman

&

Sons,

+ lxxvii + 387.
of the

The Revised Version

the

Apocrypha bears on
of
the

its

title-page

In July imprint of the year 1896. Dr. Schechter published a leaf brought to England by Mrs. Gibson of in which he immediately recognized the Hebrew original
Ecclesiasticus.
lications

same year

The

narrative of the successive finds

for the

and pub-

which recovered

world a goodly portion of the

part
in

long-lost original, particularly of Dr. Schechter's

trans-

ferring the contents of the Cairo Genizah to Cambridge, in identifying further parts of the Hebrew Sirach, and in publishing

a masterly edition of the portions discovered by him, the reader

may

find

told

in

the introduction to Oesterley's Ecciesiasiiciis,

the latest volume of the well-known Cambridge Bible for Schools

and Colleges.

What

a wealth of material the discovery of the

their task,
line.

Hebrew

text,

undreamt of when the Revisers took up

has brought to light the learned notes reveal in every

Dr. Oesterley has turned the accumulated literature since 1896

to

good purpose both

date of

in
is

the

notes and in the introduction.

The

Ben

Sira

placed at about 190 B.C., Mr. Hart's

earlier date

arguments

in favour of

an

being rightly overruled.

The rescue of one biblical apocryphon from the Genizah has meant an enrichment of our knowledge of biblical Hebrew and an increased interest in the whole genre of literature, of which
'
'

Ben
to

Sira

was probably the

earliest

representative.

Whatever

were the reasons which induced the doctors of the Synagogue

deny him canonicity,

'

all

that

we can do

is

perhaps to deplore

the rigid

canon

'

which excluded so

fine a work,

and

to restore

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

it

289
great

to the affection of the nationahst

Jew

to

whom

it

means a

literary

men

production of the nation recovered, to the zeal of pious of ali creeds who may cherish it for its quaint wisdom

and

lofty morality,

but most of
will find

theologian

who

and the therein a record of pre-Maccabean piety.

all

to the student of history

cannot hope to be as fortunate with another apocryphon, the so-called Wisdom of Solomon. Scholars seem to be agreed
that the

We

book was written from the

latest

which the
of a

start in Greek. The arguments expounder of the book has summed up in favour
will

Greek

original

probably prove convincing in their

specific argument from diction is perhaps not the strongest, considering that even so literal a translator as Aquila betrays a singular mastery of the Greek

cumulative

force,

though the

language, as evidenced by a fondness for out of the

way words
his guide,

and compounds.

Mr. Goodrick, with Freudenthal as

goes a step further; the author wrote in Greek, but, foreigner

that he was, he misused the language of his adoption. The lengthy introduction deals with a variety of points, notably with the scope and unity of the book. While the author cannot

subscribe to the diverse attempts at breaking up the book into a number of parts by different authors, he argues nevertheless
with

of

much cogency that chapters 7-9 were inserted by the author Wisdom after he had penned the chapters at the beginning
As
to the scope of the book,

and end.
in
it

Mr. Goodrick would see

In

a conscious polemic against our canonical Koheleth.

the opinion of the author,

Koheleth

is

thoroughly Epicurean,

so

much

so indeed that before admission to the canon the out-

spoken hedonism of the writer had to be made innocuous by a string of orthodox interpolations. The writer of Wisdom sets out to controvert the whole school, of which Koheleth was the
Palestinian representative,

and by which many more were

capti-

vated in Alexandria.

He

addresses himself to a class of apostates

of the type of Tiberius Alexander, Philo's nephew, who, attracted by a worldly philosophy, abandoned the belief of their fathers. Indeed, Philo and the writer of Wisdom were contemporaries. There is a range of speculations common to them both, but they

290

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Platonic

independent manner. are handled by each in an

and

be met with only in chapters 7-9, Stoic ideas are on the ^vhole to tone, The remainder is thoroughly Judaic in a later inscript. comprehensive Above all, Wisdom sets forth a even
particularistic.

view of the resurrection.

it

Of

this conviction of latter-day

Judaism
said,

book

Surely, it may be presents a most perfect expression. Pharisaic doctrine should have making so much of a chief
to the heart of the

been

written in

an

asset.

are forcefully set forth.

makers of the canon had the author would have been Hebrew. His very pseudonymity theories, they Whatever the merit of Mr. Goodrick's With Grimm and Deane to lean upon,

original work. he has nevertheless done much

While he was

a text, the notes show great saved the trouble of constructing As nothing too trifling to be overlooked.
erudition.

There

is

of this excellent commentary one goes through various chapters be done in this much-neglected he must feel how much there is to Let us be thankful for this very province of biblical study. and replete with suggestion. helpful book so full of information Charles's publication of Twenty years have elapsed since Dr.

Enoch. an English translation of the Ethiopic

has done in these years in the
studies
Suffice
is
it

What

Dr. Charles

field of

apocalyptic and biblical

too
to
text

Ethiopic

need rehearsing at this place. edition of the say that in 1906 he gave us an the Greek and Latin of Enoch together with
well

known

to

fragments which

may be
is

said to be exhaustive of existing textual

materials in these languages.

The

present second edition of the

EngHsh
is,

It based on the textual edition of 1906. A discovery of author, a new book. in the language of the

translation

some moment
portion of
i

is

Enoch.

of a great the recognition of the poetic structure of the book, it As to the composition

loosely joined together. represents a conglomerate of elements embedded in certain of an older Book of Noah are

Fragments

parts of the present

book of Enoch.

The arguments

in favour

whole cogent. of a Semitic original are on the

say that Charles
is

But we cannot

Thus

'

always quite felicitous with his retroversions. Ixix) cannot possibly I saw those very sheep burning (p.
'

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

be nni?3 ntovy nstn JNVH n^ni.
from below, in^nN
to a decision

291

Jsv

is

a collective and must

be construed as a plural (see the Lexica).

line
2
is

On

the

same page,

a misprint for innnN.

it

When

it

comes

between Hebrew and Aramaic,

the argument
is

must be
Ethiopic,

owned

that

with

few exceptions

precarious.

When
it

Charles cites transliterations in the Greek or

that the
Ixvi,

must not be forgotten

own.
in

Aramaic form may be the

2,
it

translator's

On

p.

note

is

admitted that the

Aramaisms
due
29.
p.

the Ethiopic version of the O. T. are probably

missionaries.
in

to
I,

Aramean
Dillmann

^Vith reference to madbara, 28.

i,

his

paper on the Gizeh Greek text

5. 6.

(reprint,
is

15) rightly recalls madbera, Joshua

There,
the

it

true,

the

Greek

text

reads /xaS/?apm8i,

/xavSo^apa and ^a/38y?pa.

Greek has But the Greek translator may have

here

while

introduced the Aramaic form himself in view of the fact that

undoubtedly Hebrew transliterations are found side by side with

the Aramaic.

On
still

p.

lix

synsn

is

probably a

slip,

the
'

form

being neither
scholars are

Hebrew nor Aramaic.

Charles regrets that

Jewish

so backward in recognizing the value of this

(the apocalyptic) literature for their

that eminent Jewish scholars in
in part recognized

own

history

'.

'

It

is

true

America and elsewhere have

confesses

the value of Apocalyptic literature, but, as

still

a whole, Orthodox Judaism

the one-sided Judaism, which

and

still

champions

came

into being after the Fall of

its

Jerusalem in a.d. 70, a Judaism lopped in the main of

spiritual
legalistic

and prophetic

side

and given over

It is

all

but wholly to a

conception of religion.

not strange that since that disastrous

faith,
If,

period Judaism became to a great extent a barren

its

and

lost

leadership in the spiritual things of the world.'

(p. x, e.g.),

as Charles

maintains

the

Book

of

Enoch and

similar apocalyptic

works represent

the

'higher

theology'

which

culminated in

Christianity, the rejection of that literature

by contemporaneous
'

Judaism and the lack of

interest therein

by
is

Orthodox Jewish
'

students cease to be an enigma.

There
ground

no

reason, of course,

why a

literature which, there

is

for believing, originated

in sectarian circles should not excite the interest of all students

292

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

But the estimate of the
its

of history whether Jews or Christians.

'higher theology', no less

Christianity, will naturally
legalistic

than that of
differ

culminating-point

according as to whether the

is

Judaism

of

Mishnah and Talmud

pronounced

great spiritual potency ever a 'barren faith' or appraised as a monotheistic religion against all the upholding the purity of the

attempts within and without to dilute

it

in the waters of all sorts

of syncretistic systems. painstaking labour with Mr. Box may be congratulated on the

exposition of so difficult which he has addressed himself to the The comas T/ie Ezra- Apocalypse. and so interesting a book discussions and with a wealth mentary is replete with textual Rabbinic sources are of illustrations from the cognate hterature. convinced that both drawn upon throughout, the author being one time united, and apocalyptic and legalistic Judaism were at
that traces of the former are
still

extant in the latter.

Whether

he

is

right in

locating the Apocalypse of Ezra

in the school of

hkewise, his Shammai may be a matter of doubt. Probably, document will fail and Ezra analysis of the Book into a Salathiel In fact Professor Sanday, who has universal assent.
to obtain

himself a heretic with written an interesting Preface, accounts

regard to this theory.

Aside from

all

such questionable theories,

however, Mr. Box

which has done a splendid piece of work for

we owe him

thanks.

Griechisch-deutsches

Worterhuch

zum Neuen TestamenU.

Mit

SprachNachweis der Abweichungen des neutestamentlichen Attischen und mit Hinweis auf seine gebrauchs vom

Ubereinstimmung mit dem hellenistischen Griechisch. Leipzig Hahnsche Dr. Heinrich Ebeling. Hannover und
:

Von

BUCHHANDLUNG,
The

1913.

pp.

viii

+ 428.
Collection.

New

Testament Manuscripts in the Freer

of the

Part

I.

The Washington Manuscript

Four Gospels.

By

Henry

A. Sanders, University of Michigan.

1912.
pp. vii

New York

The Macmillan Company,

247.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

Neue
Frag7?iente
titid

MARGOLIS

293

Untersuchiingeii

zit

den judenchristlichoi

Evangelien.

Ein Beitrag zur Literatur und Geschichte der

Judenchristen.

Von Alfred Sch.midtke.

pp.
viii

Leipzig

J.

C.

HiNRiCHS, 1911.

+ 302.

The Syriac Forms of Neiv Tesiametit Proper N'aiues. By F. C. BuRKiTT. (From the Proceedings of the British Acadetny.
Vol. V.)

London: Henry Frowde, 1912.

the

pp. 32.

Bible Readifig in
Professor of

Early

Church.
in

By Adolf Harxack,
the University of Berlin.
{^Neiv

Church History
Rev.
V.)
J.

Translated by the
Testameiit
Studies.

R. Wilkinson, ALA.
:

New York

G. P.

Putnam &

Sons, 1912.

pp.

x+159.
PubHshed from the Syriac
i\LA.

The Odes and Psalms of Solomon.

Version.
revised

By

J.

Rendel Harris,
With a

Second

edition,
:

and enlarged.

facsimile.

Cambridge

at

the

University Press, 1911.

pp. xxxviii+ i56

+ oj.

Light on

the Gospel from an Ancient Poet. By Edwin A. Abbott, Honorary Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. Cam:

bridge

at the

University Press, 1912.

pp. lxiv+602.

The People of God. An inquiry into Christian origins. By H. F. Hamilton, D.D., formerly Professor of Pastoral Theology in the University of Bishop's College, Lennoxville,
Canada.

Israel.

H.

The Church.

London

Henry

Frowde, 191 2.

pp. xviii

+ 261; xvi+252.
made a
clean

To Adolf Deissmann
and
isolated variety of

belongs the merit of having

biblical

sweep of the older notion that

its

Greek represented a

specific

own.

Thanks

to the wealth of papyri,

which have enlarged our vision and enriched our knowledge of

the popular language spoken and written in Hellenistic times,

we have
the

learned to look upon the language of the Septuagint and

New

Testament

as but sHghdy,

if

at

all,

differentiated from

the speech of the environment in which the Greek Bible was

produced.

dictionary of the

New

Testament Greek

illustrating

294
the
relation

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

of the

lingua

sacra

to

the contemporaneous

or

immediately preceding stage of Hellenistic Greek has long been By means of a condensation which at the first a desideratum.
blush looks bewildering, but which one learns to unravel very the soon, Ebeling has succeeded within small compass to supply
want.
It is

conceded that the

New

Testament

writers did not

borrow from the profane

literature

which some of them scarcely

knew

the coincidences nevertheless point to the presence of the

vocabulary employed by them in the speech of the population of which they formed a part. Nor do these coincidences preclude

and there the word, though not new, was invested at the hands of the New Testament writers with a new meaning. To help the student, etymologies are prefixed at the head of
that here

every

article;

but etymology
is

is

one

thing

and the
the

precise

meaning

in a given passage

quite another.

The same

holds

good of the
Concordance

Hebrew

'equivalents'

drawn from

Oxford

to the Septuagint.

Such entrances merely reveal

Without entering

the presence of the word

in the Septuagint.

here upon the question of a Semitic original in the Gospels, the Hebrew equivalent is useful enough. Sometimes the absence
of an equivalent
is
'

is

charged with signification.

in post-biblical
its

For the equivalent

very often found

little

Hebrew.

Thus
(^):t:p

oAtyoTrto-ros,

of

faith

',

has

counterpart in nj?:N
to register such

in

Talmudic
It

Hebrew.

Ebeling

fails

equivalents.
'

may

have been useful

to enter

Aramaic

'

equivalents

from the Targum.

Dalman should have

is

led the way.

Here and there the Hebrew

disfigured

by misprints.

proper names

are frequently faulty.

The meanings given to Hebrew The main feature of the

Greek authors which
will

work

consists in the references to

prove

useful to the student of the Greek of the Septuagint and the Altogether other Greek versions of the Old Testament likewise.

an admirable piece of work.

Close upon the publication of the Washington Codex of

Deuteronomy and Joshua comes Gospels from the same (Freer)

that of the
collection,

codex of the Four

ultimately
to

find

a place in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.

Professor

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

Henry A. Sanders
of scholars.
is

MARGOLIS

295

to

be congratulated on the speed with

at the disposal

which so important pubhcations have been placed

his work an intimacy with palaeographical lore which few would have been able to match. In a short space of time he has set himself

classical philologist of note,

he brings to

to acquire a working

knowledge of

Syriac, Coptic,

and Gothic.

Moreover, he has had to acquaint himself with the peculiar

textual problems in
a,

field

of literature
the
classical

somewhat remote from

scholar.

the

ordinary

province

of

But he has
least merit
is it

acquitted himself worthily of his task.

that

Not the

he knew to
is

whom

to

apply for assistance.

lengthy

introduction

devoted to a minute palaeographical description

its

of the

new codex which has been named W,

problem presented by
its

date,

and

particularly the

text.

The

conclusions

reached by the learned author go to show that in the main the

basic substratum of

coincides with a form of the text under(Latin,

Syriac,

lying the ancient versions

Coptic principally).

This form of the text has been

portions,

left in its original

form

in

some

while in others

it

has been corrected to accord with

either the Antioch

or the Hesychian recension.

'

The

date of

the codex

is

placed in the fourth century,

century must
still

though the beginning

possibility
'.

of the

fifth

be admitted as a

minute collation based on the Oxford 1880 edition of the Textus Receptus occupies upward of 100 pages. Simultaneously

with the present volume there has been published a facsimile

edition of the MS., which has been generously distributed

among

the leading libraries of the world.

Mr. Freer, the present owner

of the collection, has liberally defrayed the expenses incident to

the publications.

The Gospel according

of Lessing the subject of

to the

Hebrews has been

since the time

many

curious hypotheses.

After sifting

the various patristic data, Schmidtke comes to the conclusion

that there has

been a misleading confusion between

it

and the
of

Gospel of the Nazarenes.

He

finds

the

ultimate

source

Epiphanius and Jerome as well of the citations from the Hebrew

Gospel on the margin of a Matthew manuscript

in a

Macedonian


296

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

monastery the discovery of those citations is Schmidtke's own The Nazarene in a lost commentary by Apollinaris of Laodicea. Matthew Gospel was an Aramaic translation, a sort of Targum, of
composed about
a.d. 150.
is

The Gospel according

to the

Hebrews,

on the other hand,

Gospel was written

identical with the Ebionite

Gospel; that

in

Greek.

The

subject

is

an exceedingly

obscure one, and while Schmidtke

singular thoroughness,
it is

pursues his investigation with

permeated with a degree of scepticism which may not be shared generally. On p. 288, bottom, Kilaim'
'

should have had

'

p.'

or

'

pal.' prefixed.

In a paper on the Syriac forms of

those

New

Testament names

possible Professor Burkitt arrives at the conclusion that wherever

they were assimilated to

(Peshitta)
:

in

the Syriac
failed,

Old Testament
is

when

the

Old Testament
;

the Syriac

some-

times demonstrably wrong

occasionally a transliteration of the

:

Greek

is

abandoned

in favour of a vernacular equivalent

here

Palestinian and there the identifications have their origin in local they rest on an incorrect traditions, but in not a few instances As a notable example of the last category the author
theory.
cites

Ndsrath
for

for Nazareth.
^,

The
is

difficulty lies in the substitution

T.

of

; (V)

Greek

which

taken to represent Semitic

The
i),

are explained instances in the Septuagint or Hexapla with t for V

away.
Burkitt's

As

for

the

first
('

example

(ASwvt^eSc/c,
(i.

Joshua

10.

explanation

this

reading

e.

aSwj't^eCc'c)

seems to

in Origen's have been corrected to agree with the Hebrew traditional Hexapla, with the least possible change of the

consonants

')

is

open

to the objection that ASwiCeSe/c

was written

by the Three and thence borrowed by Origen.

is

If

an explanation

needed, we

may

rather point to Syriac zdk with regressive

partial assimilation

(Brockelmann, Grundriss,
it

I,

166).

On

the

authority of

Cheyne

is

pointed out that 'no such town as

Nazareth
in

is

mentioned But

in the

Old Testament,

in Josephus,

or

the Talmud'.
(see

mv:

occurs as a priest-city in a kinah

by Kalir

nsa

nyu'n niD, ed.

Rodelheim, 1859,

p. n^),

which

has been proved by S. graphie Galildas, 1909; see TLZ.,

Klein {Beltrdge zur Geschichte

1

910,

c.

328) to

und Georest on an

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

297

ancient baraita. Similarly there is no reason to doubt the correctness of the transliteration ND^p in view of tj^^pn, Parah 3. 5, cited by Dalman, Grammatik, first edition, p. 127. See Schiirer,' IP, 218, n. 12. The whole subject of Prof. Burkitt's paper, by the way, has been treated by Schwen in an article contributed to the ZAW., (1911), 267 ff.; it

XXXI had presumably not reached Burkitt when he prepared his learned and exceedingly
interesting paper.

With a wealth of
tant
fact

that in

Scriptures

was

illustrations Harnack establishes the importhe Early Church the private reading of the not only permitted, but indeed encouraged.

Naturally the attitude of the Early Church is contrasted with that of the Catholic Church in the period following the fourth centur)-. From the fact of the unrestricted use of the Scriptures

by the

laity

in

those

early centuries

there follows that

'the

religion of the

Early Church, however

much
'

of mystery

sacrament
religion
'.

it

gradually adopted, was, like Judaism,

and no mystery-

In that respect, as in
'.

many

others,

Christianity was

the daughter of Judaism

Around the Odes of Solomon, which it was the merit of Rendel Harris to discover and to publish, there has grown a substantial literature (see the list on pages ix to xii of the
J.

present edition), a small part of which has been noticed in this

Review

(see

New

Series, III,

162).

Now we

are presented by

the author with a

new

edition in which previous errors have

results of the criticism of

been corrected, and the

incorporated.
to the
first

many

scholars

For the benefit of readers who remained strangers edition it may be well to state that Dr. Harris acquired

prefixed by a goodly number of what the editor in harmony with the references in ancient writers called by the name of the Odes of Solomon. The exact title is indeed found in two lists of disputed or apocryphal writings, and in both the Psalms and

a Syriac manuscript, which upon examination proved to contain a translation of the Psalms of Solomon, of which the Greek text has long been accessible in excellent editions,

Odes of Solomon

are coupled together.

Moreover, on comparing the number of

VOL.

IV.

298

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

by the ancient stichometers verses assigned to these two books that of the newlyfound that their compass squares with
it

is

found Syriac codex.

The

earhest quotation (from the nineteenth

was made long ago ode) occurs in Lactantius, and the inference matter accessible to there must have been more Solomonic
that

Just in what order Christian scholars than the eighteen Psalms. naturally remained a matter of conPsalms and Odes followed
jecture.

As

current. a matter of fact, both orders were

The

work composed in the author of the Pistis Sophia, a Gnostic and embodying long quotations latter part of the third century, found paraphrastic Targum from the Odes accompanied by a The citations from the the Odes following upon the Psalms.
'

',

Odes stand on a

level

with

the

other

quotations

from the

standing of the Odes. canonical Scriptures, showing the Scriptural the Fistis Sophia tally Quite a few of the Odes incorporated in As the Syriac codex is defective at the with the Syriac Odes.
beginning, the
first

Ode may be

recovered

from the Gnostic

transla-

work.
tions

Both the Coptic and Syriac are unquestionably

first

from the Greek. have advanced since the appearance of the

of opinions.
All agree that the

As to the author of the Odes, scholars

edition a variety

poems

are beautiful expressions of

that there
is

the mystic union with God.

Beyond

the reverse
to

of unanimity.

Some

like

Harnack have assigned the work

it

has undergone revision at the a Jew, albeit in its present form believe that the work is wholly hands of a Christian. Others
Christian.

of Jewish extraction
first

was a Christian Harris persists in his view that the poet who sang as early as the last quarter of the

century.

The Odes

are betray a Johannine vocabulary, but

in every

way independent of the Fourth Gospel. moves identification so difficult is that the poet
world of his
in

What makes
in a spiritual

own

which he

world with but scanty references to the actual be the final verdict Whatever lived and moved.

on the

personality of the author, his

poems

represent a lofty

sweet and noble, specimen of mystic rapture couched in language

best and highest. and revealing the Christian experience at its that all of the Odes come from Harris is by no means convinced

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

299

one and the same hand or time; the high antiquity which he
refers of course to the first of a series of poets. Dr. Abbott's contribution to the study of the Odes is presented in a volume of some 600 pages replete with learning of the

assumes

most

varied kind

and going

into a minute discussion of the exegetical

data culled from the remotest corners.

that the poet wrote in Semitic

He

is

inclined to think

and

that in all probability the

Syriac

is

a direct translation without the intermediary of Greek.

As

to the composition

and character of the Odes, what

is

differen-

tiates

Abbott from Harris

the insistence on their being the

'

man whom he describes as a Jew on the point of becoming a Christian or a Christian fresh from the condition in which he thought as a non-Christian Jew'. 'PauHne he is, but not an imitator of Paul; Johannine, yet
almost certainly ignorant of the Johannine gospel.'

product of one and the same

'

half-way
this

house between Judaism and Christianity

poet.

'

is

what we have in

He

wrote 'under the

influence

of Palestinian

poetry,

Alexandrian allegory, Egyptian mysticism,

of all the influence of the Spirit of

and most powerful Love and Sonship, freshly

working in the Christian Church,

passionately
felt

a Love as

at a time when Jesus was Son revealing the Father through such the world had never yet known but before the

to be the

doctrine of the Father, the Son, and the Spirit had begun to be hardened by controversial iteration into a dogma accepted by
the lips of almost the
all

Christians, including

many

that did not feel

and necessity of the doctrine in their hearts'. Christian and Jewish thought are blended. The poet leans on Old Testament prototypes. He consciously writes in the name
beauty
of Solomon, because the Solomonic Song of Songs spiritually
interpreted after the
is

manner of the haggadah and the Targum

the immediate pattern of his

is

own

poetic effusions.

Abbott's

book
so

not easy to

sum

up.

It is

so charged with learning,

and

many details that it may be

one.

are treated at length in foot-notes and appendices,

truly said that there are half a

dozen books

in

Through the kindness of Professor

Burkitt, Dr.

Abbott has

been

in a position to incorporate variant readings

from a tenth-

300
century

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

manuscript
discovered

by the former in the British

Museum and
text.

part of Harris's containing the latter and greater

The

titles

of the two volumes of Dr.

Hamilton's work on

'The point of view. The People of God indicate the author's community of the Messiah and We are the Church is Israel' In this one sentence is summed the true Israelites.' therefore The of the Church. up the whole philosophy of the foundation society religious Messiah could not found a new and independent
'

to

rival

the

old

Israel;

but

it

was inevitable that

all

who

themselves as accepted the Messiah should consider

Israelites,

the true

as

successor to

That the Early

by Harnack,

heir and composing a society which was rightful the Jewish people. claims of all the prerogatives and been shown Christian did so regard himself has

whom Hamilton

quotes at length.
this

According to

Hamilton, Jesus Himself instituted

a transformation did take place.
will of their

transformation.

For

The

Apostles interpreted the

to memberMaster correctly by admitting Gentiles of circumcision, requirement ship in the New Israel without the Henceforward tantamount to integration into race. which was Israel connotes a religious

antecedents, and that

currents in the world the Greek
religion.

community without regard to race There were monotheistic is the Church. But especially in Greece. outside Israel,

to the polytheistic gods.

was no monotheism was of the philosophic sort. It the death-blow So soon as it manifested itself, it meant God, whether transcendent or immanent,
directly,

was not revealed

there
resulted

along

but mediated through nature. with the insistence on moral

At best
conduct

a toleration in religious conformity. schools no Church could develop.

Out of the philosophical

On

the other hand, the

',

Mono-Yahwism monotheism of the prophets of Israel-'

it

may

not perpetuate itself be hoped that the hybrid designation will physical universe nor was from its start not a new view of the grounded in an inner experithe teaching of history, but it was When then the the outside. ence, it was a real revelation from

which abrogated Messiah came and brought a new Revelation

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE MARGOLIS

the
at

301

Law and put the New Covenant in its place, the old order once merged into the new, the old Israel became the new
Israel

Israel,

became the Church of the

grew naturally out of the

^^lessiah,

and

the
say

new

religion

old.

When we

'naturally'

we simply mean

that the old order yielded to the

new, the old in no way being done away with; the old was simply modified, transformed, re-cast. There is much more
to

be found in the interesting work of the Anglican divine who

accepts the result of
tenacity
to

modern

criticism

and

withal clings with all

the

institutions

of

the

Early

Christian
in

Church.

Christian

readers will be

much

interested

what the author

its

has to say on the Unity of the Church and on

government.

The

outsider will concentrate his

attention

upon the general

proposition which underlies the work, and while by no

means

ready to accept a theory which robs the Jew of his birthright, find much food for reflection in what is the attitude of the

exponent of an historic Christian community with reference to

the progress of religious ideas in Israel and the ultimate destiny of the People of God
' '.

Materialien

ziir

Bibelgeschichte

und

religidsen

Volkskunde

des

Mittelalters.

Von

Professor Lie.

Hans Vollmer.
Berlin
:

Ober- und mitteldeutsche Historienbibeln.

Band I. Weid-

MANNSCHE BUCHHANDLUNG,
The Greatest English
Classic.
its

I912.

pp. vii+214.

study of the
life

King James
and
:

Version of the Bible and

influence on

literature.

By Cleland Boyd McAfee, D.D.

Brothers,

New York

Harper &

MCMXIL
the Rev.
Christ

pp. V

+ 2S7.

The Ride of Life and Love.

ments.

By
of

Canon

An exposition of the Ten CommandRobert Lawrence Ottley, D.D., Church. London Robert Scott,
:

MCMXIII.
Long

pp. xviii

+ 238.

before the

Romanic and Germanic peoples were ready

Old Testament, was
freely

for a literal translation of the Scriptures, the Scriptural material,

particularly that of the

handled

in the

002
form of

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

prose
texts

borrowed from
in

matter and embellished with additional Such works apocryphal or profane sources.
Inbks In France they were called

were exceedingly popular.

historiales,

Germany

Historienbibdn.
Prof.

The

latter

have been

dealt with by Merzdorf (1870).

Vollmer has made a fresh

which is at once interestmg study of this branch of literature of mediaeval German, and the to the theologian, the student
historian.

thoroughgomg In the present volume he deals in a

oberdeutsche Historienbibeln.

manner with scripts and

He

divides the

manu-

editions

into

groups

and discusses minutely the

with regard to the sources. representative of each group especially predecessors. His material by far exceeds that of his King McAfee interestingly relates the history of the
Dr.

James Version and points out and its influence on English

is

its

place in the English hterature

writers.

Alas that this influence

on

the wane, a circumstance to

be attributed to the disuse

of the Bible in the home.

We

heartily subscribe to the writer's

Bible in the home, whatever plea for the rehabilitation of the Bible in the schools. See be the difficulties in the way of the

may
this

Review^

Canon

written from

Series, I, 57^ ; IH, 164. naturally popular exposition of the Decalogue is Ottley's Witness his position a Christian point of view.

New

on images and on the Sabbath.

though edited much
later.

The Decalogue
religious

is

Mosaic

The
of

value
is

of the

Ten

Commandments

as
is

'a

rule

life

and love'

emphasized.

While the volume

written with earnestness

and a deep sense

view, we fear, is not clearly of religion, the Jewish point of on the burdens of the Jewish The writer dwells grasped. the beauty of 'Queen Sabbath, but is devoid of insight into

Sabbath

'.

Dropsie College.

Max

L. Margolis.

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT AMONG THE HEBREWS AND PHOENICIANS

Contribution to the ProblexM of the j'-inh RAISED BY Judge Mayer Sulzberger

In
his

oy

instructive

study entitled

The

Am

Haarez,

the

ancient

Hebrew Parliament, Judge Mayer

Sulzberger, with the

in

competence of an eminent
line,

legal authority manifested

every

endeavours to determine anew the constitutional governIsrael.

ment of ancient

After arguing his thesis with sagacity,

the learned Judge reaches a conclusion revealing a

new

aspect

of prime importance which must impress

historian
tative
:

itself

on the Jewish
represen-

Hebrew

antiquity

knew of

constitutional,

government.

This regime which can be traced to the

time of the Judges definitely appears in the age of Samuel, when

we come
Dy
^ii^'^\>.

across the

chosen of the people, D\snpn

in

'C'Sn,

op.

This term reappears

many

biblical passages

which

have been misunderstood by historians

antiquity,

ignorant

of

Oriental

and which

treat

of the assemblies of the Israehtes

under the name of

role being
Israel.

'f'lNn

nv ^CNi or even Y-\^n ny, their active

series of political

determined by a whole

changes in

The
such
is

thesis so wisely

developed deserves attention.

routine
in

However,

often the

force of historical

circles that

they fear every opinion

its

however

true

many erudite it may be

make
truth

just

on account of
is

originality.

The

only way to react against

such a routine
triumph.

to accumulate evidence tending to

May

therefore be permitted to offer

my

moderate
?

contribution to the elucidation of such an inspiring problem

To show how one must

not isolate pre-exilic Israel from the

303

304

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Hebrew
or

multitude of his

Hebrew-Phoenician neighbours,

I shall

try to recapitulate all that is

known

to-day concerning the ancient

constitution of Phoenicia, the analogy of which to that of Israel

has already been discussed by me.^

It is chiefly

the Phoenician and Punic inscriptions substantiated

will furnish us

by the testimony of the ancients which

begin by
saying that after

new data
Let us

concerning the constitutional regime of these peoples.

having experienced together with the

people of Israela prehistoric period of the rule of suffetes, CtiDV^, and representatives of the people, the Phoenicians of

Tyre and Zidon wound up by adopting the same political system the first known independent Kings of Tyre, Abiba'al as Israel
:

and Hiram, are contemporaries of David and Solomon. Only, and this despite the dearth of historical documents, all that we

know

of the history of Tyre points to a chronic conflict which existed between a popular party, the plebeians, and the royal
party or aristocracy.
are numerous.^

The

reactions

and revolutions among them

Indeed,

it

is

as a reaction against the tyranny of the royal

regime

Tyre that the founders of Carthage, having expatriated themselves in order to go to Africa, decided to adopt a republican
at

system of government with two suffetes or judges (magistrates) at

the head.

In a general way the Phoenician inscriptions

regimes different from one another: (i)
is

two

political

know The mono(2)

cratic

regime which

characterized by the mention of an era

dated from the coronation of the l^D or sovereign.

republican regime which
is

The
i.

characterized by a demotic

era,

e.

which counts the years from the foundation of the

new republican
i.e.

form of government or
year which bears the

else

from the eponymous year,

suffetes

the
in

names of the

who were then

power.

To
the
1

the last category belong the documents which

era,

come from
constituting

Seleucid

wherein

the Phoenician

cities

See Les Hibrio-Phhiickns, Paris, 1909.

Also La Chnlisaiion hebraique

et

phmicienm de Carthage, Tunis, 1912. 2 See the famous passage of Menander

cited \>y Josephus, &c.

GOVERNMENT AMONG THE HEBREWS SLOUSCH

a republic
still

305

found themselves dominated by the Syrian kings

category

and subject

to their suzerainty.
first

As a specimen of the
inscription of

may

serve the great

Zidon dated
in the
is

and published

domination Corpus Inscriptionwn Semiticarum, I, No. 2.

first

at the period of Persian

The
to us

following

the text of the

line

which

is

of interest

'

In the year

XIV

of

my

reign

(I)

Eshmunazar, King of the

Zidonians.'

Here

it is

tioned.

the king who dominates the era none else is menThe people do not participate in the management of the
:

government.

The same

is

true of the Phoenician colonies of Cyprus

where

the royal regime predominated, as

inscriptions of Sargon.'

may be

seen from the Assyrian

The CIS., I, Nos. 88 and 89, offers us a similar formula for a Cyprian king of the Ptolemaean age. The first line reads
:

^HNi 'na
'

li^o fn^D^o

i^^h

dd6::' n:-j'2

In the year

XXX
we

of

my

reign (I) Melechyaton,

King

of Kiti

(Kition)

and of Adel'
lack for the present inscriptions relative to the

As

to Tyre,

regime which would characterize her royal period contemporaneous

with the kings of Israel.

But we know that durmg the Greek

supremacy, when the republican regime was definitely established in the city of Tyre, it was the g^yuos, the Dy, which signalized
Its

advancement
it.

to

power through the establishment of an era

This point
the
is

appropriate to
I

so important to our thesis that of

venture

to
its

reproduce

inscription

CIS.,

No.

7,

in

extenso, with

Latin translation according to the editors of the

Corpus

See Maspero, Hisioire anciemie des peuples de VOrient.

*

p. 500.

It

goes without saying that the Phcenician orthography

differs

from the

Hebrew.

3o6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Domino
Baali

coelorum

mo
i"^

'C'N

.DCC'

^yn^

pi6
^L^.--

votum quod
filius
filii

vovit Abdelimus,
filu

Mattanis,

Abdelimi,
[circulo]

""''^

>

Baalsamari,

in

^^,^,^

^^^

^^^^l,

jlj^n nott'^yi

Laadic[ae].

Portani

banc

et
>rh::r\2

valvas eius feci in exsecutionem

illius

n^VD

li'X

nnpini

(voti).

Aedificavi

eum
^^^b^
,L,

anno

CL XXX

domini regum,

P^^
^^.

CL XXX ncp nn
^y^
nc'

CXLIII'^ anno populi Tyri, ut

sit

pL,

CXLIII
D'C'1

mihi in

memoriam

et

nomen
^jnx

bonum sub
Baalis

pedibus domini mei

^oya

nnn
.pnn"'

Dy3
,

n^D^

coelorum in aeternum.

^^.U, .D7y7 nt:w'7y3

,

Benedicat mini.

To

facilitate the

reading I offer a
:

Hebrew

translation or rather

an orthographic reproduction

-loc'^yn

D^bsnay

ino

ninhm

ntn

nycn nx
^'ri^?r>^

\Npni^ 1^22
''"^i''=^
""^
"^'^''^"^

180 nrt:p Ti^n

ny^ nr^ 143

.dp^o insb 30 nnvnb niv

D^yj DC'i nnr^ ^^

D^oc> ^ya 'jns* ^'cys

nnn

/:3n2^

.ab'wb

In

this inscription
is

we

find three dates

the

first is
;

not certain
the third

the second

that of the reign of a Seleucid king

is

that of the establishment of the Republic of

Tyre which, according

in contra-

The god

of heaven.

distinction from

D^OC bV2, is the pure Semitic deity, ;cn ^yn = CnOC^ bV2 who is the solar god.

(See

my

study cited above.)

^
?

Or Npni^ according to the Talmud. From ninn31 n^D project, plan. Or '^n.
,

GOVERNMENT AMONG THE HEBREWS SLOUSCH

to the editors of the Corpus,

307

would date from 275.

The

inscrip-

tion therefore dates 143

from the Republic of Tyre or 132 b. c. Another inscription found near Tyre much later and com-

mented upon by Clermont-Ganneau dates from the era of Ptolemaean dominion. The following is the passage concerning
the eras
:

D'Dbm

p Dp
X^T

bvb

-nwS'n

oa^o

ps

D>c!?n2^

XVi

nu'n

'

In the year

of Ptolemy, the lord of kings, the powerful, the

benefactor, son of Ptolemy

and Arsinoe, the

tree of

life,

fifty-three

years to the people of Tyre.'

Here

the

date

is is

certain;

it

is

Ptolemy III

Euergetes

(247-221 B.C.) who

alluded

to.

The Tyrian

republic having

been founded

As

to the

in the year 275, the date would be 222 b. c. Republic of Zidon of the same epoch, we possess an

inscription discovered at Piraeus (near Athens)

where we read the

following date

^"
:

pv
'On

ny^

XV

nyc^i nnci?

iv

n^a

the fourth day of (the month)

Marzeah"

in the year

XV
as

of

the people of Zidon.'

These documents show us

equivalent of republic.
It

that the term Dy

is

employed

an

is

the sovereign

people that signs

the acts.

Unfortunately we do not possess any data concerning the

social

and

political constitution of the republics of

Tyre and Zidon

of a later date.

On

the other hand,

we

are well informed as

to the constitutional regime of the daughter republic of

TyreThe

that of the

famous Carthage and her dependent

states.

testimonies of Aristotle
^

and Polybius
I,

are

precious,'-^

and the

Recueil d' Archeologie Orientak,

p.
I,

81

f.

See Renan, Rev. Archeol., 1888,

ancient
refer the reader to the
II.

p.

5f.

" An
12
I

name of a Hebrew- Phoenician month. book by Meltzer, Gesdiichte der Karthager,

vol.

n, ch.

3o8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

numerous although some of them
still

inscriptions are very

remain

m have already had occasion to demonstrate with offers analogies what respects the constitution of Carthage analogies which even go so far as post-exilic Judea,
unpublished.
I

that of

regime of ancient Judea is found of Carthage or copied and frequently glossed in the inscriptions Mediterranean region. her dependencies of the occidental
stood the 8^/.os. At the head of the constitution of Carthage government addressed itself whenever is to the people that the

common terminology.^'^ The whole constitutional

It

an important decision came up."

highest court of appeal in
life

The people
texts

constituted the

all

matters pertaining to the political

of the republic.
in

Now, the epigraphic

show

explicitly

that

the

Hebrew-Phoenician speech of Carthage

it

and her
gfy/xos

dependencies

is

the term Dy which replaces that of

in

Polybius whenever there is Aristotle, Diodorus of Sicily, and Several Zidonians reference to the constitution of Carthage.
votive texts the following naturalized in Carthage employ in their
^c-)'-

formula
n*jnnn~ip

(cp.

CIS.,

269,

271,

272,

273,

=>

"DCy^C^

= ex

decreto populi Carthaginis.

I,

Gozzo (Gaulos near Malta, see CIS., people of that city No. 132) speaks of temples erected by the

The

inscription of

in

the following terms

. .

[D^cnp?2n]

c'^'j'

n's

h^i

ny

unm

bv^

'

The people
.'
.

of Gaulos executed

the renovation of the three

[temples]

or

representatives of the ay In the inscriptions, No. 263-8, the commonwealth of other Punic colonies (e. g. mp^?:':n Dy,
ay,
&:c.)

n^JTS
13

are

involved.

Thus every Phcenician colony

dc Carthage.
1, 2.

See

my La

Civil /u'br.
;

ct p/ien.

Cp.
13

Diodor. 14. 4
is

Polyb. 15.

This term
Itob

hardly clear.

The

root D?^y

means

to charge,

perhaps

DOy^

= he charged them. The

is

Latin ex decreto translated

by the editors

of the Corpus

certain.

GOVERNMENT AMONG THE HEBREWS SLOUSCH

309

constituted a nation, a Dy, which distinguished her from the other

But what was exactly the character of this Dy or Syfxo^ which governed the destinies of the great Republic of Carthage and her sister cities ? Here again Aristotle,
corroborated by the testimony of Polybius
Meltzer, offers a solution
It follows
:

neighbouring populations.

and elucidated by

from these data that the people of Carthage

of 300 family

w^ere

presided over by a great assembly, Syncletos, composed

first

of

100 and

later

heads.

Evidently

not anybody

who wished formed

the Dy
^-J'S-i

the sovereign people of Carthage, but only the representatives of the Phoenician citizens, one from each family,
or as*
\-in
^J'wSn

of the

Hebrews and
in

of the

book of

Nehemiah, which form a point of discussion

treatise.

Judge Sulzberger's
where

By

its

origin
is

it

recalls the

nhin
Neh.

nD:3 of Jerusalem,
5.

whose inception
salem

stated
first

clearly in
legislative

ro,

it

is

resolved to have the

:

reunion of post-exilic Jeru-

twenty-three representatives of the families of the Aaronides, seventeen heads of Levitic families, and forty-five heads of lay
See, moreover, Neh.
8.

families.

13: nyn b^b nus'n

''::\si

12DN:

With reference
is

to

the Aaronides as well as the Judeans,

it

the representatives of the families w^ho

make up
is

the Dy.

Hence

at

Carthage as well as

at

Jerusalem the Dy
its

the pure race,

the

commonwealth represented by
It is this

family chiefs, to the ex-

clusion of strangers.

assembly which controls the acts

all the functions of government, such as the executive function, the Synhedrion" or the Senate of 100 at Carthage and of 70 at Jerusalem, Szc. At Jerusalem the two suffetes are replaced by the high-priest and

of the suffetes, which presides over

the Nasi, later on by the nijir or chiefs of Synhedrion.

The
one

members
DJinn
1'^

of this parliament bear the

name Dnnn.
at

Thus

in

of the inscriptions
(

recently discovered

Carthage^" we find
In Jeru-

= Dn3n)

alongside of suffetes and high-priests.

1^

The term Synhedrion appears similarly at Carthage. To appear in the next issue of the CIS., which
I,

is

now

in press;

cp. CIS.,

No. 165.

3IO

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

salem these D-13- are met with in the following numismatic text
published by de Vogue
:

cnin^n -12m ^nin

'

\r\2r\

f:nv

Johanan the

high-priest

and the college

of the Jews.'

But even the term

hetairia

which Aristotle attributes to the

is

supreme tribunal of Carthage

first

known

in
r.

Jerusalem.
-i^j-,

In the
63, &c.)

place

we

find the term nil^nn (Midr.

to the great

cn^'J'n

2.

used with reference

Jewish tribunal.
h'il or

But besides
of the

we have the misunderstood term pDin

hetairia.

members

The key

to this solution

is

furnished

by Yebamot 121a,

where we read
I

D^'iT'n, hetairias.

hope again

to treat this captivating subject at

some
it

future
be,

date.

But the present exposition, however

summary

may

proves sufficiently that the thesis of

Judge Sulzberger
:

finds very

serious support in the texts of Phoenicia

under the form of

family representation, the families being

to the Phoenician

only those belonging

commonwealth, the people of Tyre or Carthage,

republics.

the 8^/Aos or the Dy, directed the destinies of their

This

is

the

first

form known

in

the history of the regime of

a sovereign people.

Yds'\%.

Nahum

Slousch.

RECENT ARABIC LITERATURE

Le Parkr arabe
des Juifs d'Alger. Par Marcel Cohen, charge de cours a I'Ecole des Langues Orientales. Paris H. Cham:

pion, 1912,

pp. xvii

+ 559.
philological

Until

quite
to

recent times

studies were
literature,

mainly

devoted

the

grammatical

speech

and

and the

languages of the people were contemptuously disregarded. That this attitude is at best one-sided is self-evident. For the grammar
of a language represents the arbitrary views of a school of a
certain
period,

and usually

arrests

the

natural

development,

whereas

the

common

people

grammar continue
pursued
in

to develop a

who remain uninfluenced by dialect of their own. Due to these

is

considerations, the investigation of various dialects

assiduously

modern

times.

In Arabic especially such studies are

classical
is

of vital importance.

The

language, as represented in

the Kur'an and early poetry

for

to

some

extent

still

the

model

Arabian writers throughout the globe, but the numerous dialects differ so greatly from one another, that a man well versed ni one will be at a loss to understand another. For the comparative
hints,

grammar

of Semitic languages, dialects offer suggestive

in

and Brockelmann

his

Grundriss

made ample

use of

them.

As Jews form a group

for themselves, they usually

develop

dialects of their

own, which preserve important features of the

dialect

parent tongue.

That the Arabic

special treatment
is is

fully justified this

spoken by the Jews of Algiers deserves by Marcel Cohen's book, which

dialect,

an exhaustive study of

and throws a good deal

of light on the development of that language.

Such a book would naturally have been best written by a native of Algiers.
It
is,

are seldom alive to

however, a remarkable fact that speakers of a certain dialect its importance. Thus Jewish-German, though

the vehicle of thought of several millions of Jews, and possessing

311

312

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

sively.

yet treated comprehena rapidly-growing literature, has not been that there are a fairly large And it should be borne in mind

number
It

of philologists whose mother-tongue

is

Jewish-German.

would therefore be unreasonable

to wait for a native to write

of the Jews of Algiers. a comprehensive study of the dialect

philoM. Marcel Cohen, who seems to have had an excellent careful study of this dialect while logical training, made a

sojourning in Algiers.
intelligent

He

availed himself of the services of

natives,

who

supplied

him with apparently

reliable

information.

In his Introduction M. Cohen gives a short sketch of the Jews The usual tragedy of Jews in the diaspora reveals of Algiers. They are swayed by foreign influences, and are the itself here.
first

to discard their

language and adopt another.

There

is

every

reason to believe that soon Arabic will French, the of the Jews of Algiers, and will be supplanted by

cease to be the language

language of the recent conquerors.

the characteristics wherein
dialects
this

^I.

Cohen
differs

also points out

dialect

from the other

maintains that

spoken by

Muhammadans

or Jews.
it

He
is

this is a real dialect,

and not a jargon, as in his by the non-Jewish population of Algiers, and by Barges work on Tlemcen. This view can, however, be contested, and
jargon. our decision depends on the exact definition of the l^xx^ contains a considerable amount of Hebrew This Jewish dialect

usually considered

loan-words to
it

make

it

unintelligible to non-Jews.
is

In this respect
^^ jargon.

resembles Jewish-German, which

commonly known

Moreover, the Jews of Algiers, as their history shows, are composed of heterogeneous elements, and conflicting influences were
at

work

to

make

their dialect

what

it is

to-day.

It is

thus deprived

of a natural development which

is

the primary characteristic of

a dialect.

The first part of this important work deals with phonetics. M. Cohen is very exhaustive, and treats of all sounds very One is, however, inclined to doubt the accuracy of minutely. For one who is not a native will find it this difficult study.
indiimpossible to determine whether certain characteristics are

RECENT ARABIC LITERATURE HALPER

vidual or general.

313

This

difficulty

the case

of unaccented

vowels,

is almost unsurmountable in where even the most careful

whom
which
that

inquiries would fail to elicit reliable information. It will, however be readily granted that M. Cohen obtained the best possible results under the circumstances. Moreover, he seems to have been supported by the independent investigations of W. Margais,

the author frequently quotes.

many Jews
is

It is interesting to note that of Algiers are unable to pronounce s/i, a characteristic shared by Jews in certain parts of Lithuania. The fact

is

sometimes pronounced as /lamza

usual.

is

to

be ascribed
this

perhaps to some Jews

is

who immigrated from Egypt, where

the

quite

On

whole,

think

that

most of these

characteristics are to

be explained

in

some such way.

is

Of
with

greater importance

and

interest

the second part dealing

greater
is

Here the author could work with accuracy and precision. The wear and tear of language
clearly manifest.
It is safe to

morphology.

mate Aramaic more

quite frequent.
to

here say that the verbal forms approxithan Arabic. The dropping of syllables is

Trisyllabic forms of classical Arabic are reduced

one

syllable.
:

To

illustrate this point the following

example

will suffice

kfed,

'he wrote', instead of ^afa^a.

for in

This represents
is

an advanced stage of decay,

form.
dialects

Egypt

kefed

the ordinary

comparison of
in

spoken

the other Arabic the Orient will yield fruitful results. One
influence in the usage of

this

dialect

with

may perhaps
sense of
thou art.
to

find
be

Hebrew
252),

(p.

which

is

like nJH.

m'd Thus rdk

in the

^J^,

The
^

studies in the vocabulary, which form the third part ot

this work, deal chiefly with

words borrowed from other languages.

Hebrew loan-words are very prominent. the terms employed in religious ceremonies are Hebrew, in a grammatical or corrupt form. This is the case with all
Most of
Jewish dialects, for religious terms are not easily translated. But the author rightly observes that owing to the fact that the Jews of Algiers lack talmudic knowledge, Hebrew words are less

As may

well be imagined,

numerous

in

this

dialect

than in Jewish-Spanish or Jewish-

VOL.

IV.

314
German.
are also a

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Most
of the formulas of greeting are in of euphemistic expressions.

Hebrew, as

number

Some Hebrew

author treats phrases are used as a peculiar slang, which the sometimes not devoid of These expressions are separately.

humour.

Thus msD
to

TJ'y (ten plagues)

means
is

tefi

francs.

In explaining these terms our author

not always fortunate,

and

it is

be regretted that

this part of the

work was not revised

by a competent Hebrew Additions et Correctio?is misprints, some of which are corrected in orthography and interpretaxi-xvii), there are many errors in
scholar.
(pp.
tion.
(p.

Apart from the numerous

XD-i'J instead of nsTJ)

left

and ayn

ym

instead of axn nyu'n

is

393) are

uncorrected.

The

vocalization

seldom accurate.

In mentioning the

name

of a detested dead person, the Algiers

ni?-^*y

Jews use the expression

suffix

3rd pers. masc.

it

sing.,

^T^^ together with the Arabic and the author (p. 396) remarks that
!

in

he looked up a Hebrew possible form paradigm, he would have known that the only Midrash uses pnc' it should be noted that the is vni?:>'y. pronominal suffix. 21D >3 ^h nin is translated without a

Hebrew

ought to be

ini?Oi:y

Had

niJ2Vy

by

eclat

pour Dieu, puisque

c'est

hon

n^,n

being laken as a noun.

i.
^

He

also fails

to remark that this phrase occurs in Ps. 136.

The
ways.

texts

which the author appends

are judiciously

are instructive in various

and are calcuthe customs and manners lated to give the reader some idea of Text I is written in Hebrew characters, of the Jews of Algiers. It translation. and is supplied with a transcription and French

They

and

carefully chosen,

(litde gazelle), a humorous anecdote about a Rabbi Ghzuel The of Lukman. which reminds one of the anecdotes related
is

remaining texts are transcribed in European

translated
into

characters,

and

French.

Text II

is

a description of Sabbath

dishes

given

by an old

woman.

It

ends with a humorous

couplet
eslebhat bla ijina

kif essultan bla md'ma

'

Sabbath without
Sabbath)

ifina (food

prepared on Friday and kept

city.'

warm

for the

is

like a king without a

RECENT ARABIC LITERATURE HALPER

Text III deals with burial
marriage ceremonies.

315

They

rites, and Text IV describes are very quaint customs, and in

some way
times.

poetic.

They remind one

of the idyllic state of ancient

The

latter text
letter.

ends with a wedding hymn.

Text

is

a commercial

of the words occurring in this book is well comand serves a useful purpose in enabling one to find out what words are peculiar to this dialect.
piled,

The index

Register

zum Qomnkomme?itar
Haussleiter.
pp. 47.

des Jabari (Kairo, 132

1).

Hermann
1912.

Von

Strassburg:

Karl

J.

TrIjbner,

Among Muhammadan
stands

writers of the

ninth century Tabari

'

out

pre-eminently

as

historian

and

theologian.

His

Annals, which were published under the direction of de Goeje, are extensively used. But his magnum opus, his commentary
the Kur'an, was hitherto neglected.

to

O. Loth gave a description

monumental work in ZDAIG., XXXV (188 1), 58S-628. About ten years ago this work was published at Cairo in thirty
of this

volumes.
suitable
to

The index volume

the

is

in Oriental fashion,

and

is

not

needs of European scholars.

As a

scientific

this work can hardly be expected in the near future, Haussleiter has compiled a useful index which will enable the reader to find his way in this commentary.
It

European edition of

was

undertaken

at the instance of Prof. Lidzbarski.

Fliigel's edition

The

verses are

marked

in

accordance with

of the Kur'an.

Monuments of Arabic Philology. By Dr. Paul Brunnle. Vol. I. Commentary on Ibn Hisham's Biography of Muhammad

Abu Dzarr's MSS. in Berlin, Constantinople, and the Escorial (Wuestenfeld's edition, pp. 1-540). Edited
according to

by Dr. Paul Bronnle.

Cairo

F.
-f

Diemer, Finck,

&

Bay-

laender succ, 191 r.

and
end), pp. 2

pp. 16

208.

Vol. II (continuation

+ 258.

To bridge over the gulf that separates the East from the West has often been attempted by making the literature of the one accessible to the other. As is usually the fate of Utopian ideas,
Y
2

3l6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

visible success

no

was hitherto achieved, and the East remains

Nevertheless, there
all
still

unknown
band of
by

to

the West.

exists a small

scholars

who, despite

discouragement,

persist

in

Animated desired end. doing their best to bring about this to researches in Dr. Paul Bronnle devoted himself
this idea,

Arabic

fruitful labour, is literature, and, as a result of his

publishing

Monuments of Arabic In order to make

East and

Philology in six volumes.

the the texts accessible to readers of both an editions two the West, Dr. Bronnle is issuing
:

(Arabic-German). The Oriental (Arabic-English) and a European volume of critical former is to contain five volumes of texts, and a
notes and indices of
all

texts.

The

editor has skilfully chosen

texts of varied interest, excluding all

grammatical works of which

One needs only to abundant specimens had been printed. convinced of the sound glance at the table of contents to be comprise works Judgement of the editor. These volumes are to Ibn Khalawaih, Qutrub (complete by Abu Dzarr, Al-Rabai, The European edition will be works), and 'Ali ibn Hamza. will be compublished on a slightly different plan each volume
;

plete in

itself,

consisting of texts, critical notes, literary introduction,

and

indices.

appeared, and Hitherto two volumes of the Oriental edition

Ibn Hisham's Biography Dr. Bronnle editor. of Muhammad and two short prefaces by the Commentatoren had formerly published a thesis entitled Die
they contain

Abu

Dzarr's

commentary

to

'

des Ibn

Hisham und

ihre Scholien
his

',

in

which he gave a detailed

account of

Abu

Dzarr and

works.

He

is

thus singularly

qualified for the task of editing this manuscript. Tafsir The present volumes are an important addition to the
literature of the Arabs.

Abu

Dzarr

is

very concise, and does not

which characterizes weary the reader with irrelevant verbosity He explains difficult words of the Arabic commentators.

some

in a brief, but convincing,

manner, and
the

is

not unlike the Jewish

of igjwtum per ignoiius,

commentator Rashi.
a fallacy frequently

He avoids

pitfall

committed by Arabic commentators, who

if

sometimes give the impression as

they aimed at displaying their

RECENT ARABIC LITERATURE HALPER

knowledge of synonyms rather than elucidating the up difficulties.
text

317 and

clearing

It is impossible to pass judgement on the editor's work, as these volumes are only provided with short prefaces, which can naturally lay no claim to literary merit, for they do not

touch upon

any textual problem.

They merely

tell

of the assistance obtained

utilized

from royal personages, and about the various manuscripts

for the edition.

The

consonantal text

is

clearly

and accurately
fre-

prmted, but the vowels which are supplied sporadically are

quently misplaced, and sometimes even wrong.

This

is

perhaps

due

to the fact that Oriental printers are inexperienced in publishing

vocalized texts.
in the

The

editor

would do well

to rectify this error

European

edition.
will

It is to

be hoped that Dr. Bronnle

continue his work and

earn the gratitude of Arabic scholars

Orietital Cairo, the City

all

the world over.

0/

the

Arabian Nights.

By Douglas
life

Sladen.
in Oriental

Illustrated with sixty-three intimate pictures of

Cairo from photographs by the author, and with

the newest

map

of Cairo.

Philadelphia

J.

B. Lippincott

Company, 191 1,

pp. xiv + 39r.

Since Napoleon made Egypt his winter quarters, that country became the rallying-point of European and American tourists.
Indeed, the tourist
that Cairo,
is is

such an important factor in Egyptian

life,

which

naturally the centre of attraction, assumes

November As among these tourists there is a number of talented men who come not only to escape the severity of the western winter, but also to receive new impressions which they
and ends
in April.

quite a different aspect during the season which begins in

wish

to

record,

there

sprang up a vast literature on

Egypt.

Edward Lane, who may be regarded as the pioneer in this field, had many followers who attempted to narrate what they observed. The bulk of these books being personal impressions, they are
usually not exhaustive, as many places are overlooked or disregarded by the writers, and are thus not sufficiently reliable for

the

traveller.

On

the

other hand,

the

guide-books, such

as

3l8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

for reference,

Baedeker and Cook, are only good

for reading.

but are too dull

book on Egypt which should

at

once be

reliable
is,

and

readable has hitherto been a desideratum.

Mr. Sladen

therefore, to

be congratulated on

his achievement.

He

succeeded

in the present

volume

to

combine the exhaustiveness of a guide-

book with the

an
artistic

fascination of a

book of impressions.
is

Possessing
to

eye and a descriptive pen, he

things

able

discover
All

beautiful

and

to

describe

them

graphically.

the

thirty-four chapters are charmingly written,

and some even have

is

a fine touch of poetry about them. Mr. Sladen

very enthusiastic

about the sights he describes, and by the magic of his vivid

descriptions communicates his enthusiasm to the reader.
seers in Cairo will,
after perusing this

Sight-

book, find

the

hidden

charms of the Pyramids and the Tombs of the Caliphs revealed unto them. For Mr. Sladen, beside depicting minutely most
sights of interest, takes care to inform the reader at

what time

and by what route they may be approached with greater advantage. In reading this book one feels as if an enthusiastic guide
with
artistic taste
all

and charm takes him

for a pleasant excursion,

pointing out

beautiful objects.
at giving historical accounts,
facts

Although the author does not aim

he nevertheless embodies in every chapter well-chosen

which

would

interest the average reader

and

sight-seer.

He

advisedly

abstains from encumbering the reader with tedious

are seldom retained in

details

which

the mind

for

more than a few minutes.

Those, however, who desire further information are referred to

other books, whose aim
it is

to give detailed accounts.

The

sixty-three photographs represent various aspects of native

life.

Egyptian

They
there

are,
is

however, not always in their place.

the beginning
',

Thus on
'

p. 2 So

of a chapter entitled,

Roda
the

Island and Moses

return
of the
this

and there

is

no allusion whatsoever
Yet
p.
it

to

Holy Carpet from Mecca.

is

photograph of

imposing procession that faces

280.

This

picture naturally belongs to chapter

subject.

XXI, which

deals with this

similar fate has befallen the only two Jewish photoi4> 15

graphs depicting a grand Jewish funeral. They are facing pp.

RECENT ARABIC LITERATURE HALPER

319

respectively, but would certainly have been more suitable for pp. 223, 224, where a few lines are devoted to the description of 'a funeral of a rich Jew more magnificent than any funeral the author ever saw, except the procession of a dead

monarch

or a national hero'.

The meagre
Mr. Sladen
is

descriptions of native

life

which occur sporadically

to the fact that

are not to be taken seriously.

This

may be due

not sufficiently familiar with the Arabic languaf'-e. For, after all, the first and most important qualification for the understanding of a race is to be well versed in its tongue.

Moreover, Mr. Sladen

engrossed in his

is

not a keen observer.

He

is

too

artistic pursuits to

be able to observe

much men of
this

another race objectively.

It is true that
is

he caught the humour

of the Esbekiya, and chapter III

IS

certainly amusing.

But

a superficial and cheap sort of humour, which never escapes even the dullest person who visits an Oriental town for the first time.
It

should be pointed out that Mr. Sladen's book

political bias.

is

not free

from

The author never

misses the opportunity of

drawing attention to the overwhelming favour England is bestowmg on the Egyptians by occupying their country. Mr. Sladen IS, no doubt, entitled to his opinion about forcing improvements upon weaker races, but his book would not have suffered if he had kept his opinion to himself But, as remarked above, Mr. Sladen is subjective in his mode of thinking. This also accounts for the fact that he cannot resist showing his contempt
for
sex.

American

tourists,

especially for those belonging to the fair

We

are,

however, ready to forgive a

is

man

personal prejudices, provided he

artistic to

artistic,

his national and and Mr. Sladen is

a high degree.

With the exception of the short description of a grand Jewish funeral, of which mention was made before, and the obtrusively
frequent allusions
to
this

Jewish
book.

women
This
is

of

ill-fame,

there

is

no

Jewish interest
IS

in

to be regretted, as there

a considerable Jewish population, both native

and European,
it

in Cairo,

and we should have

liked to get a description of

from

320

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The Jewish Quarter (Haret al-Yahud) which Musky has a humour of its own, and offers
interest.
Its

Mr. Sladen's pen.

branches
off the

many
a

points

of

narrow

alleys,

through which

a carriage

can hardly pass, and mediaeval

synagogues are in

way quite unique.

The
'

first

three appendices which deal with

'

'

Ways

of getting
',

to Egypt, &c.',

Cairo

is

the real

scene of The Arabia?! Alghts

Artists' Bits in Cairo, &c.', are very useful.

One cannot, howAppendix

ever,

see the necessity or utility of reprinting as an Mr. Roosevelt's speech on Egypt at the Guildhall.

The

index, which was compiled by Miss Margaret

scientific

Thomas,

makes the book appear more

Dropsie College.

than

it

actually

is.

B.

Halper.

PROLEGOMENA TO A GREEK-HEBREW AND HEBREW-GREEK INDEX TO AOUILA*

Bv Joseph Reider,
Dropsie College.

INTRODUCTION
I.

The

Oxford Concordance

to the Septuagint

and the

other Greek Versions of the Old Testament by Hatch and

Redpath, completed
in

in

1897

and with

its

two supplements
two

1906,2 follows a double plan with regard to the

* [The Indexes to which allusion is made in the present work have been completed and the manuscript has been deposited in the Library of Dropsie College. Another student in the Biblical Department of the College is engaged in preparing similar Indexes to Theodotion, and it is hoped that

work of indexing Symmachus and the other translators recorded in the Oxford Concordance, as well as the Hexaplaric matter found in Field but not excerpted in the Concordance, will be shortly undertaken by members of the College. All these Indexes when completed will be issued in one volume, which it is hoped will be welcomed by scholars as a useful supplement to Hatch and Redpath, Professor Margolis has appended a few
the

notes in brackets signed with the

^

initial

M.]

Septuagint and the other Greek Versions of the Old Testament {including the apocryphal books), by Edwin Hatch and Henry
to the

Concordance

A. Redpath, assisted by other scholars.

2 vols. Oxford, 1897. Hatch and Redpath have been preceded by Konrad Kircher Concordantiae F' T'
Graecae, ebraeis vocibus respondentes voXvxprjaToi, Frankf. a. M., 1607, 2 vols.;

graecae versionis, vidgo dictae interpretum, cxijus voces secundum ordineni elementorum senuonis graeci digestae
recensentur.

Abraham Tromm, Concordantiae

LXX

of the

LXX. London,

Amsterdam, 1718. 2 vols. Q.'^llpxri^V], A Handy Concordance 1887. Mention must also be made of J. F. Schleusner,
;

Novus Thesaurus
In the last-named

philologico-criticus sive lexicon

in

LXX.

London, 1829.
I

work

there are found instructive obsen-ations which

have

turned to good purpose.

2

Fasc.

containing a concordance to the proper names occurring in the

VOL.

IV.

321

'

322

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

it

main sources upon which

Septuagint,

is

based.

In the case of the

all
'

under

every word the citations for

the

passages in which the word occurs are given with

as possible

as far

enough of the context

to

show

(i)

the gram-

matical construction of the word,

it

(2)

the words with which

is

ordinarily associated

'.'

At
of

the head of each article

an alphabetically arranged
valents
is
is

list

Hebrew (Aramaic)

equi-

found, to which throughout the article reference number."*

made by

This plan has been deviated from

:

in

case of numerals, prepositions, and conjunctions

instead

of

full citations

we have merely an index of

passages, and

furthermore the Semitic equivalents are not given.

latter

This
other

method has been followed throughout

Oxford, igoo.

for the

'

Septuagint.
siasticus,

Fasc. II containing a concordance to Eccle-

other addenda and

Hebrew index

to the

whole work.
But
to

Oxford,

1906.
3

Preface, p.

v,

end.

The

editor goes on to say

'

have combined

in

each quotation

all its

points either of grammatical interest or of analogy

:

and with other passages would have made the work inordinately long will frequently be found that the quotations under a single consequently it

word
*

are

made on
it.'

different princioles in order to illustrate different points

relating to

For a criticism of the arrangement of the work, cp. Margolis, 'Entwurf

2u einer revidierten Ausgabe der hebraisch-aramaischen Aquivalente in der Oxforder Concordance to the Septuagint and the other Greek Versions of
the Old Testament,'

ZAIV.,

XXV

(1905), pp. 311

zitr Weisheit des

ff-;

see also Smend,

Berlin,

Griechisch-Syrisch-Hebidischcr Index
1907, pp. X
if.

Jesus Sirach.

Both Margolis and Smend object

to the quid pro quos or

this lack

unidentified

Greek words marked by a dagger, claiming that

of

identification impairs the usefulness of the

work

for lexical

purposes and

textual criticism.

Smend, furthermore, considers altogether impractical

the arrangement of the Greek citations according to the order of the books
of the Bible and not (as
also considers
it

unfortunate that the

Tromm) according to the Hebrew equivalents. He Hebrew index contained in the second
in

Supplement gives reference to the pages

which the Greek equivalents

M].

occur and not to the equivalents themselves [similarly Glaue-Rahlfs, Frag-

menie

e.

griecli.

Obersetziing d. samarit. Peiitateiichs, 52.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA

Greek
versions.^

REIDER

323

Both

for the

Septuagint and the other

versions certain pronouns and particles of frequent occur-

rence have been omitted altogether, such

KaC

as, for

example,

and the
2.

definite article

u,

77,

t6.*^

The work
is

to

which the following pages are

intro-

ductory
sides in

intended to supplement Hatch-Redpath on the

left

which the editors have

room

for

improvement.
as a basis

While the Oxford Concordance has been taken

for a

new double

index,

Greek-Hebrew and Hebrew-Greek,

list

to Aquila,

who heads
are

the

of the

'

other

'

versions,

it

has
first

been sought to supply two main

place
references

deficiencies.

In the

given also for words

of frequent

occurrence omitted in the Oxford work.'^

place every article contains the

In the second
equi-

Hebrew (Aramaic)
a registration

valents both for the articles found and those not found in

Hatch-Redpath.
equivalents has
versions.

The need
been
felt

for
all

of these

by

students of the Greek

it

In giving these equivalents

has been deemed

advisable to deviate from the

editors.

method adopted by the Oxford

Another feature
weak

The

equivalents are presented not in alphabetical

is

order, but with regard to frequency.

^

Smend,

/.

c,

considers this as one of the

points in the Con-

cordance.

Cp. Schmiedel, Georg Benedict Winer's Grammatik des neutestamentSprachidiom^, GOttingen, 1894, p. xv.

Itchen

Schmiedel not only

criticizes

the omission of certain prepositions and particles in the Concordance, but also the failure to reproduce the whole phrase in connexion with the prepositions

and

particles, for

'

es

kann doch keinen Augenblick zweifelhaft

ist als z.

sein,

dass hier das Ausschreiben des Textes 100 Mai wichtiger

B. bei

dvOpomos Oder

dvrip

'.

He

considers

this

'

den

schwersten

Fehler des

Werkes
'

'.

That such words are important and have a bearing on Aquila's manner

of translation and exegesis

cp. Burkitt,

may be

seen from his use of the definite

article,

Aquila.

Fragments of the Books of Kings according Cambridge, 1897, p. 12 f. See also below.

to the (ra)islation

of

Z 3

324

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the arrangement of compounds and derivatives under the

head of the

simplicia,

though the former are also entered

in

the alphabetical place with cross-references.*

3.

So

far

as

the 'other' versions

and

in
is

particular

Aquila, the subject of the present

effort,

concerned,

the material gathered together

is

in

the Oxford Concordance

work,'-*

based chiefly on Field's monumental

but incor-

porates also later material contained in the printed works

of
Pitra,^'^

Swete,^^

Klostermann/-

Morin,i'

Burkitt,i*

This plan of arrangement was outlined fully by Margolis, /. c. It is Hebrew to ignore the justified by the fact that it is in the nature of the
8

in shades of meaning brought out by a preposition attached to the verb Greek; e.g. T^^ may be rendered by either oiKilv, evoixeiv, KaroiKUv, or
napoiKi'iv
;

and

hence

it

is

more

practical to

have them

all

grouped

together.
9
'

Monumentum

exegit, hisce diebus. Fredericus Fieldius, in

summum
of Field's

decus utriusque Academiae Oxoniensis et Cantabrigiensis/ Pitra, Analecta

Sacra Spkilegio Solesmensi Faiata, Tom.

Ill, p.

551.
;

The

full title

work

is

Origeitis
in

Hexaphrum quae
Veins
et

siipersimt

sive

Veterum Interpretum
Post Flaminium
Syro-

Graecontm
Nobilium,

tohim

TestameuUtm

Fragmmta.
adhibita

Drusium,

Montefalconium,

etiam versione

Hexaplari, concinnavit, emendavit, et multis partibus auxit Fridericus Field.

Tom.
10

II.

Oxonii, 1875.

Analecta Sacra Spkilegio Solesmensi Parata.

ff.

Tom.

III.

T3''po-

grapheo Veneto, 1883, pp. 551

11

The Old Testament

in

Greek according

to

the

Scptuaginf.

3 vols.

Cambridge, 1887-94.
Marchalianus).
12

Of

especial value are the excerpts from

(Codex

Analecta stir Septuaginia, Hexapla

und

Patristik.

Leipzig,

1895,

pp.

4 7ff. 13

Anccdoia

Marcdsolana

sen

Moniwtcnta
edita

Ecclesiasticac

Antiquitatis

ex MSS.
Pars
I
:

codicibus nunc

primum

aut

denuo

illustrata.

Vol.

Ill,

Sancti Hieronymi Presbj'teri Commentarioli in Psalmos.

:

Vol. Ill,

Pars III
soli,

Sancti Hieronymi Presbyteri Tractatus novissime reperti.

Maredis

1895-1903.
in these

Valuable material bearing on the later Greek versions

found

works of Jerome.
of the Books of Kings according
to the translation

" Fragments

of Aquila.

Cambridge, 1897.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

Taylor,^^

REIDER

325

and,

in

one

instance,

unpublished

fragments

discovered

by Dr. Mercati
the

of the Vatican Library,

who

'very kindly lent

Editor

...

transcript

of the

fragments
4.
It

'.^^

is

to be regretted that the excerpting of Field

little

has been done with

attention to the Hebrew,^^ and

betrays occasionally a mechanical haste which has resulted

in the incorporation of

words which never formed part of

the text in question.^*

But another disappointing feature

Palimpsests
the

^^

Hebrew-Greek Cairo
including a

Geiitsa/i

from

the

Taylor-Schechter

collection,

Fragment of

Twenty- second

Psalm

according to

Origens Hexapla.
1'^

Cambridge, 1900.

See on

this find

Klostermann, ZAIV.,

XVI

(1896}, 336

f.

It is to

be

regretted that the important publication

^"^

is still

due.
8.

Thus under the article Kopos {satietas)

5.

the references Exod.

14 (10) bis

3 Kings
in

II (25) are to be taken out and transferred to the preceding

article Kvpos {corns).

The Hebrew equivalents are If^H

similar character
is

in

Exodus and

"lb

Kings.

Another grave error of a

found

in the article

tiipiaufiv,

where

Ps. 77 (78), 26

is

entered for Symmachus.

fvpov
;

Field has
is

correctly tvpov,

which the excerpter misread as

head of column 3
eupos

the

Hebrew

D"'np.

Hence

insert on p. 579 at the

[Sm., Ps. 77

(78). 26].
a' 6'

An

ample of carelessness appears

article -npox^pilP-o--

to

be the reference Ezek. 32. 6 for a

under the

Under

the article Kfpdos delete the a reference

is

(Ezek. 27. 24).

Field has correctly tcebpos which

duly entered in the

Concordance

s.v.

The
3 s.v.

a'
;

reference s.v. ddpiivtiv should be placed under the

at the

article preceding {ddpos)

s.v. -rix^iv Ps.

same time write

article KirpLs
:

a' for
a'.

a.

The a

reference
a' refer-

67 (68). 18 should be transferred to

3.
Oi)(iv.

Delete the

ence 3 Kings
instead of a
is
.

The

should be credited to Al.

a' a' 9'

In

the article KooKivcufjia add

Exod.

27. 4.

This duly

a plain omission,
s.v.

the accompanying adjective

oiktvojto^

being

entered
1^

Stcb

K5t56vai
is

the

Concordance has
a').

a'

6'

Jer. 37 (44). 12

(which
f.)

reference

repeated under

Field gives {Auctaritim, p. 47

f.
,

from

codd. 86. 88 a rendering of ver. 11

attributed to Joannes (see Field's

Prolegomena, pp.
cod. 88) Kal

xciii

f.),

which he follows up by the scholion (from

oi Xoiirol op.o'iwi (^eScuKav.

The excerpter took

this to

mean

326
consists
in

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the fact that the excerpter appears to have

considered his task done

text, disregarding

when he paid

attention to Field's

on the whole

Field's illuminating notes

below, which in

many

instances serve to modify the text

above
And

^^ in essential points.

the remaining [translators] likewise [have] k^idwKav.

is
:

Of

course, the

correct English

And

the remaining [translators] have rendered in a like

is

manner.

The

reference

to p?n!?, for

which Joannes has ds ru

lot),

vdfxaadai

Tov kXtipov (to obtain possession of the

aeijvai
a'

and so similarly a

9'

rov nepi-

fxeptaaaeai

(on the exegesis of the

Hebrew

as well as on the

variant reading underlying the Septuagintal rendering d-yopaaai, see

Margohs,

JAOS.,

XXX

(1910), 308
is

f.).

On

p. 1503, col. 2,

fK^uv a

a',

Ezek. 24. 13
:

(from Swete)

to be

struck out.

aKaOapaia cov C^ix^a

avvrayr]
(,'e/ia

((e/^a w^ith

one

fx,

Swete adduces from Q*) and from Q'"^ ad

two

0'
:

iv j-q

C;^(/*)a

c'

6f efeffe.
it

The excerpter took the whole phrase

which
is

as
;

coming from

a
is

a',

whereas

is

clear that only awTayrj belongs to the

what follows
6'

a gloss on ^(fxa (0''s rendering)

{iK)(^eiv

erroneously combined with

Greek
I

'boil over'.

Sub iam
25. i.

strike

out the references

a'

a'

Kings

26. 19,

and

6'

Kings

In the latter place Field has (from

e.

the margin of 243)

o' pafxa 6'

to eau 'h.

quod intus

(in textu) hahetur'' (so

is to
Q'

Field explicitly below the text).

The purport
column
Apuaeaip..

of the marginal note

pay^a

say

that Origen wrote in the Septuagint

nD"),

whereas

had

the same as in the text,

i.

e.

'

In the other passage X- to taw

iv
KKrjpovofiiq.

means

that

they read as

in

the

text
6'

Accordingly two

additional entries are obtained for a a'

under

kv

and

KKrjpovoyia.
(.).

clear

example of superficial haste

prints
:

is

the ignoring of a period

-rx/"^^''"' ^^

Job

2. 9, Field

6' nal eitrev

aiiTw

77

yvvr).

woKkov vpo^i^rjKUTOS \.

Ov
is

Kiirai iv

Tw "E^pdiKw.
^*

The whole means

irpoPf^TjKOTos
(a

that in the place of the Septuafree

gintal

xP^^^

TToWoit
is

expansion) which, as
a' 6'

expressly noted,
junction KuL

not found in the Hebrew,

excerpter's eye overlooked

had merely the conperiod after yvvr}

6'
;

The
is

Field's

and thus included

xp'^^'ov

(see s.v.) in the phrase ascribed to a'

curiously
\

enough there
18

no

reference to

Job

2. 9, a' 6' s. vv. toKiis

and

irpo&aiveiv

case in point has been met at the end of the previous note, where surely a glance at Field's notes would have made impossible the error of Had the notes been citing sttb 'iaa the meaningless references there given.

consulted, a further faulty reference should have been added

25. 31 (see foot-note 45).

a' 6' i

Kings

But here Field wisely kept out of his text the phraseology of the gloss and merely registered the result. Obviously it was the excerpter-s duty in every case to square the text with the notes, which,

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

5.

REIDER
notes

327
offer,

Much

valuable

instruction

as

Field's

the scope of the present work would have been incomplete

however, he
failed to do.

can be pointed out here.

buted to
to
a'.

The examples are so numerous Thus sttb dvaee/xaTi^ftu, Deut.

that only a selection

3,

3 and 6, are attri-

Now Field (foot-note i)

had
aviOcixaTiaaixiv for
. . .
,

correctly records the tradition according

which
'

a'

(Trard^afxfv = (^injUSI
6

and

just as rightly

remarks

invitis Regiis tribus

qui lectionem ad ver. 6 recte retrahunt';

a' avfeffj-ariaafxev

on the

basis of the latter authority he prints in ver.

for

i^o}\oepivaai.i(v

= DIHSI.

The Editors of
to record 3. 3.

the Concordance

were

free

either to adopt Field's suggestion and therefore to quote 3. 6 or to follow

tradition implicitly

and hence

notes

was
3.

it

possible for

them

to register both 3. 3

Only by disregarding the and 3. 6. In my own

2,

Index

is

of course deleted.

Similarly the reference 4 Kings

:

14 (for

a' a' 0')

sub

Kpv(ptos

should be eliminated

Theodoret ascribes the rendering

adds 'ubi
'.

to 'the other epjj.r]vevTai\ but Field (note 22) expressly

kppirjvevTai.

de eiiarratoribus, non de

intcrpretibits

intelligendum videtur

We
acptpoj

are

dealing here merely with a fanciful etymology which combined

with

Hebrew N3n and

of
fact,

is

no worse than
;

a</)(fw

Trarepes

(combined with 3X)

in the

Onomastica Vaticana
a wrote

see Lagarde, Onomastica Sacra^, 187. 43.

avTos and a' Kal vvv (see Field".
{a, Isa. 26. 3).
(pvKa^cs is

As

a matter

Kaiirep

Strike out also the

first

reference sub (pv\aiLs

See

Field,

under note 8
ilpi]vrjv

the

emendation ^uAd^eis (of which

evident.
(wovy,
Id,

an

itacistic error)

is self-

See further

my Greek

Index, s.v.

(is, els,

Iv, kiriKaXvitTUv,

evpidKUv,

KaXuv, awrovos, Toixos.

Many words and

In

references have been

incorporated by the Editors where Field has indicated his doubt by printing
the phrases in question in brackets.
are, lor instance,
XprjfiaTa;
Isa. 3.

my
;

Index
fx-fj

the3' are omitted.

Such

Job

27.

20

Trepiardaei
yiyovei/
;

eK(pvyoi;

Prov. 31. 3 rd ad
dvep.os
els
;

8 Kara rod Kvpiov

rrj

ibid., 40.

24

Jer. 20.
;

<p(puv
I. 2,

ibid.

31 (38). 22, iv
In nearly

aouTrjpia

ibid.

44 (51). 29
is

KaKa

Amos
to cor-

TTpo^aTav.
in the

all

of these cases there

if

no Hebrew
all

respond

MT.

Field's notes,

they had been at

consulted,

would

have led

to the transfer of several references

from a to

a', 0',

or AI.

The
and

Editors' point of
to refrain
it

view may have been

due reference

to follow the traditional signature

from criticism however

justified.

In

my own

Index

have thought

advisable, with

to

indicate a reasonable doubt in tradition

what Field has to say in the notes, to by printing all such words or refer2 Kings 10
in

ences

in brackets.

Sees.v.duevXaffrjs; dTro&tToy Ps. 30 (31). 20; diroOvqaKeiv

;

Job

14.

14

d(l)o,8os

diafieveiv

SvaajneiaOai
I

fxeyas

5.

-rrdXiy ;

TTapd Jer. 52. 8;

wpoawnov Job 20. 25.

have similarly included

brackets

words and references which

tradition ascribes to a
;

and where the signature

has been rightly enclosed by Field in brackets

in his notes are found the

328

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

to transcend Field in the

had not an attempt been made

application of critical

canons to the mass of fragments

which tradition ascribes to Aquila.

Field

At

the time

when

published his work (1875) no continuous text of

Aquila's Greek version

had come to

light.

Foremost
Aquila text

among
the

the

new

finds exhibiting a continuous

stand Taylor's Cairo and Mercati's Milan Palimpsests of

remains of the Hexapla Psalter.

In

both Aquila

occupies the (third) column immediately after the (second)

column containing the Greek

This
is

transliteration of the

Hebrew.

in

conformity with the testimony of Eusebius,

Jerome,

and

Epiphanius

concerning

the

order

of
21

the

Hexaplaric columns.-^
the data in Pleld
is

On

comparing the text

with

we

find that

though on the whole there

agreement there are nevertheless more or less important and above all we are taught to distrust the divergencies
;

signatures which Field faithfully copied from his sources.^^

reasons upon which he bases his doubts.
tvOvT-qs
iXfTo.

For examples, see

6ius ibid.;
;

my

Index, s.v.

Jer.

13.

10;
:

iv 1

Kings
i

14.

18;

KapUa

Jer. 13. 10;

;

Gen,
;

16,

TrapffxPoXr]

Kings

14. 18

Trovrjpos

Jer. 13. 10

virava-

XCiiptiv
20
21

(pvyq.
to the

See Swete, Inirodtidion

(1896^,336

OT.

in Greek, 1900, 64.

Ps. 21 (22). 20-27, Taylor;

f.

45 (46). 1-4, Mercati apiid Klostermann,

/.

ZAW., XVI
22

(Swete,

c, 62

f.).

Here

is

a collation in detail (including also the data for a'

=--

6')

Ps. 21.
9r)paTai
a'

15 a' {koX) ditarr] F(ield)

km

Sitarr]

T(aylor)
icvves

17 a'

on UvKKwaav
iiovaxhv
<^'

fie

contrast irtpieKvicXw

{sic)

yap ne

21
a'

a'

{p-ov)

t^v

IxovoTrjTCL piov
ixov

(in part based on Syrohex.)

ri^iv

F=

fiovaxn" l^"^

^W

l^ovoTrjra

Ps. 45. I a' rip vikottoiw

vicuv

Kope

(nl vtaviOTr^rajv p.iXwbripa

is aaixa in

F =

M(ercati) with the exception of the

for

last

word which

(see

my

Tt' only in this place, while in the other Index, s.v. ixtXwbr^pa: it is used all cases instances it invariably renders "liJ^1 while uV^a = "I'U in
twenty
;

but one)

on the other hand

a' 's

rendering in
(X(p65pa.

tallies in

every particular

with that in

2 a

a' evpier)

"AWor

iv OXlipiaiv evpiaKupiei'os
.>D

(Field's sources are

Syrohex.

^.^

ls**)l^*-(

./Field adds that

andChrysost.: the Syrian must have followed a faulty reading dpieip ff^oSpa

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

Next
in

329

order

come

the Palimpsests from the Taylor-

Schechter Genizah Collection edited by Burkitt and Taylor,

which show us manuscripts of Aquila as they were current

among Greek-speaking Jews

is

in

a form which in

its

origin

older than the Hexapla.

(20).

The

portions extant cover

;

3 Kings 21

9-17

4 Kings 23. 12-27

;

Ps. 89 (90). 17
;

90

(91)

91 (92). i-io

95

(96).

7-13

96 (97)

97 (98). 3
is

loi (102). 16-29;

^02 (103). 1-13; and the text

con-

tinuous (barring lacunae owing to the imperfect condition

of the manuscript).

In designating the version as Aquila's

re-

no external evidence such as the Hexapla Fragments

vealed was available, and the editors were thrown back

upon the scanty

citations in Field, but in the

main upon the

internal character of the version

which comports with the

in

general

statements concerning

it

patristic

literature.-^

AWos'
fvpeOrjs

tv

Ok.

ivpiaicu/J.fvoi

Nobil.

Ot Xoinoi (vpiBri (vpiOKo/xfvos,

which

Field rightly divides into ivpidrj and (vpiaKufxevo^)

(the actual faulty reading presupposed

F comp.

a' ev

OMiptoLv

by Syrohex.)

a(poSpa a' (v

OXiipeaiv ivpioKo^ivos acpoSpa

(while
;

a'

rightly took NifJDD to be a parti-

ciple, a'

rendered

it

as a perfect)

a'

a<pakK(a6ai a' KXivtaeai

F =

vTrepr]<pavia

F =
is

the long quotation from a' in

F
It

agrees with
is

M 4 a' M except
;

that

avTucv

omitted in

(see Field's note).

interesting in this

connexion

to study the bearing of the

new
a'

texts

on the Syrohex. material

which Field has done

into Greek.

21. 17 a' (icvicKwaav

contrast nfpiTjXOov

(the Syriac has k*jaotol(

both for

and

a'

but ^iol( corresponds to

also to irfpLipxfaOai,
ual iroSas piov
iixov is to

icvkXovv,

comp.
7, II,

for instance

Joshua

6. 3, 4, 15,

and

comp.

Joshua 6.
\euvTas
into /ton

15)

a' ojs ^rjTovvTts Sijaai x^'pas

fjLov

F contrast as
be corrected
fxf

x^'P'^^ t^^ '^'"

tovs noSas
;

(J-ov

180' only
;

and

Kal excised
fxav

20
a'

a' a' airtvaov

rfjv

contrast eia^aKovaov
contrast ef avrov

T,

KctKOjaiv
;

F = T 22 ixov F = T
rrpatts

a' da-qKovaas
;

25

a' an'

avrov

F F

T
a'

26
;

a' ttoWtj

F = T

27

sine nomine (strike out

rfjv

the article)
Toji
<x'

F=

45. 3 a' o' iv

tw aXXaaaeaOai

y^v

contrast a ev

avraWaaaioOai

frjv

(note the

compound and

the omission of the article)

;

ev rais (r. to^l) ffvyxfiffOai yrjv

ibid.,

in a' strike out the article {opi])

4 according to
'3

a has

a(\_i

for H^'p.
1).

See the references below (Chapter

330

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in

Now

comparing these texts with Field we

find again

notable agreement, but also differences and untrustworthy

signatures.'-^

It is therefore clear that

where Field

is

our

sole authority for

an Aquila rendering the whole force of

internal evidence

must come
is

into play

if

we

are

minded

to

give to Aquila what

his

and not perchance the property

whether we consider the stores

of another.
collected

Field's sources,

by

his predecessors-' or his

own
or

notable additions,

are

ultimately patristic

citations

excerpts
lines

from the
or on the

Hexaplaric columns found

between the

margin of codices of the Septuagint, or again asterisked elements of the fifth Hexaplar column to which a signature
is

attached.
"^

Aside from the

"M"^ for

fact

that

Field will

bear

Thus, to mention only important deviations, Ps. go. 6 prifxaTos (which

would presuppose

121

contrast XoiyLov
;

postulates in note 12 on the basis of Syrohex.)

(r. ffoi

11

T (which reading Field T has ae after ivreXeirai

Km

']b)

gi. 4

eP^l

contrast va^\T]

T
;

missing in
(so Ps. 90.

(comp. Hebr.;.
12
;

frequently omits the article

1 1,

I, 2. 7,

95. 7 bis,

12

bts)

in F is rightly where F has it the matter has some importance

;

7 the first

in dealing with

a"s manner of translation.

to the correctness of the signature 90. 4

Thus F
stantiated

"s

doubt as
:

end
;

is

sub^
o'

by T

in the place of ws irapoirXia a

a' a' is

has simply aams

ibid.,

the double signature

to

be taken a parte potiori; according to

has not but

25

otto

as for the article see preceding note.

The

first to collect

Hexaplaric fragments was Petrus Morinus

corporated them in annotations to the so-called editio Sixtina or

the

who inRomana of

Greek
totum

Bible, published in 1587 at

Rome.
title:

After him Joannes Drusius

published the same material under the

in
V. T.

Veteriim Interprctum Graecorum

Fragnienta,
Drusius"s

collect a,

versa

et notis illustrata

a Johanna Drusio,

Arnhem,
Roiiiae

1622.

Testamentiun ex versione
cditiiui,

work was followed by Lambertus Bos, Vetus LXX interpretiim secundum e.xetnplar Vaticanitm
Scholiis ejusdcm
editionis,

una cum

variis

MSS,

codiawt

veterumque exeniplarinni

lectionibus,

necnon Fragmentis versionum Aquilae,

Symntachi

et

Tlieodolionis,

Franequerae, 1709.

more complete

edition

was

that of D.

Bernardus de Montfaucon, the immediate predecessor of

is

Field.

His work

entitled

Origenis

Hexaplonun quae supersunt,

Joanne Drusio

niultis

partibus audiora quant a Flaminio Nobilio et

edita fiicrint.

Tom.

II.

Parisiis, 17 13.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

correction

REIDER
'

331

from an ocular inspection of the codices he

schedae

quotes on the authority of his predecessors or the

Holmesianae'

the

margin

of

the

Larger

Cambridge
Swete,

Septuagint, as well

as the works

of Pitra and
is

yield important material

caution

requisite even

where

there
in

is

no ground to suspect that the manuscripts have

In the
first

any way been departed from.

place the

signatures
-''

may

be wrong,-'^ or the notes

may have been

There

is

particular cause for doubt

a' in

common with
this
in
is

other translators.

where a rendering is ascribed to Comp. Ps. 48 (49). 18 a' 9' e' a' ukoKov-

dovaa;

preserved
avTOv,
oTriaoj

enough so far as a' goes, comp. the phrase in full another source ovSi avyKaTafirjafTai aKoKovQovaa avToi ij do^a
true
to the

whereas according
avTov Su^a avrov.
a'

same source
is

a'

wrote ovSe avyKarafi-qaiTai

a'

Now

aKoKovOflv

never elsewhere used by

s.v.).
"*

while

apparently

is

very fond of the verb (see Concordance,

Very
rightly

likely the ascription to a' rests

niXZli.* a' 6' elwev Kvpios Kvpios

on an error.

Isa. 2a.

14 ni n

^JIN "lOX
it

ruv bvvajxeuv.

Montfaucon referred

to a'

6',

stating as his reason that a

furthermore below.
Xoi-no'i
:

Examples with
Kal

always puts OTpanajv for nixn^.

See

a included in the generic signature ol

rfi rp'iTTi,

Kings 20. 19

riK'pB'l ot A- Koi

but

we

have

for a'

with
\-

specific

ascription

Tpiaaevaas

4 Kings 15. 5
o'iku
rrji

fl^K'Dnn

0^33

01

Kpvfaiws (Theodoret}, but contrast a' kv

e\tv9epias (cod. 243 supol

ported by the Syrohex.)

contrast
a' tv

Job

21. 23

iSFl

D;^y3

A- iffxvwi' dfxwjxos but

darewaei dwXoTrjros avrov so characteristically in conformity

f.

with a"s diction; Ps. 36 (37). 37

(ver. 38) (Procop.
;

01

\- to.

iiiWovra (ver. 37) ra

'iaxo-Ta

this is the

meaning
for a'

of his

remark though

it is

trifle

confused; which
Ttt

is

true

enough

who

writes ixiWovra in ver. 37 and

ioxara

sing.) in both verses

(a

is expressly credited with 'iaxa-rov (note the Ezek. 1.24 'T^ \- Oiov aaSSal but contrast a iKavov nowhere else transliterates i^^) 12. 10 iTTH NtJ'Sn N'^b'SH 6' /cat A;
;

in ver. 38,

while a

6 apxaiv o dipTjyovfiivos ovtos but contrast a' to kmjpfj.euov tu apfxa rovro

a' irepl

and

tov dpxovros to
a' kv op0pa>.

Xrjfj.pia

tovto

Hos.

10.

15

"IPIb'? 01 \-

ws vpOpos but

contrast

While

in all these cases the conflicting to the

testimony
below),

may
it

be explained as going back

just as likely,

two

editions of Aquila

(^see

is

and

in

many

instances

much more

probable, that the inclusion

is

of a' under ol Konroi rests on an error. remark of Prof G. F. Moore {AJSL.,

in the greater part of his

Important in this connexion

the

XXIX

(1912), 39, n. 9) that

'

Field,
'

Hexapla, follows Montfaucon

in the error

of

resolving the construction A,

which

is

found on the margin of codd. of the

332
attached
doublets,
to

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the

wrong

word.-'
in

Then we meet with

alone

one element

which

can

belong

to

Aquila.-^
Septuagint,

Quite another matter are parallel renderings

by
\uinoi,
3.

whereas
in

in

reality

Lucian (Aowmros) was meant.

render Dnn^.p-: by
(niaKeiiiiivoi,

Comp.,
27

e.g.,

Num.

22

BM, where

a'

while to \ (as well as

o') is

attributed emCKC^is.
6' iifia

Thus Job
""JZl'^B

38. 7 Field cites a

CM

viol

Oiod to the
(iua

words of the text

is

D^nSx

TrdvTfs dy-yeXoi fiov

but while

found for P3

if,' iKK\riaia

d>a ^HpH

W)
;

2 Chron. 30. 23

@,

it

is

unlikely that a'

would

indulge in such freedom

it is

more probable

that a/io in Field's source

was

misplaced from the line above and belongs

in front of aarpa,
I

where indeed
think that

Syrohex. places

it

(see Field). Isa. 30. 33-

am

inclined to
""Ifi?

a KiSptva does not belong to r\rrn'g but to 71^23, comp. ^2;

1/

Gen.

6.

14

Tco (ppaioj 6f

^vXwv KiZpivwv i'"(BM)

but

it

ought to be stated that

ol \onrolis

a'
:

has
not

there aar^nrwv Tie({i)wix(vwv.Ze^\\. 1.12 b'EnX^

ml

iKbiK-fjaw

only Kai

is

puzzling here but also kicdiKUv, which

for

used by

a' a' 6' 'EPpaios

;

and'AXXos

Dp3 only and

Schleusner
following

may

not so easy as an equivalent for ^BH hence to the be right with his suggestion that Kal UZiKijaw belongs
is

"'n-ips:^

[Schleusner

is

wrong.

has

itself Kal (KScK-ijcoj

hence
to

the marginal 'note

would have been purposeless.

Index, "Ipe
is

Moreover, according
in a' eviaKinrfiv.

Dr. Reiders
28

own
a

rendered uniformly

M].

Here

is

list

which

is fairly

complete

Exod.

28.

33

BM
a',

register for

a' Oiafopov Si^acpov for ''3K',

but the former alone belongs to

who

uses

it

four

more times
is

the second

while "JE'Vhich he derives from ny^ = be different), employs it also 28. 5 35- -3, 35peculiar to a' alone, who
for
;

Judges

Karaiaxwcav ovSe haTpeTTwv, Field casts suspicion to Job 11. 3, on the derivation of the rendering as a whole from a', pointing rarer verb where a' has hrpenwv for C'bzJD and to Isa. 29. 22, where the 6' has h-) to which may be added !iiarp^neGeai is used by a' (for Hebr. Iin, renderings for Hebr. that KaTaiaxvvojv and hiarpi-noiv are apparently parallel
18. 7 a' Kal ovk kvfiv
,

n^bp

occurs in the and that the same doublet, only in an inverted order, iKmi^oiv a doublet for -\i*j; B text of the Septuagint (which also has from element would appear to have been introduced erjaavpov the second
: ;

Origen, see Field)

there

is

no reason therefore
a'
;

to

discard the entire

rendering as not belonging to

a'

it

is

true, ivny does not sound as an

might but of the two verbs used for D>>3P Karaiaxvyo," text as a foreign assigned to a', and it should be excised in the B credibly be ^lovo^wvov, Field calls element. 2 Kings 3. 22 injnO a' (An^) rov -yibSovp view of the express citation a' anh rov the whole rendering in question in where a' consistently writes ivii^vov in cod. 243 and parallel passages in the of in this way still the case may be disposed iviwvo, for nn;
rendering
;
:

':

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

REIDER

333

ascribed to Aquila which go back to the two editions of

his

work

the subject

is

adequately dealt with by Field

in

his Prolegomena.-^

Naturally enough the text of Aquila

is

here and there

shall

handed down

in

a faulty condition.

No
;

mention

be

made

here of errors set right by Field

but a few which

Lastly, an

have escaped his attention are given below.""

doublet
fxovoi^ivi'ov

represents a textual variant of ev^ajvov, while the transa',

literation

cannot possibly come from

yeddovp for
i

Tns

being found in the

i

Septuagint of Kings and Chronicles (see

12.

Kings
i

30. 8, 15, 15, 23;

Chron.
M]).

21 (22)

[2

Chron. 22.

i,

93*

comp. also
:

Ch.

12. 7 (8) ye5{S)wp.

Jer. 20. 2 ot 7' Kal eveBaKev kw. eScoKiv

this note should

be corrected in
fJ1>1.

accordance with Q^S/cat (viPaXev

Pitra,

ot y'

Kal edaiKev,

Hebr.

Add from
the second

Exod.

8. 7 (3)

Dn^D^Z
to

a'

kv -qpefiaiois dwoKpiKpois,

where

element does not belong

Ps. 20 (21). 12
a'

a',

see Field

ad he. and comp.

-rju

7. 11,

22; also

e\ojl(javTO euvoias l3ov\rjv

p.Tj

ov ^77 hvvuvrai
air' 'ivvoiav

abwarovi
ov
/xfj

a SieXoyiaavTO ^ovXas as ov
there
is

Zyvtuvrai
is

6'

kXoyiaavTo

Sw.
is

much
6'

confusion here, one

tempted to vindicate

for a'
it

what

ascribed to

(comp. an

J3

of

nSID taken

as a preposition, but

exercises
;

no influence on the construction, the noun being placed

furthermore, absence of the relative exactly as in
attributed to
^^

in the accusative
;

Hebrew)

in the

rendering

a'

dSvvaTOVi and ervoias belong to

ft".

a'

(see Field).

pp. xxiv

Thus Job
:

21.

17 n^X
is

iiriKKvapus

is

probably to be emended to

(ni^Kvapus

the former
9. 26),

found only once

in the

Greek Bible
an
is

{a for

Hebrew
is

^Up

Dan.

while the
;

latter is exclusively
;8

a'

word and
perhaps
.

used

uniformly for 'T(^)N

cursive script.

the interchange of k and

(35).

a usual occurrence in
vfivrjaT

Ps. 34
aov
;

28 ^ripnn a
it is

vpLvrjau

ae read

0OV

vixvTjaiv
is

certainly

unlikely that a read "^b^nj]!

;

82 (83), 3
ox^d^eiv.

wKkaaav
Isa. 7.

probably miswritten for ux^aaav

"IIl-'X

see Index,

5. v.

20

^]?t?^

0-'

ev PaaiXeia
5.

'Affcvpiojv

read

iu

PaaiXeT 'Aaavplwu

(a

dittographed). Jer.

31 ^"HT a

(TTeKp6T0vv

has been emended by

;

Cappellus and L. Bos {apud Schleusner) to eneKpaTovv

the

same error

underlies ijriicpuTriaav in the Septuagint, comp. also 3 Kings 9. 23 A.

2''JNp

6.

25

a tSjv edvaiv read rujy ix^pSiv. 4

-'

Ezek.
<^ov

19. 7

VniJCbS a
ffo'p,

x'^po^^

read

XwaJ. 26.
^ (9)

"lik

ntoin a
so

a'

(rd re/xv)

read

comp. .
:

Hos. 12.
14.

r^^

a.vw(pe\is
IfxavTos, 15.

avTu read efiaVTw

j"'

like to

@.

From Pitra

Gen.

23

a' ipariov

read
;

s" according
a'

BM

(see also Field, n. 23),

Hebr.

T]1"ID'

12

riD'^l'iri

napaos

a' Kapos,

comp. a Kopoi {nopaos C^)

334

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

far as I

important point, to which as

know

scant attention

has been paid, deserves on that very account to be emphasized.

It follows

from the nature of the majority of notes,

be they

patristic or marginal, that the

aim

is

to contrast

a rendering of the later Greek versions with that in the

Septuagint.

Where

the

rendering consists

of

a whole

phrase the tendency was to be accurate in the point of

difference
less

which was

essential for the

moment, and

to be

exact with non-essentials which were therefore accomto the diction of the Septuagint.

modated

In other words,

renderings ascribed to the Three are frequently to be under-

stood afartepotiori.
I. 1

To
7-4>

illustrate
'1770-01

by an example

Joshua

iy"fn yr'^l'^r^^,
;

ulw Nau)/. o! G irpos 'Irjaovv

vlov Nov??
eiTTey

the salient point

is

that whereas
o-'

@
it

construed
c.

'

with the dative, both a

;

and

wrote
;

-rrpoj

ace. for

Hebr. b^

that

much may be

relied

upon

but

would be

hazardous to follow the source

phrase
;

for the

other parts of the

a at least cannot be credited with the graecized

for well-understood reasons
;

'IrjcTovv,

Deut.

i.

38 we

know
Field
irpos

from the margin of

has
iTjcrova)
;

that a wrote Icoo-oua (so

of

BM

accordingly

must have written here

lioa-ova,

and we

may
vovtj
7.

even go farther and complete the

phrase to read utoy Nouy (we find Exod. ^^. 11

wu

in

F^

and Deut.
comp.

i.

38

in

F^M"^, read

in

both places Now,

should of course
Instructive
D^^i^p-bsi,

Chron.

27 where Nou/x

BA
5.

be corrected into
is

l<iovv,

so Lagarde's text).
:

also the
avTol be
j s

following example
e/c

Job

inni^^

kuk^v ovk e^aiperoL eaovTai, a

in

avTos 8e Ttpos
;

(/ apos

V C3

BM who
is

also quote a a' nausea from Barh.

Field

prints in the text a

Kopos a' Kapos, he adds in a note that though the a'

reading which he prints

best attested
a'

it is

nevertheless unsatisfactory
xapos,

it

would seem to me to the Hebrew.

that both

and

a'

wrote

which alone corresponds

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA

v6TT\(t)v
is

REIDER

335
It

apdi](TeTai,

avTol 8e TTpos kvoTtkcav a.p6i](T0VTai.

evident at a glance that personal pronoun

these versions, really belongs to

+ 8e', common
:

to

all

is

(and a)
it

apart from
it

the fact that a could not have used

because

has no

equivalent in

MT,

the phrase itself

foreign to a"s diction

;

while being peculiar to the Septuagint

h4,

note the use of

less

whereas a would employ Kai This being of

in
:

moment

they were not exact

quoting

it,

while quoting carefully

ap6i](TTai.
it

the point of difference

6.
is

-pos eroVAcor

It is

obvious that

my own

Index, constructed as

with due regard to the

turn furnish a

critical points just

enumerated,

means by which many questions of detail will solve themselves. For naturally the double Index, Greek-Hebrew and Hebrew-Greek, resolves itself
will in

into a complete storehouse of observations concerning the

various sides of Aquila as a translator and student of the

Scriptures.
is

By way

of

summing up
Index

the material which

itself,

necessarily scattered in the

propose to

present in the following chapters a study of

I.

Aquila's

Manner of Translation

II.

Aquila's

Knowledge of the Hebrew Grammar and

;

Lexicon
III. Aquila's

Exegesis

IV.
In
will

The Hebrew Text underlying Aquila's Version. the concluding pages a number of unsolved problems
laid before the reader.

be

336

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

CHAPTER
AQUILA'S
7.

MANNER OF TRANSLATION
Greek
style
is

The

character of Aquila's
his

which

is

bound up with
arily

mannerism as a translator
in

customliteral

summed up

the one epithet:

extremely

Already from antiquity we have comments which run to

the effect that Aquila was
T?]
'

a slave to the letter

'

'

{bovXevcov

'E/3paiKT'i Ae^ei),^^

who

strove to render
letters

not merely words,

but even syllables and

etyviologias qtcogue

(qui

non solum verba, sed

est
.

verboncm transferre conatus

et

syllabus interpretaUtr et liter as)' :'^

The standard examples

refer in the

by which these comments were accompanied

first

place to the rendering of the nota accusativi nx

as, for instance,
rrvv

by
a-vv

aw,

Gen.
ti]v

i.

ez^

KecpaXatoi

^Knaev Oeds

Tov ovpavbv Kol

31
32 33

yi]v,^^

and

in the

second place to

Origen, Epist. ad Afric.

3.

Jerome, Epist. LVII ad Paimnacliiitm, 11. Ibid., supplemented by Field from Philoponus

comp.

now

BM

(from

Uj).

See Index,

s. v.

ovv.

This particle

is

used whenever

DN

is

followed

by the Hebrew
of avv.

article or

Furthermore, avv

by 73, otherwise the Greek article takes the place when employed for the nota accusativi FIX, has no

Comp. on all this Burkitt, Fragments of the Books of Kings, &c., p. 12. This rule, it must be remembered, is based only on the later finds in Field's Hc.xapla, owing probably to the fault of the copyists, avv is very often missing where we have reason to expect it. There can be no question but that a in his anxiety to express in Greek the Hebrew
influence on the construction.
;

particle followed the hermeneutics of the day, according to

which FIX no
Berakot 14

less

than riN and D2 served to indicate inclusion

Cm
;

see
;

XXXII
i.
f.,

Middot of
b,
1.

R. Jose the Galilean, i, ed. Katzenellenbogen, pp. gff. Hagigah 12 a Gen. r. b. Pesahim 22 b from below
;

14 (ed. Theodor,
182
ff.
;

p. 12);

Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud, pp. 124

Strack,
p. 33>

Einlcitiing in den Tcdmtid*, 124;

Friedmann, Onkelos und Akylas,

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

such

REIDER

337

odd words or new coinages as x^^Ma^ 6-7rcopi(rij.6s, nw.3+ for fj^, ^J'Tn, Another instance of 'unseemly' slavishness and 'cacophony' which is singled
(TTikTn'6Ti]s

out
n. 2).

is

the repetition after the manner of

in this

Hebrew

of an

So

very passage,

e.g.,

the Rabbis say that D^DU'H

DN

is

inclusive of sun,

moon, and

stars,

and

pSH nx

of trees, herbs, and the

It is immaterial for our purposes whether the Middah in was evolved by Akiba or his predecessors, nor does it matter whether Aquila was a pupil of R. Akiba (or, according to another account,

Garden of Eden.
question

of R. Eliezer and R. Joshua

as Friedmann,
in
/.

or merely a contemporary of these scholars,

it

c, contends

is sufficient to

know

that a"s literalism

was

deference to the hermeneutics of the day.

Although the Concordance registers avw

may

c. ace. also for a' and 6', a doubt be expressed as to whether these two translators could be guilty of so

pronounced a

literalism

which according

to the

uniform testimony of an-

tiquity characterizes a' alone.

the signature
a alone
;

is

as in Jer. 28 (35). 10 and 32 '39). 9, generic (7' or -navres), it is safe to say that crvf belongs to
is

Where,

instructive

the second passage

particle
is

where O^e

(see

Swete) ignores

the particle.

probably read

There

still

and we should comp. e.g. Jer. 35 (42 18 Field as against Swete\ remain examples where the signature is specific and nas does
ttoj
(Ti^/irray
.

Elsewhere the

found in front of

not follow (comp. Isa. 49. 21

a' 0' Jer. 32 (39). 14 e', both Swete}. It will hardly do on the basis of evidence so scanty to acquiesce in ascribing aw
;

c. ace. to a'

or

6'.

As
certain

for the references

adduced

in

the Concordance for the Septuagint,

all

the examples outside Ecclesiastes are

found in additions peculiar to

to

MSS. (A and
in

others')

and going back

14. 1-20,

the

Hexapla.

In

one

instance, the long passage 3

Kings

we have

the express testimony

of a scholion

Syrohex. according

to

which the whole passage came

account for

from a.
potion.

It

will be

shown below
is

that that can be understood only a parte

As

for Ecclesiastes, the safest

mannerisms reminiscent of a

to say that

way to we

aw
a'
;

and similar

are dealing with a translator

(see

who though
De

not a himself belonged to the same school as

ff.;

on

this

question Graetz, Kohelet, 174

libri Coheleth versiotte
^*

Renan, UEcclhiaste, 54
ff.).

flf.

Klostermann,

Alexandrina, 41
'

Comp. Jerome.

I.e.:

Quis enim

"^ro friimento at

vino et oho, possit vel

legere, vel intelligere, x*"^/'", oTrcvpLaixov, aTiX-nvoT-qra,

quod nos possumus dicere

'5

fusionem, pomationemque, et splendentiam?

rain,
I,

As for p'n, compare Arab.

a

pour) which Saadya employs for that word, comp. Merx's Archiv,

51, n. 2.

VOL.

IV.

,5^^

338
object

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

numbered
as
after

each

element

of

compound

number,

Gen.

5.

for 5 hvanoa-La tros Kal 'ptaKOVTa eros

8.

It

is

not ahvays, however, in a tone of scorn that

is

Aquila's

literalness

spoken

of.

Both

Origen

and

been alluded Jerome, whose words of condemnation have

to,

at other times indulge in

words of
'

praise.

Thus the

Greek Father speaks of Aquila as

lously
to

having striven emu(6

bring

out

the

proper

meaning of words'
\\Kv\as)r''

Kvp^rara

epp-rji'^veiv (PiXoTi}j.ovy.^voi
'

and the Latm

designates him an

industrious and painstaking translator,

very learned
intcrpres
.
. .

in the

Greek language

'

{diligcns et curiosus

erudiiissimus linguae

Graecaey^

And
'

this

since down to our twofold verdict has been repeated ever version as obscure own day. Thus Voss refers to Aquila's

and unseemly

in

the extreme, devoid of sense' {obsciirissima

et

et distortissima

nidlam sensus rationem hahdsse vide-

rctw')P
'

Burkitt says of the

Fragment published by him

University
'

It is

written in Greek

more uncouth than has ever before

Press 'r^^
'.^"

issued

from

the

Cambridge

and

Thackeray speaks of Aquila's

the other hand

barbarous version

On
con-

there are not lacking, according to Field,

is

vocabulary evidences of elegance and, so far as the

cerned, traces of the influence of
9.

Homer and
as
it

Herodotus.'^'

There

is

no gainsaying the pedantic literalness ot

it,

Aquila's version imparting to

35
36

does on the whole,

I,,

Epiphanius,

De Mens,

et

Pond., ed. Lagarde [Symmicta,

I54-

Quoted by

Field, p. xxi.
;

37

larsi.

Isa. 49- 5-6 (ValSee Coram, on Hosea, 2. 16-17 ^Vallarsi, VI, 25) on See also Epist. 32 ad Marcellam (Vallarsi, I, 152) and Comm. IV. 564).

on Hab. 3. 11-13 (Vallarsi, VI, 656;;. 38 Quoted by Hody, De Biblionmt

3S

texiibus onginalibus, p. 578.

*
I.e.,

JOR.,

(1898;, 208.

9-

*^

P-

^'"

f-


PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA
the character of an interhnear.
the

REIDER

339

The extreme
against the
in

fidelity to

Hebrew and the

offences

genius of the

Greek language show themselves

a variety of ways.

To
his

begin with, Aquila adheres closely to

in

the

Hebrew

form of proper names and that

day.

the pronunciation of

We

can understand well enough

Iwo-oua instead of hja-ovs
;

why Joshua
but he also

becomes with him

writes
r.

^^

and

treats

as

indeclinables

EAKiaou

(@ Xe^xta?,
Ico(T(e)ta),

XeA/cta?),

Xwaiaov

nom. and gen. (

Mwo-rj gen.

I&ja-()ta9,

Mez;ao-o-e
'2o\\oy\xiM

( (@

yiava(T(Ty]'i) ^

(@

Mcouo-t;
rrj

or Mwva-ecos),
BrjdiiX

^aXctifxcov)

rot? Aa-QapayO

(@

AorapTrj)

(@

-BaLdi]\),

T(e)ta)r,^3

^s. loi

(102).

17,

22 (@ ^{^)c(ov)
16. i

4>(Ta

4 Kings 23 (comp. also

5.

(pecre,

Deut.

and ^acre(x>

Joshua

10

Tracrxa).
is

Even

the nomengentilicium^though.
in

Hellenized usually,

sometimes found
14. 3

an altogether
;

Hebrew garb; comp. Gen.

Tj/po-oi-z-et,

nbx

'Ajixcopt

"'f^'^^

=z
;

Xum.
out

3.

23

''t^'^V

'^ay.paix^i.

Num.

26. 20 (24)

*ri?J|p

Maxa^t, Deut.

3.

14 [but in this particular a does

not stand

by
a

himself.

M].

The

impression

pro-

duced upon a Greek ear

with which
in

may be

likened to the aversion

translation

modern Jewish

some such

transliterations as Joshiyyahu,

Moshe, Shelomoh, Tsiyyon,

It

Pesa(c)h would be
**^

received.'*'*

should be borne in mind,

See above,

5.
is

The

Ti

apparently
is

meant

to bring out the specific

D''Jf3

pronunciation of
ev eneifx
i= /3

i*.

Another example

tv ertetn for
tioSt;

Ezelc. 30.

9:

(=

(v)

+ eTififj..
**

Comp. with both

for the

As

manner

see Thackeray-,

11.

B* for the letter """li* Lam. 1-4. which the Septuagint deals with proper names, The extreme of Hellenization is found in i Esdras
in
11. 2.

and Josephus: Thackeray,

(Exod.
12. IT,

As
5.

for (padix,

it

is

found outside a
in 2

in a'

27

Num.

9.

Joshua

10) and in

only

Chron. 30 and

35 ^see Torrey, Esra Studies, 67) and Jer. 38 (31). 8, where the translator misread nD21 ~|-iy QZl as PIDD '^'^'\'C2 iv koprfi <paa(K. a' probably wrote
(peaa or (pioi but hardly

faaex

>

see Chapter

II.

a 2

340

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

which however, that in the matter of transHterating words Theodotion that are not proper names it is not Aquila but
has the largest number.^'^
translating

Aquila shows a predilection

for

many a place-name and

persons.^^

incidentally also certain

names of
lators,

While,

in

the case of other trans-

notably the Septuagint, the motive was to give the

as far as possible a Hellenized form,^'
it

Greek Scriptures

was with Aquila merely a matter of accuracy to translate whatever could be translated: in Cant, the allegorical
motive came into play which
a
still is

exhibited in the

Targum

in

more exaggerated

form."^^
is

]0.

In the second place, Aquila's pedantry

revealed

in coinages intended to bring out the

*^ 46

Hebrew etymology
their
16. 11

See the

list

in Index.
is

The

following

list

of such
.

names with
-npLfedivajv
;

Greek equivalents
7Xy>^tJ'^

Gen.

14. 3, 8 ''n^'n

pIDV

=
.

tmv

elffaKofj

eeov; 26. 33 yn*^ "tS3

'

nXr^fffioviis
;

32.
i

30 (31) PX'j2

laxvpod,

contrast

o'

^avovri\

Num.
I. i

21.

0^"^,^
'ccavof
. .

^1^.
.

= =

Trp6awTrov
-^Sui/

rir
;

mraffKoTT^ (but
1

'AOapuv); Deut.
'3

nnT '1 =

(implying ^T:
transliterate)

Kinss

13. 18 D''y'2^'n
5.

(papayya twv vaivu^v

tov) nXr^pwimros
6.
;

(@ and
1 7-

a'

2 Kings

9 Si^53n-|p = naptix^oXas (@ us Mavatfi)

(7. i);
7. I

(urro
;

24

n^*3np =
;

{its)

Cant.

3 (4)

Hinn? =

Kar' ihboKlav
7.

6.

12
fv

(2) n"'Obv>r

ilprjviwvaa
;

(@

Sowa/^rris):

4 (5) p2tJ'n2
-;

IrnXoyKTixw

iv
;

'Eai^wv)

ibid.,

pb'Q'^

ajro^ATjTaii/

@
;

Aa/xaff^oO),

on

which see below

Isa. 16. 7 nii'^n

Tj?

to/xos loTpaKov

Jer. 31 (38), 15

nOin =

kv h^r^Xri
;

(@
50

kv Vapia) ;'43 (50), i3

^^f

0^? =

o'^ V^'''- contrast

;

&

'HkiovTr6\ws
yiti'l

(27). 21

D^n-IO

TTapaTnKpaii'6vTc^v

Ezek. 23. 23 iSpS

y'ipl

kmaKinr-qv,

koX

rvpavvov,

Koi

Kopvcpalov,
;

contrast
i

@
=
rf,

a'

6'

'^aKovK

(*a/foi-5),
6.

^ai 2ou, Kal "Txovi {Kovi)

Hos.

5.
;

riB^r^b
2.

oko''Si

nivau

q n03i^

= humeros
is

(quoted by Jerome)

Zech.

5 D^^1|)

e^l/os
4^

oXkepiov

wdpoi/fOi KprjTWv).

The

subject

dealt with

Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus ',

klassische AUertitm, 1903, 161-77.

by A. Deissmann in a monograph Die in Neue Jahrbiiclier fiir das

'

Thus n^nns
ijXTj'n
pB-inzi
;

^niyn

nnyob inuifT

jDTn

-'??br^'-

ir

xn:r33

't^'n

pynpi pr^ piayoi

piny

"jnc'in ^jod^ pyn^i

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

which, as the case

341

may

be,

is

either real or imaginary.

Thus,

in addition to

the standard example adduced above,''^

:

the following instances are instructive

ayv6r]ixa

being the

equivalent of either
to render
d/VaAoOr
dAot(/)ai'
r\^^r^-^

nm^

or

irJC^,

ayvo-qixariCuv is
D.ks,

formed

aAaAo? being used for

for
is
C^.^* J
;

^XaXdv and
lab,

pass,

are coined
;

dAot^?;

hence
in
;

"123

avafioXaiov
it

a's

word for nDyo^ and

^^)i^

conformity with
avonros

he renders nny and

avor]TlC(cv pass.
;

by
;

avaiSoXeiGdat

= ^p3 druTrep^ecrt'a = n-inj;, di-VTrep^eretz; = 13ynn ^o-vvfTos = "ly?, do-wertCffT^at = "ly? ciipriixh'ov = from a(^rj = yjJ jSiXriovv or /3eArvi;ea' = n^C\T from /ieArtoi' =r 21^: iBpiofxaTiCeLv = i^^^Nn from /3pco/xa = brx or ^?N^ 8ia(3i-ii^anC(U' = ly^ from = nys or n-jyv; 8ta8?|/xart('eo-^at = in? with a view to 8iahr]u.a = eKAe/croCi' pass. =: "lin niph. and exAeKrw? = "13 ace. with reference to eKAeKro? = "I3J and eKAe/croV = (corn) e-to-r?//x(U2; = kTiLcrriqixovv = ^''3b'n = 13 e^;CwItCet^ = 1"? VTrp'i]s for D^yJ gave rise to evTrpeTrelv
'P'D^,

hence

y=l3J

bidfSyjiJia

"iril

"in

l?''?'^^,

ev^'coi'ta

or

evTrpeiTovv

for

Dyj, similarly

evrrpeTTiCetv
;

pass,

for

Dy3
;

= ]:^ Karappota pi. = D'>p from KaTappelv \aiKa-niC,tiv = from AatAai//- = Hiyo or lyp AeTTToV = pM from ke-nros P1 At^oAoyeto-^at = nM P*y from At^oAoyia = D^^y p.ovaxovi' = in) from ixovaxos = opviC^iv = I^Ct from opv^ov = do-reU'os = Dli'y, o(7reco(jt? = HDify, and oaToWos again = D^i:y are all due to dcrriov or oa-Tovv = Di'y = nm comes from oxAos = oxXdC^tv napa-akriKTiv^adai = Tidfi} from 7rapa7rA?jta = Tiapa^e/3'^i' = with an allusion to b^); irepCfSXcKTa = combined with the root njB, comp. @ Exod. 2. 12 Trpao-td(^i;peoi;r

for

,32

arose from Ovpeoi

PlJ
;

"lyb*

^IJi'Sif

"liEi:

?it3n

iiyJK'

''?^''

D'':''3S

^^

See

7.

The greater number has been

;

collected
to

by Field

(p. xxii)

see also

Burkitt, p. 13

but

have been able

make

several additions.

342
(ecrOai.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

and
irpaavovadaL

^1V

owe

their origin to irpaatd

b'^^^
is

njiny

cxKavbaXovv

pass.
;

b^:^

or

derived

from

(XKdvOaXov
y^p-j
;

=
"l^f?

^iK'D??

orepeco/xartCeti' for V\>1

it

from

(rrepiujixa
;

=
^il

a(j)iyKT7]p

Y^^ because

also renders

r)^^V

(r<t>o-

bpoTT^s

subst.

from

(T(p6bpa

"INO

adv.
is

rapaxv
to

with an allusion to

V^

revovrovv for ^HV

due

reWy

VV

^ TLdrjvos

rip3;^

gave
PP.i^
;

rise to TLe7]ViCop.(vov or ntJiCo-

/^ei^oi.

or TiTdLCop-evov for
for n^J?^
;

imoariraaeaL for t:"^; originated

v7ro<T7ra(r^os
X^PI^cii,

x^P/^a^t'Ceii;

for

C:")

is

with a view to

a large pebble or stone.

II.

mannerism which
^^

is

paralleled in rabbinic her-

meneutics (pp^nmj)
into

consists in breaking

up a

pluri-literal

two elements.
i.

Thus Exod.
;

33. 25 ^^:^P'>

et?

ovofxa

pvTTOv,

e.

nXi-

D^b

Lev.
is

2.

14

bo-J3

a-nakd or aTraAo'y
it

pointing to h^ in [^o

left

unexpressed, as

is

covered
A*
;

by
Kal

U-\:

iptKTd

s.

(pLKTov

@.

Similarly 23. 14

ot

airaka
16.
6.

AeTTtora

refers
r/aayov

to

^Jai^ contrast Field.

i.

M]
I

8 8

bm^b
ij-iss

= ts = ^y
f

cnroXvoixevov,
i.

e.

^TN

ly?

Kings

{;(|)et

Kovpas,

e.

T?.

:ni?3;

Job
I

28. 3 ^^ /.

ni.^j'^*

<TKid eavdrov, i.e. ni? b^

Ps. 15 (16).
raTreii-o?

D^ =
re'Aetoj),

Ta77t^o(^poz;o?
i.e.

Kol

airXovs

(and elsewhere
D"'rinnn

Dn

lO;

Eccles. 12. 5
Isa. 27. 8
ni>Q^3
0e'p,

nNDJ<p3

= = h (TaTM
Mic.

rpo'/ao)

rpop/o-oucrtj;,

i.e.

D\"in

nn

crdrov,

i.e.

nND nXC2;
'5n2ri
.
.
.

41. 12

=
i.

aropia arop-droov, i.e.

n^D

^3

H OS. 8. 1 3
Kal

(^e'pe

e- ^l"

^0

;"

2. 8 ^lons"!

awavTuo

where

51

See Middah

XXX
ff.)
;

in the

Baraita of R. Jose the Galilean

ed. Katzen-

ellenbogen, pp. 173

52

Malbim on

Sifra, section Nlf/I, 3:p.

in

On mobs
'

being a compound, comp. Noldeke

ZAIV., XVII (1897),

pp. 183

from kautzsch, on the other hand, assumes the reading n'.r:i'i* note).-It is rather strange to the stem ub^i (Gesenius-Kautzsch^*, 30 r, quadriliterals, failed to do it find that a', while decomposing components or
tf.

in the
?;"l

case of TliaS, which, according to Jewish

tradition,

stands for

2vS

(Gen.

r.,

sect. 90;, but

which

a'

renders by

-^ovaTl^uv ,T173n;.

Some-

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA

it is

REIDER
it

343

evident that he construed

it

in

the sense of

i^iDTixl

comp. @, Ibn Ganah and Rashi who Hkewise derive

^^0,

from

also Gesenius,

T/iesauriis,
;

p.

777:

conflatum ex nx,

apiid,

ad

et

^ito,

^W

and with him Olshausen, Gram.,

I,

P- 435. Bottcher, Gram., p. 132.

136,

and ViQWlzszh, Prolegomena,

12. It

was clearly Aquila's aim to accommodate the

imitates the n locale

Greek to the minutest points of the Hebrew idiom. He by Greek post-positive -oe. Thus Gen. 12. 9 n2?3n = votovI^ [comp. Joshua 18. 14 ^? Jojsx^l

=
22.

voTQv hi for voTQvh^, not recognized

by

Field.

M]
;

Exod.
3

28. 26 nn;2

oIkovU

Num.

2.

10

n:o^ri

vorovU

Kings

49 m;DiN

'a0et>8e:

4 Kings
;

16. 9

m/p
8.

Y.vp'!^v^vU\

Ps. 67 (68). 7
XT?^eV8e.^"

nn^rii:

keooTrerpLavbe

Ezek.

16 nDnj?

^p-

Similarly he renders

^l^

by

KatVep, while NiDN

at least once (Isa. 22. i)

Kai-neproL.

Compound
Gen.
2.

particles are slavishly

is

reproduced so that
the Greek.

no element of the Hebrew

8
Dli^rD

lost

in

Thus
;

= ^-^i apxv^^v; 18 ^^33 = w? KaTaavrt avrov 2 Kings 6. 14 V.2> = irpd Trpoaioirov 7. 8 nnso = ^770 oinaOiv; Kings 19. 25 pin-l^ij = ets and p-aKpoOev, and 4 = ds anb 7]ixipSw apxnOev; 23. 15, 19, 24 D:i = Kat Kaiye and 27 ''^^ == eTTt Tipoaia-nov p.ov Job 9. 29 nrnsS = ds tI TovTo, contrast @ bia ri = ftj ^770 Jer. 31 (38). 34 p.LKpov airCov 42 (49). 8 ib^nS? ^ et? airb jXLKpov Exod. 12. ^J
;

D"l|^ ^)?^d[5

"'??

7''o

D3^|7)Jp!5

times he even combines two separate words, as Isa. 2. 20 ni~13 "IDil^ which the Masorah separates but which a', h'l^e most other versions, reads
together, rendering
"^
it

by
is

opvKTOis sive ufivurais.

The

cases of deviation are usually doubtful.

= TTapa

Thus Joshua

5.

HQ''

TTjv

OaKaaaav

ascribed to

ol

X,

while

nHinn =

iis

ttjv

^aptpl

the misuse of

occurs in the well-questioned fourteenth chapter of 3 Kings (ver. 17). On n locale in the Samaritan and Septuagint versions, comp.
Frankel, Vorstudicn, p. 197, notes
/

and m.

344
IP

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

nnb

= xVis

OTTO

(but

j'"

in Bi\I x^^l'^^ c. genit.)-

Where
is

Hebrew and Greek

sacrificed to the

constructions do not tally,

the Greek

Hebrew.
I.

Thus Gen.

i. 5, 8,
;

10

":>

i^y,

KdXaev rw
b^.p2
, . .

28

'2 nn";

e-iKparelv iv
cpojvf]
:

3 Kings 17. 22
.

ycp'n

Kul T]KOV(T
;

...h>

Ps. 26 (27)

t<yx
;

'>??

ai-earrjaav Iv kjxoi Isa. = a-b riros (f)of3r)du> ibid., 12 Similarly the Hebrew 19. 4 nyb^^\ = j3a(ri\va-ei h avTols.
^T^'^'?,^

construction of the positive with JP in the sense of the

comparative or superlative

is

imitated in the Greek garb.

Thus Gen.
Ci^p
L3y!2n

3.

(1)

'^

cny

Traz'orpyoj

airo

Isa.

7.

13

ijjiTL

oKiyov airo vijmv.

Distributive
i.

construc-

tions are reproduced with utmost fidelity to the

Hebrew.

Comp.,
avi]rj'-

for instance,

Lev. 24. 15

Num.

C'^^*

^'^
;

ain]p

Num.
t^?ti'?

28. 13 pT^'V J'ly'y

"If/^
5^'^5

3.

12

THN

'J'ii

= oeKoroy oeKaTov = avbpa era (^avopa

+ the
or

Joshua
eVa) rov
parti-

aKt]-Tpov.'^ cipio

The Hebrew proiiomen ahsohttum aim

in

becomes

Gxf^okpronoinen absolutum
present,
^3:s*

substantive
tense.

verb

superadded to the
8.

past,

future

Thus Exod.
contrast

29 (25)

N;fr
;

eyw

et/^t

ii^p^op-ai
niyj' '^bSl

(BM),

eyw

e^eAei;cro/^.at
;

Kings

14. 6
'^"{'^

Kat

eyw

tVt aTTooToAo?

Eccles. II. 5

TP

ovk el av ddcLs]

Jer. 31 (38).

32

DIl ''^^>'^ '^^^1

o-'

KO.I eyco et/xt

envpuva-a (avTwv)
;

with which contrast

nb'y

eyw 8e Karetxo^ avTovs

33

(40). 9 ^?3i<

e/co et//t 7701770-0)

0-'

38 (45). 26
.

'JX-p-'Sp

pi-Toi

eyw

eiV',
is

contrast

-poa-i-TOJ

The emphatic Hebrew pronoun

Thus,
a particle
is

faithfully reproduced.

e.g., Jer. 49. 12 (29. 13) nnxi

Nin

KOA

av avTo^.

Where

repeated after a
particle in

conjunction, a free translator

might ignore the

See,
e. g.,

the sequel

not so Aquila.
.

Gen.

i.

4 P?^

p?

p.e-afv

Kol p.ra^v.

The

idiomatic construction

'2

... '3

s-i

See Field's

note.

The omission was due

to lipograph}-.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

is

REIDER
n^iyz

345
0,9

slavishly reproduced,
o}i

comp.

Isa. 24. 2
tiie

vjnxs

bov\oi,

KvpLos avTov/^
its

On

whole Aquila imitates

Naturally enough, the Hebrew ethical dative and the retrospective

the

Hebrew with

co-ordinate constructions.^"

pronoun ('aid)

in

relative clauses are accurately imitated.

:

Examples of the former are

I'lJ-el^-

Deut,
TJ?

i.

40 D?^

=iJa

Crisi

^al

veViTare

avroi^-,
;

10,
Isa.

11

n^?

avda-TJjdt

aavTu> {a
aeavrfj.

apparently read ^>)

40. 9
i.

^b'^bv

avaiSi^Oi

As

to

the 'ifid comp.

3.

Gen.
_

30

i^'Tj-x
.

ii,

avrCi;

Exod.

5 i7>

Tj's
;

f-' q^^q;

2^. 23

iriN

N^-nrTj'X
tj'S =^ oS

=
ctt'

eu/je'fJj/

avi' qi^tw

Deut. II. II
;

n?|L''

Dnzy

Dj~S

(var.

i)i')

vfieXs

lUpx^aOe U^lcre

Ezek.

9.

6 vby TJ'X

e0'

avT^."'^
'0)1,
'^'71,

The same
and the

holds good of expletives like

like

^\, niin,

^h
be

which
^ix.

in a free translation
;

might

lost.

Particles like

Di

-jX,

pi are clearly dis1,

tinguished.-^^

The
is

connective particle

whether plain or
cases with hi

consecutive,

translated

by kou
to which
it

The i&w
it

should be referred to

&

is

peculiar.

When
in

our translator does employ hi

adversative force.

is

usually with a strong

Aquila further imitates the Hebrew

"^^

placing or omitting the article

55

and

in 'iddfch constructions.

Hence Joshua

8.

33

]ii}

^^/ )j^^^

'^

Syrohex. margin

sine nouiine probably belongs to a.

^fi

The examples

are too numerous to quote

II
.

contrast,

however,

my

observations below (Chapter

"

Cases to the contrary, however, are not wanting

^

thus the ethical

euenXriae,],

dative remains untranslated in Ps. 122

123). 4

where H^--y3l" =

while the

'cVid is

unexpressed

in

Lev. 21. 21 where 13 T^^K

= S

Iutlv

and

where Si \7inDZl~i;j\S - S, enenoierjaa. But the omission is rare, and on the whole Margolis is justified m maintaining ^comp. The Hebrew 'a id in the Greek Hexateuch in AJSL., XXIX, 237 ff.; that in
'

Ps. 40 (41). ID,

',

the books investigated by him, Aquila and Theodotion are scrupulous in

expressing the 'aid in

5

all its
5.

forms.
vv.
59

See Hebrew Index.

See Burkitt. 12

f.

346

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

for

Thus,

instance,

Ps.

23

(24).

'^^'li'

DipO?
avTOV
;

=h
;

tottcd

ayiaaixaro^ avTOV, contrast

h'

to'tto)

ayi'o)
o-'

Exod.

4.

10

D''"l?"^

E^'i^

avi]p prjixaTujv,
TTtcrrew?,

contrast

^vKaXos

Ps. 13. 17

D"'31CX T-iT

oixr]pos

contrast

d' (})vka^ ttlo-tos.

is

13.

further instance of literalism

found

in

Aquila's

tendency to render Hebrew words by similarly sounding

Greek words.
gomena,
p.

To

the examples cited

|i!5^?

by Field
11.

{Prole-i?i:c

xxiii)

=
16

ai/Awi^
;

Deut.

30;

=
is

Kapxapovjjievov 2
is

Kings
U'^.i?

6.

^^b

kU Job

4. 14, S:c.

one

tempted to add

Kepas Ezek. 27. 6.

But the case

a'

doubtful; Schleusner and Cornill assume that

Possibly,

read V?P-.

however, a

merely
KLxeojv
'

transliterated
rd.

the
jV^'P

Hebrew
Judges

(read Kepes?).
4.

Comp.

KLKamv for
'

doubt whether the

at all

Greek form

of

which Field
a'

speaks was

intended.

Naturally enough

makes

use of Semitic loan-words in the Greek language ante-

dating
XiTcov

the
n3ri3,

Septuagint,
adf^fSarov

like
nsc'

fBaTos

n?,

,6v(Taos

p2,

(from which the verb cra^current

liariCiiv

= T\^f

was

probably a coinage

among

Greek-speaking Jews).

But the most important evidence of a singularly painstaking accuracy is Aquila's endeavour to render, as far as possible, the same Hebrew words by the

same Greek words,

or at

any

rate to

minimize the number

I

of synonymous equivalents.

To

illustrate this

shall

quote

some

Greek words and contrast the number of their Hebrew equivalents as used by the Septuagint and Aquila of course, we have to bear in mind the fact that
significant
;

we

are comparing an individual translation, extant at that

only in a fragmentary condition, with a work on which a

multiplicity of hands were at work.

In the enumeration of
(see n. 47); the only

the words

follow the plan of

Deissmann

difference being that here they are arranged according to the

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

alphabet: ayado^ 10. a
abiKLa ^6. a
1
;

REIDER
;

347
I

ayyeXos 15. a
3
;

aytos 31. a
I
;

avoixia 24. a

avofxruxa 8. a

aTTokkveiv
;

38. a 2
acre'/3eta

aTTcoAeta

21. a'
aae/Srji

apx>] 24. a' 2;

;

apyoiv 36. a' 3

J
;

14. a'
I
;

16. a' I
1
;

/BaaiXeta y. a
;

jiaai-

Aetof 6. a'

iSaaiXcvs g. a
1
;

yi]
;

15. a' 2
bvvajXLS

ytyi^eo-^at 98. a' 3;

8i8oWt 53.
14. a
I
;

a''

bo^a 25. a' 4

;

26. a
;

bvvaaOai
15.
a''

bvva(TTy]s 22. a' I

bvvaros 25. a' 3

a' 2
;

e'^i-os

etSwAoi'

15. a'

5;
I

hicr^div 14.
;

e^ok^Optvtiv 21. a' 2;

e'xetf

kpyaC^aOai 14. a'

15. a
I
;

e'pyoy
;

27. a'
fJeo'j

59. a' 6
tVx^^'eti'

^X^pos
;

r]yd(Tdai 35. a' 2

to-x^'sj

10, a'

24. a' 2

laxypoi 24. a' 5;

II. a

27. a'
;

4; KaOapos
17. a'
a'

18. a' i;
16.

KOKta
c/

i;

KaKos 16. a'

17.
;

/cu/jtos

5; Aao?
Troteiy

i;

napo^vviiv

a'

2:

nXavav

1 7.

3;

118.
;

2]

TTo'Ae/xos 8. a' I
4.5.

ttoAi? 6.
I.

a 2; avvaycoyrj ig. a

Tapda-aeiv

a 5
It

'oVos 12. a

must

also be noticed that

among

the words

common
as

to

Aquila and

the

Septuagint

there

are such

are
in

used by our translator in a rarer sense than the one

which they are employed by the Septuagint.

Thus

Tpo-nij

which stands
P^7 Job
14.

in

for

"I'S*,

n^i^n, or

nzijo

is

used by a for

^y. 18 (but

T. poTTcis

as in Aiictariiim).

The rendering
in

of divine

names

is

a feature not to

be ignored
particularly,

a Bible translation, and Aquila's treatment

to
its

owing

rigidity,

should be instructive

and

interesting.

It

will

be noticed that our translator

:

adheres also here to his rigorous discipline

the Tetracharacters

grammaton
=1^"^^
light.*^*^

is

transcribed

in

ancient

Hebrew

in all the

continuous fragments that have come to

it

When
is

turned into square characters

with Origen"s statement
:

assumed

^0

This

in accord
I,

in his letter to Marcella

est

{Opera, ed. Vallarsi,

131 and III, 720)

Nonum

tetragrammiim, quod

dvextpdivriTov, i.e. inetfabile putavetiint

quod his

Uteris saibitur Jod, E,

Van, E.

348
the shape

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

mm
;

(the

waw and yod

being designated by the

same stroke

see Driver, Notes on Savmel'^, p. xxiii).

This

was then read by the Christian Fathers as Pi Pi in true But that it was really pronounced Kvpioj Greek style." [= kere. Vl\ is attested to by Origen in his comments on
Ps.
2.

77a/ja

6e

"EAA?](rt

r?)

KVpiOi

eK^oorelrat.*'-

This

circumstance

may

account for the fact that

in

in

a great

majority of the fragments preserved

Kvpios

Field [the kere.

M]
(62).

has taken the place of mm.

At any
oe(T-oT?/s,

rate
Ps. 6i

KvpLos

stands for
13.

mm

(inch 'ins
is

[but once

W]), while Oeoi

used for D'nbu.

This

may

be styled

a rule,

for the few exceptions

may

be disposed of as either

untrustworthy or else conditioned by an external circumstance.

KvpLos,

Thus
but
it

Ps.

76

(77). 2

and 81
in

(82). i

we
in
is

find D^nSx

must be borne

mind that

both these

cases n'nba occurs twice, and the deviation

to

probably due

the

principle

of variation.

Job
this

27.

mbs

nvpLos

(quoted

by Klostermann), but
ol A,

quotation bears the

signature

and hence

may
-\^):

not be a.

The same
Exod.

is

true
is

of Ps. 17 (18). 47, where

0'

=
=

Oeos

and the signature

4. 24,

Kal -rrdvres.

There remain Gen.

which mn>

30. 34,
de6s.

and
is

Isa. 8.

17, in all of

But the former

:

Comp. also Jerome in Domini tetragyammaion

expressum
litteris
;

the beginning of the Prologus Galeatns

in

Nomen

qnibusdam graecis voluminibus usque hodie antiqms

>'
is

invenimtts.
it

not alone with his transcription of the

Tetragrammaton

occurs in a fragment recently published by Wessely conit rather belongs to a', as has been and falsely ascribed by him to a Nouvelle Serie, VIII 09"). 266 ff. M.] vincingly proved by Mercati. RB.,
;

" Comp.

Origen,

ibid.

Qnodquidain non

intelligentes propter

elementorum

similitiidinem,

qmim

in Graecis lihris repererint,

Pi Pi
'

legere consiieverttnt.

On

the nature and history of

mm

comp. Nestle,

Jakob von Edessa

'.

fiber

den Schem hammephorasch und andere Gottesnamen

466-9, 507.
2

in

ZDMG., XXXII,

An

additional proof

is

furnished by Burkitt, Fragments of the Books of

Kings,

p. 16,

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA REIDER

probably corrupt
reading of the
:

349

B
The

a'

all

point to dvi^n as the

ni,T
is

Hebrew

archetype, and

therefore
is

a later substitute.
offered

best proof for this assumption

(23)

by the preceding verse

16-17;

where n^nba

is

used

comp. further Wiener, Assays

Oberlin,

in

Pentateiichal Criticism,

1909,

pp.

also
:

Dahse,
I.

Textkritisciie

Materialien zur Hexateuchfrage

Genesis, Giessen, 191
difficilior is certainly
2,

Die Gottesuamen der

p.
:

42 and elsewhere.

[The
M.l

lectio

^\r\^

9(6s of the translations

an harmonistic accommodation to verse 23.

may be As to
have

Exod.
KvpLos)

4. 24,
it

u hich

is

ascribed to Aquila alone

{a' 6'

is

probably due to the

fact that nin^ here in the

'

mind of the
God', comp.

translator rather signified

the messenger of
n:jn^c,

ayy^Xos Kvpiov and

is

^l^

^n

also

b.

Nedarim 32 a where the action

IN^D mis).

ascribed to
is

]]2V

(var.

The

reason for the circumlocution

obvious,

as the act appeared

unseemly of the Lord.

The same may

cS. 17, which speaks of the Lord hiding His face from the house of Jacob owing to a scrupulous guarding against anthropomorphisms
:

also be said of the last passage, Isa.

and

anthropopathisms Aquila substituted here deos for [ has there 6^6?. M.]

Kvpio^.

As

for the

combination

nin; ^jhx^

the

first

element a

certainly expressed

by

Kvpio^ (miswritten in-i Isa. 3. 15).

The second element was probably

TTtTTt

transcribed
it

by him

as

{=keiib), with the intention that

was to be read
(for

e^os.

Hence the

vacillation of our data

deos

comp.

Ps. 68 (69). 7).

TTtTTt

was, however, through the ignorance

of the
ahc^vai

copyists, replaced
K^ipios

by
7.

Kvpio^.

The

ascription

of

to

a'

Ezek.

5 rests probably on error.

Ps. 70 (71). 16

cr' certainly and a probably divided the combination between the two verse-halves.

350
nu-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

as

rule

is

translated

lKav6s,

being
r., c.

derived
46,

from
b.

'^.

sufficient
a.

in

accordance with Ber.

i.

and

Hagigah 12

Only once, Ezek.

is

24,

is

it

transol

literated o-aSSat, but this

ascribed collectively to

A,

distinctly for a. while Theodoret records iKavo^ a few cases ^os. i^S = Jo-xi^po?, and in only

In two
is

instances

where b^

is

rendered

6e6,

the

ascription

general

Ps. 67 (68). 25 ol A,
it
^^t^^

and 89

(90). 2 ol ndvre^.

In
0eor.

Gen.

16. II
6.

is

in

composition:
^fos
Uai^o?,

^SV^:

e^rraK07)

Exod.

3
a',

^^

though bearing the sig-

nature of
e'

because

to a' and should be doubted and rather ascribed the same in these two render the same phrase
10. 5,

manner, Ezek.
registers for
go^'es
a'

and because the Midrash (Ber. r., proved Dp:Nl DVD3X which, as will be
I'^o.vos

c.

46)

later,
is

back to the Greek laxvpo^

which alone

in
is

Indeed it translation. keeping with Aquila's mode of = Icrxvpb, Uavo, more than likely that wherever nc' bs
found sine nomine (Gen. 43- ^4
belongs to Aquila.
;

is
it

4-

13;

Exod.
o!
is

6.

3)

Comp.

Isa. 8. 10,

where

credited

the reading of the general distinctly with la^vpo,, while

ascription
(ol

y)

is

O^os.^--

connexion with divine names, that Aquila adhered to there is every reason to believe 6 wherever the Hebrew has the Masoretic Text, writing

As

to

the article

in

-n

and omitting

it

where the Hebrew omits

it.

It is true
is

that our data offer

many

discrepancies

the article

used

about 50 times with

^x,

D>n^s,

twice each

with
n^

ni^X

and

25 times

with

m^^ and once with

But these

implicitly, for they are mostly due are not to be trusted the scribes and a tendency to level to the carelessness of
63

On

the treatment of

the divine

names

in the

Septuagint,

comp.

Frankel, Einfluss, pp. 26-30.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA REIDER

Aquila to the diction of the Septuagint. one example
:

351

Gen.

i. i,

To quote but 4 as given by Field reads 6 deos,

MS.
in
5. 22,
(U.,)

while a newly discovered

eeos in

quoted by

BM
=

offers

both places, quite

accordance with the Hebrew.

Comp., furthermore, Gen.

24 where D^^^N^
It

6 e^^s

and 41. 6 where Q'nbn

therefore that
in

e^os.

must be maintained

quoting Aquila (and naturally all the other minor Greek versions) the scribes were concerned

only about the chief variants,

in

our case
all

^eo'9

and

Kvptos,

and paid

little

or no attention at
article."'*

to the presence or

absence of the definite

13.

In

the

preceding

have sought

to

exemplify

Aquila's mannerisms under certain groups.

thing,

Not everyespecially in

however, can be properly

classified,

view of the fragmentary condition of the extant remains.

I therefore subjoin here some longer specimens of Aquila's version contrasted with one or the other of the remaining

versions,

particularly the Septuagint, so that the reader

may have
will

the opportunity of a general impression which

:

go

farther than piecemeal study of detached phrases

4.

Exod.
(Tov

10 Katye

OTro t6t \a\i](TavT6i

aov

irpoi

dovkov

OTL /3apv9 o-ToixaTL Kal

^apvi yXGxrtnj
^3

eya, dfXL

corresponds
D3
;

to '33X pe^b nnDi ns-i23

Tji^rbi^ ^n3^. txd

contrast
Kal
ctt

ovhl

a(f)'

ov rip^M AoAeudp.i
;

rw OepairovTi aov
1

Icrxvocficovos

^pahvyXi^aaos eyw
avTov Ks

19.

otto
tj-n;

TTpoa-Mirov ov
^p.t?,

Karefir]

(BM)

for nin; v)v ^1)

contrast

hCa rb

KaTaf3ef3i]KevaL

ctt'

avTo tov O^ov.

"S.
Ti]TO)v

45
aa-p-a

(46).
.
. .

1-4 rw
eA-Trts

VLK01T0t(O

TMV

vl(OV

K0p

6771

VaV(.C-

Kal Kpdros ^3oi]deLa

OXixj/ccrLV

evpeOi]

article

For the method, or rather lack of method, in the use of the definite with the divine names in the New Testament, comp. Bernhard Weiss Der Gebrauch des Artikeh bei den Gottesnamen, Gotha, 191 t.
'^*

352
ac^oopa e-l
Kal
(V
T(3

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

toi^'to)

ov (f)o3ridi]cr6ixda iv
opt]

roi arraAAcicrcrecr^at yi]v

acpdWea-Oai

kv

Kapoia

OaXacraMV
tJ]

6x\dcrov(TLV
v-epr^cpaviq

dvTiKpMQ-qcTOvrai vbara avTOV (TeLa6i](TeTai opii h'

avTOV aet

contrast

et^

to reXos v-p tmv vlcav xope v-ep tS>v

KCi-ac^vyi]

Kpvcpicov \l/a\p.ds o Oeoi

eXixj/eatv
(ToixeOa
Tcils

i]\J.CiV

Kal Ovvajxis jSoijdds kv

(^ojii]dr]opr]

evpovaais

i]p.d<i

a^oopa hid tovto ov

yriv

kv

ro)

Tapdcraiadai

tijv

koX

jj-erarideo-daL

KopbiaLi

daXaaaCiV

m^^av

Kal

hapaxO^av

ra vOara

avrSiv

TapdxO-)](Tav rd

oj7j h' rfj

KparaLorvji avTov OLd\iaX\xa.

S''"!^j;"|3

Jer. 5:.
1"'i?"!>'

vVui

e'iKom Kal (voi erovs 2edeKias for

i]v

"5?

^--"!'

contrast a dKOcri Kal kvb^ erwy

SeSeKia?,

similarly

6\ while

has

ovtos

dKoa-rov

Kal

hos

Irous

Hos.

II.

oVt

~aU

'IcT/jaj/A

Kol

riyd-qcra

avruv

Kal

diro
^3

Alyv-TOV UdXeaa top vlov

*33i)

p-ov for

D^l^"'?'?'!

'.HinSI

^-^^^ ny?

''m'O

contrast (D StoVt vi]-ios

'l(Tpai]X

eyw

?}ya7n](ra
o-

auroy
770?!?

Kol

$ Alyv-TOV p.TKdXeaa

Td jiKva avTov and

on

'lo-paTjA Kal riya-!TiiiJ.ivoi

ef Ar/VTrrov

Ke'/<A?)TCu t'lo's /xov.

16.

In point of pedantic

literalness
It
is

Aquila's version
this

was certainly a tour dc

the same time,
obliteration

force.

circumstance

apparently that elicited the praise of the rabbis

it

who

at

is

true,

may

have had
from the

in

mind the

of

Christian

notions

Scriptures.'^^

Barring, however, individual coinages which go a long way to stamping his translation as barbarous, a study of
his

Greek vocabulary serves to verify the observation of

ancient

scholars

and

knowledge of

Greek,'^'^

modern concerning Aquila's fine which is indeed what one would

if

expect of a native Greek who,

we may

trust Epiphanius,

was related

to

Emperor Hadrian and entrusted by him

"55

See below Chapter IIT. See above,

8.

65

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

353

with the building of Aelia Capitolina before he abandoned

paganism first for Christianity and then for Judaism." Thus Aquila's mastery of the Greek language is borne out by the richness of his vocabulary. There are some
200 words
versions nor
ever,

word formations) which none of the other any other Greek author uses. A few, howdisappear from the list when Herwerden's Lexicon
(or
is

Sztppletorimn

consulted.

While some of the formations

coinages, there remain

are apparently Aquila's

own

enough

to warrant the supposition that he obtained

them from
to lay bare.

some nook or corner which our sources

Aquila
6^

fail

is

fond of formations with

is first
eccl.

-iC^iv (31)

and

-ovv (20).

Aquila

mentioned
V,
8, 10).

in Irenaeus, adv. haeres.

(quoted in Greek by

Eusebius, Hist.

But

it

was

not before Epiphanius that an

life {de mens, et pond. 14-15^ Epiphanius's repeated by the Pseudo-Athanasian author of Synopsis script, sacr., c. 77, and in the Dialogue between Timothy and Aquila {Anecdota Oxon, class, sen, pt.VI!!). The chief Jewish sources are, Pal. Megillah 71 c, I. 10':

attempt was made to record his

story
is

DIN

^Jan

n^D^D^ -h, and Pal. Kiddushin 59

a,

1.

10:

"i^l
is

r\2'PV "1 ^^2^.

D^^y DJTD
found
first in

detailed account of
c.

Jewish sources
is

Azariah dei Rossi's Q^J^y IIND,

45

more complete

Zunz, Die gottes-

dienstUchen Vortrdgeder Juden, p. 82

De

f. ; comp. also the monographs of Anger, Onkelo, Chaldaico, quern ferunt, Pentateuchi paraphraste, et quid ei rationis

intercedat

cum

Akila, Graeco Veteris Testamettti interprete.

u.

Part
'

I,

De

Akila,

1845;

Friedmann, Onkelos

Akylas, 1896;

also

Krauss,

Akylas der

Proselyt', in Festschrift
div., pp.

liomm
Gratz,

z. achtzigsten Geburtstage M. Steinschneider's, Germ, 148 ff. A general treatment of Aquila is found in Yiod.y, De bibtextibus, 573-8; Carpzov, Critica Sacra Vet. Test.,

1728, 553-60;

Gcschichte der

Juden IV^ pp. 437

ff.

Joel, Blicke in die Religio^ts'-

geschichie, pp.

Bleek-Wellhausen, Einleituug ins A. T., % 281; Buhl, A. T, pp. 150-55 Swete, Introduction \o the O. T. in Greek, pp. 31-42; and finally Schurer, Geschichte des jUdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, III*, 435-9 On the relation to Onkelos see also Luzzatto, Oheb Ger, 1830 Rapoport, in a series of letters
43
ff.;

Kanon

u. Text des

to

the latter
in

(comp. D^JnnNt) ?n3T, ed. Harkavy, pp. 24 his works on the Septuagint (Vorstttdien and

ff

and 56

ff.)

Z. Frankel

Einfluss)
j3

VOL.

IV.
j^

354

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

to

As
-ixa

nouns the
are

suffixes -1x69 (24), -77/5 (17), -^t? (17),

and

(16)

met with abundantly.

By
"^

far

the greatest

number

of the

new

or peculiar formations

consists of

com-

Then some 300 pounds with one or two prepositions. translators words are employed by Aquila alone among the
elsewhere in Greek. of the Scriptures, but are met with found in With the other two Aquila shares 74 words not
the Septuagint, with

with Quinta

3,

Symmachus 99, with Theodotion 43. full in with Sexta 5. The lists are given in

Appendix
17.

I.

rarely Despite his extreme literalness Aquila not paraphrase, if only such indulges in free translation and

Aquik
^ribriD3

readings really belong to him.

D\nbx \bwD3
(S^2fn

Thus Gen.

30.^

8
;

awaveaTfjexj/h

IJ.

6 6eos avvava(TTpo(ji)iv
.
.

ver.

42

TPVp?''

=
;

'<'^

^^ gevrepoyoVot?

31. 41 ^1^^:
;

0^3b

bKdKLS apiOiiov, contrast ver. 7

hUa

aptdixovi

42. 21

n^12p^.

4 ^'^ ^^^ = ^ddix^Sevaas is vbojp, commentators in prenot necessary to follow old it is is simply a free supposing niDQ (comp. Field, note), it

=h

-rTXwfxaia

49-

rendering;
(1.

^Exod.

13.
;

20

-^W^
8.

^m
=
Kal

nn^??

^^^

veav

neaix)

rw

epworar^iv
;

Deut.

14 1??? ^1]

'<'

^t^o^r/s

rf Kapbia crov
Xoixivuiv;

Job

5.

21

N^^: ^? nilTO

d^rh Trpovop-ns ^Trep-

12. 2

nDn raon n^^V]

=
Isa.

avv

vixlv

TeXcMixara

the translator pointed niDn ao<t>ias,nomen pro verba, unless

(pi.

of r^m),

comp, however,

59- ^9

where

r^]n)

mi

12

HDpi

TTveviia Kvplov avaarjixov

ohvvv;

35- II ''^"^-'

^^^"''

h ~

avr^; 15. 20
'^"'^

t'binn??

= V
ra

o-oc^t'Cet

^'?Mas

iJTrep

t8

It

original, say
in a

the arguments for a Greek becomes evident how precarious are on the presence of compounds of the Book of Wisdom, based

large number.

Contrast

J.

Freudenthal,

'What

is
ff.,

the

Ongmal

in JQR., HI, 7^2 Language of the Wisdom of Solomon?' 68. Book of Wisdom. London, 1913, PGoodrick, The

and A. T. S.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

Kara tov aipa buTTTaixeva rr^TeLvd (a 0); Prov.
virap^is ixeT dpi]vy]s,
8.

355

18

pfiy \Sn

but

O'

vnap^ts TTaXatd

and

a' /Btos iraXaLos;

Eccles. 12.

-\'\?}r}

ni:3-!?|
i

= Tra^ra
n^n

rci

rijs

w8^? while

has

al dvyarepes',

Isa. 29.

tn

nnp

ttoAiV'?

Aoreweco? (or
(^rpo rov)

7rape/x/3A7io-ea)9)
<f>vrjvaL;

Aouto
V-lSf^

42. 9

njripp DnD3

dva-

59. 18
;

nm =

D^^; ^y3

=
/xrj

(L?

inl dTTodc^aet xo'Aov

(a' a'
;

rots dkC/Bovcriv Jer. II. 20

62. 6 Dsb ^O V^N*

^TOi?3

i^o-i^xao-ryre

6)

DTO

rj> KoAao-ty

1^776

crov

If

ai^rcSz;

21. 2
7/ptay

^:vy

nni)3

7roAe/xn
;

7//xas,

with which contrast

e0'

and

(T'lrpos

was
[xe

26

(^^). 18 ^rit^lisn

ul^sr

MoopaaOai, while
'\'^^

has

M(apa6LTT]s;
;

32
(45),

(39),

40
l^-^n

n^:^'^-^!?

dTToa-TpacpijvaL
?/K0U(7az;

38

27

ypt^'r^b ^3

= 6Vt
/;i^

^.^^^

^^
ovK

TO

prjixa,

contrast a

i^jkovctOi^

Aoyos

51 (38). 17
cyo-re

nn?p

Q^^^"^^

"ly^J

^jx^pdvOi)
;

Tra?

dvepcoTTos

yt-

I'crio-Keti',

but

dTTo yz^wo-ewf

Ezek.

17.

6 V^N

vnivS'i niJsJj

tva rerpaixixivoi a)(nv ol KXdbot avrfjs irpos avrov, contrast

tov
fxov,

im(PaLVaeat

k.tJ.

20. 8

^noM =
dir' kfxov

ijXXaiav

rd

^ijixd

contrast
^3.

@
nn

Kal dTrea-Trja-av
,;^|>-N^

and

a' rjireCdncrav Se uoi

ibid., ver.
^^'^^*

12

ov ^7/
{]fxi-iv

awTpLxf/j]

avTov;

22

'J?10?.^,^

N-')

=
a

Ka\
6'),

ovK

aAaAo?

S^- 37
;

=
;

O^a
^3

^^o-o//at

(a'

but

CvrvdwoiJ-at

Hos.
7}

7.

14

^i5\^>^

aAAa
3.

ao-eAyoi? eAdA7/o-ai;, contrast

dAA'

ojkdXvCop

Hab.

14 1riDS3

dTT0KpV(p(OS.

not to mention and conjunctions which might be added or omitted by the copyists. But in order to form a correct judgement concerning Aquila's manner of transladififerences
in particles

In the above care has been

taken

should be borne in mind that sometimes he employs particles which have no equivalents in the Hebrew in order
tion
it

to
KS^

do

justice
. .

to the
.

Greek idiom.

Thus
;

Isa. 45.

23

^3

@) e/s is supplied number of times (comp. Index) where the context

B b 2

'mf^ =

et'

/X7> efeAevVerat (like

356

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

it
;

demands
like.

similarly

e^, er,

k-i, Kara, irpos, vtt^p

and the

Another way of freedom

of a sing,

in translation

is

the rendering
is

by a

plur.
it,

and

vice

versa,

where there

no

absolute excuse for

and where the exact equation would which the not have been a violation of the language into
translation

was made.^^

Since these cases are noted in

their respective places in the

will suffice here.
'?J''n\X-nX
i;i"!?yi

Index only a few examples

nouns are
a-'
:

Thus
. .
.

sing./pl. in
a-ov

Deut. 28. 48

rw ex^pw

{a
;

&'),

but

has

pi.

Job

41. 10

I'n'^'^tpy

h> x<^pa, contrast

= TTrapixoi avrov @ ^v tols TreSiots

dir'

Ps. 131 (132). 6 nb'n

;

=
.

Isa. 41. 9

niifipi?

Te\evTaiov,
TTo'Ats

but

6.Kp^v\

Jer.

48 (sO- ^5
/3a(TtXeco?.

^"^:^\

= =

'^'^

aijTTis;
:

Dan.

10.

13

^sJ'P

Sing./pl. in
Pl./sing. in
e' <r ),

verbs

Jer. 14. 22

D'0'^?P

=
=

v^TiCcav (like

).
o"'

nouns:
eik-qp-a',

Ps.

I.

2 ii'?n

l3ovX/]ixaTa

avrov {a

but

Jer. 10. 7

aTO^O
but

/3aa-c/\etat?

avrwy

Ezek. 27. 16
i.

jn-inb

V77opot aov,

@
=

has sing.; Hab.

:

10 prifD

yekdatiara, but a
KpvjBriaovTaL
;

ye\co9.

In verbs

Prov. 28. 28
;

= in?: =

27. 13 'inbnn
;

erex^pao-are airoV

Jer. 9. lO (9)

nn'y z= 7rapa7;opeJO/xeVous

Ezek. 29. 4 P^l^

KoAArj97i(70z;rat.

63

Of

course,

it

discrepancy in number

must not be overlooked that many such cases of may be due to saiptio defediva; comp. Driver, Notes
Ixii
fT.

on

the

Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel-, pp.

{To be contin7ied)

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWS

AN ANALYSIS OF LEVITICUS, CHAPTERS By Morris Jastrow,
I3

AND

14

jun. University of Pennsylvania.

composite character of the two chapters Leviticus 13 and 14 comprising the laws and regulations for the
diagnosis and treatment of various skin diseases, and of suspicious spots appearing in garments and houses, together with the purification rites, has long been recognized.^ Indeed, the mere enumeration of the variety of subjects treated of in these two chapters, which form a little

The

code by

themselves, furnishes a presumption in favour of the view that the chapters represent a gradual growth.

closer

study of the two chapters not only confirms this presumption, but also shows that the growth betrays an even more complicated process than is the case in other
little

We
into

groups of laws and regulations, such as Lev. 1-5. not only find that the two chapters may be subdivided

numerous smaller

sections, each representing a supple-

ment added

to the basic stock of the little code, but that

within these sections, glosses, comments, and illustrations

are introduced which point to a treatment of the older Hebrew codes, not unlike that accorded to the later Code of
1

See especially Baentsch's remarks on

p.

364 of his Kommentar zu den

Biichern E.xodus iind Leviticus

357

358

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

addition Judaism, known as the Mishnah, and which by the elaboraof a steadily-growing commentary and continuous
tion,

known
in

as the

Gemara, grew

into

the Talmud.

In

other words,
(as

we can

distinguish in Leviticus 13 and 14

other groups within the Priestly Code) elements

which correspond to the division between Mishnah and

Gemara

in the

great compilation of Rabbinical Judaism,

in

and we can also trace

the growth of the two chapters

the same process which produced the Gemara as a superstructure to the Mishnah. The intrinsic importance of the

two chapters, and the frequency with which they have

been treated
because
of their

medical

interest,^

justify

the endeavour to carry the analysis

by a renewed study
done,
particularly

somewhat

further
is

than has yet been

as this analysis

a conditio sine qua non for an under-

standing of the medical aspects of the chapters.

it

While
medical

is

not
I

my

purpose to discuss

in

detail these

aspects;

shall touch

upon them

at the close of this article,

in

chiefly with a view of showing the manner

which they

should be considered, and also to furnish the reasons for the conviction that I have gained that physicians who

have occupied themselves with these two chapters have approached them from a wrong starting-point, and hence have
reached
conclusions

which

are

correspondingly
discussing
'

erroneous.

To
settle

put

it

bluntly,

before
is

the

fundamental question whether sard at

leprosy

'

or not,

one must

which verses of the two chapters deal

and
Munch's

with sdrdat.
2

See the

literature in Baentsch's
to

Komnienlar,

p. 364,

in

Die Zara'ath der Hebr. Bibel,

as Jay F. Schamberg's article
Phila. Polyclinic, pp. 162-9.

which further additions may be made, such on The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible ',
<

VU

(1898), Nov. 19-26, or Biblical JForld, March, 1899,

144.

See further, note

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY
II

'

LAWS

JASTROVV

359

In a formal not a documentary

chapters,

analysis

of the two

we may distinguish leaving

aside headings

and

subscripts
(i) 13.

the following
(c)

i^

2-46, diagnosis and treatment of various

of pathological
(b)
{e)

phenomena on the

skin:

(a)

symptoms asb (se'ei),

pri:^

nn3p

[sappa/iat),

nin? {baheret),
{mikzvah), {g)

{d) nyi? {sdrdat),

pnp

{^hin), (/)
{i)
n-i|5

nno

{netek), [h)

ibohak),
(2) (3)

{kere'ah), {k) 05? {gibbe'ah).

13.

47-59. sard at in garments.

ritual

14- 1-31, purification

at the time

when the

healing process o{ sard at on persons was complete.

(4)

14in

32-47> diagnosis and treatment of sdrdat aphouses.

pearing
(5)

14.

48-53, purification ritual for the case oi sdrdat

in houses.
It appears, then, that suspicious

marks or spots

to use

the vaguest and most indefinite kind of terms

may appear
Throughout
is

on persons, garments
in

and that connexion with each of these categories the diagnosis,

(in
stuff's),

and

in houses,

treatment, and purification ritual are set forth.

the two chapters, the term {negd sdrdat)

introduced, and

constantly

by the

side of this fuller term

two abbre-

viated expressions sdrdat and

negd^

^ In order to make the results of the investigation accessible to others than specialists in the Old Testament, I transliterate most of the Hebrew terms introduced.

nega' mra'at, Lev. 13. 2, 3,

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12,

9, 20,

25, 27, 47, 49, 59

14. 3, 34,

54

nega'

Lev. 13.
53>

13, 17, 22, 29, 30, 31, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 52,

54-58;

14- 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 43,

;

48; sdra'at, Lev.

13. 8, 11, 12, 13,

15, 25, 30, 42, 43, 51, 52

14. 7, 44, 55, 57.

The synonymity of
adds sdra'at,

the three
sdra'at,

expressions
e. g. 13,

is

shown by

the

Greek

text,

which occasionally has

20,

where the Hebrew has nega'

7iega'.

sdra'at, or

e. g. 13.

29,

where the Hebrew has merely

The word

nega' ('mark' or 'spot')

360

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Taking up the
first

section,

one

is

struck

by the

large

number of medical terms introduced, supplementary to sdrdat. In connexion with each term ncgd is used, which
is

thus shown to be a general term for any kind of a disease

of the skin, indicated

by a mark

or marks.

Clearly these

supplementary terms represent attempts to differentiate

between pathological phenomena which

scientific

in

an

earlier, less

age were either grouped under sdrdat or under

'

the general designation of

marks

'

{negalm).

closer

inspection of the second verse of the thirteenth chapter

furnishes

the safe

starting-point
'
:

for

correct

analysis.

The

verse reads as follows

If a

man

has on the skin of

his flesh a swelling {scTt),^

growth {sappahat),^ or a bright

of his
flesh

spot (baherct)^ and

a

it

becomes on the skin

negd sdrdat, he

is

brought to Aaron the

priests.'

priest, or to

one of his sons, the

this verse only.

The name Aaron

'

occurs in
'

priest

'

is

used.

Throughout the two chapters merely the We may, therefore, cut out Aaron as
'
'

well as the phrase

or one of his sons the priests

'

as

com-

ments
is

corresponding to
'

our foot-notes to explain what

priests
'.

meant by the term the

repetition

In the second place,

is

the

of 'on the

skin of his flesh'

open to

has also the general force of a

'

'

plague

'

or a

'

disease', from the stem ndga'

to strike

down

'.

The etymology of
sdra'at a general

sdra'at is
'

somewhat obscure, though

'

indications point likewise to the

meaning

strike
like

for the

underlying stem
specific

which would make

designation.
5

term

nega',

and not a

seei from ndsd'', 'to raise', clearly indicates a rising on the skin,

i.

e.

swelhng of some kind. sappahat, of which mispahat

'

(vers. 6,

7,

8' is a

synonym, from sdpah

i.

to add, supplement
'

',

refers to
'

something added
',

to the skin,

e.
i.

a growth.
a shining

baheret,

from

bd/iar,

to shine

is

an inflamed

bit of skin,

e.

spot (to use an indefinite term), intended to describe the prominent feature of an inflammation.

THE SO-CALLED
suspicion, which
is

'

LEPROSY
by

'

LAWS JASTROW

361

reinforced
'

the

awkward construction

I'nega sdraat,

i.

e.

to a

negd sard at \ show us the

glance at the
involved

various commentators will

in

difficulties

getting a satisfactory meaning.^

If

now we remove

the three terms 'swelling', 'growth', and 'bright spot',

in its original form spoke of the sdra'at only, the construction becomes perfectly simple, to wit: 'If a man has on the skin of his flesh a sard at

and assume that the verse

mark

(i.e. //r^^'

sard at), and he

is

brought to the
is

priest.'

The proof

of the correctness of this view

'
:

furnished

by

the third verse, which reads

And

the priest sees the

mark

{negd) on the skin of his

flesh,

and the hair at the mark has

turned white, and the mark incgd) appears deeper than the skin of his flesh, then it is a sard at mark, and he shall
''

declare

him

unclean.'
its

Here, then,
original

of the chapter in

we have the beginninoform a diagnosis of what

means of determining
It is just
in

constitutes sdrdat, and

a simple

whether a

man
is

has sardat or not.

the kind of

diagnosis that

we may expect

in

an age

which medical

knowledge

based on observation merely.

With
without

these two verses as a starting-point,

we can proceed
Verses 9-13

much

difficulty to

pick

out other verses which

belong to the older stratum of the chapter.

8 To translate as Strack, Baentsch, and others, -and it develops in the skin of his flesh to a nega' sdm'ai', meets with a fatal objection through the circumstance that it is a nega' mm'at o6' after the priest has pronounced it as such, as indicated in ver. 3.

The

text adds, 'and the priest shall see

'

it',

which

is

superfluous, since

the words

and the priest sees

is

'

stand at the beginning of the verse.

to

Either

the repetition
it

the addition of

perfectly clear that

some pedantic scribe who wanted the words he shall declare him unclean
'

make

'

refer to

the priest's declaration, or

place.

it

is

a gloss that has slipped into the

wrong

'

362

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

They
:

furnish further details regarding the sardat.

read,

exchisive of glosses and comments, as follows

'

If there

is

a sardat mark on a man, and he

is
is

brought
a white

to the priest;

and the

priest

sees that there

swelling [scet) on the skin that has turned the hair white,^" ^^ sardat in the skin of his flesh, and the is a chronic
it

priest

shall

declare

him uncleanJ^
priest sees

But

if

the sardat

the steadily spreads in the skin until the sardat covers

entire skin,^^

and the

that the sardat covers

the entire
clean.'
^^

flesh,i^ j-^hen

the priest] shall declare the

mark

" The
'and

section (14-17), text adds, anticipating the diagnosis in the next As a synonym to flesh {bcisar hay) in the swelling'. there is raw

(H^HO mihyah) bdsdr hay, another version or a commentator used the term in the text which thus a raw spot'. A later scribe embodied the synonym
'

became redundant.
11

T\pS:^ {itosenef, literally 'of old standing',

which

believe conveys
'

the idea that

we

attach to
is

'

chronic

'.

The ordinary rendering recurrent

in

misses the nuance and

1-

without warrant.
',

Additions

,1)

'without shutting him

harking back
5

to the

'

shutting

in' as a test in the

case oi baheret (vers. 4-5)

(2) 'for

he

is

unclean',
in.

N^n N0t3
brief

''3,

a second

comment

to explain

why

he
If

is

not shut

These
i

comments

are just in the style of the

Gemara.

amplified, vers. lo-i

Gemara, as follows could easily be put in the form of a Mishnah and a skin has The law is that if the priest sees that a white swelling on the
:

turned the hair white,

a 'white shining spot'

it it

is

a chronic sdm'at.

Now

since in the case of

is

is

said (Lev. 13. 4) that the victim

shut in for

swelling' this seven days, you might suppose that in the case of a 'white Why not? Because a 'white should also be done. It is not required.
swelling' of itself makes him unclean.
13

Two comments
;

are added
'

i)

namely,

'

the

mark (extends) from

his

inspection of the priest', head to his feet' (2; according to the complete of the priest, not upon the report of the inspection i. e. it is only upon the of the whole body being victim or of any other person, that the diagnosis

covered with the nega' can be established.

'*

Instead of

'

all his flesh

:

'

Olb'n-i?!!) the

Greek version has

>

all his

skin

'.

15

Two

glosses

(i) 'all

turned white

'

to the
'

word
clean
'

'

flesh'

(2)

'he

is
',

clean ', the

final decision.

This decision,

he

is

or

'

he

is

unclean

TPIE SO-CALLED
It

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS
(vers.

JASTROW
9-1
j)

363

is

clear that

we have here

a second

diagnosis involving, just as the

the question whether the
sdra'a^ or not;

first,

the determination of

suspicious
in

mark

is

a genuine

and since

the
is,

original
as in the

form of the
first

diagnosis the decisive indication

diagnosis,

the change of colour in the hair to white, the two cases

would be
of the
it

identical but for the addition in the second case

symptom

of a

'

white swelling

'.

This white swelling',

'

would seem,
'

is

the basis for the decision that

',

it is

a case

of

chronic sdraa^
first
'

as against a simple

the

diagnosis,

form of sdraat in where we have the contrast to the

',

'swelling
i.e.

on the mark expressed as 'deeper than the skin high-relief in one case and bas-relief in the other.

we can follow the process which gradually led to the present complicated form of the two chapters. The introduction of the swelling'
'

Placing the two decisions side by side,

new factor i suggested a consideration of further symptoms appearing in the skin, and accordingly the first
as

diagnosis or decision was amplified (ver.

2)

by the

addition

of

(a)

a sappahat (nnsp),

i.e.

'growth';

{b)

baheret, i.e.

'bright spot';

and

this naturally leads in turn (vers. 4, 5)

(vers. 6-8) of what constitutes a mispahat, involving in both cases the determination

to a diagnosis of baheret

and

after a test or after a double test whether

into a genuine

it

may
also

develop

sdrdat or

is

a harmless manifestation.
is

To
(vers.

the second decision, however, there

12, 13)

added

diagnosis of a

case

in

which the mark

IS frequently added on the part of the

in

Lev. 13, and apparently as a quick means for reference

priests,

who would

naturally consult the legal compila-

tions
'^^

when cases were brought before The 'swelling' [se'et) in ver. 2

them.
thus appears only upon the second

diagnosis.

364

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

suspected of being sard at turns out to be harniless or, to

use the technical language of the decision,
'it
is

clean'.

The
rash,

diagnosis rests manifestly again upon pure empiricism:

that a

mark spreading over the

'

entire

body

is

an innocent

or at all events

clean

'.

thus have as a part of the original form of the sard at Torah three decisions: ia) 'unclean', i.e. genuine the sdrdat, in case the hair at the mark turns white and and chronic ', mark is deeper than the skin (b) unclean'

We

'

'

in
i.

case the hair turns white and there

e.

is

a white swelling,
ic)
'

the

mark

is

higher than the skin

clean

',

if

the

mark spreads over the whole body. Verses I4-I7>

the case in which
'

detailing

raw

flesh

'

appears on the skin, evidently

^' do not belong to the original part of the w^'^/ Torah 2-8, but represent an addition of the same nature as vers.

due to a further question raised

in

the course

of the

how discussion on the three original ordinances, to wit, suspicious the case when the flesh becomes raw at the
about
spot?

The 'Gemara'
that the

to

the

original
flesh

decisions

answers

(vers. 14, 15)

is

moment raw
and
after

appears the

man

unclean, but that as in the other cases the decision must

priest

be rendered by a
in the

an inspection.^^

Just as

Talmud one
by the

question leads to the other, so in the

the implied discussion on the Biblical laws together with

decisions
priests or
is

by the

later redactors of early

codes, the situation

further complicated

How
and
its

about the case

synonym

in

which the
it

by the question: raw flesh disappears and

due
to the
i

" See

above, note lo, where

miljyah, at the

is

suggested that the term 'raw flesh'

ver. lo, are additions

end of

com-

ones, bination of the original decisions with the superimposed

e. of a

Mishnah with a Gemara.

i

The words

ver,

15) 'the

raw

flesh is unclean' represent a further

amplifying gloss.

THE SO-CALLED
the spot
^''

<

LEPROSY

'

LAWSJASTROW
is
'

365

becomes white ?

The answer

clean

'

upon the

inspection and the declaration of the priest.

The balance
vers. 45, 46,

of the

chapter,
further

with the exception

of

represents

additions to the original

Torah, verses 18-39 taking up various skin troubles suegested by the consideration of the sdraat. Within
this

supplement, verses 18-23 take up

boils, verses

24-28 burns,

raw

flesh,

bright marks, &c., verses 29-37

(7/^/^/.-),

marks on the
marks
{bohak),

head or beard

verses 38-9 very white

and 40-44 baldness of the head and the dropping off of the hair of the eyebrows accompanied by the appearance of
ver. 47 an entirely new subjectmarks on garments or stuffs is introduced, which is discussed up to the end of the chapter. These references,

suspicious marks.

With

therefore, are

entirely independent sections,

for

so

that the

Mishnah and Gemara

or of a

sdraat on the skin of a man

woman

ends with ver, 44.

I

The
They

last

two verses

of this section (45-6) represent,

venture to think, a part

read as follows
:

again of the original sdraat Torah.

'And
his

the one afflicted \v\t\\sdrdat-^

shall be torn

who
shall

has a mark,

garment

and his hair

22

grow

wild.^i

and he
unclean

shall
".

As

moustache and cry "unclean, long as he has the spot he shall be unclean ;23

cover the

outside of the
19

camp

shall be his dwelling.'

2*

The word ha-nega' must be supplied

in ver. 17.

after -13,13 in ver. 16, just as

it

is

found
2"

san'ta' (yni"), i. e. the one who has sara'at of which mesonV (VlVIO), the pu'al participle (Lev. 14. 3) is a synonym, and the more common 'term occurring fifteen times as against five occurrences oi sdrua'. 21 The tearing of the garments (DIE) and the growth of the hair (yns) are signs of mourning, hence forbidden to priests (Lev.

10.

21. 10).

22

DDb' {sdpltdm)

'

the lip beard

',

correctly rendered by the Gi eek version

as fxiffTa^ in 2
23 2*

Sam.

19. 25.
'

The text has a superfluous he is unclean perhaps a misplaced gloss. The words 'he shall dwell apart' represent again an addition
',

with

366

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The
and
it is

last verse of

the chapter contains the subscript,

first
',

probable that the

part of the verse,

'

This

is

the law of the sard at

mark

belonged to the original form

of the section, and was

subsequently amplified into the

subscript for the section on marks on garments.

Be

this

as

it

may, we have

at the

beginning of the fourteenth

chapter the second part of the original Torah, dealing with

the purification or dismissal of the one whose mark has
healed.

This
is

part, covering 14. 2-8 a, reads

'This

the law of

the one who has had sdrdat, on

the day of his purification -Mvhen the priest has gone to

(the place) outside of the

camp, and has seen that the

is

sard at

mark of the sdrud

two
living birds
-"

healed.-*^

Then

the priest

shall order

to be taken for the

scarlet thread

one to be
;]

purified, [and cedar

wood and

and hyssop

and the

priest shall order the

one bird to be killed over

a view of adapting the decision to later social conditions

in cities

when

people dwelt put

and not

in

camps.

The
: '

addition

is

an answer

to the question

in the style of the

Gemara

How

about the case of a sdrua^

in reply

who

lives in

a city ?

'

The general

principle

is

enunciated that the stricken

individual must 'dwell apart',

away from
',

the habitations of his fellows.

8,

In similar fashion the Greek text to Lev. 14.

his tent' to
'

by changing

'

outside of

outside of his house

adapts the older law to later conditions.

See below,
"3

p. 375, note 45.

'

as

The addition and he shall be brought unto the priest' is again added a Gemara to adapt the law to the later conditions when the diseased
is

person

merely

isolated,

and

naturally'

must be brought to the

priest.

In

the earlier social stage, however,

when

the diseased dwells outside of the

camp, the priest goes

dwells, and

to the place outside of the

camp where
it

the sdnla'
ttot in

where the

purification ritual

is

carried out, be

noted,

a sanctuary.
2^

The more
Additions
'.

natural construction

would be
xb"i3
'

"y;2D yili'n NS"!3

.

Hlini

nyisn
-''

instead of y^ii*n-|rp nyii*n"y:3

:

mj})

(a)

'

clean

',

and

(b)

then

cedar wood, scarlet thread, and

hyssop

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWS J AST ROW

367

an earthen pot^s at running water;-"' and the living bird he shall dip into the blood of the slaughtered bird,^'^ and he shall sprinkle over the one to be purified seven times

and declare him

the
open.-"^!

clean,

and send

off the living bird into

And
all his

the one purified shall wash his garments,

hair,

and shave

and wash

in water,

and

after that

come
to be,

to the camp.'
in character as this ritual

Simple and primitive

it

appears

is

possible

by a

further analysis to detect several

to the

component elements pointing

ritual
itself

combination
necessarily
'

in

the

of features that do
first

not

belong

together.

In the

place, the introduction of

the cedar

28

i.

e.

slaughtered so that the blood drops into an earthen pot.

29

Q'^^n
',

D^P
e.

'

living

water

',

which

take here in the sense of

'

running

water
ritual

i.

at a stream, just as in

the Babylonian-Assyrian purification

water from streams was used; e.g. Maklu Series, ed. Knudtzon, pure water of the deep which springs up in Eridu ', or Ctm. Texts, XVII, PI. 38, 30-34, take an earthen vessel which has come
Tablet VII, 116,
' '

from a large

kiln, at the

meeting of the streams draw water

'

',

&c.

Cf. also

Haupt, Sumer.-Akkad.
sparkling water',
all in

Keilschrift, p. 90, III, 3-4,

pure water, clear water,

Langdon {Transactions of
Religions,
I,

connexion with incantation and purification rituals. the Third International Congress for the Hist, of

249) has called attention to the fact that what he calls 'services
'

for private devotion

were performed frequently by the banks of a

river.

The expression
running water'
D''>ri

'living water'
2.

was

also

extended to waters flowing into

I

a well (Gen. 26. 19; Jer.

is

13; 17. 13), but in the ritual

so, e.g.,

believe that

always intended;
is

Num.

19. 17.

The use of

D^p

in Lev. 15. 13
'

inaccurate,

and the Greek (Codd. BAfin.) omits

in water', as

D^>n, reading

he shall wash his body

throughout the chapter

verses
s"

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, i6, 21, 27,

and elsewhere.
first

The awkward
it',

construction of the
its

half of verse

6,

'

the living bird

he shall take
attempts
read
:

and

incongruity with the second half of the verse, betray

I

at

combination and re-editing.

-liasrn

believe that the verse originally

b'i^\
,

n^ntr'n

nna n^nn nis^n-ns;

field
',

to

which an amplifying

gloss added D''*nn D''!3n ^y.

21

Literall3',

'

over the face of the

in

the sense of allowing

it

to fly

away.

368

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

no apparent conwood, scarlet thread, and hyssop' has Outside of our birds. nexion with the ritual of the two
passage
the

we encounter

these three objects together, (a) in

ri'tual

for 'atoning' the

by marks

(Lev. 14. 49-53)>

house that has been affected ^^hich ritual is bodily taken

has no independent over from our passage, and, therefore, heifer and (d) in the ceremony of the red
significance,

(Num.
hyssop

19. 6)
'

not even used for

ritual.

and where 'the cedar wood, scarlet thread, ' of the heifer are thrown into the burning heap sprinkling, as is implied in the sdraal
'

The

objects

do not

in

fact
in

seem to serve any

all

particular

purpose, and the

ritual

three

cases

is

complete without them.

The

use of the hyssop alone

(Num.

the purification of 19. 14) in the case of

the house

to some one who has and contents or furnishings belonging

corpse or a grave, become unclean through contact with a water by a clean case the hyssop is dipped into
'

in

which

the furniture and the man', and sprinkled over the tent, connected with hyssop inmates, shows that the main idea The cedar wood in the sdraat and in the
is

cleansing.3-

be a subsequent addition, 'red heife^' ritual appears to their fragrance hyssop and cedar wood suggesting by

both

purification,

like

the burning of

frankincense which in
is

the case of

mm//ak or

cereal offering

entirely burnt on
for

the
the

altar.32

The

scarlet

thread, presumably

tying

mass together, introduces

further

symbolism by

which, however, nature of the red colour,^^ into

3-2

we need

Note also the use of hyssop

'

in

Exod.

12. 22,

where

the 'purification'

idea passes over into that of

33

protection'.
of the

e. g.

Lev.

2. 2,

whereas
is

meal and

oil,

and subsequently of the

wine only
34'

a handful

the priest. offered, while the rest is given to

Cf.

Isa. I. 18,

'if

your

sins be

red as scarlet', &c., suggested by

in the Mikraot Gedolot. a Jewish commentator

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWS JASTROW

not enter here.

369

The hyssop ^^ and

cedar

wood being thus

associated with a cleansing process of a distinctive character, whereas the use to which the two birds are put is purely

symbolical, the thought naturally suggests itself that hyssop

and cedar wood were employed

afflicted to afford

in the case of the

person

him bodily relief in other words, they

stage,

formed part of the medical treatment in an early cultural and on this account were combined with a ceremony
this

intended to transfer the disease from the individual to an

animal in
is

instance a

'

scape-bird

'.

That manifestly
be sent off at

the purpose to be served

carrying with
it

by the

bird, to

large

the sdrdat.

We

thus have two

distinct ideas introduced into the purification ritual in its

present form:

{a)

a quasi-curative ceremony, and

transfer of the disease.

{b) a This combination further suggests

that this part of the ritual itself

was

originally intended

actually to free the afflicted from the sdrdat,

and by the

conservative force of established custom was retained as an ingredient of a later atoning ^e ritual through the
' '

blood

of a

sacrificial

animal.
-intarp^

This double intent

in

is

confirmed
'

by the usage of
to be cleansed
',=^7

Lev. 14.
in ver. 8

4,
it

and
is
'

for

the one

whereas

the one

who has
:

been purified
{a)

'.

We
it

thus obtain three distinct ceremonies

a primitive well-known method of exorcising disease

transferring
to an animal, for

by

which we have so
^s

many

instructive parallels
2-'

among Babylonians
'

and other peoples,

Note

36

also Ps. 51. 9, purge me with hyssop '. Note that the term N^Sn^, i. e. to remove the
'

sin

',

is

used in

Lev. 14. 49, 52, as well as in the passage in Ps. 51. based on the ritual.
3^

9,

the latter evidently

The expression ITTinp Di^3

is to

is,

therefore, to be rendered as

'

the day

on which he
=8

be purified

'.

See Cun.
IV.

Texts,

XVII,

PI. 10, 73, i-i

n,

85,

and the

latest discussion

VOL.

C C

370
(/;)

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

consisted perhaps in a primitive remedial device, which

his inhahng rubbing the diseased person with hyssop, or in

the fragrance of hyssop

to hyssop, cedar

wood was sub-

symbol of sequently added, and the scarlet thread as a ceremony by means the sin or uncleanness (c) an atoning
;

of the blood of a
*
'

sacrificial

animal with which the diseased

individual

was
:

sprinkled.=^^

By combining
;

the three rites

we

obtain

(a)

two birds

(d)

the dipping of the cedar

wood, hyssop, and

scarlet thread, as well as the

dipping of
;

killed the live bird into the blood of the one to be sprinkling of the one to be declared clean with the

(c)

the

bloodtied

presumably through the

cedar

wood

and

hyssop

specifitogether with the scarlet thread, though this is not The bird. cally stated; (d) the dismissal of the live

awkward

construction of ver.

6,

to which attention

was

called above, as well as the meaningless

ceremony of dipping
shows

the live bird into the blood

of the killed one, clearly

is

that the introduction of the second bird

an after-thought.
to be found
it

Once

introduced, however,
it

some means had

bird,

of connecting

with the

first

and accordingly

was

provided that the one bird should be dipped into the blood were of the slaughtered one, and similarl}^ the hyssop, &c.,
rite also with to be dipped in the blood so as to connect this that the bird It is obvious killing of the second bird.

the

to be slauf^htered

is

introduced as a result of the extension

texts by Langdon in the of this and other passages in the incantation though Langdon's translations, ff., Expository Times, vol. 24 (1912), pp. 40
it

ought
39
'

to

be added, leave room for further

'

studj-.

it is

16. 15

have become the standing formula, though notable that not infrequently no number is specified, so, e.g., Lev. 5. 9 Num. 19. 18. Presumably in such cases seven was assumed as the

Seven times

seems

to

number

prescribed.

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWSJASTROW

of the principle of killing a sacrificial animal of

371

some

kind in connexion with every atonement,

technical term, with every //^//^^ (DStsn)
40

or, to

use the

^nd

the purififalls

cation offering of the one

this

who has had sard at

within

category

demanding

the killing of an animal.

The
by

old.and primitive custom of using a bird as a scape-animal

to which

the sdrdat was transferred, would

suggest

analogy the choice of a bird as the

sacrificial

animal.

Lastly, the washing of the garment, the shaving of the hair

the washing in water, were added to the accord with the general principle that after a period of uncleanness rites symbolical of the cleanly state upon
ritual in

of the

body and

which the individual now entered had to be performed. It is, of course, an open question whether in the earliest
form of the purification
ritual for the

sdrdat

this elaborate

washing and shaving

^^

was included, but certainly

'

at the

The ha{tat or sin-offering rests on the same idea of the transfer of the disease to an animal, but the regulations regarding the hattdt represent
a more advanced stage

when

the killing of the animal to which the disease

it

was

transferred had taken the place of merely sending

rite.

away, as was done

with the wild goat of the Azazel

A bird

or an untamed animal could be

come

sent at large, but the domesticated sheep or bullock or ox would, of course, back. This, together with the rise of an organized priesthood around

a sanctuary and the practical need of providing an income for the priests,
led to the change, involving the killing of the hattdt, the burning of those parts regarded as the vital organs, while the rest was given to the priests.

Naturally, in the case of the 'sin-offering' for the high-priest or for the

people, the entire animal

^1
'

was burned,
'

is ordained throughout Lev. 15, for cases of bodily uncleanness Lev. 17. 15 for one who has eaten 'abomination' or a torn object (HDItp tcn'phah) Lev. 16. 26-8 for the one who sends off Azazel and who burns the carcase of the
; '
'

The washing of

the garments and the bathing in water

'

sin-offering

'

bullock,

and Num.

19.

8 for the one

who

burns the red heifer

'

',

and
as

ver. 19 for the

17.

Num.

has come in contact with a corpse, as well 21-2 for the one who has touched anything contaminated by

one

who

woman

during her period.

The shaving

of the hair of ihe

body

is

peculiar

C C 3

372
Stage

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

when the
three
originally independent ceremonies

also made were combined, the washing and shaving were Taking, therefore, the ritual as it a part of the ritual.

stands

we may

distinguish in

it

earlier

and

later elements.

The

earlier elements are rites that originally

were intended

to exorcise the disease either

by

driving out the demon,

as the cause of the disease, through the hyssop

and cedar

wood,^- or
to the

by

transferring the disease (or what

amounts

same

thing, transferring the

'

demon) to some animal.

leads to the use of

Purification from the

unclean

'

demon

'purification' at these rites as symbols of the ritualistic mark the return a later stage, when a ritual was compiled to Instead of of the victim to intercourse with his fellows.

the diagnosis and cure,

we have

as part of the religious

dismissal, both

code the diagnosis and the

official

done

to the case of the

Nazarite one afflicted with sara'at. In the case of the on the completion only the hair of the head is to be shaved (Num. 6. 18) is the same as in the case of the of the vow, though the underlying idea
sara'at ordinance.

sharp distinction can be drawn in the medicine of the an attempted cure by certain remedies and between demon through these remedies. The primary purpose of demon out through bad smells or to coax
*'^

No

primitive peoples

exorcising of the

medicaments was

to force the

him out through

benefit to the patient followed as a natural corollary. fragrant odours. demon, but no doubt in cure was thus a release from the throes of the

The

common-sense view must time the positive aspects of medicaments as the the old front, though in the background there still stood have come to the which of its own accord conception of disease due to some unclean spirit or witch had found its way or through the machinations of some sorcerer
into the

body and was causing the

trouble.

It is

rather strange

how

in this

pathology with way the most primitive theory of disease touches modern external substance that has found a favourable its germ theory as an
condition for growth in the body.
Similarly, the crude belief of the savage,

of nature but was introduced that death is not a necessary part of the order extent the views of through special circumstances, anticipates to a certain

some modern

biologists.

See Frazer. Belief in Immortality,

I,

p. 84.

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWS

through the
priest.

JASTROW

373

The more
is

distinctly religious element,

which

is

also the later one,

ritual

the bringing of a sacrifice,

hair.

and probably the

bath and shaving of the

The sdrdat code

additions,

in its oldest

compiled form thus consists

a,

of Lev. 13. 2-3, 9-13 and

14.

2-8

minus

{a)

the subsequent

comments, and glosses

{b)

in

both the diagnosis and

the dismissal, and minus

the combination in the ritual of

dismissal of four originally distinct elements, two of

them

of earlier and two of later origin.

In order to furnish a
reached, I

summary

of the results thus far

legislation,

add the original*^ sard at

itself:

forming

little

Torah by
HN-ii

TIN fnbn
y3J

?n3n"i'N Nn^ni

nyny
\f>

y^p i-ib'3 liyn -Tn-'-'a

-isn

mx
^iij\

i-ib'i -liyo

pby

^iir\

ns-ini

yjp nybi nban-iiya

ink NQtpi N^n nyi^

-nxb' nsni inbn nxn)
iNBLJi

fnbn-^N K^^ni niNa ninn

npEnj
*

^3

nyii:
*

y^?.

iib'a -liya

n^h

nynv pb lyb nasn TT T** T

'" :

N^ni niyn
:

IT

n:nf>
tt;

HN-ii

-iiyn-^3

riws:

nyn^'n

nriDDi
nntpi

niyn

nyisn

nnan nne-QNi

yj3n-nN inan
DDbr^yi

iib'a-b-nN

nyi^*ri

nnep

nsni fnan

yns

^^^; itrNii
f*^nr?

n^rp^Q 5\n^ rnja y^an

i3-n:j'x ynsfni

bentp njnpb

Notp^ is y:3n ik'n ^o^-^s Nip^ nclj

nci21 nL2y:

n^nsb pnr?-bs*
">n^s^
npbi

\rvsr\

Nri ininu

Di^a

yji-on niin

n;nri

nxT
nxni
riB'

fnbn

niji

nyni-n-yjs??
i:nK'i

yn^-n

nbij npni
njv^

fnbn

t^lO"\^?"^?

^C^n

"lisi'n-nN

fnbn

ni>n

one^

*2

Original, in a qualified sense, for

'

we

are not in a position to restore

'

the original character of the

purification

or

'

dismissal

'

section

beyond

the point above indicated, namely, that originally the rite

purificatory through the transfer of the disease or of the
into the bird sent out at large.

was remedial and demon of the disease

The ritual in this stage probably consisted of incantation formulae pronounced over the aiBicted person with rites of
sympathetic magic to induce the disease to pass over into the bird.

374

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

>:s-^y

rnn

'-,12^^1-05?
)*n-ji

n.^i^i

innc^

n^rpys

yzi?^

nyii-n-jp

nnt^rsn

no;

-ins! d:?23

iiyip-b-ns

n.^ji^

vnji-ns nn-^Gn d321 nn^n

npnisn-bs

'

If a
is

man

and he

brought

has on the skin of his flesh a sdraai-m^vk mark, to the priest, and the priest sees the
flesh,

on the skin of his

and that the hair

at the

mark has

than the turned white, and that the mark appears deeper and he shall skin of his flesh, then it is a sdraai mark,
declare
'

him

unclean.
is

If there

a sdraat

mark on a man, and he

is

brought
a white

to the priest,

and the priest sees that there

is

white, it is swelling on the skin which has turned the hair and the priest a chronic sdraat on the skin of his flesh,

shaU declare him unclean.

'

But

if

until the sdraat gradually spreads on the skin

sees that the sdra\it covers the entire skin, and the priest priest shall the sdraat covers the entire flesh, then the

declare the
'

mark
shall

clean.

And

the one afflicted with sdraat

who

has a mark,

his

garments

be torn, and his hair shall grow wild,

moustache, and cry 'unclean, unclean'.
;

and he

shall cover his

As

long as he has the spot he shall be unclean

outside

of the
'

camp
is

shall

be his dwelling.

This

the law of the one

who

has sdraat, on the day

of his purification

when the

priest has

gone to (the place)

mark outside of the camp, and has seen that the sdraat Then the priest of the one afflicted with sdraat is healed.
shall order

two

living birds to

be taken

for the

one to be
be killed

purified

and the

priest shall order the one bird to

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWS

over an earthen pot at running water
;

JASTROW
and he

375

and the

living bird
shall

he

shall dip into the blood of the killed bird,

sprinkle over the one to be purified seven times, and declare

him

clean,

and send

off the living bird into the open.

And
all his

the one purified shall

hair,

wash

his garments,
after that
^^

and shave
to the

and wash
is

in water,

and

come

camp.

This

the law of the sard at!

III

A significant feature of this

code
is its

original form of the sdra'at

disassociation from
is

any sanctuary.

The

victim,

to be sure,

brought to the

priest,

but no ceremonies are

rite

enacted
dismissal

in
is

any sanctuary, and the

dwells.

of purification or

carried out outside of the

camp where the

bird
is

isolated victim
killed at

Even the
case
is

sacrificial

not

any

altar.

The

different in a second ritual

14. 8 b,

of purification beginning with Lev.

to
16.

and extending
ritual

The independent

character of this second

has, of course, been recognized

by commentators.''^

This second code reads, exclusive of comments and

additions, as follows
'

And
See,

he shall dwell outside of his tent

now
at the

*''

seven days,*'
p. 399.

"

Subscript
e. g.,

end of Lev.

14. 57.

See below,

"

Baentsch, Leviticus, p. 371.

translation, evidently with a

The Greek
house
*^
'.

view of adapting the

ritual

to later social conditions

when people dwelt

24.

in cities, reads 'outside of his

See above, note

9,

Verse

reading
:

'

And on
his

[explanatory comment

the seventh day he shall shave all his hair head and his beard and his eyebrows, and all his

hair he shall shave], and

and be clean
second
ritual

',

&c., are again in the nature of a Gemara, and represent the answers of the priest to the questions that would be asked as to

wash his garments, and bathe his body in water, an addition taken from verse 8 a in order to make the conform with the first. The additions, 'his head',
is

Does

it

mean

the hair of the head

Yes.

what constitutes 'all his hair'. The beard Yes. How about
?

376

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

shall

and on the eighth day he

priest shall place the

take one lamb

oil,^^

^^

and

three-twentieths of fine flour

mixed with

and the
''

one to be declared clean

^-

before
offer

Jahweh.^^
it

And

the priest shall take the lamb

and
in a

as a guilt-offering,^^ and he shall kill

the lamb

holy

place.^*

And

the priest shall take

of the blood of the

guilt-offering,

and the

priest shall

put

(it)

on the right

on the right ear-lap of the one to be declared clean, and

the eyebrows
hair he
shall
]

Yes.

Some one

not satisfied with this added,

All his

shave' to

arms, and no doubt a strict

include the hairs on the breast, abdomen, legs, construction in the spirit of Talmudical casuistry
privates.

would include the hair around the

It

is

(nNtSn) was
(JlNlfn) and

a sin-offering quite evident that originally only one lamb as The brief manner in which the second lamb is sacrificed.
a,
'

introduced in ver. 19

and the priest one

to

shall carry out (HB'y) the sin-offering

'

atone for the

be cleaned

[addition

from his unclean-

ness],' shows that the

as the

'

wards slaughter as a
to

second lamb as a sin-offering is an after-thought, just he shall afterewe, one year old, perfect ' (ver. 10 b), and which ( 19 b) burnt-offering (nVy), are further additions in regard
it

which

is

specified (ver. 20),

:

'

and the priest

shall offer

up the burntand the priest

offering [addition

and

the meal-offering (Hnsr?) at the altar],

shall

and he 'he shall atone for him 'he shall atone for the one to be cleansed', or of the one-year-old ewe the case of the second lamb, and in the case
shall atone for him,
in itself sufficient to

be clean".

The

repetition of the phrase,

'

in
is

show

that the

ritual

has been elaborated

at a later

period.

'and the miu/jdh' and 'at the altar', are again also with answers to the questions, (i) Is there to be a cereal-offering be offered at the altar just as Yes: and (2) Shall it the burnt-offering?

The

additions,

the burnt-offering?
<9

Yes.
'.

Addition,

'

one log of oil

50

Explanatory comments:
'

(fl)

i.e.

'the

man

to be cleaned

',

and

(i)

addition,
51

and them'.
: '

Explanatory comment
to the question,
' '

at the

entrance of the tent of meeting

',

in

answer
52
53

What

does " before

Jahweh" mean

?'

Addition,

one
'

'.

Additions, (i)

and the log of

oil',

and (2) 'wave them as a waving

place

before Jahweh.'
5*

Explanatory comments
',

(a)

'

in

the

where one
(6)
'

(usually)

slaughters the sin-oftering

to

which some one added,

and the burnt-

THE SO-CALLED
thumb and on the
sprinkle
^^

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

JASTROW
^"
.
.

377

right (large)

toe.^"'

And

the priest shall

.
.

of the

oil

seven times before Jahweh

and

the priest shall atone for him before Jahweh.'

The

addition of an

official sacrificial

animal

in cases inritual, in

volving purification from uncleanness to an earlier

which the leading idea was the exorcising of the unclean spirit,
is

a characteristic feature of the Priestly Code.

So

in

Lev.

15,

dealing with purification in the case of an unclean flow, the

sacrificial regulations for

the eighth day, vers. 14-15 and

offering', i.e. the 'holy place'

means the

altar

on which

sin(c)
'

and burnt-

offerings are usually brought.

offering (DB'X)
is

Other commentators added

i.

for the guilt-

like a sin-offering (nNi;3n)', alike.

e.

the

two are on a
',

level
>

and
a

to

be treated

Cf. Lev. 7. 7.

(rf)

'

It

is

holy of holies

(e)

it is

the priest's'.

All five

comments
does he say

are,

therefore, again in the nature of

(a)
'

Gemara

to the
(A)

Mishnah, answering such questions as

where

is

the

'holy place'?
{c) to
^5

why

'

guilt-offering
?

'

and not

sin-offering'?

whom

does the guilt-offering belong

<

&c., &c.
oil,

Ver. 15,

And

the priest shall take of the log of

',

and pour

it

on the

left

palm of the
'.

priest

is

clearly a later addition, harking back to the 'one

'

log of oil
^^

Note the awkward repetition of the word

a,

priest

'.

Addition, 'with his finger'.

"
is

Ver. i6
left

'

And
is

the priest shall dip with his right finger of the

oil

which

an explanatory amplification superinduced by ver. 15, and representing the attempt to combine the oil of the minhah with the 'log
Ver. 17
oil
;

on his

palm',

of oil'.

is

a further specification of what

to

is
*

to be

done with the

oil

remaining

an answer, therefore,
?
'

a question,
'

How

about the

that

is left in the

palm of the priest

Answer,

The

rest of the oil

which

is

on

his palm, the priest shall put on the right ear-lap of the one to be purified,

and on

his right
14.

thumb, and on his right (large) toe

'

taken over, therefore,

'

from ver.

An

explanatory comment further adds,

over the blood of the

(ver. 14). Then some one asks, Suppose there is still some oil left in the palm of the priest, what then? Answer (ver. 18a), 'And what is left of the oil which is in the
priest, he shall pour on the head of the one to be purified '. It be noted that the Greek text occasionally omits the word priest'; so e.g. at the beginning of vers. 15 and 16, and occasionally inserts it so e. g. in
'

guilt-offering' that has been placed on the parts

named

palm of the

is to

ver. 18, after

'

he gives

'

(fi^)),

where

the

Hebrew

omits

it,

pointing to con-

siderable manipulation of the formal language of the ordinances.

378

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

29-30, are clearly insertions, shown to be such by the pre-

ceding verse which in each case

stating that the individual
is
'

(ver.
'.

13 and ver. 28) ends

by

clean

Again

in the

'

atone(ver. 5)

ment
is

'

ritual,

Lev.

16,

the second goat as a sin-offering

far older

an addition to the

goat for Azazel,

is

i.

e.

the goat

to which the sin or uncleanness

as

to

be

transferred, just
sin-

the ram

for the burnt-offering

and the bullock of the

Similarly, in the
'

offering represent further layers.

HoHness

Code, we come

across this latter

sacrificial

'

layer over an

older one in wdiich the sacrifice of an animal for the benefit

of the priestly sanctuary does not enter into consideration.

The

twenty-third chapter of Leviticus, detailing festival

regulations, the ordinances for the Passover, of unleavened

cakes, abstaining from

work on the

first

and seventh

day,^*
1

and the waving of the Omer,

as set forth in vers. 5-1

and

ver. 14, constitutes the earlier stratum, whereas verses 12-13,

adding a lamb as a burnt-offering, and a minhah, are

insertions

of a

much

later

date.

The same
an
earlier

applies to

the

sacrificial ritual,
artificial
'

vers. 18-20, which clearly represents

an
'

attempt

to

connect

ritual

of

waving

a cereal offering at the end of the grain harvest

'

with the
the
'

waving
'

'

of sacrificial animals.

In the case of

Atonement
is

festival (vers. 23-32), it is noticeable that

all,

no

sacrifice

mentioned at

again pointing to the late

in

addition

of the

goat introduced

Lev. 16.

5,

&c.,

for

the day.

The

fact that the sacrificial ritual

^

is

prescribed for the

eighth day
58

after everything

is

over shows that the older

Jahweh for seven days Num. 28. 19-24, where
'

Ver. 8

a,

'

Ye

shall bring a fire-offering to

is

an insertion to conform with the Priestly Code, fire-offering is fully set forth and in great detail.
5

the

Just as

in

Lev. 15. 14-15 and 29-30.

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS JASTROW

379

and essential element in this second ritual is the washing of the garments, the bathing and the shaving, as in the first
the many additions in the case of the sacrificial ritual point to the tendency to emphasize the sacrifice as the essential element. The
ritual.

Furthermore,

one animal as

a sin-offering, which according to the present law (ver. 31) is permitted as a substitute only in case the individual
poor,

is

was
;

required
earlier

its earlier form and we are probably right in assuming that this form followed the regulation of Lev. 4. 33, which

all

that the sacrificial ritual in

prescribes a

ewe

as the guilt-offering.c"

To

this

a lamb

as a burnt-offering (nbv)
this,

was added

and not

satisfied

with

an entirely unwarranted

differentiation

was introduced

between a guilt-offering
'"

(DB^n)

and a

sin-offering {r\mn)Gi

The

little

the sections

section (Lev. 4. 32-5; represents a different practice from (a) Lev. 4. 3-12, (6, 4. 13-21, (r) 4. 22-26, (d) 4. ^1-31, pre-

is one committed by an anointed by the whole people, by a chief, or by an ordinary individual, a bullock for the first two cases, a young goat for the third instance, and a young female goat for the fourth case.

scribing, according as the transgression

priest,

three offerings, nj)y/ nx;:n and DtJ?X, are found in Ezekiel 39\ but in the Priestly Code (Lev. ^ \nd 7) no distinction is recognizable between m\Zn and D'j'x and a commentator is, therefore
(e.g. 40.
,

" The

nm

is like a guilt-offering Evidently, the difference between the two was originally merely one of local usage of the term in one locality, now represented by ch. 5. 1-16, nXL^n being used, in another place, now represented by the little section 5. 17-26, and ch. was employed. Of the two terms, 7, Ca'sam) seems to represent the older usage. The JlNt^H, therefore, IS the one added in Lev. 14, in accord with the tendency' to increase' sacrifices, though the result is a double sin-offering, since there is no

free to admit (Lev.

7. 7)

that

'

a sin-offering (nXlSH)

(D^\X;-one law

'.

nm

distinction

between

'asa,n

and

//aUdf.

The
is is

regular addition of the

oWi

(burnt-offering) to a /^aUai (sin-offering:

again an illustration of this

tendency, though here a factor involved

offering rests

the consciousness that the sin-

upon the old notion of the transfer of the disease or sin to the animal, whereas the burnt-offering is the tribute to the angered deity who IS to be appeased by the pleasant fragrance', which is what the
'
' '

phrase

380

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

lastly, a cereal

and thus another lamb was added; and

offering (nn:??)

was

attached,*^sacrifices.

making, therefore, no less

than four separate

Even with

this the process

of heaping up one layer after the other upon the sacrificial

ritual

was not completed.

The ordinary

cereal offering

for a

lamb consisted of one-tenth of an ephah of fine meal, mixed with oil,^^ but in our case the amount is raised to
three-twentieths,^'*
oil,

and besides the mixture of the

{log)
'

flour

with
2 b,

a special quantity

of

oil is

added (Lev.
animal

14. 10
is

c, 1

15

a).*^^

The waving
'

of the sacrificial

prescribed

(ver. 12 b), the elaborate ceremonial of touching the ear,

finger,

and toe of the individual with the

oil,^*^

the sprinkling

seven times 'before Jahweh',^' again a touching of the ear,

nin''3

nn

originally connoted.

The

'

substitute' offering (Lev. 5. ii) of one-

tenth of anf/>/;a/iof fine meal in thecase of one too poor to offer two turtle-doves is not or two young pigeons belongs, of course, in a different category. It attached to another offering, nor is it ever technically designated as a nTOD

but as DNtSn (ver. 12}, though a misplaced note,

as a minhah' (ver. 13b),

'

it

shall

be for the priest

tolerate a

shows

that

some pedant could not

In

bloodless offering to be called a hattat.

layers dealing with the one

Num.

6,

a compilation of various
is

who

has

made

a vow, the cereal-offering

at the
is
is

added
duced

to the burnt-offering, sin-offering,

and peace-offering

termina-

tion of the

vow

period (vers. 15-18), though the

word HH^D
15.

only intro-

in the gloss or

comment

at the to

end of ver.

This

heaping up
old

sacrifices

with a vengeance, due

the endeavour to legitimize an

custom of temporary consecration by giving to the one

who makes
'asam
in

vow the
4. 5, 7.

temporary status of a
2

priest.
to the lialtat or

There

is

no minhah attached
oil is

Lev.

The mixture with

2.
'

a constant factor of the minhah, expressed

it'.

(Lev.

I,

15)

by

-oil

poured upon

On

the other hand, the 'frankin-

cense

not carried out, at least (Hibb) also prescribed with the minhah was not in the practice, which is set forth in Lev. 2.
^'

5
6

Also Num. 15. 9; 28. 12, 20, 28; 29. 14. This measure of oil occurs in this chapter only.
;

Lev. 8. 23, 24, Part of the ceremony of initiation of priests, Exod. 29. 20 make the priest immune against demons. though here the blood is used to

" The expression before Jahweh' is evidently looked upon as identical therefore, the latter with 'at the entrance of the tent of meeting', and,
'

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWSJASTROW

381

&c., of the individual with

what

is

left

(ver. 18).

oil, and anointing the head with Verse 19 specifies the addition of

a 'sin-offering' and a 'burnt-offering', and verse 20 is a comment in the nature of a Gemara to indicate that the
burnt-offering
is

to

have

its

cereal offering

accompaniment,

just as the sin or guilt-offering.

We

thus find this section

sacrificial regulations in accordance with the tendency towards a steadily-increasing elaboration of sanctuary ceremonials, so characteristic of the later layers

overloaded with

of the Priestly Code.'^s

This rather lengthy discussion was necessary to show

phrase
Lev.
is

added as a gloss

in ver. 11,

and so also Lev.

15, 14, as
'

wdl

as
'.

4. 5,

where the

gloss has been placed before the

words before Jahweh

In Exod. 29 and Lev. 8, furnishing the rites for the initiation of priests in two recensions, the expression used is 'at the entrance of the tent of meeting',

we may conclude that the sections prescribing the wafers and the basket of unleavened bread, together with the waving (Exod. 29. 23-4 Lev. 8. 26-7) where 'before Jahweh^ is used, represent elements from some other source. In Lev. 1-7, therefore, as well as Lev. 13-16, the characteristic expression is 'before Jahweh', and wherever the Ither appears (e. g. also Lev. 15. 29) it is to be regarded as
from which
'

'

an explanatory

addition.

In the Holiness Code, likewise, IVS^D ^nx PinS appears to be the later addition, though this Code uses by the side of nin'' ^psj) (19. 22
23. 11;

20-28; 24. 4-6) the simple phrase nin>^ (Lev. i^.'sbrg- 19 21'
;

22. 22, 27

the

words

23. 5, 6, 12, 16, 18, 20, 25, 27, 38, 41 ' to the entrance of the tent of

24.

'7,

&c.).

Even Lev. 1749'

in the latter to
'

meeting

',

explanatory glosses, in the former passage to nin> f^B^D >3D^, m.Tb. Sections in which the phrase 'at theenlranceof
IS

despite their position, Ire

Exod. 29 and Lev. 8) represent an older stratum of legislation, and may very well date back in substance to a very early period; whereas the phrase before Jahweh shows that the compiler has in mmd the sanctuary of Jerusalem, the gloss being added to conform to the theory that the eniire legislation reverts to the day of Moses. "^ A good illustration of this tendency towards overloading is furnished by a comparison of the sacrifices for the new moon prescribed in Ezek. 46 6 with the additions made in Num. 28. 11. one young bullock as against two SIX lambs as against seven. See Carpenter and Battersby, The Hexafmch
(e. g.
' '

the

ongmal reading

the'tent of meeting

I, p.

128.

3S2

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

first

the wide abyss between the

ritual (Lev. 14- ^-^), "O^

little

performed

in a

sanctuary and with but

added

to the

exorcising rites though converted

into a purification

or

which attaches dismissal ceremony, and the second ritual elaborate series of to a simple cleansing ceremony a most
sacrificial rites.

vers. 21-275 is In the same spirit the substitute ritual, merely one conceived, permitting the poor man to bring

one-tenth, and lamb, reducing the amount of the meal to

replacing the second

or two pigeons.
I

lamb and the ewe by two turtle-doves have suggested '' that what is here

permitted as a substitute
scribed
for

may have
Be

been the offering prethat as

it

an

earlier

period.

may, the
is

dependence of

this

section

upon the preceding one

of instanced by the introduction of the lo^

oil (vers. 22, 24),

touching the ear-lap and the ceremony of sprinkling and vers. 14-19, and individual (vers. 25-29), identical with
of the

taken over bodily from the

vers.

latter, just as

the wording in

30-31

is

taken from

ver. 19.'^

Then

follows a separate

but in which the subscript for this section (vers. 21-31), addition, so that il^ JT" i^^ '^'^^, are probably an

words

ver. 20, or perhaps the subscript belonging originally after cleansing once read ' This is the Torah for the after 8 a,

of the one

who has
p. 379.

a 7/r^' sdrdat\

69

Above,

Cf. the substitute

which

is

provided for the

guilt-

(two turtle-doves or two pigeons without ^or sin-) offlring, Lev, 5. 7-10 who cannot even afford this a further substitute for the one a minhah), and oil or frankincense. "11-12) of one-tenth of an ephah of meal without
(vers

This, of course,
at the
^0

is

not a minJjah in the ordinary sense.

is

The word nTOGS

end of

ver. 13

clearly a late addition.

is

The

correct construction
.

HStf H

S'\)

^^^

T^vSip
'

nn?n-nS
',

T\y\\

nSy -insn-nSI
'

of the't'urtle-doves

one To this a commentator adds as a note, the \ the pigeons which he can afford or of

namely,

'

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS JASTROW

383

IV
Having now discussed the
of the one
original form of the diagnosis

and treatment of the sard at and the

rites

purification or dismissal

it, we may proceed to an analysis of the remaining sections of Lev. 13-14, namely, {a) Lev. 13. 4-8 {b) 14-17 {c)
;

who

has been healed of

18-23
;

[d)

24-38

(^)

29-37
first

(/) 38-39

ig)

40-44
'

{h)

47-58

(/)
'

14. ^o^-^^l

The

section deals with the

shining spot

{baheret)

on
In

the skin

and the 'growth' {sappahat or inispahat)?^

contrast to the case (ver. 3) where the hair at the

mark has
in

turned white and the mark

case
it is

is

deeper than the skin,

(ver. 9)

which

pronounced a sard at, or

(i.

where the swelling

on the skin

e.

mark higher than

it

the skin) has turned

white, in which case

is

likewise sdrdat of a chronic type,

the case

(ver. 4) of a white mark not sunk even with the surface) and where the hair has not turned white. Such a case is regarded as a suspect

is

put forward
(i.

in the skin

e.

'

',

and the individual

after seven

is

put under guard for seven days.

is

If

days there
is

observation

ordained.

no change, another seven days' After that two contingencies are

instanced, either {a) the

mark has grown

spread, in which case

it is

fainter and not pronounced a harmless 'growth

is dismissed as clean,'^ or {b) the growth rt//^rthe formal dismissal spreads, in which case the suspect is unclean. According to the close of ver.

and the suspect

it

is

declared

'1

See above,

p.

360.

In ver.

the terms

n^Hl

IN

nn3D

are an insertion to

IN JINb

the heading conform to the' contents of vers. 1-13. The nxb' is treated ver. 10 seq. The more natural order of the insertion would have been, baheret, sappahat, and siet. An interesting reference to the various kinds of negd'im is found Deut. 17. 8.
^2

make

Addition (ver. 6
full
'

c),'

he shall wash his clothes

his

'.

The

addition probably
it is

read in
given

he

shall

wash

garments and bathe

in water', but

here

in

an abbreviated form.

384
to be

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

sard at, but
I

am

inclined to regard this as a later

addition

time when sdrdat was used in a very regarded as general sense for any skin disease which was At all events, the spreading growth is not of unclean."^

made

at a

vers. 3 and 10. the same order as the sdrdat described in The second section (vers. 14-18) takes up the case where

raw

flesh

appears in connexion with a mark which

(vers.

14'

15) is declared unclean.

is

The double
'

decision {a) Kin K109

'

it

unclean',

and

{b)

N'n nyii*

it is

sdrdat at the end of ver. 15

is

suspicious,

and

am

inclined to regard the second decision

the one at the again as a later addition to be explained as he is clean end of ver. 8. Correspondingly, the decision
'
'

after the rendered in case the raw flesh turns white, and spot has turned white. priest has satisfied himself that the
is

The raw

flesh turning
its

white simply means, therefore, that

the skin assumes

natural appearance.

These two

sections,

therefore, are in the nature of a

Gemara

to the original

form

of the sdrdat Mishnah, as above

set forth.

Precisely as in

questions are asked, such the talmudical discussions, various which is not deeper as how about a white shining mark white? the skin, and where the hair has not turned

than

days. Answer: Such an one is to be observed for seven Answer Observe Suppose the mark remains unchanged ? and does him for another seven days. If it grows faint Suppose it comes not spread ? Answer lint? he is clean
:

'.

back and spreads ?

raw
flesh

Answer

ND^
:

'

unclean
'

'.

How
'.

about

on the skin ?

the raw flesh

practical

Suppose Answer NK?^ unclean In a ^inu clean Answer turns white ?

:
'

'.

hand-book the discussions are omitted and the

third section continues the
73

decisions alone are given.

The

Gemara
f.

',

and

like the

See below, pp. 389 392- and 400

THE SO-CALLED
talmudical
follows fast
{sehln) that

'

LEPROSY
in

'

LAWS JASTROW
as

385

Gemara grows
upon question.
is

complication

question

How

about the case of a boil

'

healed, but after the healing process

'*

a white

shining spot

'

even with the surface appears

'
:

?"^
(it),

Verse 20

gives the answer

is

The

priest shall

examine

and

if it

deeper'*^ than the skin

and the hair has turned white,

'."

the priest shall declare

him unclean

The commentator

Nothing is added to the an answer given to a question that appears to be asked from a theoretical rather than from a practical

quotes the established diagnosis.

law merely
motive an

early variety of the

'

hypothetical question

'.

The

question, however, having once been asked, the other

:

case as in ver. 4, must be considered suppose the hair has not turned white, and the spot does not appear lower "^

than the skin.

The answer
for

is

The

priest

is

to shut
4.

him
23,

up as a suspect

seven days, just as in ver.

7,
'

Verse

corresponding to ver.
it

decides that
'

if

the spot spreads,'^

furnishes the decision

y:3

unclean with the usual subsequent

abbreviated for
is

addition

{negd),

i.e.

'it

is
:

a sard at

mark \^^
^^

Similarly, the question

to

also put here

Suppose
'

Some commentator who wanted

'

be very exact added

(v.iq")

reddish'

since as a matter of fact a shining spot, even

is

when
'

it

appears to be white,
'

tinged with red.

""^

The words white and swelling

'

are also added. of ver. 20, says

An
The

explanatory comment, misplaced at the end

'.

'

spread where the boil (was)

'6

text uses TO^'P for 'deep' instead of pbj? in vers. 3-4, indicative

of another writer, or of a different stratum.

" Once more

note
^8

the later addition

'

it

is

a iiega' sdm'at\ as above (see

4).

The words HHi J<^^'l (ver. 21) 'and it is faint' are not in place, suspect an abbreviated note to indicate, as in ver. 6, that if after seven days the spot has grown faint and has not spread the suspect is dismissed.
I
' '

^9

Again given
'

in abbreviated form.

We

must supply

'

reappears and

spreads
8^

after the dismissal, as in ver. 7.

fact that

The very
IV.

we

encounter the abbreviated form

in

the decision

VOL.

D d

386
the
'

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

shining spot
'

remains stationary, and does not spread

The answer

should be as in ver.

5 a

further observation
is

of seven days.

Here, however, a new diagnosis

given.

When
been a
that

such a spot appears on the skin where there had

boil, the stationary character after

seven days shows

it is

the scar of the boil

is

(pri'^'n

nniir),

and the

decision,

therefore,

"linn

'

clean
'

'.

The same lengthy

discussion

follows in the next

28)

Gemara 'the
is

fourth section (vers. 24in

where

the case

put of a white spot appearing

connexion with a burn. The hypothetical question originally

read as follows:^ 'If there should be on his skin a burn,

and the healed burn

spot.'
S3

^^

should become a white shining

Once more the ordinary

deeper*^ than the skin,

diagnosis

is

repeated

If the

hair has turned white at the shining spot, and the spot
is
it

is

unclean.^^

If neither of

these

symptoms
;

appears,^"^ the suspect is

observed for seven

days
is

if,

at the
^'^
;

end of that time, the spot spreads, he

spot remains stationary, with-

unclean

'if the shining

sara'at (vers. 8, 15),

by the side of nega' sdra'at (ver. 20) and nega' (ver. 22), shows the very general and conventional usage acquired by sdra'af as a
generic term, and not as a specific designation.
81
82

Hebrew

text IS

('

or'),

whereas the Greek version has 'and'.

to

Text nipSn D'nO, which appears

be a semi-technical term

for

the burn that has been healed, corresponding to the healed boil in the fourth
section.
^3

Addition again
',

(ver. 24) as

above in ver.
'

19, 'reddish', i.e.

'reddish

white

to
'

which another commentator added or white',

to indicate that a
i.

'white

sdm'at includes a shining spot entirely white, or reddish,

e.

white

tinged with red.

81

Here

(ver. 25)

pDV

is

used as

in ver. 3-4, but

immediately thereafter

(ver. 25)
^'^

rh^.
'

Again the usual conventional addition,

it

is

a jiega' sdra'at

' ,

i.e.

'

sdra'at
^^

mark

'.

8^

The words and it is With the addition,

'

faint
it is

"

are again out of place here, as above note 78.

iiega' sdra'at
'.

'

'

THE SO-CALLED
out Spreading
clean, since
it

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS JASTROW
priest
'.

387

in
is

the skin,^^

tiie

pronounces him

a (mere) *scar of a burn

The
(vers.

fifth

section takes

up and discusses

in great detail

29-37) the various

symptoms connected with marks

given,

or sores

on the head or beard, to which the generic

of netek^'^
is

designation

and which are evidently

introductory statement

open sores of some kind.

reads
'

The

If a

man

^'^

has a mark {negd) on the head or beard,

it,

and the
skin,

priest sees
is

and

it

appears deeper than the

^^

and there

thin shining hair

in

it,

then the priest

(P^?.)-'

shall declare

him unclean

it is

an open sore^^
(i)

The two

tests of the diagnosis:

;

that the spot

is

deeper than the skin

(2)

the appearance of a yellowish

hair indicating that the sore has changed the colour of the
88

Two
;

comments,
(6)

{a) 'it is (also) faint', to

make

the verse correspond

{se'et)

to ver. 6

N\"l

nipSH

riwSb

'

it

is

the

swelhng
'

of the burn
'.

{ha-mikwah), as a variant to
89

NM

niDSn

D^l"!^

it is

a scar of a burn

The Greek renders it by rpad^xa 'wound'. The underlying stem means 'to pull off violently', showing that neiek must be an open sore through the pulling away of the skin, a kind of ulcer. Just as we have y:3
Vl}_

and nyiir Vlh so pnan y;3 (ver. 31) is used by the side of pn3 and is used to designate a pri3 (ver. 32) as well as nVl^ so The text adds or woman ', but the continuation shows that only man
; '

was here
words which

referred to, though naturally the law, as

In ver. 38,

all

laws dealing with

disease or sin, applies to both sexes.

'

on the other hand, the

little

man

or

woman

'

belong to the original form of the

;

section,
29, but,

is

moreover misplaced

similarly, Lev. 20. 27 or

Exod. 35.
in

on the other hand, 'woman'

is

added by a

later

hand
5.

Num.
'

6. 2,

as
'

is

shown by
'

a comparison with Lev. 27. 2, while are added, the text reading simply,
' '

Num.

6 both

man and
',

woman
91

'

speak to the Bene Israel

as in ver. 2

command

the

Bene

Israel

'.

sdhob (ahif) used only in this chapter and in Ezra

8. 27, in

the latter

passage of a copper vessel.

92

Addition,

'

it is

a sdra'ai on the head or beard

',

clearly

marked

as such

by the

repetition of the

word

i^^T\,

D d

388

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

same character
change
as given

hair at the spot, are precisely of the

in

the preceding section, with the comparatively unimportant

in the colour of

difference as to the nature of the

the hair.

The

difference

between white or reddish white

the pigment of the hair

or shining might easily be a subjective differentiation, the

fact

being that the change

in
is

brings about a colour that

not pure white, and may,

therefore, be designated as reddish, or reddish

and white,

or simply shining.

The

following verses 31-37 again

show

traces of

many
must

later additions

and of
:

re-editing.

The

original text

have run as follows

'

If the priest sees that the

skin,

netck'^'^^

mark
^-^

is

not deeper
it,

than the

and there

is

no shining

hair in

then
if

the priest shall shut up the netek for seven days, and

on the seventh day

the priest sees the

mark and behold

himself,^*^

the netek has not spread,^^ then he shaves

03 3^

and

Text, pnin

J?33.

See note

89.

The Hebrew text has 'black hair' (perhaps a variant that has replaced sdhob), for which the Greek version has the correct'form shining hair '.
'

85

Addition,

'

and there
;

is

no shining hair

in

it,

and the

iietck
it

is

not

deeper than the skin'

the inversion pointing to the fact that

is

a later

explanatory amplification or note.

96

The Greek
like

version says

'

he shaves his skin

'

evidently a cleansing

ceremony
vided

washing the garments and bathing

in

water

if

the

mark

is

on the body.

second procedure
'

in the case of a
ncieli
'

suspected mark pro-

that the victim

must not shave the

(ver. 33),

and must be

shut up for seven days.

The two procedures were erroneously combined,

be, too, that the

and so we have

in ver. 33, for

It

days' observation.

may

no reason whatsoever, a second period of seven second test of seven days is

after the misplaced, and belongs in connexion with ver. 37, where the nekk, then correspond with would first seven days, remains unchanged, and which

ver. 5.

At

all

events, vers. 33-4, beginning with n?)^

-\r}^\, are originally a duplicate

N7

pHSn-nitl.

and

extending

to Jri3n

addition of the

inX words nnDI '^132 0331 n^jnni, which belong

of ver. 32 with the

to the first

procedure.

THE SO-CALLED
washes
his

'

LEPROSY
is

'

LAWS
but

JASTROW
if
is

389

garments and

clean,^^

the priest sees

unclean.'

that the netek has spread in the skin,^^ he

To

this a later

and quite superfluous corollary

'

forming
e.

an answer to the question,

how about
(ver. 37)

a netek that remains

in
it,
i.

unchanged and a black hair springs up

the natural colour
' '

hair of

adds
healed

If the netek
it,

remains the same and a black hair springs

is ^^

up

in

the netek
it

he
is

is

clean.'

^'^

Now
that

will

have become evident that

considered
there

in

none of the
to

five sections so far

any reason
disease

assume
as

we have variants of a particular sdrciat. The term when introduced in

been shown to be a later addition, and
in

known

these sections has

is,

moreover, taken

a generic sense as an

'

unclean

'

skin trouble,

and not
is

as a designation of

any

specific disease.

The same

the

case with the two remaining sections

(7) vers.

40-44

before we reach the point where the thread

(6) vers.

38-39 and

of the original

and genuine sdrciat

legislation

is

again

taken up.
sdrciat
little
is

In

fact, in

the case of the sixth section the term

it

not even introduced, and

is

evident that this

section, consisting
the preceding note.
'

of only two verses without the

" See
^8

Ver. 35.

If

the

iieteU

has spread on the skin after his purification

',

is

entirely superfluous, added in

view of the erroneous combination of the two

a.

procedures.
'

Ver. 36 a
ver. 36,

is
'

a doublet to ver. 35

Comment,

The priest need not (even) hunt

to

for the shining hair

',

for

it

would make no difTerence

is

in the decision that the victim is 'unclean

'.

The comment
i""

an answer

the question,
?

Why is nothing said of the

gloss adds,
'

shining

hair in case the netek has spread

superfluous
'.

comment or a misplaced
It is to
is

and the priest

unchanged,

declares him clean

be noted that in ver. 37, as in ver. 5, the phrase

'stands in his eyes'

used

to

express the idea that the mark

it',

is

as against the phrase in ver. 28 'stands under

different editors or

pointing again to the

commentators from

whom

these additions and

comments

and answers

to implied questions

emanate.

'

39

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

five,
is

amplification, as in the preceding

a supplement to

verses 4-8 and 24-28 dealing with 'shining'

skin.
'

marks

in the

If
^"-

The text a man

originally read

or

woman
^ -'"

has shining marks

'^'^^

on the

skin

it is

clean.'

The

seventh section deals with baldness, and various

kinds of bald spots, and certainly has nothing to do with

the real sdrciat.
'

In

its

original form the section read

If a

man
is

loses the hair of his

mark^'^^'-^
is

head

'^^-^

he

is

clean.

If there

a white

at the bald place,^'^

and the

priest sees that there

a white swelling mark,^^ the priest

unclean.'
^-^

shall surely declare

him

-''i

gloss adds 'shining white

first

marks

'.

^'*'

The

part of ver. 39,

is

'

And

the priest sees the shining spots

is

(gloss, 'faint

white marks'),

a 'Gemara' to point out that the priest

the one
^^

who must
'.

determine the harmless character of the spots.

'

Explanatory comment,

It is

a tetter {bohak) that has broken out on

the skin

On

bohak corresponding to the modern Syriac bahak, see the

note on
1"*

p.

76 of Driver's Book of Leviticus in the Polychrome Bible, ed. Haupt.

'

Comment, he

is

a bald person

'

(Hlj?).

To

this ver. 41, in the

is

nature

of a Gemara, adds, 'If the front part of his head

bald (n33), he
^^'
!<>*

bald he

is

forehead

is

unclean'.

Additions, (a) 'reddish', hke ver. 19, &c.

Addition, in view of ver. 41, 'or at the forehead baldness'.

in the

See notes 74 and 83. There

five sections,
'

foUows the further comment, as

sdm'at', to

above discussed

it is

which some
(i.

othei

commentator adds 'in his baldness' or 'his

'j,

forehead baldness'

e.

'

s.sdra'atoih\s baldness orof his forehead baldness

again in view of ver. 41.

(X\"l

The Hebrew

text
this,

also

has 'breaking out'

is

nni2;

but the Greek properly omits

which

clearly

added

in

view
^^^

of the addition 'breaking out' in ver. 39.

See notes 120 and 121.

(a) 'reddish'

nj2? y*3n"riNb', to which again are TTT -V~ f. his baldness or forehead baldness '.
'^''^

added

and

(b)

'in

No

less

than four further comments are added

("I'^'Z

(i)

'

like the

appearance
;

of sdra'at of the skin of the flesh'

(2)

~li>),

harking back to vers. 2-3

',

K^n

y^"l2f
'

K'''N
'

'he

is

man

afflicted

with sdra'at

where the com-

bination of

man with

sdn'i'a,

as against iar'a alone in ver. 45 (forming

part of the original sdra'at legislation),

points to the artificial addition

THE SO-CALLED
The

'

LEPROSY

LAWS

JASTROW

39I

result, therefore, of

our investigations so far has

in the

been to show that none of the symptoms detailed

seven sections
legislation

superimposed upon

the

original

sard at

have anything to do with the disease described

the two chapters, and that these

in the original portion of

superimposed sections are to be regarded merely as an

index of that natural tendency to differentiate
large variety of

among a

skin

troubles

due

in

part

to advanc-

ing medical knowledge

state

though

medicine in a primitive

and

in part to in

the interest, partly practical, partly

theoretical,

legal

enactments, prompting questions to

niceties

which answers must be given, and suggesting legal

that need to be discussed

a process
is

in short, that, as

has

been emphasized above,

of the

same general character

as that to be noted in the great compilation of Rabbinical

Judaism, and which led to the growth of an enormous

Gemara about a comparatively simple

grouped together as Mishnah.
This process
is

series of

enactments

continued and carried

still

further in the

two sections of Lev. 13 and 14 that

discussed
or
to
14.
:

still

remain to be

(8)

Lev. 13. 47-58, regarding suspicious spots

stuffs
;

marks on garments and

(9)

Lev.

14.

33-47,

which verses 48-53, a cleansing

4-7
is

ritual

corresponding to

attached.

(3) N^i^

^^^
'

'

^^

i^

unclean
;

',

quite

superfluous,
is

and added merely as

in the style

a conventional phrase
of a
'

(4)

'

His mark

on his head ', again

Can nega^ be applied to the head as to the rest of the body The first comment is in the nature of an explanation of the phrase a white swelling mark to suggest a comparison
in

Gemara

answer

to the question,
?

'

',

with the diagnosis of the 'white swelling' (ver.

10),

and on the erroneous

assumption, prompted by the conventional addition of sdra'at throughout

these sections, that
disease.
all

these skin troubles are forms of a specific sdra'at

392

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Taking up the former, the use
of the

term

ncgci sdrciat

(vers. 47, 49, (or sarciat) 51, 52) for

such spots on garments

still
it
',

and

stuffs is a further proof, if

one were

needed, that

sdrciat had lost any specific meaning that

possessed, for such a thing as
'

may once have

or any disease

leprosy

peculiar to man, is a manifest absurdity in the case of garments or stuffs.

The
and

reference

must be to moulds of some kind

or other.

INIoreover, as in other sections, nynif yjj alternates

nyii:,

with

yi3

the fuller or the abbreviated expression

is

being synonymously used for a mark that

or unclean.

suspicious

The

section

shows

distinct traces of dependence

upon the
therefore,

original

sdrdat

legislation, -^^^

and
of

represents,

the further natural

extension

the general

subject

of

marks or spots outside of the human body.

Just as in the other sections,

we

are here also in a position

to separate the original portion from subsequent accretions,

again

offering
'

analogies
'.

to

the

'

Gemara
:

'

superimposed

upon the IMishnah

'

The

section begins

If there

is

mark ^^" on a garment, and the mark

is

greenish or reddish, ^^^ the priest shall see the

''-'

mark and
seven days;
;

e.g. in the shutting

up of the suspected garment, &c.,

for

in the diagnosis,

whether the mark has spread or remained

to the

steadfast

in the

washing of the garment, corresponding

the shaving of the head.
11

washing of the body and

an erroneous addition,

Text, ny^if

i'j3

where, however, T\V~^

is

as

shown by

the consistent use of y33 alone in the portion of the following

It is

verses dealing with the merely suspected mark.

only in case the mark

by the
added.

test is

proved
is

to

be unclean that the word sdra'at can properly be

the explanatory
{b)

There

added

(a)
',

Gemara

'

in a

garment of wool

or in a garment of flax
the questions,
this
i.

and then

the further amplification in answer to

]

How

if it

appears in the warp or in the woof only

Does

apply also to wool and flax?

leather or on something
in the

How

if it

appears on a prepared skin,

?

e,

warp or
^'1
'

made woof of wool or flax

'.

of a skin

The answer

is,

'

or in the

[so the

Greek

text], or in a skin or in

anything made of skin

Greenish'

may

be a later addition, since in the other sections

'

reddish

THE SO-CALLED
shut up the

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

JASTROW

393

mark

for

seven days.

If the priest ^^^ sees

on

the seventh day that the the

mark has spread on

shall

the garment/^^
^^^ in

mark
is

is

unclean

and he
but
if

burn the garment

which

the

mark

^^^
;

the priest sees that the

^^

mark
priest

has not spread

to

in the

garment,^

the priest shall

is,^^^

command

wash ^" the

(part)

where the mark

after
its
it

and the

shall

inspect the

mark

the
alone

mark has
is

not altered

been washed, and if appearance "^ it is unclean.^^'^

has

introduced.

Once more
'

the addition,

'

or in a skin, or in the
'.

warp
two
,

or in the woof, or in any object

further additions, (i)
it

made

of a skin

Then

follow the

is

a sdra'at mark', as in the preceding sections,

and

(2)

^12

it shall be shown So the Greek text.

'

to the priest'.

"3

Two

comments,

() the

customary addition 'or

is

in the

warp, or in the
',

woof, or in a skin, including whatsoever

made

of the skin

and

(6)

n^NipC nyii*, meaning probably

'persistent sdm'ai',

corresponding

to

'chronic sdra'at' (ver. 11). "* Again, or in the warp, or in the woof, in the flax or the wool or any
'

object

made

of skin

'.

The

variations in this conventional addition, such as

the omission of the 'skin', the change in the order of enumeration, the
variant usage to indicate anything

made

of leather, clearly point to the sup-

plementary character of the insertions. "5 Explanatory comment, because

'

it is

a " persistent " mark

it

shall be

burnt in the
^^^
'

fire

'.

"^
^18

Or in the warp, or in the woof, or in any object made of skin.' Hebrew text plural (>,DapV, whereas the Greek text has the singular.
At
this point

the original text has been

more seriously interfered

with by the addition of a second period of seven days' observation, added

evidently to bring about a correspondence with Lev. 13. 5, where, however, the point is that the mark has remained steady. The ordinance, in its
original form, prescribed the
'^^

washing of the spot as a further

'

test.
'.

Explanatory comment,

though the mark has not spread

it'

Two

additions, (i) 'in the fire thou shalt burn

it is

(note the variant

usage), and (2)

a pehdet (nriPIB), which, according to the tenor of the

Greek rendering

(fffTTjpi^iTai),
'

designates 'a deeply ingrained mark'.

',

The

further addition, (3)

in its baldness or its forehead baldness

is

evidently

a misplaced addition belonging somewhere in the seventh section (vers. 40-44.

It is strange that none of recent commentators, neither Driver, nor Carpenter, nor Baentsch, nor Bertholet, has noticed this. The Greek version reads

394

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

if

But
the

the priest sees that the

mark has grown

shall

faint after

mark has been washed, he

tear

it

out of the

garment,^-^ and the garment^-- which has been washed,

and from which the mark has disappeared,^-"

it

is

clean.'

The beginning
legislation, to

of ver. 59,

'

This

is

the torah of the sard at

mark', belongs, as clearly indicated, to the original sdrdat

which a
before

final

redactor

who had merely

'

this

eighth

section

him, and which must have once

occupied an independent position, added,

.

a garment of
or

wool or

flax,

or

the

warp or the woof,

its

any object
its

of skin, with

reference to

being clean or

being

unclean

'.

Taking up,
have
its

finally,

the ninth section (Lev. 14. 33-53)

we

originally

independent
^-^

character
indicated

(as

has been
special

recognized by commentators)
introductory clause:

by the
to

'When you come

you

the

land
I

of

Canaan, which

give

as an inheritance,'-^

and

put

'

in the

garment, or in the warp, or in the woof ', which

'

is

at least intelligible.

Baldness
to

and Forehead baldness

'

'

become, of course, nonsensical

when

apphed
is

garments.

The
b.

entire gloss, ir.n?:3 iS

innip3

N''n

JinriQ,

a variant of ver. 42

and nnnS: may be simply a corruption

for T\Vpji

in ver. 42.
1-1

Addition, 'or from the skin, or from the warp, or from the

woof.

The

entire fifty-seventh verse represents a

:

group of additional comments, as

In

follows

(a)

'

If

it

should reappear in the garment, or in the warp, or in the

it

woof, or in any object of skin,

the
fire

is
'

a spreading mark'
is
',

(Firi'lB"

(6)

thou shalt burn

it

' ;

(c)

where the mark

the latter again

a misplaced comment.
1--

Addition, 'or the warp, or the woof, or any object of skin'.

1-3

Explanatory comment harking back to the addition

'

in ver.

54 (see

note 118),
^2*

and washed a second time

'.

See, e.g., Carpenter and Battersby, Hexaieiich,

p.

II,

p. 162,

note 33

Baentsch,
1-5

374

Driver. Leviticus, p. 77, note 22, &c.

in

similar phrase

Lev.

19.

23: 25. 2 and Num. 15,2 marks the

introduction of an independent

little

Torah and, as

it

would appear,

either

THE SO-CALLED
a

'

LEPROSY

LAWS

JASTROW
whom
"
:

395

mark

^-^

in

a house,^-" and the one to

tells

the house
like

belongs comes and

the priest, to wit

something

a mark has appeared

in

my house

".'

Then

follows (ver. ^6)

a curious provision, that before the priest

is

comes the house

to be cleared of the furniture so as to save that from

also

being pronounced unclean.

This practical device,

which shows that questions of sanitation could not have

been uppermost
in

the minds at least of those

who comone's
it

mented upon the

legislation, looks

very much again like

an answer to the question whether one

furniture before the

may remove

mark

is

examined, and thus save

case

from

possible

destruction
all

in

the whole

house

is

condemned. At
to verse 37.
'

events, verse ^j

must be joined

directly

And when

the priest sees that the

^-^

mark ^-^ on the

walls

of the house forms greenish

or reddish patches, and that

they are deeper than the wall, then the priest shall go out
of the house to the door of the house/"

and close up the

on the

house

for seven

days
if

and the

priest shall return

seventh day, and

he sees that the mark has spread on

the walls of the house, the priest shall order the stones

where the mark appears to be removed, and to be thrown

of a supplementary character, as in our case, and in Lev. 19. 23 and 25. or in the nature of a general summary, as
legislation thus introduced
in the Priestly
^"^
is

2,

Num.

15. 2.
fact,

In

all

cases the

late,

representing, in

the latest stratum

Code.
is

Text, nyii* V;p, but here again, as Lev. 13. 47, sfua'at

out of

place,
1-^
'

and anticipates the

Addition,
'.
'

result of the diagnosis.

of the land of

your possession
'

'

Greek versions read

7iega'

houses
1-8

The Hebrew has a superfluous and behold the

Greek
version.

'.

which is omitted

in the
^-3

'Greenish'

may be

a later addition.

See note in.

^30

Note the discursive

style, characteristic of this ninth section.

396

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

taken and brought outside the city.^^i ^nd other stones to be mark reappears and ^nd if the in place of the stones.^'^
the stones/==^ spreads on the house after he has removed mark has spread then if the priest comes and sees that the
in the

house i2^~it

is

unclean.

And

one shall tear down

the house/3^ ^nd the

city.^^*^

all

the dust shall be carried outside of

the priest comes and sees that the mark declare the has not spread in the house, the priest shall

But

if

house clean,

for the
first

mark

is

healed.'

^^'^

Here the
(vers.

part of the section ends,

ritualistic provisions

and there follow

procedure in the

49-53) the

which are manifestly

first

a transference of Lev. 14. 4-8

131

a the

Addition,

'

to

an unclean place

',

which suggests the unsanitary dust

towns even at the present and rubbish heaps characteristic of Palestinian all adds (ver.41) 'And the house shall be scraped 'Gemara' time. at an unclean and the scraped dust deposited outside of the city

around,
'.

place
132

Addition,

'And he

shall take other dust,

is

and plaster the house',

?

in

answer to the question,

133

What
to

to

be done to the house

Addition to conform

the earlier additions, 'And after the house has

" persisient " 5ra'fl/ in the

been scraped, and

isi

after the plastering'.

'

Addhion
Addition,

as in the former section,

It is

house'.
13'

Cf. note 115.

'

Its

stones and

its

wood

',

a detailed specification

added

in

only the stone, or does answer to the question, Does 'house' mean perhaps pointing wood- work? The Greek version emits its wood ', it include the
'

clearly to the manipulation of the

136

Hebrew

text.
'.

Addition again

'

to

an unclean place

Then

follow two purely

ritualistic

ordinances, which

clearly represent the endeavour to connect

spot as with other kinds of marks. a ritualistic observance with the 'house'

Therefore,

we

are told (vers. 46-7),

'And whoever
till

enters the house during

;

the days that

in the

it is

closed shall be unclean

evening

and he
till

who
',

sleeps
so the
['

house
text]
;

shall

wash

his

garments

['

and be unclean

evening

Greek

and he

who

eats in the house shall

wash

his

garments

and

Greek text]. Verse 47 evidently be unclean till evening', so again the upon ver. 46 to bring about a conformity with represents the superstructure
Lev.
14.
13"

V:2n NE12

8 and with passages hke ver. 9 based thereon. corresponding to Lev. 14. 3 in the original sdra'at Torah.
,

THE SO-CALLED
original

'

LEPROSY
the
'

LAWS
'

JASTROW

397

sard at Torah

to

house

mark, and a most

Before

awkward

transfer at that, as will presently appear.

let

taking up this second part,

us note

how

in the first part

the diagnosis follows slavishly in the path of the original

sdrdat

legislation in the following points:

(i) the

emphasis

on the change of colour at the place where the

(2)
(3)

mark

is

that the

mark

or

marks must be beneath the surface;

;

the seven days' quarantine

(4)

the decisions resting

point,

upon the spread of the mark.

corresponding
in

The new

though

a measure to the tearing out of the

\'>^.

mark
com-

on the garment (Lev.

containing
the

^6),

is

the removal of the stones

(to

suspicious
still

marks

which

later

mentators added

further directions).

Here, evidently,

we have
in

a piece of legislation specially devised for the case

question,

and not based upon an attempt to provide

in the case of the

to

mark on the house something analogous an unclean mark on an individual. The same applies

to the provision to tear

down

the house and to remove the

dust to another place in case of a reappearance, or of a

spread of the marks after the

first

attempt to heal the

house had

failed.

Taking up the second part of the

upon Lev.
evident.
14.

section, the

dependence
is

4-8

a,

as has already been suggested,

self-

The adaptation
in its original

of the latter ritual in

its

elaborated

and not

form to the house declared clean,

leads to the substitution of the interesting phrase St2np,^33

literally, 'to

remove the

sin' (Lev. 14.

49 and 52),
'

in the
'

sense of purifying
"intssb

what we
this

would

call

fumigating
(14. 4,
7).

for
The
8.

'to declare or dismiss

sense

as clean'
is

"8 The Piel of the verb in

9. 15
;

found in Exod. 29, 36

;

Lev.

15

Ezek. 43.22-23, appHed to the altar

also Ps. 51. 9 in the direct sense

of cleansing; but quite differently Gen. 31. 39.

398

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

14-

comparison between Lev.

justifies

4-^ with 49-53. moreover,

the analysis given of the former, since

some

of the

additions in Lev. 14. 4-cS are actually not found in 49-53-

So we have

in the latter
'

merely
'.

'

the two birds

'

without
is

the addition of living clean

Similarly, verse 51

nearer
text,

to the original form than 14. 4, especially in the

Greek

which reads
'

And

he shall take [addition

"

cedar

wood and hyssop

it

and

scarlet

thread"] the living bird and dip

the

[so the

Greek

text] in

blood

of the

killed

one [addition:
^^o

the running

water" so

the Greek text] and sprinkle

the house seven times.'

Verse 50 corresponds to verse

5,

but on the other hand,

verse 52 represents a redundancy over the original sdrciat

Torah.

It

sums up
shall

'And he

purge

^^

the house through the blood of

the bird, and through the running water, and through the hyssop, living bird, and through the cedar wood, and the

and

the

scarlet

thread.'

This
of

is

evidently
ritual.

added
Verse

to
s?)

emphasize
reading
:
'

the

elaborateness

the

And

he shall send off the living bird outside of

^^^ for the house,'

the city

^^^

and atone

corresponds to the

second part of verse

'

7.

The

substitution of 'city' for

field

'

indicates the change

in social conditions intervening

between the period of the original sard at Torah and the It is perhaps worth late supplement modelled upon it.
while to note that the second ritual (vers. 8b-2o)
139

is

not

Greek

text adds

'

with them'.

HO xtsn, see note 138.

"1 The dependence of this ritualistic ordinance upon Lev. 14. 4-8 a is shown by the meaningless addition of 'over the face of the field', merely

because
^*2

this

phrase
'

is

used
it

in

Lev.

14. 7.

Addition,

and

is

clean'.


THE SO-CALLED
carried over to the
'
'

LEPROSY
'

'

LAWS

JASTROW

399

cleansing

ritual for the house.

The

older exorcising ceremony alone was adapted to the case

mark made and

of a
'

'

in a

house, and that after the test had been

the house declared clean.

it

In view of this
in the

adaptation

is

no longer possible to say whether

case also of the house, the ritual

originally represented

the means of exorcising the disease, and was subsequently

connected with a symbolical ceremony of formally declaring

the house clean.

The

lateness of this transferred ritual

suggests that in the mind of the one

who

so transferred
'

it,

the ritual was regarded merely as a

'

dismissal

ceremony.

The

subscript, verses 54-57,

is

particularly elaborate.

As

already pointed out,

'

we may

regard the second half

of verse 57,

This

is

the law of the

sdrdaf

as the closing
If this be so,

formula of the original sdrdat legislation.

it

be the simplest solution of the problem to divide the remaining verses into a series of originally independent
will

subscripts that have been here repeated

this

and united.

In

way

verse 54,

'

This

is

the law for every

negd sdrdat,

and

for the netek\

;

would be the subscript

is

for Lev. 13. 1-17

'

and 29-37 [This garment' (ver. 55a)

while verse ^6,

the

law
13.

for

the sdrdat]
is

of the

for

Lev.

47-58; '[This

the law
0^0^-

for the sdrdat'\ of the

S'^,
'

house'

(ver.

55b)

for

Lev. 14.

for the swelling,

2),

growth, and shining

spot' (taken from Lev. 13.

to verse 54

represents an amplification

and

is,

therefore, a

comment

or note which
is

has gotten a

little

out
[i.e.

of place.

Of

special interest

verse 57a, 'to teach

to set forth the law] for the

day of

(pronouncing) unclean and for the day of (pronouncing)

clean',

which again

that the

is obviously a 'Gemara' Torah includes the diagnosis and the

to explain

decision

whether unclean or

clean.

The

subscript

through the

400
repetition

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

and the union of
five subscripts
:

(i)

all

kinds

of iicga

sard at
(2) netek
;

[i.e.

the swelling, growth, and shining

spot]

(3)

garment
^^^

(4)

house
to

and
unite

(5) that

of

the original legislation

chapters that

thus

aims
into

the

two

we have analysed
everywhere
is

one Torah

viewed
original

under the aspect of sdra'at, but

term,
representing
legislation

we have
outside
of
in

seen that this

the

sdrdat
of

an addition,

used

the generic sense

any unclean spot or mark on a human body, or on a

stuft',

garment, or on a

or on a house.

We

must, therefore,
original

exclude the nine sections superimposed

legislation

upon the

from consideration
really

in

any attempt to determine

what the sdrdat

and originally meant.

It

is

needless for our purpose to enter into a detailed

discussion of the various views regarding sdrdat that have

been brought forward from a medical point of view.^^* All of these investigations, valuable though they are as medical
discussions,
suffer

from the defect that they assume the

14.^^^

unity of Lev. 13 and

1*5

and particularly of Lev.

is

13. 1-37, on boils

It will

be obsen-ed that there

no subscript

for the section

'Lev. 13. 40-4% which or burns (Lev. 13. 18-28;, or for the one on baldness question whether these sections maj- not have been inserted after raises the the
first
i<*

union of Lev. 13 and

is

14.

It

sufficient

to refer to

G. N. Munch, Die Zaraaih {Lepra) der

full

hehraischen Bibel,

Hamburg, 1893 (with

the Bible,

bibliographical
I
;

references)

R. Bennett, The Diseases of

Medisiit
ini

London, 1891, chap.

Ebstein, Die

AUen

Testament, pp.
;

Medizin, pp. 369-90

Bible (see note 2).

and Jay

F.

Preuss, Bibliscli-Talmudische 75-95; Schamberg, The Nature of the Leprosy of the

Some

of these writers, especially Ebstein (I.e., p. 89;,

recognize that sara'at includes a variety of skin diseases.

was, of course, natural that ancient writers like Philo and the which rabbinical authorities in the Talmud, under the ban of the tradition

It

man. ascribed the entire Pentateuchal legislation to one period and one

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

JASTROW

401

which portion naturally occupies the most prominent place

in medical discussions oi

sard at.

The above

analysis has,
boils, burns,

however, shown that verses 18-37 deal with

and

sores,

and their symptoms, and that they are prounclean

according
to
tests

nounced clean or

that

are

suggested by, and dependent upon, those applied to sard at

in

the

original

sardat

legislation,

but

that

otherwise
application
late

they have nothing to do with sardat.

of the

The

term sardat to these diseases represents a

addition

made

at a

time when sardat had acquired an

it

entirely general designation, so that

could be applied
fact that the

even to 'bald spots'

(Lev. 13. 43).

The

diseases mentioned in Lev. 13. 17-37 have their specific

designation as
that even the
tions
('

'

boils

'

',

burns

',

and particularly

netek,

and

symptoms described have

'

technical designa-

scab of boil

',

scab of burn

')

strengthens the thesis

is

that the application of sardat to

origin
;

them

of secondary
substitution

and

this

is

further borne out

by the

of

negd
Lev.

for sardat, to
13.

which attention has been directed.

its

In

1-17 the 'growth' (nnsp sappahat) has

(nriQtpp vers. 6-8),

specific
if
it

name, namely, mispahat

which

spreads does not become sardat, but makes one

In the case of mispahat
it

unclean.

is

particularly clear

that the application of sardat has no medical significance or justification

the
'

point involved
'

being to determine
'

whether

it is

clean

or an

'

unclean
8,
'

variety of disease.

The

addition at the close of ver.

it

is

sardat

',

can only

have the force of a convention

Catni,

a non-medical
'

identification,

should have started from this point of view, which led Philo {de Posteritate
I,

13) to define sdra'at as a

in

multiform and complicated disease

',

and the Rabbis

meaning.

the Talmudical Treatise Ncga'im to go to even greater

lengths in the application of a term that must once have had a very specific

VOL.

IV.

Ee

402

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

at

and

the

very most can be taken to

is

mean

that

the

'unclean' mispahat

to be put on the same plane as

therefore,
it is

sard at. In a medical discussion,

start

erroneous to

mispahat from an identification of the two, or to regard sappahat carries with it as a variety of sard at. This view of as a symptom haheret (shining mark),which is treated merely

and therefore introduced with sappahat

(ver.

(ver. 4),

with boils

19),

and with burns

(vers. 24,
'

28),

and with hohak

(ver. 39).
in

On

the other hand,

in

the white swelling' implied

ver.

2,

and treated

ver.

10 a

part of the original

of sdrdat, sdrdat legislation belongs to the symptoms the means, of disand apparently is the means, or one of between ordinary sdrdat, which may be healed,

tinguishing

and chronic sdrdat, which

is

pronounced unclean even

for

without the test of an isolation

(ver. II).

purposes of observation

(tetter)

specific disease bohak In verses 38-9 the description of a against regarding numerous is given as a caution

white spots on the skin as 'unclean'.

is

The term sdrdat

'clean'

not even introduced

here the

verdict being

of baldness, while in verses 40-43, dealing with two forms alone suggests a comthe occurrence of white swelling ',
'

parison with the diagnosis of sdrdat.

this section
is

While, no doubt,
legislation,

secondary to
that

the original sdrdat

the

possibility

the

symptom

here described

may

be admitted. belong to sdrdat in the original sense must sdrdat of peculiar usage, like the appearance of a

The

'

shows, at the skin of the flesh' (Lev. 13. 43).

this the intention of the author to add

all

events,

symptom under

the head of the genuine sdrdat.

Even though not belonging

"^"st be conto the original sdrdat legislation, verse 43 force of sdrdat. sidered in a discussion of the original


THE SO-CALLED
'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

JASTROW

403

We

may, of course, dismiss without a further word the

garments,
stuffs,

application of sdrciat to

and houses

which

if

taken seriously would lead to medical conclusions

of an absurd character.

Even those who wish

legislator

to save the

original integrity of Lev. 13 and 14 will hardly go so far

as to
'

assume that the

'

had

in

mind the modern

germ theory, according

Such germs

to

which a disease can be carried

to a person

through clothes or through the walls of a

house.

science to determine

often for modern medical are not so considerate as to manifest

difficult

themselves
of the

in big patches.

The

non-scientific application

name

of a disease to which

man

is

subject to an
is

inanimate object shows conclusively that sdrdat

used
in its specific

not

and original

sense.
'boils',

Excluding, therefore, mispahat, as well as

netek

'burns

',

(open sore), bohak

(tetter),

and, of

course,

mere

baldness and

marks on garments and

stuffs

and houses,

what then

is

sdrdat ?
the original sdrdat legislation, the
is

Thrown back upon

It is a skin disease,

answer, from a symptomatic point of view,

quite simple.

which appears

in

a milder and curable

form, and in a severer chronic

at the time as chronic.

form or what was considered

milder form the

In

its

symptoms

are

a spot

(or

mark) with a tendency to spread,^^^

appearing deeper than the skin, and changing the hair at

the spot to white
'

the other as the chronic form

spot,
i.

is

marked

by the swelling character of the

'

e.

the inflammation

produces a spot in 'high-relief as against 'bas-relief.

Besides, there
is

also the

symptom

of the hair at the spot

turning white, and the appearance of raw flesh in the

" Note, however, the
'

Gemara

'

(ver. 12) that if

'

it

spreads over the whole

body

it is

merely a

'

rash

',

and, therefore,

clean

'.

E e

'

404
swelling.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

From

modern medical point of view, these

not surprising that students of medicine that to the precise disease indicated, and

decidedly symptoms must appear somewhat naive and

insufficient.

It is

should disagree as
the

perfectly relevant

question

should have been raised

specific disease.

whether sard at ever indicated any

That sdrdat was never intended ^^' leprosy or elephantiasis Graecorwn

no proof that the disease was known
in

as a designation of
is

now

so generally

admitted as to require no further discussion.

is

Indeed, there

in Palestine in early

days any more than

Orient.i^^

Egypt

or in other parts of the near

as

The

consistent

Greek rendering of sdrdat

valuable tradi/^/r followed by the Vulgate is a most least the second century B.C., tion, carrying us back to at
for the current

of lepra that

is

view of sdrdat, just as a misunderstanding responsible for the opinion still popularly current
described
as

the
in

disease

sdrdat

is

leprosy.
'

The

manner
arose
is

which the confusion between lepra and leprosy In Greek fully set forth by Bennett and others.^"
'

medical usage lepra designates

in its features,

a cutaneous disease varying

a rough,
or
less

but the essential characteristic of which is scabrous or scaly eruption on the skin, with more
of

evidence
^^

surrounding redness

or

superficial

inflammation.'

Three
and

varieties of lepra are distinguished

by Greek

writers,

it is

therefore reasonable to suppose

1" See, especially, Miinch's exhaustive discussion of the point, chaps. I the Bible, pp. 40 ff. and III-VI, and Bennett's Diseases of

would Munch's conclusion, p. 145. If it had been known, it 'curses' been enumerated among the diseases threatened as certainly have is not mentioned, whereas it is noticeable that sdra'at
i So,
e. g.,

in Deut. 28,

where

the 'boils' of Egypt {)ehin) (ver. 27) are included. Munch, pp. 88 ff. i<9 See Bennett, pp. 16-19
;

^50

Bennett,

p. 19.

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

JASTROW
there
(3)

405

that several varieties also existed in Palestine.

Curiously

enough

if

the above analysis

is

correct
:

would be

also three varieties in Lev. 13, 1-17

(i)

the 'bas-relief
the mispakat,
first

sard at
which

(2)

the 'high-relief sard at

and

latter certainly stands in

a close relation to the

and second.

In any case sdrdat

down

to this portion of the chapter

is

definitely

narrowed

'boils', 'burns', netek,

bdhak, &c., being entirely excluded.

Too much

stress

must

not be laid upon this quite unexpected result that Lev. 13. i-i 7 should contain three varieties of sdrdat, for the agree-

ment with the three

writers

varieties recognized

by Greek medical

may

be a pure coincidence, and would have a value

the diagnosis of the three varieties would be

only

in case

identical

among Greeks and Hebrews.^^i This does not appear to be the case. The essential characteristic of lepra
be, according
writers,^"*-

seems to

to

the testimony of Greek and

Latin medical
151

scabrous or scaly eruptions on the

This suggestion that three varieties of lepra are described, corre-

to the three varieties of vitiligo as set up by Celsus, viras made long ago (see Bennett, pp. 31-3) by Drs. Mason, Good, and Belcher, but their identifications are very arbitrary, and rest upon the erroneous supposition

sponding

that

all

diseases enumerated in Lev. 13

come under

sdra'at.

Moreover the
are described

fact that the

same three designations

{alphas, melas,

and

leitke)

as varieties of vitiligo by Celsus {de Medicina, V, 27. 19), whereas writers apply the three terms to varieties of lepra (psoriasis), or to diseases allied
to lepra, points to a further confusion in early medical nomenclature,

which

an additional warning against drawing definite conclusions from the vague and unscientific diagnosis in Lev. 13.
152

{Lepra) der Bibel, pp. 3-4.

(cf. -'certain leprai',

See the passages from Hippocrates gathered by Munch, Die Zaraath Since Hippocrates used the plural form, leprai
V, 98,
it

17,

ed. Littre),

it

is

evident that he recognized

several varieties, but

is

to be noted that
leuke.

he nowhere enumerates three

is

varieties, alphas, melas,

and

In

fact,

melas

not mentioned by him

at

all,

whereas alphas

(also
lepra,

used

in the plural as
it

well as in the singular)

occurs by the side of V, 701,

but distinct from

p.

{lepra, leichenes,
20,

and

alphoi,

502

lepra

and alphas, V,

179; IX, 105,

&c.),

and the same

4o6
skin as the
indicates.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

name
The
lepra,

which means

'

rough

'

or

'

scaly

',

three

varieties,

alphas,

melas,

leiike are

of the eruption, distinguished from one another by the colour of melas which in the case of alphas is white, in the case whiter than black and shadowy, and in the case of leuke case of the leiike, the alphas variety. Moreover, only in the mention of white hairs in is there in Celsus a specific more with the eruption. The leuke penetrates

connexion

deeply into

the skin
in

agree except

than the alphas and melas, which the matter of the colour in being
'

though scattered roughish and not confluent, looking as between the drops '.^^^ By in drops with wide interspaces is identified with general consent, the lepra of the Greeks
varieties psariasis, or at all events, the different

oUepra

are

classed under the

head of

psariasis.

The

important stress

which

is

laid

upon the hair turning white in Lev. 13,

which the original suggests that the only form of lepra variety, and sdrdat legislators had in mind was the leuke
appearance of the the description given in verse 3 of the with 'deeper than the skin' might accord also

mark

the express mention

penetrates

in

the case of leuke that the eruption

into the skin.
is

more deeply

It is

noticeable also

that the leuke variety

the only one of the three which

whole not regarded has a serious import, and was on the are cured without as curable, whereas the alphas and melas
great difficulty.
tification
is

The

objection, however, against the iden-

of sdrdat in

Lev. 13. 3 with leuke

is

that no

There

letikai (plural), IX, p. 75, 43)the case with leuke {leichenes, leprai, and where even lepra, leuke, and alphas occur together, passage
is,

in fact,

no

disease by Hippocrates, and showing' that each was regarded as a distinct form shows, several varieties plural that in the case of each, as the use of the

were recognized.
153

Bennett, as above note 149.


THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWS JASTROW
reference
eruption.
in the
is in
is

4O7
of the

made

to the rough or scaly

symptom

Such a reference may, however, be recognized

(ver. 10)

second variety of sdraat

where the eruption

'high relief.
leiike,

The white
'

swelling* would be a close

flesh
',

approach to

and the

'

raw

added as another

symptom, might well be a

eruption.

further description of a 'rough'

it
'

The

description of leuke that

penetrates

more

deeply' would, therefore, not represent the equivalent to

being 'deeper than the skin', and

this

is

perhaps natural,

since in the case of lepra the eruptions are rough

in all three varieties.

and scaly

The

omission, therefore, of 'deeper

than the skin',

set
forth,

in ver. lo,

adds strength to the view, here

that seet (nxb') refers to a 'high relief or a

'rough' eruption

'raising'

the skin as
'

it
'

were.

The
its

absence of any reference to a

of the
first

rough eruption

in the case

variety of sdraat,

and the emphasis upon

being on the contrary, 'deeper than the skin', suggests

an identification with the skin disease

vitiligo,

which

common
white 'P^
the stress

in tropical countries

is

''characterized

by bright

white spots, the hairs of which lose their colour and become
In the description of this
is

first

variety of sdraat
'

laid

upon the hair

'

at the spot turning

'

white

',

and the expression

natural

deeper than the skin

would be a
in the

way

of describing a spot that

seems to be

skin, in contrast to

an eruption that appears ouer the skin.

The
'

addition represented
'

by verse

4,

where the phrase

shining white

spot

is

introduced, suggests,
is

by

implication,

that in verse

3,

the nega
is

white and shining, since the

is

point in verse 4

that the spot

not clearly defined as

VI the skin, i.e. too faint as yet to

^5*

be recognized as such,

Schamberg,

/.

c, p. 4, of reprint from Phil. Polyclinic, vol. VII, Nov.

p. 163.

ig-26,

= Biblical

World, 1899,

408

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The
conclusion

and that the hah- has not turned white.

thus reached, and which
medicine,
of the
is
is

here submitted to students of

that the Biblical sdrdat in the original form

varieties,

sdrdat Torah consists of two

and that

these two varieties represent a confusion of two distinct

skin diseases
:

the

first

variety, regarded as

less
'

serious,
',

while rendering the victim for the time being

is

unclean

vitiligo

the second variety,

characterized

as

cJiromc

sdrdat (Lev.

13. ii), is the leiike or the

most serious variety

oi lepra ox psoriasis.

Verses 6-8, forming a later addition,

would represent a further attempt to differentiate the leiike

from other
faint
in
',

varieties,

and the emphasis

laid

upon

its

'

being

in verse 6,

naturally suggests a description of alphas,

is

which case the white colour of the eruption

Lastly,
verses 12-13

not as

pronounced.^-^^

representing again

another addition for purposes of further differentiation, and

describing

marks which
all

spread over
as

the
in

whole
verse

body,
13

'turning
plainsj

it

white',

the

gloss

ex-

would represent a form of

vitiligo in

which the
involved,

disease spreads until large areas of the

body are

and even the entire body.

affected
affection
this

Cases are on record of negroes

turning
entirely

by
is

this

disease

white. ^^
in

The

an entirely harmless one, and

is

accord with
'.

we

find the verdict in Lev. 13. 14, 'he

clean

To sum

up, then,

we have two forms

legislation
;

of genuine

sdrdat

in the original

sdrdat
vitiligo^

one, the milder form,

being a form of
leiike.

the other, the chronic form, being

In the later additions to the original sdrdat section,

Vers. 6-8 representing an addition to the original sdra'ai legislation
is

155

naturally no special reference

made

to the spot

being a

'

rising

'

eruption

or a

mark

that appears
/. c.

on the skin.

156

Schamberg,


THE SO-CALLED
'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

ASTRO W

4O9

we have
if it

(a)

a form of alphas apparently described, which

is

spreads

pronounced as

'

unclean

',

and

{b)

a form of

vitiligo, in
is

which the whole

flesh turns white,

and which

pronounced 'clean'.
13, as well as in

In the

balance of the chapter.

14,

Lev.

the additions to Lev.

is

represented

by

verses 33-47, the use of sdrdat

erroneous, or rather

represents the later use of the term as a generic one

synonymous with negd

on a garment, on a
is

'mark'

to
'

designate any kind

of a spot, whether on any part of the

stuff,

human

body, or

or on the walls of a house, which

'.

regarded as

'

unclean

So

far as

marks

'

on a human
boils

being are concerned. Lev.

13.

18-43 includes

and

burns, open sores on the head or beard, baldness in various

stages,

and

'

faint

white spots

'

that form merely a tetter

{seet),

{bohak).

Boils and

burns that leave 'eruptions'

white or shining, or reddish, showing symptoms of the

second variety of sdrdat,

i.

e.

leuke, are unclean,

whereas
sore

the mere scabs from boils or burns are clean.

(netek)

The

which shows the symptoms of the

{lepra

first

variety of

sdrdat

alphas) m^sVs, appearing to be

in the skin

and the hair turning yellowish is unclean. Baldness and a mere tetter {bohak) finally are clean, but the appearance of an
'

eruption

'

{se'et)

on the bald spot

probably a very

raises the

suspicion, according to

what

is

late addition

to the texts (ver. 42), of

its

being sdrdat, presumably of

the second variety.

The
sdrdat,

oldest ritual. Lev. 14. 1-8

a,

which

in its original

form, as has

been shown, was a method of exorcising

it

when

became a

purification

ritual

performed

at the time of healing, could have been applied only to

the curable variety of sdrdat

i.

e.

to vitiligo, and,

if

we

include the later addition to the legislation, also to alphos.


4IO
It

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

all

was then naturally extended to

in

the other skin troubles

mentioned

Lev. 13, which

made

the victim unclean until

of being

he was healed.

On
'

the

other hand, the law

excluded from human society, warning the people of one's

approach by calling unclean

',

keeping one's mouth covered,

allowing one's hair to grow long, not changing one's clothes

while applicable to
'

all

during the period of their being

originally for those

unclean

',

must have been devised

'

who

suffered
i.

from the

chronic

'

and incurable variety of

from
vitiligo,

lepra,

e.

Iciike.

For those

suffering

isolation

outside of the
i.

camp

until

the demon had been exorcised,

place,

e.

until the healing

had taken

was presumably

all

that was required.

We

are
in

now

in a better position to consider the

is

other

passages

the Old Testament where sard at

mentioned.

In accord with the original sdrciat legislation, the one so

afflicted

(Num.

5.

2,

sarud)

is

to

be removed from the

camp, but the

fact that

he

is

mentioned together with one

discussed
in

having a 'running' sore

indicates, not only that

(:i1 also

Lev. 15)

Num.

5 assumes the existence of

Lev. 13-15, but also that the one

is

who

suffers

from sard at

not necessarily a chronic or even a very serious sufferer.

less detailed regulations

Deut. 24. 8 also assumes more or

regarding the sdrdat, and since verses 8 and 9 interrupt

the order
of subjects
in this

chapter,

it

may

be safely

assumed that we here have later insertions. Verse 9 is a reference to the punishment of Miriam with sdrdat, which
is
'

described

Num.

12.

10-13.^"

If the phrase (ver.

like
'

10 b)

and Miriam was stricken with sdrdat

1" Num.
12.

snow belongs

14-16

is

a reference to Lev. 13. 4,

is

though another disease,

is

which seems to be 'jaundice',

in any of the codes.

indicated in ver. 14 a that

not mentioned

' '

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY

to the original text, then

LAWS

JASTROW

41I

we

could say with reasonable

first

certainty

that

the sdrdat in this case was of the

and milder variety

'

form of

vitiligo;
'

but the words

nyiif'?)

stricken

with sdrdat like snow

(^^t?'?

seem
in

to
all

be

quoted

from

Exod.

4.

6,

and are therefore

of

probability a gloss to the latter part

'

Num.

12.

10,

And Aaron

turned

to

Miriam and behold

she

was

stricken
as

with sdrdat'.

To
case

this

commentator added
4.
'

an explanation the
is

of

Exod.

6,

where the

hand of Moses
(:?^'3 nyiiso),

described as becoming
is

white as snow
its

and then

instantly restored to

normal
in case

condition

as

one of the signs to be used by him

in his
'

he should meet with unbelief

mission upon reaching

in
5.

Egypt.

The

reference to
(2

'

snow

the case of Gehazi,

27)

the attendant of Elisha

Kings

would seem to
which would,
since
it

show that

vitiligo

was intended

in this case
(2

therefore, apply also to

Naaman
is

Kings

5. 2),

is

the latter's disease which

transferred as a punishment for

(ver. 27).

greed to Gehazi and his offspring

We may
7. 3,

per-

haps assume
the text
is

this also to

be the case

in 2

Kings

though

vague

in its tone.

On

the other hand,

King

Azariah

(or Uzziah, as

he

is

called in 2 Chron. 26) appears

to have been smitten with the second

and chronic variety

till

of sdrdat,

i.

e. letike, for

he remains

afflicted
(2

his death,
15.

and

is

obliged to dwell in a separate house

26. 21).^^^
is,

Kings

5;

2 Chron.

There

of course, not the slightest reason for assuming

that Job's sickness, or the smitten, represented

leprosy.
^5*

one with which Hezekiah

is

any form of sdrdat, and much

is

less

In both cases the disease

special importance needs to be

specified as

'

boils

No

attached to the statement in

'.

2 Chron. 26. 19, 20 that the sdra'at 'broke out on his forehead


412
(Isa.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

38. 21

and Job

2. 7),

just as
9.

in the case in

one of

the plagues of
technical

Egypt (Exod.

10),

where moreover the

is

term abdbiiot (an Egyptian word?)

is

added.

Indeed,
are

it

noticeable in the large

list

of diseases which
case

threatened as a curse
to

(Deut. 28) in
is

of a dis-

obedience
'

the

laws,

that sard at

not
'

mentioned,

whereas boils'
(ver.
'

specified as 'Egyptian boils

are included
all

be 27) with others that are expressly declared to

^^^
'

incurable

valuable indication that sard at after

serious diseases,

was not counted among the most

the special legislation
is

and that

rather a reflex of the

its

common

occurrence of the
varieties,

disease in
it

two

(or

possibly more)
provisions for

which made

necessary to

make

those so stricken, and

who

were regarded as unclean merely

because every ri.W disease due to demoniac possession

made
was

the victim unclean.

An

affliction that

was 'clean'
in

not really a disease, according to

medical science

this primitive stage of empirical

knowledge.

question that should at least be touched upon at

is

the close of this analysis

the one raised by Eerdmans's

^"^^

recent investigation of the entire book of Leviticus

to the age of the legislation in Lev. 13-14-

as

With Eerdmans's

general thesis that Leviticus, as in fact the whole of the

153

The

case of Job and Hezekiah are, therefore, exceptional, and are

portrayed as miraculous through Divine intervention.

"0 Alltestamentlkhe Sitidicn, IV, 'Das Buch Leviticus' (Giessen, 1912). See especially pp. 68-73. The grounds on which Wiener, Origin of the Pentateuch, p. 76, assumes an early origin for Lev. 13 and 14 do not seem In many points, especially when he pleads for to me to be of any value.
the early character of
'

many
is

of the laws,

Wiener

is

right, but

he

is

not as

original

'

as he thinks he

in his opposition to the critical school,

and
is

his

method
some

of argumentation, even

where
I

his conclusions are correct,

most
at

defective,

and sometimes

unfair.

shall take

up Wiener's contentions

future time.

THE SO-CALLED

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS

JASTROW

413

legislation in the Priestly

I

Code, contains pre-exilic elements,

analysis of Lev. 13-14, as set

am

in full accord.

The

forth in this article, lends further

thesis,

support to Eerdmans's

which as a matter of

fact,

has been held even by

those

who claimed

post-exilic dates for the final

It is
a,

form of

the Priestly Code.

evident that a purification ritual

such as Lev. 14. 1-8

which contains distinct traces of

having once been a method of exorcising a disease, must

revert to a very ancient period
ritual
it
;

and even

as a purification

belongs to a time anterior to the period when

a sacrifice of some kind was regarded as essential to a

removal of

'

uncleanness
'

'.

Indeed, the whole conception

'

of disease as a state of

uncleanness
to be

belongs to the time

when

disease

was supposed
its

due to some 'unclean'

demon
'

that had found

'

way

into one's

body; and the

uncleanness

at this stage of

thought has nothing to do

as the

with hygienic impurity, as

little

demon theory

of

disease has anything to do with the

modern germ theory

latter.

of disease, albeit the former seems to suggest the

The

references to the

'camp' and

'tent' in Lev. 14 also

point to early social stages, and

there

is

no reason to

assume that these terms are introduced

into a late legislation

with a view of giving the impression that they are old,

or in other words, as a deliberate invention to uphold a
tradition of the
If such

Mosaic origin of the Pentateuchal

legislation.

had been the deliberate intent of the compilers they would not have committed the inconsistency of introducing the word 'city'
41 45)>

same chapter (Lev. 14.40, The naive and non-scientific manner of describing
in the

the two varieties of sdrdat and the almost total absence of technical terms in the original sdrdat legislation, with

merely feeble attempts to differentiate two totally different

414

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

indications

diseases, are further

that

point to

an

early,

sdrdat

beginnings of the certainly to a pre-exilic origin, for the Even the additions in Lev. 13. 1-43 legislation.

may

in large part

belong to the pre-exilic period.

This

to the appears to be certainly the case with the additions 1-18, with the possible first part of the chapter, Lev. 13.

sdrdat exception of some glosses and of the general use of unclean spot on the skin, which I believe to be of
for

any

'

'

sections, comparatively late origin, while the supplementary &c., and Lev. 13. 47-5>'^, concerning spots on garments,

certainly the

still

later section

on spots on walls of houses,

put down 33-48, may, with great probability, be This applies also to the ritualistic sections as post-exilic. integral part of prescribing the sacrifice of animals as an

Lev.

14.

the

purification

ceremonial, Lev.

14.

10-20, as well

as

same character though to Lev. 14. 21-31, which is of the i" traces of an possibly embodying, as above suggested,
earlier

and simpler

sacrificial ritual.

Naturally, the purifica-

tion ritual

attached to Lev. I4- 33-48 ('spots' on walls of

houses),

though taken over from the old and certainly preLev. 14. 1-8
a,

exilic ritual,

forming part of the original

sardat
earlier

legislation, represents

an addition that cannot be

As
it

than the section, Lev. 14. 33^48, itself. the numerous for the chronological sequence of

sections superimposed

upon the

original

sdrdat

legislation,

seems safe to regard Lev.

ritual,

insertion

33-47, and the attached made after the verses 48-53, as the latest additions of the sections in Lev. 13, i.e. verses 18-44,
14.

sdrdat and the between the diagnosis of the two forms of

purification ritual, Lev. 14. 1-8 a
;

otherwise, the section of

place sdrdat marks on walls of houses would have found a

161

See above,

p.

379

f..

THE SO-CALLED 'LEPROSY' LAWSJASTROW

415

before or after the section, Lev. 13. 47-58, treating of marks

on garments, &c.
fication of

The absence of any ritual for the purimarks on garments and stuffs would indicate
than the elaborate
ritual,

an

earlier date

ritual,

Lev. 14. 10-20,

added to the second

Lev.

14. 8 b-9,

and superimposed
This,

upon the

first
it

ritual,

Lev.

14.

1-8

a.

of course,

carries with

the later date for the 'substitute' sacrifice. Lev. 14. 21-31, though, as indicated, this may embody a simpler and, therefore, earlier
'

sacrificial

'

ritual

than the

more complicated
(I)
(4)

one.
;

The
for

order, therefore,
;

would be:

Lev. 13. 47-58

(2)

Lev. 14. 21-31

(3)

Lev. 14. 10-20;

Lev.

14.

33-53.

As

the remaining sections, the

insertions in Lev. 13. 1-17 represent the earliest attempts

at elaborating the
five sections in

original sdra'a^ legislation, while

13.

the

Lev.

18-44

may

very well have been

added

in chronological

sequence

in the order in

which the

sections are

now

arranged.

It is not,

of course, possible to

go further and specify any definite period at which the one or the other of these nine sections was added, beyond
the general impression one receives from the larger use of technical terms (such as neUk, bdhak, &c.) and the more
,

burns ', that the sections belong to a considerably advanced period of medi'
'

detailed diagnosis in the case of boils and

'

cal

observation and are, therefore, presumably post-exilic.

it

This would carry with

the four sections:

;

(i)
;

Lev. 13.

47-58

(2)

Lev. 14. 21-31

(3)

Lev. 14. 10-20

(4)

Lev. 14.

33-53all
post-exilic

certainly later than the five sections and the

character of which
I

is

suggested

by

internal

evidence.

venture, therefore, to claim as pre-exilic not

only the original sdraat legislation and the original purification

rituals, Lev. 14. 1-8 c and 8 b-9, but also the elaborated section, Lev. 13. 1-17, in which the additions are dovetailed into the original sdraat portions.

4l6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Eerdmans/2 ^o be
sure,

would go much further and pre-exilic period, but place the entire two chapters in the underargumentation is not convincing because he
his

the composition of estimates the complicated character of style and language of Lev. 13-14. The fact, e. g., that the (Lev. 13. 47-59). the section on marks in garments, &c. imitation precludes agree with Lev. 13. T-46 is due to direct
its

the same

and in Lev. 13 use as an argument for the unity of walls of houses) way, Lev. 14- 33-53 C marks' on
;

imitates Lev. 13, and possible the

intentionally
if

introduces so far as
of Lev.

same terms. Even

my analysis
all

13-14

should not prove to be correct in an original sdraat legislation in saying that the existence of
consisting of Lev. 13. 2-3;

details, I feel safe

9-1

^^^^^h

some

additions),

by a 'purification' or 45-6, and followed immediately has been definitely 'dismissal' ritual, Lev. 14. 1-8 a,
demonstrated.

No

less significant is the fact that

has been

proved

^^^

of the

distinction

between a

ritual

performed

an

is outside of a sanctuary and one that only to a very early age for the This points not altar.

to be performed at

original

sdraat

legislation,

but also to a considerable interval

of time between the age of the

'sacrificial' ritual
is

two

rituals.

Moreover, the

based on a totally different point of

is

view.

The

fact

that provision

made

for

carrying out

only, without regard the later sacrificial ritual in Jerusalem parts of the country, is to occurrences of sdraat in other of the Priestly Code due, of course, to the theoretical basis that there
is

sacrifice only one legislative centre at which

can be brought.

Instead of concluding, as

Eerdmans

does,

pre-exilic days in sole that the legislation originated in because a postconnexion with the sanctuary at Jerusalem,
"2
les
/.

c, pp. 38-73.

See above,

p. 375.

THE SO-CALLED
exilic legislation

'

LEPROSY

'

LAWS JASTROW

417

would necessarily have regard

to Jewish

settlements outside of the capital, the

tion

more obvious deducis

would be that the

Priestly

Code

to a large extent

an 'ideal' compilation made with the express purpose of adapting the older and younger practices to a theoretical
centre.

That animal

sacrifices

were brought

in pre-exilic

days, and at a very early period must, of course, be admitted, and the emphasis on the tent of meeting in the ritual of
'

'

Lev.

14.

10-31

may
is

be taken as an indication that the

basis of the ritual

pre-exilic, but the frequent substitution

in

of

'

before

Jahweh
older

'

the section would have no meaning

it

unless one assumed that

to

represents the endeavour again

transferred to

at

elaborated and Jahweh 's one and only legitimate sanctuary Jerusalem so that we are once more brought face to
;

apply

practices

considerably

face with the distinctly post-exilic ideal that underlies the

legislation of the Priestly

Code

in its present form.

It is

characteristic of the gradual

in a conservative spirit the

growth of

legislation to retain

language and the form of earlier

later

legislation,

even when
are

inconsistent with

conditions.
in

Just

ancient codes, but carried along with modifications that at times totally change the character of ancient statutes even to the

as

laws

never

actually

abrogated

point of virtually abrogating them,^^^ g^ formulas are carried over and given a new interpretation through glosses or

explanatory comments. The substitution of before Jahweh

'

'

1"

A good case in point

of

is

the legislation regarding slaves, in the so-called

21.

Book

the Covenant,
it

Exod.

1-6,

which

theoretically

recognizes
old

slavery, but changes

practically to an indenture of six years.

The

law

remains, but

it

is

so modified as to receive an entirely different character.

it

In the

same way

is

theoretically

assumed
'

(vers.

8-11; that the old law

'

allowing a
it

man

to sell his

daughter as a

handmaid remains
change
its

in force,

but

is

practically abrogated

by conditions

that

nature.
-P

VOL.

IV.

4l8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

addition for 'tent of meeting', together with the frequent

of the one phrase to the other of the

is,

therefore, an illustration

way

in

which the old

It
is

is

carried over and

combined

with the new.

impossible at this point to enter into

further detached criticism of Eerdmans's position,

but enough

has been brought forward,

think, to

make

it

clear that, while

he has shown more satisfactorily than

his predecessors
is

how

much
names

in the

Pentateuchal legislation

old, his

main con-

tention that the critical theory associated chiefly with the

of Graf,

Kuenen, and Wellhausen.^^^ must be

is

set

aside because based on erroneous assumptions,

not accept-

analysis of the able, partly because he has not carried the Pentateuchal laws far enough, and, therefore, under-estimates
their complicated character,

and partly because he draws he untenable conclusions from the material itself even as
has set
it

forth.

The

critical

theory

is

of course subject to
its

modification through further researches, but

basis rests

the on too firm foundations to be seriously menaced by recent attacks made upon it.
jc^'

See Eerdmans's Introduction

to AlUcslanientliche Forschitiigcn,

I.

TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS

By
J.

N. Epstein, Bern.

Among
Vienna
I

the one-leaf fragments of the Royal Library in

found two Gaonic fragments containing halakic

I

matter which, owing to their importance,

copied and

now

submit for publication.

These are
;

A.

parchment

leaf in quarto

large square script in

Oriental style.

A very careful
^nxo)

copy, the orthography being

defective (irn, Noh), as
is

partly
is

//,?;^^ (q^x,

and

^^d^xlXy

usual in Gaonic writings.^

Interesting

here the writing

constitutes one
is

l^SX instead of l^-SN.

The whole fragment

printed

of the Sheeltot of R. Ahai. of which, however, nothing

preserved in our versions, both
(I

and manuscript

allude to the ed.Wilna, partly corrected from manuscripts,

and the MS. of A, Epstein, both of which have been examined by me). But that it is a Sheelta is proved by
the words
.

^yaT

JN?D 'h^^

^^^h

1JX

p^^i'

mn

{recto,

1.

21

ff.),
ff.),

and on the whole by the

style.

The passage
p^:j>^n

{recto,
\^^\^

1.

10

HDnD
r\-:hr\

^1:^'

nmc^

Nch
is

p^Ei'^n

xh

x^n nt2nD
in

\^ 'j^ni

pi xofjyn,
fol.

found verbatim

Halakot Gcdolot

(ed.

Venice,

83

c),

which

is

reputed to have

made

great use

of the Sheeltot.

419

420

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

A.

[nin^^s':']

Recto.

nny nrjn
wSiDPi

'n '^-y

nrjn

'm hrn

ujn^i? sn^D snc'n

^^nx

nons
n^'n
5

n-n sn

yrh

x-ino x^

xim

noxm

;nDX

x:^:n 'n 'x ^3 'yu ^xa -^vs

n'C'wsa

^p: n^uc'a i^pn

nw'SJ

dx

y 'xinnr: I'^nu'x 'x ^o

in^

::''x

ncxn

x^i:m ^>u:^a
xnioa
nna'^i-o

xmon
nt2n3

Dic'o
nic*

ixh

ni^?D

jm

>-jnD nni

"nca

xdc' 'i^D'^n n-ij:n3

*^'3^ni

n"L>n'P

'xn ^xiDijn
cic'd wS^x
i^'kj'^n

X3n
'T\-hr\

n-L^iiD

'*x''vc'\x

xnm
x^i^

''^axi

x^*j"ip

10

pi xdH'3
x-it2*^a

r\'c\'^^

rm

xoh

rrc'^n x^i

nmn^
Dnn

x^jprsi

nmn^ xsoan

x^jpo xnn^xi
x^jp^o

'n3i nu'X c^x np^ ^3

X3n 'n3 nmn^ X2D33

nn^p ^x -D3

cnm nnv

no

^ij:D

np

mrn

fiD3

^nrj
15

nns

ly^x^ nn^ni nx^'^i '3n

^03 'x^in r,x
^^

nmn^ noco
no

x^jpoi 5)D3
nx"'V''b

X3n[n]
-j'pnvs*

iDcn

-inc'3 nx^i'*

^''x'ln

n^upi
n^i^i

n-c'nipD

nx nn

n^ ans \xn

m^o np23 ^xo^

iin

mr n>3 p^ddt ixo ^xn "pan -nxi "^n^p

n^ra
n^i?

'^^orx xpi \T^'yh r\^ n^^i n^35 "xsi^on niT X3^x

ynso^

31 'XT

>y3r n>r3T

n>nm3 ^y3 n^ynx p3To xpi

n^^ ^'x^'^\>

i^>x 5)b>o^ 13X 'ry-^-^

Dn3

^r3T n^:^3r T21^ ni^n "x:in

''c>Mpb 'y3n

n^ ^nxo xpi n>^ xt^np^o xp x^i xnn^x

^^:>n^^3P x^i ^;^'n^P n^

ixo

3nn x3m nnm3

b3

n^ ^'npm

jrnnx

^o ^xo \n:n^^3pi n^ 3n> n-^n^p3

a^m

X3^^

TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

421

Verso.

cpn
i^art?

n^nr-j'Ni
N^j^jfl

Nnsn
n^^nt

^^>^>o
^^^^ti

^jni

^j^nr

n^y^r pan ni^n '^san

'n-

^aj

snp^yD in^
iin

^n pn

^nr n,Ti
^h

3.-n Nin

Nry

^ya ^n ^rar

i6

n^i^y

yn
J?'
' '

>nr .'nxi

n^ynxo

^''N^i^

^^i^ax, f^^p.^.^^ vir >:;tN '^if^gN xnai^ni

-ir:^oN
r\^'v
v.^,.

.Tns-a
>cj

[njB'npvs'i

Nm^n
Nf'l^

'ni

n-ot
^t-n^-?

^^^TJ:: nc-N- nh-i

^j^nr iin

fJina
^i^^

Nin

nn
,^,t,

xi?

'n

^^-n

^j-n^^

nn
^^^^

nrn

^^^

^^^.^^

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N:Dr2 n-^ip^Ni
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r\^b

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10

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nhn 21

INci nx>33 t-npoT |ND i^jj

n-n ^Ni::n^ ^j nonvNi

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15

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422

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

B.

on double leaf in small German square script

The size parchment, from about the fifteenth century. it is cut off below of the leaf was originally folio, but now
and
to the left it served as

cover whereby the

leaf

now forming

the

first is
its

considerably damaged, having lost

about one-third of
and, moreover,

width.

The copy

is

very defective,

some passages
I

are effaced and barely legible.

After a close scrutiny,

of the

found the text to be a fragment

Aramaic

original of the nipiD2 nir^n.^^

leaf agrees on the

whole for

details see

the mpiDD ni3^n, ed. Schlossberg, p. 34,

leaf I, recto,
it
1.

The first^o the notes with From L ^9 ff1.

''2N1 until verso, 35, [n^niD^]

33, Q"P ^3?:,

of a fragment further agrees verbatim with the parts

collection,

from the Taylor-Schechter

which was published

by Ginzberg
understood.
other.

in his Geonica, II,

The The second

394-7. and which he mistwo fragments now supplement each

leaf
1.

contains
(
' '

promiscuous halakot,

and only begins with

to the ed. Schlossberg.

28

N3n 'Vr^) to run parallel

'

TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

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TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

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43+

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

In viewing

now

all

the details obtained (see the notes)

concerning the relation of S. to our fragment, we note on

the one hand that, as
parallel to
I

have already remarked, they run

one another on the whole, and that they agree

the arrangement
III
[niJlJ^iD

mostly
II
r\''2-\

in
'n,

of the
as

halakot
as
in

(I

nn"i32 'n,

'n])

well

the

material,

which

is

not the case in relation to the Halakot Gedolot.

On

the other hand, however,

we

see that S.

had omitted
1.

several decisions (notes to

fol. i, 11. 12,

^6, 52, to verso,

20),

although
ircto,\.

much
S. in
1.

is

to be ascribed to the copyist (as

verso,
1.

fol. i,

40-2,

fol. 2,

17), and other things again were

added by
1.

accordance with the

HG.

(note to

fol. i,

recio,

^6, verso,

24, note

no,

1.

0^%

note 124).

Indeed, he even
(fol. \, recto,
1.

made

use of the

HG.

nv:2DS V^, ed. Berlin

at the

37,

note 65).

A. Epstein has arrived

(:"n ^y
nf:;^??:^,

same conclusions

upon other grounds

is

p.

24

ff.).

The language
even find here

either

Aramaic or Mishnic, as established by Epstein

on the basis of
citations.

{I.e., p.

22)

We
in S.

a tendency to hebraize the language of the

verso,
1.

Talmud

(fol. 2,

9),

which

is

the case generally

NOTES
'

See

my

'

Rechtsgutachten der Geonim ed. Cassel,

IX, p. 230
.

iS:c.',

in

Jahrhuch

d. jiid.-liter. Gesellschaft,
2
'

ff.

Kiddushin 12 b

.lyi*

rh

mm

x^^n

'm inman nninn

ir>n in?.

=D5<, comp. 'Rechtsgutachten, &c.',

I.e.

So Tos.,

ibid.,

nmsn

instead of JT'T'Nn of the edition, comp. Aruch,

s. V.

NniX

an Oxford fragment of a commentary (probably belonging to

:

Hananel) has

rVnTN

myDH

D'J' ''D"lD
5. v.

I'lK'^a ^''D

(Neubauer, Cat.,

II,

33%
that

whence the Aruch explanation

also several manuscripts

and Kohut's remark (note

i)

have n^-ON.

TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

The periods and the V (which
in
is

435
also

employed
line.
'

for the

same purpose

other manuscripts) serve

' *

to

complete the

=^^''^'

^^'^fol.

&<^-.

^-

MS. D

=.f2),

more

like

)2

Hal. Ged.,

83

c.

X''"IB' 'N

'

=n^in, likewise

in

Anan's miTCn 120, comp. Harkavy,

Stini.

Mitt.,

VIII, 171, and also elsewhere.

1'

The Saboraim or

the

first

Geonim. Such explanatory halakic traditions

the Geonim, thus Harkavy, No. 214
:

are not rare otherwise

among

pnoi

p3M
. . .

^2

^\s-inND
(?

-inn

\m

D^jvirxi

NriNinm
nin
pci'^::

NrDco pnin xroisn

>^vo pb\s'
p.

pj3 ^Di ^o>n

Hal.

= Nni:r:NJ) ppvxjo
ed.

nicj t-]di
likewise

= -nDy

pin^a,
:

Venice,

53 c;
\:ii-n

Hark avy,
N::'n''D

360);
^u^pj

p-tiT

nyij', fol. 94 a-b

-inai
.

^siud

pm

inj nh

mn -noD

^bno

p^N

nr^N \sn ni^nb n>^

nh^j

i-iciTpnTninin
nr:NnN nrn p-'^i

pm

ihSd-i pn^DiEjn

pnoi \xinD [jam

:

nvx-jd

niD^nn

Harkavy, No. 228

DiiDO

|nu'

Dn^n

ij^2n n?:t;'

un^nn
'jd

oriNi

'XJn nMJs

ntn

p::'^':)

nmn nnno irnnN nnxi

NnNDI

ij^mnx

irT-n

...|XOn
. . .

p'^yi^

N^JI.

and Harkavy, No. 331:

\X^h2 Q^:1L'\ST 'J^n^D

rtTHD pIDH N^N

;

f2nb naiCDn
:

r>\r\

p
^13''

]'\rh^2

comp. Harkavy,
. . .

No. 260

... '^121 DVJ'D

Un

riN*

IIUd!?

DnX

pm

11DN1

'C'^)

D^iyD n^j^Dij
i^fjH
.
. .

sS
i^x

n^i?

xjryn^ ab pan mt:sn niospT

mx

b)2^

nh

nnm
;nn

nr^N \snnn d^ei^nh in D^jTE^tnrTnyp

ps*:*.
13

njok'i

'D:n

nn^h

nn^^o

''

='^^ ^X.
s.v.

Taxes which he owes.

ig

" =p13, Aruch,

35

DDp
n

at the end, similarly in .Syriac.

//;,W.,

Baba batra 47

b.
S<t5

48 a

ff.

1^

Our
xbi

editions have

nTJ'n ^3X

EtD mB'n

X^N*
^oj

pDX nS
tt

pDN

nS

niT

^Fn
.tj'n

bax nn ^^nx i6i x^x p?:n x^

n^^

ms^ai
n^s*

Nn^Sni xb
...x^ron n

^L5ir:n:;'^N^

mn
it

bax

^isidhk'^x!?

n^^
n^j^nr

mn

n^i

ni^2

xm

htjo
:

^^dsi

^jut

nm
^3v^
)

inbnn.
''Jm

The Gaon, however, read only

N-ip^VD niT ^i'DN

'tlT

(for ''i-|N)

^"^^ nbl

"'bv3

i^^2N

xm^ni xb Nip^VD nn ^^3n

x-ip^yo
'^sni.

...Nvon [n] nT:'3 ny'x

The phrase
.
. .

xm

^rai
^b''D

^in

vo3 it('ntj''

m*^

nMSK'NI NDST

^JHI is a

paraphrase of the above-

mentioned reading.

G P

436
18
19

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

= CCpT,
part, pass., Syr. vinctus.
lb''K f]X.

= 1^>2X. from =
niir.

whereas 17S
^'

is

composed of
n-i-j'3 ?
19.

1? f|X.

20
-2

[It]

Kiddushin 12

b.

=^

See note

-^

Editions: "zin^K'n ib^Ni

''ij:s"i

^<3^X1 ^siT'C' vs^n

ns^an cnp^i,
mere
gloss

the

^"lt2Ji"I

N3^N

is therefore here, as in several other places, a

of the copyist

who wished
. . .

to indicate a variant, and the reading of the

Gaon

corresponds
-^ 2

to this variant.

Ed. above:

^i^bm N3nn sinii

HIH mV.:.

s'ni

N^ ^"bm ps "i^m.

Paraphrase of
Ed.
'[rh

CH
. .

"

I^iJ-

=8 29

ics

T\'h

nttx.

Comp.

Poznaiiski, ZfhB.,

XV, 186 [and now REJ.,

1912, 232

f.].

"0

Owing
is

me
is

as first

now

by to a change in the folding of the leaves the one designated second in order. That the leaves were originally inverted
by the
stiff

also proved
31

edge

at the

bend

inside.
in the

Promiscuous halakot are also found

nUI^'p

JTir Si

in

jniin
ibid.,

D^^I-'N"!
11, p.
^'^

bv,

I,

e.g. p. 26, in the

pn3 msbn,

similarly the halakot,

ff.

See note 30.

S.
(

S3

= Schlossberg, "n)

34,

1.

19

'.//fl^-

Gff/-.-

ed. Berlin, 596-7).

3'-

S., Sheeltot,

No. 44 and //G., ed. Berlin, 597 (and so Menahot 56 b)

-\J2N.
'^

D.D ^3 1^:X1 DUO

37

s. rightly

mint:.

s. nt2Ll.

-^

S. bn-l3, /:?G., ed. Ven., 139 a,

ed. Berlin, 600: 7\'h p'^^DT

.

Wti^NTl
n-ijd^w

Nryi

myy\ N^pn

!?as ^123 n^i

' '

'^'^-^

^<?^^

i'^*

^^'i-"^

^^*

''en -\"'EB'. N'pJ Syr. sheep Talmud, Pers. 5'' 'lamb'.

(against Hildesheimer),

KHia

is

frequent in

*
*i

HG.,

ed. Ven., 139 b, ed. Berlin, 597

in S.

missing

in S.

Missing

* Bekorot 9b, comp. HG., ed. Berlin, 599-600.

Customary way
^
Sifre,

of writing

D"yS

in

Oriental manuscripts,

see

my

Rechtsgtitachten, &c., p. 231.

HN-l,
a.

124.

Bekorot 9 b

lt:S *31

is

unclear to me,

comp. Bekorot 25
*3

S. 34,

1.

from below.

" HG.,
p.

ed. Berlin, 599.

^5
4c
43

"irT'I^,

see

my RGA.,

270.
''

nbyo.
/,l5

So //G.

S. D'C'Ipa.

= ^^s, likewise HG.

S. "lirO SIHC' DC'D

WH.

TWO GAOXIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

''

437

HG.,

ed. Berlin, 571

briefly 596),
n^J3n"'2t:'1N*, similarly S.
a.

=^0

A good

reading ^j'oju^.w, but Ed.

prSC'IS,

also S3'r.

NJ^TD^N, Brockelmann, 29a and 491

'^''

DX

vvith

Aramaic following,

so

below

(1.

34)

[MilX DN1

'''

)s?'\
''

scribal error.

S.

njno

nL"X

u""

DNI. comp. note 56.

'^'

jn3? scribal error.

=-

From here onwards

which
I

the fragment
in

is

extant in G^inzberg, G.o/iua.

II),

394, from
"3

supply

brackets the parts missing in our manuscript.

in

HG., 136b below; missing in S. at this point, but found abbreviated accordance with IIG., 139 b (ed. Berlin, 596,, on p. 34, 1. 10 ^^ = 13n\S1, also G. and HG. exhibit waw, likewise HG., ed. Ven. Hal.
!

BM.,

fol.

117 b several times TlIX (var.

;

nns, NTH

TlIN), similarly Mandaic,

comp. Noldeke, Maud. Gr., 49

see also Aptowitzer,

MGWJ.,

191

1,

382.

c-nsDn ^31 inrnr:i?i

^innx .xnan^

inr^^^y^

in^j^jo n'jDrn

(^.a)

dh

n"lp3j2.

This
it

is

also

found

in

HG., 134

b and S.

...

^:iy

t>^J

Qlp?^31

but preceding

S. has also a

halakah concerning

H^n

which, however,
\\1'),

is

probably a later addition derived from HG., ed. Berlin (N'')02DX

139a
46
a).

where

it

is

quoted

in

the

name
[.
.
.

of the pii*

\T]2

Our fragment
''""'

omits therefore

X^Jy] X:!*NT
it is

= Tos. Pesahim iX:3\n the mi33 M

(
;

p'^D

however, was absent from the

S. 35, 8 from below,

original, for
a.

likewise missing in S.

HG., 65

^^

Missing in

S..

perhaps owing
in the

to

an omission from Xn^^HI (ItyhN

S.,

'"O")

to

Xn^bm
'-^
'

(Jy?7T\

pX)

copy of the translator of

or omitted by the

copyist of S. through homoioteleuton.

What

follows here

is

supplied from G. 394, 10

"i

ff.

''-

S. 35, 4 from below.

S., ibid.,

G. 395,

S. 36.

i.

HG., 64
in S.,

d.

'^

Wanting

but found in

HG.,

ibid.

'''

Hv NT'DX

is

here superfluous, not found in G. and

HG.

438
'5

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

G.
as*.
to
'''

nnpsN.
n.
81

'

g. 396,

hg., 64

ci.

''^

Up

here missing in S. (see above,

73%
^4

o
83

s. 36, 12.

niTn.

G.

r\'''br\''i

r\27\''^.

G. supplies above the line

nwn.
G. -inwS^.

g. n^"'Dn ly.
8c

85 8T
88

G.

(r\^'\'o).

85a

r,^

mnnB^.

So

G., s. r\^ir\2

'.

n^n^NT-N^, G.
G.
"^2
;

mi-m
;

'i'inw^.
S. ibid.

89

g. nojo!?!.

90
91

HG., io8 a-b

G. and//G. ^33, so S.

92 93

G, and i^G. ''2D1, S. T^D''N*J'. G. and

HG.

"Ip'D
x^*j'

nn3

IK^^T, so S. IJn

irNU'.

HG.

rh''2Dn

iriln

nx i<u:^

'd

pi, so

s.,

g.

dn

nb'jk'

95 9G
9"

G., S., and

G., 397,

HG. m^'^nJ
and HG..

Wl
ibid.).

nCNI.

I (S.

All

^N^JJ^'b m^'C'J
is

C8-105
9

G. and //G.

The whole passage XnCN.

b,

wanting

in S.
'

n'^r\2
"i::,

191

Likewise HG., io8

G. has above n'h bs^l the gloss: -\nn'l

probably an Arabic gloss (^^_j

"l"l3y^),

J^

animostis
1.

et socors?
ff.

= ^7 DN

H^y DN
2"n with

so also an Arabic gloss, G. 395, to

29
in

Parts of the

an Arabic translation are indeed found also

27601*, &c. [see
102 104
ion
,-|^_

Oxford Cod. 2634'^^ 2669I1,

now R^J.,

I.

c.'].

'03

Comp. below,
'"^

fol. 2, revto,

1.

14.

G.

TnX.

See note
i""

98.
i"8

S. 36, 6 from below.

''TV.

IN^iflOI.

109 110

From

Huy

~l3'l'0n until

here not

in

HG.,

I.e.

Likewise G., S. on the other hand has: DTlp n^V-TI'^' DV2 TWIZ'
]'\>^bny
D^i;

DK DnciN-'
. .
.

dm^^h

^r-'i

Snp3
I'^"^'

xn^ p-imo
pn^^ino
b,

j'-inh

j'n^^

mpn

^3

nyn-^'i

bnp^ r^^^^

until

nif^^n

pjy^i
:

P^IDD

(S. 37, 7), all in

accordance with HG., 108

nyn-j' b'l
\s'33t

where we read likewise

S"ip3 p^-'^y

xbn

n''i:

^j'htr^

pni

n\si

These

pm
also

are namely those

CJVJ'N"! be,

11,

who query 7, who were

R. Jehudai,

EGA.,
that

ed. Lyck, No. 45,

jmin

of a different opinion than R. Jehudai and the

!

mpIDD msbn

that

follow him

From

Responsum the HG.

N'^l

received the supplement after HIH D^IS

-y2"'D

pW

WmH"- 31 101

TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

)*1Nb
.
.

409
'N^j;

D-^:-|D
5. v.,

lDJ3rL"3

S.

did not include

'

it.

Concerning

see Kohut,

coinp. also Arab.

J-

African slaves

'.

"- G. D^N^aJI D^Jna (see, however,

n. 133),

the rest

is

missing, in

HG.

even D^S^3:

D^na

HJ^D ipSJi

is

wanting.
all
I

"3 The names are wanting in son and father (and on this basis

other sources
:

they are groups of

n''p!?n

supply nnty)

.TDn>

in3

''*

S. 37, 4;

HG.,

I.e.

115

G., S.,

and HG.

|J>M |nD.
n>^n:>'

" Similarly

HG. fn'TCD3
G.

nii'O ^503, S. 03
n^^niDT
for

^TCD

mi'n ^31

pn^^n |n
;

but

has

imn

which read niDO (not as G.

IT

pnni).
'"
lis

"I3j;n G., ibid., S.,

/Z/fl'.,

HG., 65
119

d.

n^^n.
G.,

^aij-j

120

//C, and

S. ^n^^HO ll^^DN n[?n,

here in the next line

^nin^'O
stops,

is

probably to be suppHed.
121

G. has here
n. 123.
j..,.^^

^'h^

DIpD

^3?0, with

which that fragment

see also
122 ^t,

123

Also

in s. n^a-i
:

ma^n
>?01

follow after

nni^n nni^n
it
. . .

S. 38, 8

... n'^n

\r\'\,T\

nabm
1.

preceding

-JL"J

NinrX

37, 8
d, ed.

from below, then ni^ll"'

Berlin, 375;,

/6/rf.,

4 from below, both in

:

HG., 93

HG., 95 a below,
to

ed. Beriin, 381

...

n''an imi?n
point,

i25=Dtj21,

which

the

two

dots

of deletion

but

below

ma
126 127

nNL"y.

About eleven
R. Haninai
::'n

lines are
b.

wanting, see above,

pupil
fol.

fol. i, recto,

end.

NDTnO

Huna Kahana, a ^W^jn 11 id also in i/C,

of R.

Jehudai,

quoted as

J38d, comp. Mailer, Mafteah,

and A. Epstein,
p. IC3, n. 3.

m^nj ni3^n i?y inXD, p. 9, comp. Ginzberg, The Geonim, The halakah is not known to me from other sources and hence
457
:

unclear.
128

HG.,

ed. Beriin,

"a^N

NH^:;'
is

'im N2D3n Niaaa

iTJ'Tp

'"Lis'l

''bpriD

nn

(ed. Ven., iii d

III,
fol.

'bpnO

wanting}, likewise Sheeltot MS.

(s.

ed.

Wilna,

100

a,

similarly

MS. A. Epstein):
;

r\'Z'~\'^

"EN"|

^^pna nn

^ai^X

Xn^'C X^VCn

NDD^T X-1333

concerning the Arabic

Mithkal see Zunz,

Zur

Gcschichte, 549, 545.

440
'-"

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Om^D :m:p,

also in
it

HG.

(ed. Berlin, 511),

comp. Aruch,

s. v.

D~i:

but in what connexion does

stand here?
a gloss.
'''

Perhaps, however, the passage

from "133 to D1T13D constitutes "0 S. 50 above.

"2
^^
13*

According

to S.

nvL^'^^p?^.

Read:
s.

^n''"'mn, 'iTTllfia

S.
*

iH'jT-',

;iTnL"2.
.

100,

nc'iycn

Da

nn

d:

n:^i

ini^N

nx

\y~\yt2r\

13.-.

ponvsn.
Gittin 88
"jb
''n

130

b.

S.

DN1

^1D2

D'ljai
. .

IC'3
.

bsX'^n

HLJ'iyr^n

^
51

nio
nmi'p
in the
137

"I01N

bs"iK'''t:'
b'^'

no
imin,

n'cy
I,

o'^i:

imx

pt:2in, likewise
3,

in D"':itrS"l

26;

so also Asher, Baba batra

name

of the ///. Gcd.

to

According

an explanation by Asher,

ibid.,

bS"lK'''31

to

be

referred to b)D^, cp. Hal. Gcd., ed. Berlin, 335 and 336.
138 139

i?r\])r]

Tin-'sb.
ed. Berlin, 457' Hal.

The //G. (ed.Ven. and

Baba batra 145 b
:

Baba batra have the follow-

ing to

^j?n

mm

"'ND n'b

'''pitD

w:a
cp.

'^2 :inj

"'^ax

"i?:x

snT ny ch'^y^ ninb'i mipn!? n^b Nnni*?^,

3,

Nahshon Gaon, nys'

but here apparently

plV, IV.

Nos. 48 and 36

n^pn? Sni^^l
22.

n''7 ''''iPHPr

we have something
1*"

different.
verso,
1.

See above,

fol. i,

"1 See Gittin44a.

1*3
i*-"

'" iniX.
',

n^^y

'

certificate

recommendation.
comp. DTinDn bv "'TniD.

nny3

'in the communities', as to "iMiUD

for n''13>i'

Such recommendations
"5 Horayot 13
a,

pHD

are not rare in later days.

but only partly .beginning with ''Vb Dllp |n3) in the

Mishnah, the
HC
I*''

rest is a Baraita.
ilji'd.

b^nri^X according to the explanation of R. llisda,

n?^5^ro

CTip

an
^ibb

locro cn"i> onip

"i3t:

naiab]

Dmp

!?d-)?:}S

14S

^sT.^"'^

'lb

omp

(H^.
7?.

"' = n^55n T'cbn, see

I''"

my

G. A., &c., pp. 245

and 249.

Read HB'npnai
"11?D''wVC',

1^1

but see

Abodah zarah
^'^"

21 b.

152
15.-.

GittinsSa.
r/.y>

rb.

i"
xi:^

Hm.

-inn-B' Di T"^^'

"'^'^'^'i

nn^-ib

nny

"i''pD?2n].

TWO GAONIC FRAGMENTS EPSTEIN

""
iJ^N

441
tjOa

We
[rijy

are to read either nI^N [nL"N*

i2-\b

13^ nh)

C'^X

iny

HJpIO

nvjn

px^- idv
')-\p

'np] vbv

m^

ni:;'-i

^r^t:'

nny ^o

n3i'
.
.

^np, or Sd

b^a [iiv
12]}.
:

vbv

m^

nvcn

l;'^^'

nay

tiD3 njp]?3

nvjn pxK'

S. 44. 2ff.

... yiaip K2n

S., 77. G., ed.

n^iril,

iVom here onwards our text

runs parallel with

Berlin, 342.

'^''

Not

in S.
;

""'

S., I.e.

but HG., 86 d below (ed. HG., Baba kamma 87 a-b

N*n to

Berlin, 342).
(ed. B., 343).
is

Gittin 52

a.

161 '"'
1C4

From pnnN[n]
So
S.

Xnon y\
103

a gloss, not in S.
also S.
ics
pj^.,
_

and

HG.

So

^>iri\S^

n3i*V, dittography.
to

1^''

Supplied according
d^jdijT
.

S.

Hereupon follows the whole Baraita unto

. . .

n^a nr^nn
and
finally
.

^::n'

pvo nxi, then

^CH'
"injn
till

nim oisnuisx

ii)m^

>2'j:o

mi

1p^\S*
piy^-)

Sm

about 11 lines.

1"
1'^'

Gittin,

Z/rf.

108

Either the copyist had abbreviated here too or else had omitted by mistake, for there is no place for the whole passage.
1-^'

nyn.

1"!

The talmudic

text

is

nil!'

''DlD'iDl

\':T2]1

im^^

N\n
is

n]^-\

NH

"in?

in^l NJvl, which

is

here rendered into Hebrew, as

the case

throughout in S.
"2 ^K'N
i"2
i""^

21 in^ 'N

dittography.
1-*

n^b^JD.

n^DN'.
S. 45.

175

|-;^,j,jp,L,p,j^.^_

According to HG.. 87 b

1" [^N:;'
178

N3N3 Xn3!?M1J,
n:]!?,!!],

so

HG.,

I.

c.

^vnana

so //c. (comp. n. iSo

1^

3~in

Dp?23

is

an ignorant gloss of an ignorant copyist

who

read

wrongly nVD^n and hence added

mn

n^\>t22

read Tl?0^n ^so also //G.},

6^ v.

Baba

batra 130 b

...

l^)2^r\

^2?0

vb H^^H |ncb pN, see Aruch,

1^1

So

//G., but in S. an omission

by mistake

until (""CJ

*{<'=)

Tiyi

183

Read nnVO,

in

HG.

p^a^'-n '^J IIT-D, ed. Berlin

p*a^''nrO ''OJ

'Jm

inf); s.

|mx

pa^-'no 3in^ p]n.

1" [nai:].

lo ^^ijt^j x3x_

442
is '^
''">

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

pnxn,
[i]nn2i, innEtr.
S.,
/.
.

'*' ^'^

pbn'^.

snnK'M.
nob}.
i''"

c, //G, ed. Berlin, 399 ^Baba mesi'a

''1

s. nis^ir, read

nu3^t'.

natrxi.

i''3

Both according

to S., instead of ">132n I'C read D'^

D""'.

'^
i''5

Read

D''^C, S.

pI^C.

According

to

//C, 106 d

;ed.

B., 437'

S. 46

Xl" 12 n",^~: "I'D

cnp p.
i-'S

Traces of a line

about eleven lints wanting.

THE RUPTURE BETWEEN ALEXANDER JANNAI AND THE PHARISEES

Bv Israel Friedlaender,
Jewish Theological Seminary
of America.

The
ruler
is

famous incident over the

festival

board which led to

the open rupture between the Pharisees and the

referred
to

Hasmonean
of opinion

by Josephus^

to

John Hyrcan, by the

and

TalmudJosephus.
that the

Alexander Jannai.

The consensus
far as

among modern

scholars, both Jewish

Christian,^ follows
to suggest

Derenbourg^ goes even so

itself

Talmud

has John Hyrcan in mind,

whom

it

designates through an inaccuracy occurring elsewhere in

Talmudic
is

literature as Jannai.

This supposition, however,

is
it

entirely inadmissible.
title

For not only

is

contradicted

by the royal

which

affixed to Jannai's
incident,*^

name^ and

forms the climax of the whole

but also by the

will

whole background of the Talmudic account which, as

1

A,it.,
b.

XIII, lo, 5-6.

a.

Kiddushin 66

The

variants of

by Strack are of no considerable importance.

below.
2

Codex Munich (phototypic edition Some of them will be noticed

{Gcschiclite, III*, 114)

It will suffice to

mention among the former Gratz

I,

and Weiss
[Israelitische
*

(VJnm IH ^H,
und Jiidiiche
et la

126;,

and among the

(I,

latter

Wellhausen

Gescliichte^,

290) and Schiirer

271
f.

f.).

Essai sitr Vhistoiie

1.

geographic de la Palestine, 79
to

Gratz's

remark

i.Geschichte, III, 653,

from below^ seems

imply a similar view, but his

words are not quite

"

clear.
in

'Y?'CT]

'Ny, repeatedly

the Talmudic passage.

443

444

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

presently be shown, clearly points to the reign of Jannai.

The Talmudic

narrative

is

unmistakably a different version

of the story told by Josephus and disagrees with the latter not only in the names of the heroes but also in the funda-

mental character of the incident.

When we examine
that

these

two versions

in

the light of the

it

general historical situation,

we
of

shall find, so

seems to me,

we have
is in

every reason to give the Talmudic account

over
that

the

preference

Josephus.

For Josephus's

version

strange contradiction with his

own

enthusiastic

estimate of John Hyrcan.

Had

John's disagreement with the

'

Pharisees, who, to quote Josephus,"

have so great a power

against

over the multitude that

the king, or
believed',

when they say anything

is

against

the

high priest, they are presently

assumed

that intensity which

presupposed

in

the story, his reign would have scarcely ended as peacefully and happily, as Josephus is careful to point out, contrasting Hyrcan's fate with the

unhappy

lot

of his successors.^

Nor could

possibly such a fact be reconciled with the popular

is

admiration for Hyrcan which

voiced both by Josephus

far as to attribute to
itself at

and the Talmud," and which goes so

him the
reign.^o

gift

of prophec)' manifesting

the end of his

The whole

story points clearly to the unfortunate

conditions as they existed in the time of Jannai and,

when
cur-

looked at
tailed in

in this light, the

Talmudic account, though

some

parts, receives its proper historical setting

in vain in the version of in

such as we would seek

Josephus.

Alexander Jannai had returned

triumph from his

numerous military
7

exploits, having, as the legend

^

none too
7.

Ant.. XIII. lo,

5.

loc. cit.,

XIII, 10,

''

For the Talmudic data comp. Dcrenbourg, he.

116
ft".

cit.,

70

ff.,

and Weiss,

loc. cit.,
10

Ant., XIII. 10.

3,

and

b.

Sotah 33

a.

ALEXANDER JANNAI AND PHARISEES FRIEDLAENDER

exaggeratedly puts
it,

445

conquered sixty

cities in

the desert.^^
for

The
}-ears

Pharisees, and with

them the people, had

the

many

been

smarting

under

shameful

incongruity

between the wild character of Jannai and the sacred office he occupied. It seemed a terrible indignity to them that this worldly monarch and rude warrior, who Horied
in

the royal
apart

title

which Jewish tradition had reverently

for the ideal Messianic ruler of the House of David,^'- and, completely estranged from the spirit of

set

Judaism, pursued a policy of conquest and bloodshed, should

officiate as the

highest religious representative of the nation.

In addition to these general considerations, there was, as

learn from an incidental statement of Josephus,

we

which has

been entirely overlooked

widespread belief

in

the discussion of our subject, a

among

the people that Jannai's mother

girl,

had, evidently as a
Syrians,^^

young

been taken captive by the

in

and that her son was,

consequence,

even

from the
office

strictly legal point of view, unfit for the sacred

priest.

of high

Jannai, on the other hand, thought

and, to judge by his mental make-up, could not but think

so, that

he might be able to conciliate or at

least to intimi-

date his Pharisaic opponents by his military achievements,

11

D^2-13

n'^l^f Oil'

&n^;i

imMEi' n^bnn^
campaigns.

-J^nCi'.

This evidently

refers to Jannai's trans-Jordanic

The number would be an

of the people

inadmissible exaggeration in the case of

12

Comp.
more
first

Gratz, III, 653

f.

H3 rcan. The resentment

were

would be

still

justified if Strabo 's statement

(^

correct, that the royal title

was

titular

assumed by Jannai Gratz, ibid.). In any event, he was the first king of any importance, for Aristobulus who, according to Josephus,
title,

had before him assumed that

teristic that in

reigned for barely two years.

It is

charac-

Rabbinic literature Jannai figures as "jb^ri *NJ\ while his

jna

father
12

is

regularly designated as b)l^

pni\
citrons, the people

Ajii.,

XIII,

14,

While he was being pelted with

reviled

him

as the son of a captive.

446

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

comand he invited them to the banquet which was to

memorate
It

his victories.
affair.

was evidently a grand

At

least,

the legend

^^ carefully informs us that they sat at golden tables.

The

Pharisees,
tantly.

we need not doubt, accepted the invitation relucA certain mischief-maker by the name of Eleazar
'frivolous, wicked,

ben

Po'lra,

and good

for

nothing',^''

resentment of called Jannai's attention to the thinly-veiled

the Pharisees.^'^
Jannai,

To

test their

sentiments he suggested that

who was

naturally to appear in his state robes,

high priestly should, instead of the royal crown, wear the

diadem on which the Divine name was

emphasize
his

inscribed, so as to

spiritual
it.^'

dignity before those

who were

prone to question
1*

This was clearly an affront intended

The mallows were
its

nni

b^

jT,:nblw'

bv n^ni^JD ibyni.

to contrast

commonwealth in the struggling condition of the second kingdom. with the present power and prosperity of the
ad locum.

beginnings

Comp. Rashi

yi 3^ yb ^Cod. Munich omits 27, which Josephus's unless we read 2^ V'\]. dittography of )b
15

bv^bl^

is

probably a

description of
'

Eleazar as
XIII, lo,
fits

'

man

of

ill

temper and delighting

in seditious practices

(AmL,

but not the part

agreement with that of the Talmud, and only him in the Talmudic version, the role of intriguer which is assigned to This alone shows the to him by Josephus. ascribed
5~;

is

in substantial

The omission of Judah ben secondary character of the latter's version. had evidently created a gap Gedidiah (see note i8^ in Josephus's account
which had
16

to

be

filled

ybv
yy)^

D"'*.^T12

TS D^^nr\b

out artificially by redistributing the roles. The expression obviously refers not to their

open actions but

17

to their inner feelings.

pa'j'

"^i*n

Dpn,

The phrase

is

difficult.

Israel

Levy

{Rcvnc dcs
its

Ludesjuives,
Gratz
(III,

XXXV,

222, n. i) openly confesses not to

know

test', 687) doubtfully interprets tlTO CpH as 'to Rashi takes it in this meaning. without adducing any proof in support of bv CHpH pi' ]T\ the sense of making them rise: DH^^^ bv HCri inVD Rashi's zinn D'j'n- ^Db. nx i^;' 1-3 niMD in nincb nib in the connexion suggested explanation is perfectly natural when taken

meaning.

nm u

by

us.

ALEXANDER JANNAI AND PHARISEES FRIEDLAENDER

for

447

the

Pharisees, and

one of

their

number, Judah ben

Gcdidiah,!* forgot himself^'^ and

remonstrated.

We

now
:

understand the

full

purport of his passionate protest

is

if

Jannai had usurped the royal crown which

gative of the Davidic house,-*^
priestly
let

the preroleave the

him, at

least,

diadem

to

the descendants of Aaron.^i

When

asked for his reasons, Judah, instead of shielding himself behind general vague sentiments, pointed to the specific
charge involved
mother.-^
in

the popular rumour regarding Jannai's

What

thereupon happened, the Talmud does

not

tell

us,

not remain

though we can easily imagine that Jannai did silent. It seems that the Pharisees left the

table in indignation.^^

The charge

against Jannai's mother

result,

could not be substantiated.

fully described
18

The

which

is

more

by Josephus, was an open breach between

some
calls
It

D'^T'lJ, as is found in
1

editions (comp. Weiss,

loc. cit.,

126,

and

Gratz, III,

14,

'

Gedidim

'), is

certainly incorrect.

Cod. Munich reads several

to

times nnj.

Professor

Marx

my
is

attention

the variant NIJIIJ of

Solomon
version.

ibn Adret,

this unusual

name of type should be a pure invention on the part of the Talmudic

ad locum.

scarcely conceivable that a

1* That the Talmud does not approve of his hasty conduct may be inferred from the reading of Cod. Munich (note 24% Gratz (III, 114) artificially harmonizes the Talmud with Josephus, and makes Gedidiah address the

king
^^

at his

own

invitation
12.

'

with the best of intentions

'

Compare note

" The Talmudic

version

is

evidently curtailed here.

For the words

D^ynim
23

n-'nrj

ion C-iDIX

VnC

cannotbe those

of judah.

The phrase

explained.

DPH bx"15^^ "D^H ihs"! has not yet been satisfactorily The meaning proposed in the text suggests itself naturally.
ought to transpose the text
^j^-ititv

Perhaps
Ni*03

we

slightly,

and read

N^l -imn K'pUV

is

_ Instead

""ID^n

l^nn"!

of l^la'-l

Cod. Munich reads

the

Vl^M, which
identical

obviously a copyist's error.

On
'

^NIC'" V^jn as

with the Pharisees comp. Lauterbach, Sadducees and Pharisees' (reprint from Studies in Jewish Liieraiure, issued in honour Kanfmaun
of
ff.

Kohler), pp. 16

448

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW The

struggle,

Jannai and the Pharisees.

precipitated
Po'Tra

which had been

by

the mischievous insinuations of Eleazar ben

indiscretion of

and the hasty

Judah ben

Gedidiah,--*

grew so intense that the Pharisaic leaders were executed.-'

Interpreted in this
light,

the Talmudic story, while

Its

legendary

in detail,

may
it

well reflect an historic fact.

divergence from Josephus

may

perhaps be best explained

in

on the supposition that

reached the historian

a different

whole version, in which the names had been garbled and the Josephus embodied this incident referred to Hyrcan.
version in his history, and in order to harmonize
it

in

some

measure with his enthusiastic account of Flyrcan who, as he was he tells us, was greatly beloved by the Pharisees,"^'^ motive for the forced to supply a different psychological
incident,

by describing

in

a rather melodramatic fashion

how Hyrcan, whose

righteousness was readily conceded

by

criticism. the Pharisees, invited their open and unreserved

The Talmudic account

is

undoubtedl}-, as was suggested

long ago,-' a fragment from an old historic source.'-^^ the Talmud passage as if the above interpretation of
ring to Jannai be accepted, the
Gratz,2^

But
refer-

ingenious conjecture of
the
^vill

^vho

identifies

our source with

in i

history

of

John Hyrcan referred to

abandoned.
21

Mace.

16. 24,

have to be

This estimate of Judah's conduct

is

suggested by the reading of

(ed.

Cod. Munich n=iirv"^i

i^,-)j

m^yiD

^TV^x ^"y nyin

p'lm)

j'sm

R. Nissim, Mafteah to Bcmkot 48a,

in a quotation of this

sentence to

which Professor

Marx
^"yi

directs

my

attention, reads similarly

Hinn n^J^jrUB'

nnn: p min^
25 26
-T

nn>yis
is

p
to

-ity^N

""'y.

Gratz

(III.

688)

bound

admit that

this

can only apply to Jannai.

Ant., XIII, 10, Gratz,

It is

5-

III,

82

Israel
in

Levy

^J^evite des

Etudes

Jiiiies,

loc. cit.

-8

introduced

the

Talmud

as a Baraita.

"

HI, 82.

REPLY TO DR. BUCKLER'S REVIEW OF SCHECHTER'S 'JEWISH SECTARIES'

The
III,
p.

find of Professor Israel Levi, to

in the

which

I referred in

my

Announcement

Jewish Quarterly Review,

in

New

Series,

485, was published

the January (1913)

number of

the Revue des Etiides Juives, and being admitted by the editor

himself that

it

forms no part of the

'

Fragments of a Zadokite
Personally,
I

Work

',

it

need not be discussed

in these pages.

think

that the find represents a remainder of a liturgical piece of the

well-known type of the Piyut of a

it

later period.
'

In no case has
I

any bearing upon the

Hberty to offer
to

'

Zadokite

problem.

am, therefore,
in

at

the

readers of the

Quarterly,

the

following pages, the reply to Dr. Biichler's review of Schechter's

'

Jewish Sectaries

',

which

promised

in the

announcement
on
account

just

mentioned,
indisposition

but which

has

been

postponed

of

and absence from home.

fifty-five

Dr. Biichler's article, covering

pages,

is

written in the

well-known manner of
here.

this author,

which need not be discussed

this article

Only

in

one respect did Dr. Biichler deviate in

from

his usual style.

For, while in his other writings he never

is

allows the reader to see what he

aiming

at until

he has reached

the end, he has seen

fit

in this article to place the results of his

'

inquiries at the opening of his discussion, thus

assertion taking

the place of argument

".

This proves that in

this case Dr. Biichler

had a cause

to defend, a thesis to demonstrate,

which made

it

impossible for him to study the subject in a calm and unprejudiced

spirit,

and

to see

its

proper relations to facts and to the cognate

literature.
I

do not intend
IV.

to follow

Dr. Biichler in

all

the winding

VOL.

449

H h

45^

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

mean
to

labyrinth of his article, which would

reproduce here the

fifty-

entire contents of his fifty-five pages, in addition to another

five

pages or

more of
is

refutation.
in

am

not blessed with so

reviews of
virtue
this,

much
last

loquacity as
publication,

displayed

so

many
the

my

which only assume

of briefness

when

acknowledgement should be made of the exploitation of

Introduction, notes, and translation.
I shall

my

prefer to deal with

the main points of his Essay, and the student will readily find
that the rest
is

in

need of no

reply.

Dr. Biichler opens his attack by contesting

of the Fragment with the

my

identification

Zadok book, mentioned by the

It will

Karaites,
to deal

Kirkisani and Sahl ben Mazliah.

be convenient

with Sahl

first.

cited Sahl as

one of the witnesses

raises the
'

to the

existence of a

Zadok book.

Dr. Biichler

objection

that Sahl maintained that there were prominent in the

Sadduk's
gives

book

several (laws) about

to

sacrifices
I

our

Fragment
first

no
that

reference

such'

(BJ?.,^ 432).

must

point

out

Dr. Biichler omits to mention that this difficulty did not escape

me
to

but,

what

is w^orse, is
it

that

he ignored the way

in

which

I tried

meet

it.

For
I

was

in particular with a

view to this statement

of Sahl

that

declared

that

our Text must 'be defined as

containing

extracts

from a Zadok book, representing features

it

contained in the copies of these authorities, but, as

extracts,
cp.

forms only
'

these
p.
x).

features

also

may be entirely Indeed, a MS. which

and the

eliminated
is

(S.,

xxi

defective
is

both at

the beginning, the middle, and the end, and

full

also otherwise

of gaps

and

lacunae^

scribe of which, as a thorough

study

of the Text shows, must be

looked upon rather as a

compiler and condenser than as a copyist, cannot be expected

to furnish us with
all

the quotations given from

it

by one
in this

writer

or another.

We

have rather to be grateful that

process

of condensation and compilation, executed in a very haphazard

manner, and by a
1

man who was

I

not able to read his text, the

For the sake of brevity,

use this abbreviation for 'Buchler's Review',

M3' Introduction and Translation

see

JQR.,

New

Series, III, pp. 429-85.

are given as S., whilst the references to the

Hebrew

text will be T.

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER SCHECHTER

original features of
leaving, at least,
its

451

authorities were not entirely obliterated,

its

some

indelible traces leading back to

'

sources.

When Dr.

Biichler says further,

considering that

it

(the Fragment)

deals exclusively with the colony in Damascus,

devoted in

it

to

differences

no space was between Sadducees and Pharisees

on

sacrifices

'

(^^., 432), he makes a wanton statement, as no

can say what our Manuscript, and much less the original of our copyist or compiler, may have contained. The fact^hat he has laws about the altar {T., 11, 1. 18 seq.) suggests that
the
subject of sacrifices was not alien to

man

him, and

a place anywhere

in the original or
its

even in the

may have had parts now missing.

In
this

Nor

is

it

true that even in

present state the Fragment deals

in

exclusively with the

Colony

Damascus.

dogmatic

assertion. Dr. Biichler only anticipates his

own

results regarding

the late date of the

document and the assumption

that the refer-

ences to sacrifices and the Temple are mere inventions.

to see that these are just the points at issue.

He

fails

We

come now

to Kirkisani

(fl.

about 937), whose acquaintance

with the history of Jewish Sects was a very wide one. In his references to a book of Zadok, he describes it as frequently denouncmg the Rabbanites and criticizing them, but adduces no proof for anything he said, except for one thing, namely, the prohibition
against marrying the daughter of one's brother

and the daughter

is of their being analogous to the paternal and maternal aunt {S., xviii). I then argued that this description of Zadok well fits in with our text, which in its Haggadah is largely polemical, while in
its

of one's

sister.

The proof Zadok adduced

there

Halakah

forms Httle else than mere statement. Buchler says

:

Now,

against this. Dr.

'

Our Fragment,

it is

true, contains strong

abuse against name-

less
sins.

opponents, but objects only to three expressly enumerated No method of interpretation, no way of deducing new
in

rules,

does

no extension of the law is referred to at all, and our book no way look or pretend to be a general attack of
a the
basis

Zadokite on

and development

of

Rabbinic

law'

<^^., 431)VOL. IV.

452

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

utterly he failed to grasp These words of Dr. Biichler show how class of literature to which the nature of the Fragment and the 'references to methods of mterexpects from it
it

belongs.

He

pretation,

ways of deducing new

rules'.

He

is

probably think-

from the polemics between ing of such models as we know them But the ancients did not indulge the Karaites and Rabbanites.
in

learned dissertations.

Their ways of controversy, as

we

are

familiar with, for instance,

from the Psalter of Solomon, the

New

general denunciations, Testament, the Book of Jubilees, &c., were and indiscriminate abuse, often forming

wholesale accusations

Bible, and revealed to them a paraphrase of certain verses in the olden days, or dictated to by some ancient or prophetic hero of the gift imagining, which arrogates to itself

them by

their

own

of prophecy.

charges and In the place of such authority, general take the place of learned imputations and emphatic statements general feature and scholastic proof. This is also the

argument

of our Fragment, which feature alone

possibility of assigning
it

at

once precludes the

literature in

to the age

and species of
I

which Dr. Biichler

tries to

place

it.

Perhaps

may here

in

passmg

parallel of our Fragment, draw particular attention to the close the favourite prophet of the Sect, r., 6, 11. 15-18, to Ezekiel,
ch'.

22.

26-30, and ch. 23. 38.

at
it

hope to deal with

this fact

more fully Nor is

another occasion.
true that the author of our

Fragment only objects

These are the cardinal sins. to the three especially enumerated opponents. But he further abuses sins of which he accuses his implies the accusation them as the Children of Destruction and
'

',

of their committing

sacrilege, of

robbing the poor and the widows,

distinguishing between the or murdering the fatherless, of not observing the Sabbath and the feasts and unclean, of not

clean

according to the interpretation, &c. {T., accusations we have in another place {T.,
are further described as wallowing in

6,

11.

15-20).

Similar

5-10), where they 8, the way of harlots and m

11.

grudge against a brother, the wealth of wickedness, and bearing

hatred against a neighbour, and so forth.
portion of the Biichler admits {BR., 432) that the

Now, Dr.

'

REPLY TO DR. BUCKLER SCHECHTER

law covering pp.

453
besides

9-16 merely 'enumerate and

',

give,

frequent references to the Torah, no arguments

but he maintains

that he finds that the law regarding prohibition of

divorce

^,?^j
I.

polygamy and adduce a proof derived from the Bible (r., 4, 1. 20,
This objection means nothing,
is

and

5,

6).

the fact that this

for, apart from a mere citation from the Scriptures, I have

explained sufficiently that in this point the Karaites differed as

whilst Kirkisani in this place only speaks in criticism of the Rabbanites {S., xix, note 22). It was only in this criticism in which he was concerned. Dr. Buchler, in a note to p. 432, says it was not convincing.

much from our Sect as the Rabbanites,

To me

it

seems

convincing enough, as certainly Kirkisani had no interest in drawing special attention or even giving sufficient
is

that this

to laws to

heed which he objected himself, and mark the words of his

opponent

as a proof.
it

For the sake of brevity, and clearness, pursue further Dr. Buchler's remarks on
prohibiting the marriage with
indicated, to

would be well
the
I

to

same law
held,
as

(of
just

a niece), which

be one of the proofs

for identifying the

Fragment

with the Zadokite book of Kirkisani. The remarks (^i?., 437-42) are very diffuse, but the drift of Dr. Buchler's argument may be

summed up
I

as follows

After reproducing in
in

full all

the material
to

on the subject collected

have referred
in

an

article
(.S;,

by Dr. Poznanski,

which

my

notes

xxxvii,

note 21), Dr. Buchler

proceeds to show that no such prohibition could have been

known

before the times of Anan, since

first

we have evidence

that

Rabbis of the

century

'

whom

Geiger considered true repreto Geiger was by that of the Sadducees) not

sentatives of the old

Halakah (which according

identical with or greatly influenced

only taught but also acted against the probibition of marrying

one's niece
'

{BJ^., 438).
its

'

Consequently, this cannot have been

All these considerations
for the

the occasion for

clearly

attack.
is

and

facts

show

that there

no proof

assumption that the

Sadducees of the
(BJ?., 440).
ticity

first century prohibited marriage with a niece This Dr. Buchler takes as proof against the authenof the Fragment. The display of quotations by Dr. Buchler
I
i

454

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

imposing, but

in this place is very

when examined

little

closer

his

entirely melts away. whole, was, as hypothesis, brilliant as it was on the Geiger's undeveloped in its details, and every real scholar knows, very with regard to the relation of that this assumption of Geiger

argument

For, apart from the fact that

certain early authorities of the

first

century to the Sadducean

teaching
is

the

weakest points, Dr. Biichler's argument declared myself against altogether irrelevant, as I have distinctly Sadducees. My words identification of the Zadokites with the
is

one of

its

were
'

The term Zadokite

naturally suggests the Sadducees

but the

doctrines and practices present state of knowledge of the latter's of resemblance to justify the does not offer enough points
identification of

them with our Sect

reason
for

'

{S., xxi).

This was
'

my
',

accepting

the

title

'Zadokite',

not

Sadducee

which was certainly more

familiar

and very tempting.

Zadokites can only be looked In the best case, as I believe the there having been all upon as a sub-species of the Sadducees, for instance, all sorts of Protestants, sorts of Sadducees as there are, Church, but differing from each other all opposed to the Catholic
in

more

doctrine or less important points of

and

practice.

But

Dr. Biichler also blunders.

For apparently he does not under-

Talmud on which he built stand his main quotation from the historical passage in Yebamot I am referring to the so much.
of 15 b, regarding the testimony
there were two
great families in

Rabbi Joshua

b.

Hananya, that
m-\>f ^:2,

Jerusalem which were

altar. but could also boast of high priests had considered If the Sadducee priests Dr. Biichler now argues eliminated the illegal, they would certainly have such a marriage Biichler evidently from the Temple' (BI^., 439)- D^.

who

officiated

on the

'

family

from the first assumes that nn^J ^n means the descendants This is a bad their nieces. husbands of the nnV who married
blunder.

What

it

really

means

is

that the nn^; acted in accord-

Hillel, and thus married ance with the teaching of the School of but other members of a second time as widows, not the D3N

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

the community, from
the passage in the

SCHECHTER
(see Rashi

455
to

whom

they had children

Tahnud

r\"22 pic^^ lxr>J:j').

The descendants
of Dr. Buchler

of

these

miV had

accordingly no relationship whatever to the

niece.

man
is

who married a
thus

The whole argument

of
the

based on a misconception
I

Talmudical passage.

Perhaps

may

point out here that, in spite of the silence of

the Rabbinic sources as to any opposition to a marriage with

a niece, there can be

little

doubt that the objection to

is

it

dated

from a very early period.

This

suggested by the fact that the

Book

of Jubilees in recording the progress of

sisters,
tells

mankind

in dis-

continuing marrying their

us that Mahalalel took

unto him to wife Dinah, the daughter of Barakiel, the daughter

of his father's brother (according to another reading she was the daughter of his father's sister cf. I'hW., 4. 15 8. 6 and 11. text
;
;

7,

and

notes).

Now,

if

the

Book

of Jubilees had held the marriage of

first

a niece permissible, this would have been the natural

after

step

leaving off marrying sisters,

to skip over to cousins.

and there would have been no

accordingly, followed
in
this

need
the

Our Fragment,

authority

of the

Book

of Jubilees also

respect.

(Prof. S.

of P7'of.

Kraus, in Studies in Jeivish Literature issued in honour Kaufmatin Kohler, p. 165 seq., has collected a good deal
of these laws of which Dr. Buchler treats {BR.,

of material bearing on the question.)

The second
433)
I
is

that regarding the prohibition of divorce

by Zadok. Now,
i

on p. 5 of the Text as containing a prohibition against divorce, which served

p.

interpreted lines 20

and 21 on

4 and Hne

me
it

as another proof for establishing the identity of our

Fragment
glance

with Kirkisani's

Book

of Zadok.

It is

true that at

first

looks only like a law forbidding polygamy, but one

who examines
to forbid
alive.
is

this passage

little

closer

and puts the

right

emphasis on the
the

word .T-nn

sees at once that our author

meant

man

to

marry a wife as long as the other was

still

To
his

forbid divorce directly he could not well do, as the

sole authority, but

Torah

by forbidding the husband

first

to contract a

second

marriage as long as the

divorce.

wife

is alive,

he
in

practically abolishes
this

And

was the more

justified

conclusion as

456

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

the proof adduced by our Fragment

the

same

as in the

New

Testament, Matt. 19. 3 (in accordance with which numerals the reference to Matt, in note 5, p. xxxvi, should be corrected), which
distinctly prohibits

divorce.

And

this

probability
10. 6,

is

raised to

a certainty by

the parallel

remark

in

Mark
our

where we have

the words 'from the beginning of the creation', aTro 8e dpx^s

KTto-ew?,

closely

corresponding
'

to

HNn^n

TiCl.

When

I am unable to see where the author Dr. Biichler exclaims prohibited or even thought to limit divorce, he exclusively deals with polygamy and re-marriage after divorce without suggesting

anything against divorce itself {BR., 433), he our Zadokite

fails

to see that

who
i
ff.,

professed to be a

strict follower

of the

Law

of

Moses was not in a position to forbid divorce against the distinct law
in Deut. 24.

but he could well

make

divorce invalid on the

Kirkisani, ground of polygamy, and thus entirely ineffectual. saw the consequence and recognized in it the affinity however,

with Christianity.

may
If

point out in passing that Dr. Biichler

was probably mistaken

hibition of polygamy.
in

in ascribing to Sahl b.

Mazliah the pro-

he

will carefully

read up the references

Poznanski he

will see that

all

Sahl only speaks of the Levirate

marriage which practically

Karaites forbid {RE/.,

XLV,

p. 62).

As to Tobiah
{S., xvii,

(in his

Lekach Tob), to
little

whom

I referred in

a note

note 16), I have

doubt that he must have heard

something about the Zadokite book which forbids divorce on

account of polygamy, but did not quite understand the
signifi-

cance of

it.

Next

to this

comes the law of the Zadokites regarding the

Kirkisani maintained that
'

Calendar, of
all

whom

they also fixed

the months

at thirty

days each.

Again, they excluded the

day of the Sabbath from the sum of the days besides the Sabbath ; Now, in the same way also with the Feast of the Tabernacles
'.

assumed on the authority of

T., lines

13-16 on page 3 and

lines 2,

3,

and 4 on page

16, that

our Fragment accepted the calendar

latter reads
'
:

of the

Book

of Jubilees.

The

As

to the explanation
all

of their ends for a remembrance to Israel of

it is

these,

behold

exactly explained in the

Book

of the Divisions of the seasons

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

SCHECHTER
xix

457
11.

according to their jubilees and to their weeks' (see T., 16,

3,

2,

and

4,

and
There

S.,

Iv

and

Ivi

see also

and

xx).
;

The

passage contains one or two words which are obscure

corrupt.
is

probably

apparently a gap before the beginning of the

(after the

passage as well as at the end

T.,

word

Dn^niyU'C'ai

in

what follows has no connexion with the preceding matter. But the reference to the Book of Jubilees is distinct
16,
1.

4),

as

It is for him the authority Moses of which he spoke in 1. 2. But the main burden of the Book of Jubilees is the calendar

enough and subject

to

no doubt.
of

apparently next to the

Law

or

'

the division of the seasons according to jubilees and their

it

weeks', and

follows logically that

he accepted

this division.

Or does
referred to
thesis ?

Dr. Biichler think that the author of our Fragment

it

just

because he did not agree with him in the main

Moreover, everybody

who

studies the

Fragment

carefully

will find that the strict

observance of Sabbath and the Festivals

is

and the Fast (Day of Atonement)

one of the most important

laws with which the Sect was concerned, and he especially insists

profane (Z,

on the importance of making known between the holy and the 6, lines 17 and 18). Now if the Sect represented by

our Fragment differed with the

Book

of Jubilees in the fixing

of the calendar, the author of the latter work committed no less

a deadly sin than desecrating the

with the profane.

festivals

and confusing the holy

The Book

of Jubilees in that case would have

been

to

him an

heretical abomination, representing a congregation

of sinners worse than the opponents

in the course of his accusations.

whom

he attacked so often

Would

he, then, in that case,

not have declared the whole

Book

of Jubilees as untrustworthy
to all other holy writings,

and opposed
instead
often directly

to the

Law
it

of

Moses and

of declaring

authoritative

and

indirectly?

and referring to it so As regards T., 3, 11. 13-16, they

run:

'But with them that held

left

God, who were

which

fast to the commandments of among them, God confirmed His covenant

with Israel for ever, revealing unto them the hidden things in
all

Israel

erred:

His Holy Sabbaths and His glorious

His righteousness and the ways of His

Festivals, the testimony of

458
truth

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

and the
'.

desires of

His

will,

which a

man
6.

shall

do and

live

by them

(See S., xxxiv.)

declared the passage to be a

Jubilees,
34,

mere paraphrase of the Bock of

a different calendar.
*

which proclaims

To

this Dr. Biichler replies

differ materially.

In

fact,

however, the two passages

While

Jubilees enumerates years, months, seasons, and concludes by repeating the order of years, fixing the attention on the calendar,

our book mentions Sabbaths and Festivals, nothing

the Sabbath does in no

else.

But

way depend on the arrangement of the

is

calendar

consequently, the point of view

different

'

{BJ^., 436).

Now the Sabbath difficulty was, no doubt, suggested to Dr. Biichler by my note to the'text (6'., xxxiv, n. 2), where I dealt with the matter.
But
if

Dr. Biichler had carefully studied the

just this fact of
is

Book

of Jubilees,

he would have seen that

mentioning the Sabbath

together with the Festivals

an additional proof of our Fragment's

dependence on the former.

even touches upon

For the Book of Jubilees hardly

the calendar question without bringing in the

time.
Cf.
i.

Sabbath
It is

at the

same

10,

14

4-

18

6.

37-8

23. 19.

then clear that our Fragment was simply copying from the
of Jubilees,

Book

and the point of view

is

the same.

This

absolute dependence of the Fragment on and the identity of

the point of view with the

Book
if

of Jubilees would have

become

even more

clear to Dr. Biichler

he had taken the trouble to read

carefully the

whole of page 3 of the former, and the whole of

latter.

Chapter 6 of the

The

text of the
if

Fragment

is

corrupt

enough, and probably there are words,

in
it.

not whole lines wanting

But we can see

is

his accusation of the sons of

Noah.

The
and
6,

accusation

the sin of eating blood (see

T., 3, lines i

and

S., xxxiii,
first

note

i).

He

also refers to the guilt of those

(line 10).

who

came

into the

Covenant

Then he
13),

passes suddenly
this to

to the special

covenant with Israel (Une

and from

the observance of the Sabbath

of Israel have gone wrong.

and
is

Festivals in

which the

rest

This

nothing else but a condensed

of Jubilees, treating also of

extract of Chapter 6 of the

Book

the sin of eating blood (verses 7 and 18), the relapse of the son

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

of Noah, with

SCHECHTER

459

whom

the

first

covenant was made, not to eat

drifting into the calendar 19), question (verses 22-38), finishing up the chapter with the words
:

blood (verses i8 and

and then

'

And

for this reason I

command and
for after thy

testify to

thee that thou

will

mayest

testify

to

them;

death thy children

disturb (them), so that they will not

make

the year three hundred

and

sixty-four days only,

and

for this reason they will

go wrong
festivals,

as to the

new moons and seasons and Sabbaths and

will

and they
(verse 38),

eat

all

kinds of blood with

all

kinds of flesh'

Seeing the close correspondence between the two works we

readily

may

assume

that

some such word

in T., 3,
6,
1. 1.

as :^nin or
14,

l''::'nn it

is

missing

before the word

also

ninn*;;'

and so

probably was
that with

mentioned

in

7!,

18.

It is

also possible

the tendency of the copyist to condense

careless

and

to shorten in his

manner, he thought

it

sufficient to indicate in a general

way the existence of

his Sect

serious differences in the calendar between

and the

rest of Israel,

but omitted details as

known from
That

the

Book

of Jubilees or relegated them to the Halakic part just

as he did with the laws relating to the Sabbath (see S., xx).

he addressed himself to a minority dissenting from the bulk of

the nation with regard to the Calendar
is

further seen from the

left

expression
that
is

DHD nniJ

n!i'J, T., 3,

1.

13,

'

who were

among them

',

the remnant maintaining the patriarchal tradition as in the

Book
IS

of Jubilees.

chiefly

What further Dr. Biichler has on the same page based on the confusion of the Sadducees with our

Zadokites, against which I distinctly warned the reader, and about

which

have spoken before.

then deals
with other Sectarian
laws
in

Dr. Buchler

the

Zadokite fragment l^BR., 442-9), which of course, as he thinks, proves his case. The first of these laws is regarding the fish,
which, according to our Fragment must not 'be eaten unless
split alive and their blood was shed' (71, 12, 11. 13, 14). This seems to contain two laws the one is that fish are subjected
:

they were

to a kind of

nD'-n*.;'

(which

is

strongly suggested by the insistence

460
on
D^'n),

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the other, that of prohibiting their blood (T., 12,
of Jubilees offers
in
1.

13).

The Book
and
7

no
and

parallel to these laws.

Verses 6

of chap. 6
9,

the
2

Book

of Jubilees (corresponding to

Genesis, chap.

verses

fish, 4) might easily include also

but they are not mentioned

in those of chap. 7,

in the specifications of verse 12,

nor
6.

verse 30, nor in those of chap. 21, verse

7,

But

it

is

worth noting that the law in chap.

verse 30, does not

the agree with the regular traditional explanation which excludes As blood of domesticated animals (mcnn), from the duty of '^D'2.

regards the no-n*^' and

MD'^
is

question in the case of

fish,

we

must assume that

which
p.

this

of Jubilees of our Sect differed

to us, a fact
I

one of the cases in which the Book from that which has come down
in

have pointed out on other grounds

This meets
sufficiently

my

Introduction,

xxix.

Dr.

Biichler's

objection with regard to the

Book

of Jubilees, but he has also

R. another argument based on a quotation from the Pirke d' out It is that this work prescribed it as a duty to pour Eliezer.
the blood of
'

fish.

Dr. Buchler then argues

Considering the character and the

it

late origin of the

book,

the Pirke d' R. Eliezer,

is

highly probable that, as in

many

other cases,

it

includes a custom or rule which was in vogue in

its

the place of

composition.

The custom may have

existed
it

for several centuries before its

inclusion in the Pirke; but

is

a strange coincidence that

its

appearance here should pomt

to

the same period as

its

occurrence in Karaite and Samaritan law

All proves
'

and

as in the Zadokite fragment.

that the latter

originated in the seventii or eighth century

{B-R., 443)-

Now,

would not prove anything against the antiquity of our Fragment even if the Pirke d' R. Eliezer had this law. The fact
it

that a usage occurs in a

not imply that

it

was unknown before

book dating from a certain century does and the occurrence only
;

becomes strange because Dr. Buchler wants to make it so. And the semithe further circumstance that the book happens to be
apocryphal Pirke
of this
usage.
d'

R. Eliezer, only shows the sectarian character

Israel

Prof.

Levi,

who was

the

first

to

draw

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

attention to this passage in

SCHECHTER

461

the Pirke, did not derive from

it

the

same conclusion

as does Dr. Biichler.

But the

fact is that

Dr. Buchler has mistaken the sense of the Pirke.

in the Pirke:

D^M

HSB'J
is

pi

D^fDH

\H'\2:\y

)bii

The words mean simply

'<)D'2

that the blood of fish

not subject to the law of

(of-

the phrase D^03

-[DB^j,

Hullin 84 a) in contrast to the animals

13W

n)D2b

pi

Y'\iil

1N-iaj:;\

if the Pirke
it

is

in

any way
in this

reminiscent here of anti-traditional law,

is

to

be sought

second clause, including, as

with the

it

does, also n}2n2,

and thus agrees

Book

of Jubilees,

7.

30, a law

which

is

also otherwise

known

from an heretical argument which the rabbis took the trouble to refute (see Sifre 89 b, Hullin 84 a; cf. Singer, p. 199; cf. also Luria's emendation of the text in this place, for which there is

no

real need.

See also Pesikta Rabbathi, ed. Friedmann,

p.

61 a

and

notes).

Of

course, the words D''Cn

far,

isnirj^

^bi<

must not

be pressed too
51iy.

referring only to D'lim Q':i, but excluding

this

In no case had

passage of the Pirke any bearing upon

fish,

the question of the prohibition of blood of

or of D^Jn.

Of more importance
of the

is

his reference to the

well-known passage

interpretation of Jacob of Kefar Nibburaya (of the fourth century), according to which fish are subject to the law of the
r\U'n'Cf.

The

reference to this passage was only omitted by an

oversight in
in

my

commentary,
All
it

as I find I
is

had a reference

to

it

my MS.

notes.

proves

that such an anti-traditional

in

interpretation

Dr. Israel

was already known Lewy (Seminarrabbiner

the

fourth

century

(see

in

Breslau) in

Hammaggid,

1870, pp. 245-53). This sectarian, however, certainly did not invent
this interpretation,

but merely accepted

it

from the teaching of

an old Sect with which he became acquainted. Next comes the law regarding m: of which Dr. Buchler says that it seems to 'point to much earlier times'" {BR., but
445),

somehow manages

to arrive at the very opposite result.

The

opponents of the Sect are accused that they 'contaminate the Sanctuary (:;np!on) as they separate not according to law and lie
with her

who

sees the blood of her issue' (7!,

5,

11.

and

7).

As no amount of research

could, as far as

saw, determine the

462

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

it

exact nature of the transgression, I considered

sufficient to give

a reference to the chapter by Wreschner

subject.

{S., xxxvi, n, 15)

on the

There the differences between the Samaritans, the SadPharisees ducees, and the later Karaites on the one hand, and the

on the other hand, regarding the colour of the D^DI or the counting, are pointed out, all of which involve in the end a contamination
of the Sanctuary.

Dr. Buchler failed to discover a difference

from not mentioned by Wreschner, but this did not prevent him addition reproducing the passages referred to by this author in
to a few other

Rabbinic passages known

to

everybody who has ever

shed no fresh read anything on the Sadducee problem, but which But after this display of Fragment. light on the words of our
learning Dr. Buchler says
(CJ^npcn), p. 5,
1.
:

The

express reference to the

Temple

seems to support that date, and been composed before the year 70 {BJi., 447)book and he proceeds This, however, is not satisfactory to Dr. Biichler,
6,

to prove the

as having

to say
'

On

the other hand,

we know

that not only Samaritans

and

point, but also Jews in the twelfth century differed on the same As Saadya attacked the Karaites time. the Karaites of the same adopted on this point, it is very probable that Anan had already Kirkisani, when dealing and taught the Sadducee view and as this source with the matter, does not refer to the Book of Sadduk,
;

As "^npD can mean the probably contained nothing about it. purity Synagogue to which, according to Anan, the same laws of or proof apply as to the court of the Temple, there is no argument derived from the consideration of other against the conclusion
legal points that

the Zadokite fragment was

composed

shortly

before the time of

Anan

'

(BjR., 447)-

This

is

quite

in

keeping with the

manner of Dr. him

as

Biichler's

argument.
as
if

First Kirkisani's silence serves

an argument,
author

there were

the

least indication that

this Karaite

between the intended to write a dissertation on the differences He put on record the existence Zadokites and the Rabbanites.
of the Sect as opposed to the Rabbanites,

and gave

certain striking

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER SCHECHTER

illustrations of their teachings

463

purpose.

KHpn

to

which he deemed sufficient for this Then Dr. Biichler remembers that Anan interprets mean a synagogue, and as it ccdi bear this interpretation
it

with the Karaites

does stand in our

Fragment

for

a place of

worship, and thinks his case proved.

But as a
also

fact,

K>npD in the
altar,

Fragment,

at least

where mention

is

made

of the

can,

as in the Bible, only

mean

a sanctuary, with an altar and sacrifice,

Even the Karaites and certain Rabbanites (see Horowitz, Nnp^ny NnsDin, IV. lo. 52, 56, and V. 26, 33, where
the whole of the literature bearing on the subject
their desire to
is

not a synagogue.

given),

who

in

have certain laws regarding Levitical purity or tithes and reverential behaviour extended also to the Synagogue, have
occasionally explained tJ'npD to

mean

this institution,

never speak
All they say

of
is

it

as the [ytpo without

any further

specification.

that

tnpD should include

call
it

also the place of worship of the

fnpiD, whilst our Fragment speaks simply of a L"npD without any further definition, and hence it can only mean a sanctuary which has also an altar and sacrifices.
it may in this connexion be remarked that it is not impossible that the differences alluded to by our Fragment relate to the question of nnm on, which, according to Geiger (onOND nvi3p Berhn, 1877, p. 163), formed an ancient difference between the

Diaspora, but they never

Perhaps

Sadducees and the Samaritans on the one hand, and the Pharisees on the other.

The

controversy turned, according to Geiger,

about the words

^mn, which the opponents of the Pharisees read with a Mappik, but of which it is clear that the Book of Jubilees
n-i,nt:

(3. 10)

had the same reading (see Ronsch, Das Buck der Jubilaen,
Considering the close connexion of the Fragment with
of Jubilees,
in
it

p. 515).

the

Book
I

was more

likely that

it

was

this difference

which he had
Sect.

view in his accusation of the opponents of his must state, however, that this h3'pothesis of Geiger is still

a contested point (see

p. 360).

D. Hoffmann,

Das Buck
Purity,

Leviiiais,

I,

The

other

law
is

relating

to

Levitical

with

which

Dr. Biichler deals,

11-

one connected with no ns'OID

449),

(see T., 12,

15, r6, 17

and BR., 448 and

His remarks sound very

464

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

speaklearned, the Doctor indulging in geographical limitations, Rabbis of the school of Jamnia of the Halakic Midrash by

ing

'

and Lydda' and questioning

their early origin (see

As

far as

know,

it

is

generally supposed that

BR., 449)such Midrashim

find

invented no

new

laws,

and only endeavoured

to

a basis

in the Scriptures for

as

mere

traditions.

Halakhas current long before their period However, be this as it may, there is no
is

doubt that Dr. Buchler

like the higher criticism

the plain

meaning of our
as taught

much occupied with what looks of the Talmud that he has no eye for The real difference between passage.
so

the Halakah

by our Fragment and that by other

Schools, is not the question of degrees of nsrDIU, but of ^r.S nsovo, which, according to the latter, attaches itself only to a movable
tent
5.

made
and

Met, of certain stuffs (see Maimonides, Hilkot Turn' at

authorities given there in the commentaries), whilst,
it

12,

according to the former (the Fragment),

extends also to a regular

clay, as in the case

house made up
of nyn:;
cf.

of stones,

beams

(of

wood) and

nsDit:, in which the iDvm D^^nxi n^vy

all

{T., 12,

11.

15,

16;

Lev. 14. 45)

become
is

unclean.

The

question of the inter-

pretation of this law

discussed at length by Hadasi in his Eshkol,

Alphabeta, 290 (which was, however, not accepted by the later This, however, does see Islibhar to Num. 19. 14). Karaites
;

not preclude the possibility that some ancient sect interpreted the law of ^r.N nsriVJ in a similar way.

The

next three pages {BR., 449-52) of Dr. Buchler's article are

'

taken up with the argument to prove that our Fragment is not Considering the contradictory and confusing nature Dosithean
'.

pick holes into of the Dosithean documents, it is very easy to attempting to identify this Sect with any other of any argument to have some the constitutions and laws of which we happen
'
'

more

distinct information.
it.

But, as a

fact, I

have never

tried to

identify

What I have said is that, 'contradictory as these documents may be in other respects, they offer the one or the
suggest, if not other traces of the characteristics of our Sect which descent from our Sect which should an identity with, at least the

be noted here'

(5., xxii).

And

these traces will be clear to any

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER SCHECHTER

one
in spite of all attempts to obliterate

465

them.

The Zadokite
is

claims are the same with both Sects.

feature of our

The

Solar Calendar

Fragment

in spite of everything said to the contrary.

Certain marriage laws agree again in the main with the more
strict

Dosithean ones, which

laws.
If they

is

also the case with regard to the

in every particular

Sabbath

do not agree

and

offer

no

more than reminiscences suggestive of

to the defective state of our MS.,

identity,

it is

to

be ascribed

on the one hand, and the lack of accurate information and absolute ignorance of Jewish law and Jewish doctrine on the part of those who wrote about the Dositheans on the other hand.

Another objection of Dr. Biichler

in

is

thai the

Sabbath laws
'

our Fragment,

if

derived from the

Book

of Jubilees

would

naturally have been arranged in the

same

or a similar order as

Jubilees have them' {BJ^., 451), as well as his other objection that a certain law is missing from our Fragment, are entirely

re-

the consideration of the peculiar, defective, confused character of our Fragment pointed out above, which we need not repeat here.

moved by

On

the other hand,

itself

Book

of Jubilees

it should be observed that the has two sets of Sabbath laws, the one in

the second and the other in the

fiftieth

chapter, which are far

their laws
like a

from agreeing, either in the order of

contents.

or

in

their

The one

in chap.

50 looks more

supplement

and suggests
laws,

that the author

had two versions of the Sabbath

both of which he incorporated in his work. It is thus not impossible that our Fragment had a third version which he followed in his composition. Perhaps we may dispose here
in
this

connexion of Dr. Biichler's note 66 to

that the

p.

452.

In

this.

word nJD^ (BJ?., 11, 1. 4) does not mean incense, but 'powder of a pounded brick', his
authority being the words xnJ^a!? isy in
If Dr. Buchler

Dr. Buchler insists

Tractate Shabbat 50 b.

seen that

had looked up the Aruk (Kohut), he would have the more ancient commentators, like R. Hananeel,
to

explamed those very words

Dr. Kohut's note to

mean

incense

(cf.

also Aruk,

and

it the same edition under the root

in the

"iDy),

and

it

is

clear

from the context

Talmud

there that this

466
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The the true interpretation against the other commentaries. this law other remarks by Dr. Biichler in the same note that
refers only to

Sabbath,
it

is,

to say the least, arbitrary.

We
'

have

a good parallel to

among

the Falashas (see

'

S., xxv).

Dr. Buchler then has a paragraph

452-7).

Rabbinic Influence {B/?., This he endeavours to prove from certain laws in which

our Fragment agrees with the Rabbinic Law.

The

reader will

all find that I faithfully gave the rabbinical references in almost

the cases cited by Dr. Buchler.

But does
?

this

prove that the Sect

accepted these laws from the Rabbis

Take

the one, for instance,

S.,

concerning the importance of the priest (see

n,

n. 22,

and

well-known BjR., 453), in which our Fragment agrees with the very old interpretation of Hillel, which only proves that this was a Halakah.
priests

But

certainly our
likely to

Sect with

its

special deference to
it

was more

have inaugurated

than their oppo-

nents.

mostly

The other Halakot to which Dr. Buchler refers concern surthe organization of the Sect and its relation to the
tribes,

rounding

which

is

certainly in

most particulars peculiar

to

the Sect, and there was

Dr. Biichler's

no need

for borrowing.
is

remark about the Ban

also irrelevant.

It will

be noticed that our Fragment never mentions the word D"in, though it may be remarked in passing that the question of the
origin
(see

and the antiquity of the Ban is by no means settled yet Dr. Aptowitzer's remarks on this subject in the July number

(191 3) of this Review, pp. 41-4). expressions in connexion with the

certain correspondence of

Ban between

the Karaite and

it from the Rabbanite sources suggests that they both derived separation as But such an exclusion and older sources.

some

our Fragment suggests has precedent enough in Ezra 10.

the words, again, that
'

8,

whilst

the saints of the

Most High have cursed

Herem, him' (T., 20, 1. 8) suggest nothing of the formula of the opponents to or the backsliders of the having described the
but
sect as
].

S33

^^ki^O

{T., 19, lb 15,

fall

16;

cf.

T.,

i,

1.

16,

and

T., 5,

20) they naturally

with him

under the curse of

nnx

of

Deut. 27. 17.

What

Dr.

Biichler

says

about the

Ijnn

ISD

{BJi.,

452,

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

n. 68),

SCHECHTER
in

467
to dis-

on which he has a long note

which he

tries

cover a sort of Oral Law, so as to

a certain passage in Anan,
is

make our Fragment

talk.

agree with

mere

If the

"ijn

is

Oral Law,

book and cannot be a "12D, On p. 455 {BR.) Dr. Blichler has a good deal to say about the Confession in T., 20, 11. 28, 29, and 30. Dr. Biichler somehow manages to correct there the text after some rabbinical
it

then

was not

in a

formula of confession, and then exclaims

'

The

author

knew

the

confession in the Liturgy of the Jews in Talmudic times, therefore

the book could not have been
fact is that the

composed before
was absolutely

then.'
illegible,

But the
so
it

MS.

in this case

is

impossible to say what the exact formula was.

fails

Indeed, Dr. Biichler

to tell us

what

his authority

was

for his filling in the

gap

in

the text.

As

it

stands,

we have only references

its

to

it

in Lev. 26. 40,

which undoubtedly has also

echo

in

Nehemiah.

On

p.

465, Dr. Biichler speaks of the

cites so

phenomenon
law
(

of our

Fragment that the Sect

much

of the Prophets, and even

the Hagiographa, in the interpretation of the

Halakah).
detects

Dr. Biichler thinks that this cannot be Sadducean,

in
in
it

and

Karaitic influence.

As

usual with Dr. Biichler's discoveries

facts in

this

Fragment, he only repeats

more or
in

less

para-

phrastic language, to which I

(,see
D''N"'3J

drew attention
Dr.
Biichler

my

Introduction

S.,

xv).

However,

if

had

read

Chayes's

niin,

and

especially Weiss's
76,

Zur

Geschichte der jiidischen

this feature of

Traditio?t,
illustrating

IV, p.

he would have seen that

Halakahs byprophetic matter is not exclusively Karaitic,

Rabbis employed
this

and

that the

method

to a

much
this

larger

extent than generally thought by their opponents,

and
It is

was the

reason that

I laid

no

stress

on the

fact at all.

even more

remarkable that

in the case

quoted above, regarding the question

of slaughtering,
it is

whether

fish are subject to the rite

the

Rabbi
it

who
is

supports his thesis by a verse in the Hagiographa, whilst

the heretic

who

protests against

its

use in proving legal cases.

When
no

Dr. Biichler at the end of the paragraph quotes

'The

strange Derashot',

on pp.

7,

14,

and

21,

and says

that

he knows

parallel to this peculiar interpretation except in

Anan's writing,

VOL.

IV.

K k

'

468
I

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

if

should be obliged indeed

Dr. Biichler could point out a

passage in

Anan which would form

if

a parallel to such a Derashah.

the trouble
this

Moreover,
version

Dr. Biichler had taken

to

examine

(T., 19), running parallel with

this

page, he would
it

have found that

whole Derashah

is

omitted there, and

later scribe.

is

probably only a mere interpolation by some

Dr. Biichler comes
Sacrifices
'.

now

to the question
will

of

'Temple and
offers

As every reader
Fragment

convince himself, he
refutation.

no

argument which, in any way, needs a

his

Having made up
of a Samaritan
'

mind
that

that the

is

of late date, he endeavours to

show

the Fragment
in the

describes conditions

colony somewhere

seventh century.

He

is

fully

conscious

of the difficulties of assigning

our Fragment to
is

Samaritan

author

the frequent reference to the Prophets

'.

quite sufficient

to exclude a Samaritan

But he sees no
'

possibility of accounting

in

any other way

for the

worship of sacrifices in the community

'

of emigrants in of Dr. Biichler

Damascus
is

(p. 459).

This confession on the part

the whole theory,

enough

to

condemn

and needs

no

further

comment.

And when

he further describes them as

'Arab Bedouins', and

that special warning
is

finds support for his theory in the fact

given to them that they should not defile

themselves with creeping animals, honey, and animals living in

water,

and

that fish

and

locusts require special treatment, which,

according to them, clearly indicates that the settlements were in

places where such animals were to be found,

and were used

as

food (see ^i?., 461), then we can only say that Dr. Biichler
overreaches himself here, sinking
higher criticism.
to the

lowest depths of the

Does not Dr.

Biichler believe that the Halakot

relating to these very cases scattered over the tractates Hullin^

Bekorot, Ke?'itot, Okezin, and elsewhere testified to their Bedouin

origin
?

We may

say the

same thing about the matter following

offer

in the next

two pages, which

nothing but wild guesses not

established by any argument worth quoting or refuting.

The

next paragraph

is

headed

'

Settlement around Damascus

(pp. 461-7).

This long paragraph contributes nothing to the

understanding of the text or to the clearing up of the history of

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

the Sect.

-SCHECHTER

469

Dr. Biichler says,

'

Read

the picture which Gratz draws

of the Jewish tribes in Arabia shortly before

will

Mohammed, and you

of the existence

be struck by the naturally close

parallels with the passage

quoted.

But

in the first century

nothing is

known
'

of such tribes, especially around

I

Damascus

{BR., 462).

Now,

had read Gratz before Dr. Buchler gave us this sage advice, and I read him again and still fail to see that it offers the slightest parallel
to the constitution of the

Damascus

colony,

its

aspirations,

and

its

aims.

It is rather

amusing

to see Dr. Buchler

working himself up
1

into a regular moral indignation about the contents of T.,

7,

2,

11.

6,

and

{BR

462).

Dr. Buchler would perhaps have become less

declamatory had he been familiar with the contents of Berakot

3 b,

where he

will

find

something

similar,

though

different

in

wording, the latter having more historical embellishments.

Dr. Buchler has then a great deal
to

say about the np3

{BR., 463, 464), but no explanation of the obscure office is forthcoming; nor does his remark {BR., 462) on the strange

mriD

{T., 9,

1.

21) explain anything.

Nehemiah
but
in
its

12.

45 (mCJ'J2
in the

nnnan)

offers

something of a
to

parallel,

meaning

Fragment has

be taken locally as given

full

my notes.

Dr. Biichler

has also nearly a

page about the question of the annulment

of vows, where he speaks of a specimen of a very strange interpretation of

to

Num.

30,

which

is

offered

on

p. 16,

which
Lines
p.

it
i

seems

him has been misunderstood

T.,

(see p. 465).
cites

and
465,

on

16,

which Dr. Biichler

in

note 104,

in

connexion with the preceding matter now missing, has no bearing

upon the question of vows.

shows
this sufficiently.

The

reference to the

Book

of Jubilees

difference

finds that there is no between the law of annulment as taught by the Sect

Now, Dr. Buchler

I

and

that as taught

by the Rabbis.
I

must say

that I understand

Dr. Buchler even less than

I

did

the Fragment.
differences,

As a

fact,

have laid very

little

stress
is

on these
'

distinctly

declaring that the text

so

defective in that place that the

'

meaning must be considered doubtful

ence would consist in

{S., p. xviii, n. 20).

Yet,
differ-

in spite of Dr. Buchler, there are differences.

this, that

The main

the Text confined the annulment

k 2

'

47

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ni:^?^

of VOWS to the case of a

tradition.

'21, which

is,

of course, against

Dr. Buchler has another

the

full

paragraph, on the

'

Language of
have myself

Book'

{BjR. 467).

As Dr. Buchler mentions,

Dr. Buchler finds
is

directed the attention of the students to expressions pointing to

later date (see S., xi).

my

explanation pre-

carious,

which

it

certainly

not, in consideration of the fact that the

MS. passed through

different hands.

different phases

and probably was touched by

n''^ {S.,
1,

To

the

Arabism mnn^'n
it

n. 4) I

have

also referred,

and have remarked that

may perhaps be
will allow

ascribed

to the influence of
gives another
list

some Falasha

scribe.

Dr. Biichler, however,

of Arabisms,

and he

me

to

doubt
'

his authority in this matter.

else is to

"When Dr. Buchler exclaims,

How
God
Wpn
only

be explained

3.

21 ^xprn^

in

Qnb bn DV'i

"liJ'X^

as

promised them?'

(j5i?.,

469, n. 118), I

must remark

that
is

does not mesin promise but confirm, namely, inn^, which

missing here.

When

Dr.

Buchler says that the most striking

is

feature of the language, however,

the continuous

employment

of whole phrases and sentences of the Bible, the like of which we

find in

none of the
a

literary

productions of the pre-Christian, preI

Talmudic, and Talmudic times (see BR., 467),

to say that he
is

should like only

Cf.
:

little

too dogmatic in his statements.

p.

Weiss, njli'cn "^^7 tiSU'D,

'

53,

where we read the following

The Mishnah
to
this

likes to

make
If Dr.

use of the language of the Bible

to give a

and whole
trations

phrases,'

and then proceeds

number

of

illus-

fact.

Buchler would further carefully

examine, for instance, the wording of the well-known story of

King Jannai (Kiddushin 66 a) and the dirges in Mo'ed Katan 25 b, he will find that the employment of phrases and sentences from the Nor is Bible in Talmudic times was not so rare as he believes.
indeed the language of Ben Sira of such a contentious character
'

To the majority of scholars {BR., 467) as Dr. Buchler thinks. this point is not any longer contentious
'

'.

^\^lat Dr.

Buchler further has to say about the historical part

in detail.

{BR., 470-77) need not be treated here

He

certainly
'

does not elucidate a single point either with regard to the

man

REPLY TO DR. BUCHLER

of scoffing
'

SCHECHTER
'

471
or to the
'

',

or to the appearance of the

',

Only One
'

',

penitence of Israel

or to the

meaning of the fence-builders

T., 2

and

similar obscurities.

In his analysis of
easier

and

3,

his task

would

have been a
the

much

one

if

he would have thought more of

all

Book

of Jubilees, which permeates

places.

the contents of these

certainly

pages,

and other

But

must

admire

his

imaginative faculty
native country

when he speaks
left

of the immigrants from their

who

behind

their property

and income derived

from

it,

and knows exactly

that 'only few

may have brought

further

money

with them and bought fields',

and knows
of

that

'there were proselytes

among them, some

',
'

whom may

have

joined the Sect in the hope of support

the special reason for emphasizing the

and thinks

that this

was

duty to love one's brother,

(6, 20,

and

to support the poor, the

needy

and the proselyte

'

21)

had, therefore, especially to be mentioned {BR., 477).

I

Of course
parallel

hardly need say that

7.

all this

is

nothing more than an echo of

Jubilees

20,

20.

2,

and

36. 3

and 8

(to

which some

may
This

also
is

be found

in the

Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs).

evident from the fact that these positive

humane

laws

in our

Fragment are followed by a warning against

again, that

fornication.

The
iny"l

fact,

we have here

liT'nN (brother)

instead of

(neighbour) points also to the

Book

of Jubilees.

But

it

was

not, of course, in the plan of Dr. Biichler's interpretation to

draw
our

especial

attention

to

the

Pseudepigraphic

character

of

Fragment.

The same
graph,
diffuse,

thing

may be observed

of Dr. Biichler's next paraIt

is

'Authenticity of the Book' {BR., 477-81).

very
the

and

offers
:

no

real instruction, but

we may quote here

following passage

'As there

is

no statement

in

Jewish literature to confirm the

report of the Fragment, what could be

truth of
its

adduced

to confirm the

contents

Or

is

the whole

book an invented
the district of

story to

prove the origin of a Sect that lived

in the seventh or eighth century, to worship, constitution,

in

Damascus

and

to

defend

its

peculiarities as
list

and

religious law ?

Could then the

472
of the sins

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

blamed on the opponents suggest the time and the
?
'

character of the author

{BR., 478).

What
that
'

Dr. Biichler puts here as a query becomes in the next

paragraph a certainty with him, and he comes to the conclusion

our Fragment
is

nothing else but a construction of history

of his Sect, invented to

early times,

show

that the Sect has already existed in

and

that the differing practice of the

Jews was wrong

in note

and followed the teaching of an unworthy, rebellious teacher, and

of a

company

that was punished

:

by God'; whilst

146

{BR., 483) he adds

'

It is

not improbable that also the sacrifices

existence, but an invented detail'

and the Temple were not in

is

This
satis-

the conclusion of Dr. Biichler, after he proves to his

own

faction that the Sect

knows nothing about Jerusalem, &c. {BR., 481).

at the disposal

He

even invents a new Book of Jubilees which was

of the author of this

Fragment

{BR., 480), of which, practically,

we

know
was

nothing, but the fact that a copy of the

Book

of Jubilees

to

be found

in the library of the

will,

Academy.
believe,
suffice

The

preceding remarks

to

show the

fallacy of Dr. Biichler's

argument

in its

main

points, whilst the

student will further find that the points not touched upon in this
refutation are irrelevant to the question of date,
clusive.

and never conwhich, as

To

enter into a further discussion with regard to these

wall carry this article to a length
I

unconvincing details

already indicated at the opening of these pages,

desirable

consider un-

and superfluous.

But the reader

will

be better able to
if

see through the deceptive nature of Dr. Biichler's argument

will
drift

he

bear in

mind

the following facts plainly

shown by the whole

will

of his criticism.

Studied carefully,

it

be found that

Dr. Biichler constantly confuses the Sadducees with the Zadokites,

against which I distinctly warned the student.

He

further ignores,

or

is

unable to conceive, the peculiar character of the MS.

I

forming, as

have pointed

out, a

mere

extract or a faulty

and
most

crude condensation of older sources.

He

also

assumes

in

places that a custom or usage mentioned in a work dates exactly

from the time when

this

work was compiled.

must further

'

REPLY TO
point out that

DR.

Bl'CHLER

SCHECHTER

473

when Dr.
to

Biichler maintains that according to

my

exposition, 'also the time of the foundation of the Sect in the

year 176 B.C.,

is

be taken as exact' (see

me.

i?i?.,

477-8), he

certainly misrepresents

Anybody who

carefully read

my

Introduction will find that I had

my

serious misgivings about

the determination of the period of the beginning of the Sect.

What he
recorded
w^hich
that

thinks of

is

probably
I

my

explanation of the

first

lines

of the Fragment, where

gave the date of 176, but distinctly

my

doubts as to the correctness of the reading there,

doubts, in addition to other reasons,

practically
left

made me

declare
(see

'we are and

without any
all

definite

date'

S., xxii

xxiii).

But worse than

deal

this is the display of his

utter

inability
it

to

with

production

of this

character.

For

shows

his incapacity of entering

its

into the spirit of our

falling

Fragment, forming a species of

range
of

own, not

within the

Dr.

Btichler's

acquaintance.
to

Otherwise

he

would
of this

certainly

be more sensible

the

peculiar

character

document,
planations

and
as
to

would not
declare
later
it

be
a

satisfied

by such

cheap ex-

mere

forgery, or a construction

of

history

of a

date.

Can
last

Dr.

Biichler

point

out

in

the the

whole

literature

produced

between the

composition
last

of

Mishnah and the very

production of the

Gaon,

Rabbinic or Karaitic, Halakic or Haggadic, devotional or polemical,

poetical or historical, a single passage resembling this
in
style,

Fragment
?

diction or terminology,

or

manner of

attack

Any
litera-

student with something of a familiarity with ancient Jewish

ture would at once have been struck by the strange character of this
text,

and recognized

that

it

belongs to a class of composition to

writings of the
is

which none of the Hebrew

our era offer a parallel.
It

first

ten centuries of

this strikingly strange character

it

and the

impossibility of assigning

to

any department of

literature

known, which must lead the student

to look to other fields than

those accessible to us from the Rabbinic or Karaitic writings.

I

know

of nothing

similar to Dr.

Btichler's
*

except Bacharach's long discussion of the

in his D'^iyiD^ rr\\

way of argument Book of Jubilees

which he declared to be a Karaitic forgery,

474
but
it

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

has at least the merit of showing a very intimate acquain-

tance with Rabbinic Hterature.

In conclusion,
general remark.

may be

permitted to
I

make

the following
the following

In

my

Introduction

uttered

words

'
:

The

condition of our text precludes certainty and invites

difference

of opinion.'

This difference

of opinion

came, as

many different reviews, articles, and translations, which could now fill a fair-sized shelf by itself. However, this
I foretold, in

circumstance did not prevent

has appeared in
this

me

from reading most of what

less profit.

department with more or

The

only exception are

I

papers appearing serially in periodicals, as

scientific

have an inveterate objection to reading

matter in

instalments.

Another exception
mentary of
this

is

also Dr. Charles's translation

It is

and com-

Fragment.

one of the books which can wait.

But

learned through the papers of his complaint about

to let

my

refusal

him have a

facsimile of the

MS., which meant

text.

practically

second edition of the Hebrew

This was

a thing which I had to decline, not only because I was contemplating a second edition of the text,
simile,

accompanied by

full fac-

which would have given

errors

me

the opportunity of improving

privilege of editing

and correcting
texts correctly

and misprints (which

I

was the only reward which

have ever received

from

my

labours in the Genizah for nearly these last eighteen

years), but also

because

considered the new Canon of West-

minster not

fitted for

such a task.

When

Dr. Charles cabled to

me
it

for

permission to

at once, as I

understand,

it

make use of my English translation I granted knew that he was in need of it, and as far as From a friend who did do him much good.
I

made

a careful study of Dr. Charles's edition

learn that he

derived a great deal of benefit from

my

notes and Introduction,

copying occasionally even

question and

my

mistakes.

However, with
to deal in a
full

this

many

others besides I

hope D.V.

work

on the Zadokite Fragments which

of the manuscript.

will

contain also a

facsimile

New

York.

S.

Schechter.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES TO GORFINKLE'S

EDITION OF MAIMONIDES' EIGHT CHAPTERS'
'

The

present writer had just completed an annotated translation

of Maimonides' Shemonah Ferakwi, when he was informed that

a similar work was already

in the press in
'

America.

seen Dr. Gorfinkle's scholarly edition of

I have now The Eight Chapters

',

and

his accurate rendering of the text

makes the publication of

comparing
his notes with

another version quite superfluous.

On

my own,
piled a

found that

I cited

more

parallels
I

and contrasts between

have accordingly com-

Maimonides and
list

Aristotle than did he.

of supplementary notes in the hope that they

service to students of the Feraki/n.
I

may

prove of some

quote from

Welldon's
1897) and

translation

of

the

Nichomachean

Ethics

(London,

Hammond's

translation of the psychological treatises

(London, 1902).

Chapter
P. 38,
1.

I.

6.

Aristotle similarly maintains 'Numerically they [the

vital principles] are

one and the same

they are

part,

although in their
different'.

mode

of expression
I.

manifold and

De

Jiiveniute, ch.

note

2.

Another

striking passage

where Aristotle draws an

analogy between the physical and psychical nature of

man

is

Eth. Nic. Ill,

P. 39, note 2

7.

= p.
is

9 of

explanation

offered

No satisfactory Hebrew Text, note 9. why Maimonides speaks of man, ass

'

and horse
'

'

in

one sentence, and continues immediately with

',

man,

ass,

and palm

and why so many of the Hebrew manu'

scripts

and editions presuppose 475

eagle

'

in place of

'

horse

'.

476

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

solution
',

The
'

is

perhaps as follows

The

correct reading

is

palm

Arab, al-nahla.

This word was incorrectly read or

copied as al-nasr [hence the

Hebrew reading
;
'

IC'jn]

which

it

resembles closely in the original script

ruption
reference

then a further cor'.

took
to
'
:

place
the
'

to
'

al-faras,

the

horse

jNIaimonides'

statements

palm may be compared The fundamental principle of

is
',

with
life

Aristotle's

in

plants

appears to be a kind of soul, and this

the only principle

de Aninia,
I,

which animals and plants have

in

common

5 (end)

and 'Plants have no other capacity

one'
{ibid., II,
I.

of soul than this nutritive

2).

P. 40, note

The Talmud
Cf.

also mentions the soul as nourishing

Cf.

the body, but rather in a spiritual sense.

P. 42, note
I.

Berakot 10 a.

'Imaginations are for the

most part

false.'

De

Anitfia, III, 3.

Chapter
P. 47, note
3. its

II.

Aristotle

points

out
better
I.

that

'the

nutritive

part
in

performs

own
Cf.

function

during

sleep

than

a working state'. P. 48, note

[i. e.

De

Sofnno, ch.
III,

2.

AIo?-eh,

27:

'This

second

perfection

of the Intellect] certainly does not include

any action

or

good conduct.'
1.

P. 50,

ff.

Cf.

'

Happy
Sagacity

conjecture
is

is

an

irrational

and hasty

process

species

of happy conjecture.'

Eth. Nic, VI, 10.

1.

19.

Cf.

'The
So

principle of Nutrition
virtue.'
Ibid.., I,

....

possesses

no

natural share in
P. 51,
1.

human

13: VI, 13.

ff.

Aristotle:

'There are other things which are

not naturally pleasant, but which

come

to

be so in consequence

either of physical defects, or custom, or depraved natural tastes.'

Ibid.,

VII,
I.

6.

P. 52, note

Maimonides' interpretation of the verse

Lazarus,
f.

is

deII,

fended

by

Ethics

of Jiidaisni

(Eng.

trans.),

pp. 124, 271

GORFINKLE

EDITION OF MAIMONIDES

COHEN

477

Chapter IV.
P. 54, note
r.
it

Philo
'

also

adopted the doctrine of the Mean,

in

although

was clothed by him

a religious garb of his

own

'.

Drummond,

Fhilo-Judaens, II, 314.

in

Traces of

its

influence

have also been found

Ben

Sira

cf.

Hughes, Ethics ofJewish

Apocryphal Literature,
P. 55,
1.

p. 34.

6.

Aristode denies the existence of

men
them
is

insensible to

pleasure.

He
is

says:

'We

never find people whose love

in
is

of

pleasures
it

deficient,

and whose delight

less

than

ought to be.

Such

insensibility to pleasures

not human.'

Eth. Nic, III, 14.

P. 57,
1.

19.

Aristotle says of the

man who

fears

nothing that
Ill,
10),

he

is

either a

madman

or insensible to pain

{Unci.,

and

in the

subsequent chapter he distinguishes

five

spurious

forms of courage.
P. 5S, note
I.

Cf. also

Sukkah 52a: 'The

web, but
finally

evil

propensity in
like cart-

man

is

first

like a spider's

becomes

ropes.'

note

2.

Similarly Aristotle declares

'

Accordingly the

differ-

ence between one training of the habits and another from early
days
is

not a light matter, but

II, I.
I.

is

serious, or rather, all-important.'

Eth. Nic,
P. 59, note

Aristotle,

on the other hand, maintains that

IV,
is

avarice
P. 60,
1.

is

incurable.

Ibid.,

3.

18.

This distinction
'

also pointed out by Aristode,

who
II, 8.

maintains,

It

is

in
is

some

cases

the

deficiency and

in

others the excess which

more opposed
of

to the

Mean

'.

Ibid.,

P. 62,

1.

6.

The mention
Cf. also the
Cf.

'

wool

'

is

probably

meant

as

a reference to the Sufis, the

note
P. 63,
1.

Muhammadan
in Eth.

ascetics.
II, 9.

3.

same thought
II,

Nic,

10.

Moreh,

39

'The

statutes of the

Law do

not

impose burdens or excesses as are implied

a hermit or pilgrim, and the
believe that the
like.
. .
.

in the service of

There are persons who

exertion

Law commands much

and great

pain,

478

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

will

but due consideration

show them

their error.'

See also

H.

Deof, III,
18.

I.

1.

That man

is

essentially a social animal

is

emphasized

in

Moreh,
1.

II, 40, III,

27

Eth. Nic, IX,

9.

P. 64,

31.
for

In Moreh, III, 48, Maimonides gives a different

the

reason

prohibited

foods,

viz.

their

unwholesome
Shabbat 86

character.

P. 65,

1.

I.

The Rabbinical
reference
4.
is

interdict
a.

is

found

in

a,

Ketubbot 65 b, Niddah 17

1.

2.

The
19.

to

the

Commentary on Mishnah

Sanhedrin, VII,
P. 66,
1.

On

the variant R. Dimi for R. Iddai cf Bacher,

Agada der pal. Amorder, II, 219. Cf also Dei/t. Rabba, P. 68, note i.

ch. VII, 8.

Chapter V.
P. 69,

1.

3.

See Moreh, III,

8,

and

also Ge7i.

Rabba, ch.

XXXIV,

10

'The wicked
Cf.

are in the power of their desires, but the

righteous have their desires in their power.'

1.

16.

Moreh,

III, 27

'The well-being of the Soul can

In
cases
is

only be obtained after that of the body has been secured.'

1.

20.

Aristotle

likewise warns

us,

'

all

we must
and

especially

be

on

our guard against what

pleasant

against pleasure, as

we

are not impartial judges of pleasure.'

Eth. Nic,
P. 70,
1.

II, 9.

27.

Aristotle

says:

'The mass

of

men
the

present an
life

absolutely slavish appearance, as choosing

beasts.'
Ibid., I, 3.

of brute

P. 71,1. 26. to attain to

Zi.

Moreh,

I,

34: 'Consequently he who wishes

human

perfection must therefore study logic, next

the various

branches of mathematics in their proper order,

lastly

then physics, and

P. 72, note 4.

metaphysics.'

Aristotle's saying
is

might be compared: 'AmuseEth. Nic, VII,

8.

ment, being a relaxation,

a recreation.'

GORFINKLE'S edition of MAIMONIDES

COHEN

479

Chapter
P. 74,
1.

VI.

r.

Cf.

Eth. Nic, Book VII.

Chapter VII.
Heading.

The term
the
Cf.

hijab,

'veil,
is

contemplates
theology.

Deity,

Koran, Sura

man borrowed from Muhammadan XLII 'It is not fit for man that
barrier',

through which

God
a

should speak with him but by vision or from behind

veil.'

P. 8i, note

5.

See also Mekilta (ed. Friedmann),

p.

2 a,

and

Tanna

d' be

Eliyahu Zuia,

ch.

VIII

(ed.
I,

Friedmann),

p. 186.

P. 82, note 4.

See especially Moreh,

t,-^.

note

7.

Cf.

Moreh,

I,

4,

where

it is

explained that

see 'refers

to perception by the intellect,

and by no means
'.

to perception

with the eye as in

its literal

meaning

Chapter VIII.
P. 85, note
2.

Cf. also

Moreh,

I,

34

'

He
first

is

not endowed with

perfection at

the beginning, but at

fact.'

possesses perfection

only in potentia, not in

P. 86,
1.

10.

For Maimonides, astrology

Ibid., Ill, 37.

is

merely a branch of

witchcraft.
P. 87,
1.

4.

Cf.

Moreh,
is

III, 17,

Third Theory.
for the

P. 88,
'

1.

20.

There

Rabbinic authority

view that the

I.

marrying a certain

woman

'

is

determined.

See

Abrahams,

The Book of Delight, pp. 172-83.

P. 90, note
2.

See also de Ajiima,

Cf.

I, 3,

II, 4.

P. 100,
P.
I or,

1.

16.
2. 2.

Moreh,

I,

20.

note note
4.

See Bacher, Z^/V Bibelexegese des Moses Maimufti,

p. 25,

note

The source
et seq.

of Maimonides' image

is

perhaps the

reply of R. Joshua b.

Hananya

to the

Emperor.

Huiiin 59 b

(bottom)

Birmingham.

A. Cohen.

NOTES ON THE POEM OF ELHANAN BEN

SHEMARYAH
This poem from the Genizah, which was published by Davidson

JQR., New Series, IV, 53-60, is of especial interest bewe possess Gaonic Responsa addressed to Elhanan, nothing was known in print until now of his own literary proin the

cause, though

ductions.
this

For
is

it

is

hardly subject to doubt that the writer of

poem

identical with the correspondent of the last

The meagre
lected by

data which
in

Geonim. we possess of Elhanan have been col^"J'JN,

me

my

[Nn^'5

pp. 13-14 (comp. also

ib., p.

47),

among them
p.

being the fact that in a

poem by Solomon Ibn

T'Ej'n

Gabirol to Nissim
37)
it

ben Jacob

(in

Brody-Albrecht,

nyc',

is

stated ID'Jn

pn^N^
is

d: DI^D'I,

and

ventured the

suggestion that this reference

at the

perhaps to our Elhanan.

is

But

same time

pointed out that this identification

impaired

by the consideration that Elhanan was older than Nissim, for while the former was still ordained by Sherira, with whom he stood in mutual correspondence, the latter's relations were
restricted to

Hai

alone.

Davidson would

like

to

reverse this

between Nissim and Elhanan, and construing yin in the sense of teacher declare Nissim a pupil of Elhanan. To prove his point he refers to the variant reading in Mo'ed Katan 25 b,
relation
\yir\

nns
is

in3'':in

nyn, instead of

ij'':n

nnx

injijin

nyn.

But

this

variant
nV2:i'

certainly corrupt as

proved by the continuation ip^DX

n''^, apart from the fact that the form [jy pn does "j'^jn not occur elsewhere in the talmudic literature,^ and that ro'in usually denotes surname (comp. Levy, s.v.). Besides, at another

place in the
'

same poem Solomon Ibn Gabirol employs

the

word

Jastrow, to

whom

Davidson

refers, is inaccessible to

me.

481

482

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in the sense of pupil (ver. 6
:

7:n

)y:m n^ns

X2

np^l

comp.

^loreover, Elhanan seems furthermore my JSITp "C^'.ii, p. 43)and not the head of an to have been a pupil in Kairowan^ the allusion in It is therefore most probable that academy.

Ibn Gabirol's poem

is

to another Elhanan.^

The

contents of the

poem

are sketched briefly

refers

by Davidson,
contem-

pp. 54-5.

However, that Elhanan

to

certain

from the poraneous events cannot be gathered with certainty

contents, although
fact that
it

is

not impossible, and notwithstanding the

in all the lands

Elhanan sojourned

which suffered

at

the hands of Hakim.*

Elhanan's poem, like

the musive style,

many

others of this type,

is

written in

and Davidson has noted down But Elhanan

also

the corresponding

verses of the Bible.

paraphrases talmudic-

should have paid midrashic expressions, to which likewise Davidson is in place, but "^^VO, attention. Thus, 1. 12, neither i?J(P nor ^IVp

and

Ni'^n, for Elhanan had in mind 13 read N>*??n instead of interprets Deut. 30. 12-13 as follows the saying of R. Johanan who n>J2^2 vh (Erubin 55 a) x^^ L^b niyo sbi nn ^d:i xvrsn ab s^n have again a paran^nann abl cnnnoa N^toh N^. 11. 15-16 we
1.
:

phrase of an assertion by

Raba ('Abodah

zarah 19a):

'li'^nn

ma

IT!
1.

'bv

^,iD3^i

c^j:nc u-N^n n^nna

r.

im
5.

'bv 3^n3^ d^di-io. To

22 comp. Lev.
5,

ch. 19
p.

beginning (see also Midrash Samuel,

Cant.
r.

ch.

ed.

Buber,

57;

11):

D^^n^n VDViip
.

mn'^n p^nv
'IDI
1.

mm nm

^cs nn ba^^^ 'n

^1:^^'

ni^^^ nninty

nmyni
3

24

comp.

the Law), and to (this verse accordingly refers to Azariah the well-knovTO maxim of R. Eliezer b.
parallel passages)
pn-j'Vj'
:

(Hagigah
ppDiyi
2

b and

p^^ nn^
i^s

"\21 l^t^CJ
r,i2iDN "bv:!

mr.cx
I

r,',-:iDS

D^cnn n^cbn

This

derive from Hai's

mJN ^na
3

Responsum .Harkavy, Stud. u. Mitt., IV, 2) ^JK^ni mix nncc- -i"c ;n pn^x -^"^ bi<y y": irnx ps-J

Neither can Elhanan

b.

Hushiel, Hananel's brother, be meant here,

since he

was

already advanced in years

when he came

to

Kairowan (see

my

|S"iTp "'w'JK, p. 13) and

*

was

likewise older than Nissim.

146,

Comp. RJ., XLVIII,

and the passages

cited there.

POEM OF ELHANAN BEN SHEMARYAH

'1D1

POZNANSKI
1"i?f :
:

483

niina. 1. 33 read perhaps

^1V instead of

Elhanan

reproaches here those

who

'teach without understanding anything

nt

themselves' (comp. Sotah 22a: ab^ n"n

iTTir^l

n^'-Dn Q-^bbn

D''m

>:>

nsmn? ]:'<:r\), and this will agree well with the continuation, when they are asked concerning many things in the 1. 34 Torah they become stupid (l^S'iJ, comp. hereon Berakot 63 b: i:^Ni2 Tjw Dnn n-n^i i^ni:i n^h thd d'^-j'succ' n^n my n^i)
'
:

and are considered

allusion to the fate of

as strangers (to the

Law)

'.

1.

43 bears an
a)

Hananiah

b.

Teradyon ('Abodah zarah 18

instead of Q"!??
i^N3
pn:>*"i

iiNn ns* fnn in^vni

1.

nmcr
i

'/"'nnn

ini-:^^^ ri"D3 ini^isi invs'-an.

58 we should probably read

to p. Taanit II,
^3:
(fol.

Onsx
a,
1.

and comp.

it

65

41):
r.,

b'C^

n2X psn

nnr:n

^y -lUV (comp. also Ber.

ed.

Theodor,

p. 513).

Samuel Poznaxski.
^Varsaw.

VOL.

IV.

LEARNING AND TEACHING

iNthecurrentvolumeof this Review,
in his note

IN

THE OPEN
Professor Krauss,

AIR IN PALESTINE
p.

iii

ff.,

on the word
For

JT'Jiy:,

incidentally refers to the question

in the

whether the rabbis of Talmudic times studied and taught

open

air.

his evidence,

he quotes his

full article

in Lewy's

Festschrift

on the vineyard

in

Jamnia, and his Archaeologie, III,

205.

As

neither this work, nor the article mentioned dealt with

the general question, I

may be permitted

to refer again to the

very instructive information in Talmudic sources on studying in

the open
air,

and

to discuss

here a few pertinent statements

which may

assist students of Palestinian

archaeology in solving

the interesting problem concerning the vineyard in Jamnia.

R. Johanan

b.

Zakkai taught

in

Jerusalem on the Temple

mount
must

in the

shade of the walls of the Temple.^

Hillel's

One
b.
is

of his

former fellow-students in
also

school,
air

Jonathan
;

'Uzziel,

have studied in the open

a) that,

for

it

reported

(Sukkah 28
flying over

when he was

learning
fire

Torah, every bird

surrounding him.^

him was burnt by the heavenly

in

On

the

steps of the

Temple mount, ben-Zoma was once so

mystical

greatly absorbed

thoughts

that

he did not greet

R. Joshua

b.

Hananiah.^

In the gate of R. Joshua's house, four of

his disciples sat

and discussed some questions (Tos. Berakot IV,

his disciples sat in the

18);
in

and R. Tarfon and

shade of a dove-cot

Jamnia discussing a
'

biblical subject.^

R. Jose b. Halaftha sat

66.

Pesahim 26 a;

p.

'Abodah zarah

III,
I,

43

b,

1.

See Bacher, Agada der

Baraita in Hagigah 15 a

Taniiaitcn,
;

124,

i.

2 *

Tos.

II,

p. II,

77

a,

b
p.

Genes, rab.

2. 4.

Tos. Berakot IV, 16

2.

Mekhilta on Exod. 14. 22,

31 b; Midr. Psalms

LXXVI,

485

486
in the

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

market
(of Sepphoris),

and expounded

to a

matrona and
R. Eleazar
his cloak

her husband a detail referring to the messianic times.^

b.

Pedath

studied in the lower

market of Sepphoris, while

;

lay in the

upper market ('Erubin 54 b)

sat

as there were trees planted

in that
b.

market/ he may have

under one of them.

R. Judah

R. Jannai was so greatly absorbed in his study that he did not

notice that his cloak

disciples

had slipped (from

it,

his shoulders)

when

his

drew

his attention to

he pointed
47)b.

to a serpent

guarding

his cloak (p.

Berakot V, 9

a,

1.

R- Jannai studied in the

gate of Sepphoris/

R. Simeon

Lakish studied outside the

gate of Tiberias.

"*

Naturally, the scholars

studied in the open air only during

hot,
sat

the

warm

season, and, as the sun often shone

trees.

in the in

shade of buildings or more probably of

Palestine
5
6

There were

many kinds

of shady

trees,-'

some

of which were fully

Midrash Tannaim.

ed.

Hoftmann,
I,

p. 262.

Tos. Kilaim 1,4; p.

27

a.

1.

38.
;

Genes, rab.
I.

10. 7

Num.

rab. 18. 22

Kohel.

rab. 9. 5

Bacher, Paldst.

Aynorder,
^

37,

3.
;

Genes, rab. 34. 15

Kohel. rab.

Palast.

Amor.er,

I,

346. 5.

Bacher, p. Berakot V, 9 a, 1. 45 3. 9 In Midrash ha-Gadol. on Deut. 18. 14 R. Jannai

;

and R. Johanan
there.

sat in the gate of Tiberias,

first

In the

passage D*t3^''X

is

explained to

when two astrologers also sat mean a grove, which

See also
R. Hanina and R. Hoshaiah
;

would be a more

suitable place for study than the gate of a city.

Makkot 19b according to Rashi's version:

were
-

sitting at the entrance of Jerusalem,

and raised a halakic question

see also Rabbinowicz.

The

Bible incidentally refers to the apple-tree in Cant.

in
;

2.

8.

the

cak and poplar

in I

Hosea
Ezek.
1 1
;

4. 6.

13
13
;

the terebinth, under which a prophet sat,

the olive-tree in
1

Kings

13. 14
;

Hosea
;
.

14, 7
;

Jer. 11. 16;

Psalms
in

52. ID

92.

the cedar-tree in Ezek.

7.

23 31 3 the

fir-tree (::ni3)

Hosea
;

14. 9.

No

reference
2.

is

found to the shade of the fig-tree and of

foliage of the 13 points to the breadth of the the vine b. Papa says that its fig-tree, and in Pesikt. rab. XLI, 172 b, R. Hanina vine w^as sometimes trained over a in all directions.

but Midr. Cant.

branches spread
'Krauss,

trellis

II,

229; and gave very pleasant shade.

As

to the

shade of

R. Jose b. Zimra in the apple-tree, there are contradictory statements. the apple-tree, Cant. r. 2. 3, Pesikt. 103 a, says that in the heat all flee from
for
it

has no shade

on the other hand in a passage of the Midr. Jelamdenu

in

OPEN-AIR LEARNING AND TEACHING

BUCHLER
b.

487

covered with leaves already in Adar (March-April).^"

Once when
'Arach
to the

R. Johanan

b.

Zakkai and his favourite disciple Eleazar

latter offered to

were on the way, and the

expound

master

a detail of mystical philosophy, R. Johanan dismounted from his

ass and, with
olive-tree,

his

companion,
all

sat

down on

a stone under an

and soon

the trees joined in praises for R. Eleazar's

religious

exposition."

During the

persecutions, R.

Akiba once

taught and expounded the law at his table under an olive-tree.^^

R. Jonathan
sitting

b.

Eleazar (of Sepphoris) w^as once, in the summer,

fig-tree
;

under a
figs,

when he noticed
these
instances

the flow of juice from

the ripe
derful

he called his disciples and showed them the wonIn

individual teachers
for

blessing.^^

and

exceptional

circumstances

prove nothing

the

studying or
is

teaching of the rabbis under trees.

But

different

the case
in
'^
;

of R. Hyrkanos, probably the son of R. Eliezer,'^

who had

Kefar-'etam

the

act

of nv'^n

performed under a terebinth

it is

Jellinek's li'inCH n^3 VI, 82, 27.

the last refuge in a garden

where

no other shady tree

R. Isaac

is

planted.

In Pesahim

ma
to the

R. Isaac refers to the

in

danger of sleeping under a sohtary palm-tree, and

b.

Midr. Psalms 92. 10

is

Adda

points out that the shade of the palm-tree

faraway from
and the

the tree, meaning the shade of the crown.

As
;

shade of the juniper

4,

under which Elijah

kikayon in Jonah
1

sat

in

Kings

19.

Midr. Psalms 120.

4. 10,

see the commentators.

1.

In p.
it

Adar

is

so

Rosh ha-Shanah II, 58 a, warm that an ox would

b.

22,

it

is

stated that in the

month of

like to strip his hide in the

:

shade of a

fig-tree.

In the parallel in
cold, at

Sanhedrin 18 b
lie

'In Adar, in the

in the

morning an ox

would die from

strip his hide.'

noon he would

down
a,
1.

shade of a fig-tree and

The

leaves withered after a hundred dajs, Tos. Shebiit IV, 20.

II,
i
;

" Hagigah
'2

14 b; Tos.

p. II,

77

59.

n^3 riDDD

in Coronel's

''D-lDJIp HC'Cn, p. 19 a; Derek eres XI,

p. 115-

5,

6; Epstein,
12

Dm.Tn
ntifn
:

nr^lDlpC,
13,

Tanhuma
b,

Buber

10.

Buber

refers to a parallel in "l\nTm

p.
p.

100

which adds
b,

To be
I,

in the

shade and protected from the sun.'

In

Pesahim VII, 20

1.

1,

R. Iddi reports a similar incident without mentioning

any name. In Shabbat

studied.
^'

56 b R.

Nahman

b.

Isaac sat under a palm-tree and

Shabbat 147

Sanhedrin 68 a
;

Menahot 35 a

Sotah
"I^V

III,

19

a,

1.

6.

15

Jebamot XII, 6

the Cambridge Mishnah reads

"123,

pal.

"1D3

488
for this

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

shows that he taught and judged in the open
R. Hiyya
b.
air

under

tree.^*^

Abba and

his

colleagues, according to

some R. Jose b. Halaftha and his colleagues, according to others R. Akiba and his colleagues, were sitting under a fig-tree and studying when they saw that the owner of the tree came early
;

every morning and picked

figs,

they thought that he suspected

to another place.^''
is

them of eating
most

his figs,

and they moved

however,

The

6,

characteristic

passage,

Cant. rab.
:

4.

4,

where R. Aha, in interpreting Cant.

bv inov^ ny30
"iio^ T'n^'
ps'i

4. 3,

says

,"]np"i

^'a'\ri

n723

.nrn n?3-i3

min

ei"i^-i

p-nn^Di-c'

ipnn

min nmn ppDiyi n:snni i^jn nnni nnn nnn pn-'vn the weakest member of the Synhedrion is as full of learning as the pomegranate
(is full

with seeds)

but even more so those sitting under

vine,

the olive-tree,

and under the

'}^

and under the

fig-tree,

and
it

studying Torah

About

the middle of the fourth century,

must

accordingly have been the general custom of the scholars

to study

under

trees,

and, as R. Hiyya's case shows, not merely

of individual teachers, but of whole schools.

historically

Though

late,

yet

very instructive,

is

the

agadic statement in Seder

Eliahu

IX (Friedmann,

p. 50) that

Deborah went and

sat

under

a palm-tree and taught Torah publicly.

4. 5,
it

Though based on Judges

a palm-tree,

would not have been said that she taught in public under if the custom had not still been general in the times
This
is

of the author.

further evident from the statement in the

''in2

same passage,
'

12^
For

^pT

nhn ^NTJ'^n

DV:>Dn

n^D^D Vn

i6,

that in

Deborah's time there were not more scholars than about half
'.

a palm-tree

this very strange

measure presupposes that the

^^
;

scholars of the time, as a rule many, were studying under trees

'fi

Cf.
p.

judges
Berakot

4.
II,

5
5

Sam.
1.

14. 2

22. 6.
;

1''

c,

Genes, rab. LXII, 2

Cant. rab. 6 2,
the trees

2.

^8

According

to the

climax, the

men studying under

were the
first

excellent

members of the Synhedrion.

4),

R. Samuel Jafe refers the

group

to the scholars

attending the meetings of the Synhedrion without

being yet members (Sanhedrin IV,

19

and the second group

to

to the

members.
in

Friedmann

in
:

his

note

refers

Megillah
f]ii

14 a

where MSS.
l^i*

Rabbinowicz read

-\Mr\ ^^iili:' D'-D^H ''T'D^D

DVID

HT

nOH HD

'

OPEN-AIR LEARNING AND TEACHING

the palm-tree,

BUCHLER
tree.-"

489

which offered no shade of any extent, was only

mentioned because the verse spoke of such a

As

to the great school in Jamnia, the frequent nJ2^3ty D"13,

the vineyard in Jamnia, naturally suggests that the school met

during the

warm and dry season

which seems
to

in

an orchard next to a building

required for the rainy months.

In addition, a Baraita in Baba

mesi'a59

b,

have escaped the attention of scholars

dealing with the school buildings, gives, in spite of the miracles

reported, noteworthy information.

In the heated discussion of

the

scholars of the

bet-di)i

in

Jamnia, which led up fo the

exclusion of R. Eliezer b. Hyrkanos from the school, this scholar

said to the assembly
this carob-tree shall
: '

If the decision
it
;

is

according to

my

view,

prove

and the carob-tree was uprooted

(and carried

off)

a hundred yards.

When

the rabbis refused to

:

accept the proof derived from the carob-tree, R. Eliezer said

'

If the decision

is

according to

my

view, the canal shall prove

it',

and the canal flowed backwards.

walls of the school shall prove
fall.

When
it
;

the rabbis refused

to accept
'

the proof derived from the canal,

'

R. Eliezer said
walls of the

The

and the

school inclined to

When
;

R. Joshua rebuked them, they did

not collapse, nor stand erect

and they are

still

standing in the
calls

same
in a

position.

The
field

order in which

R. Eliezer

on

his
air,

witnesses shows that the discussion took place in the open

garden or a

with a carob-tree and a water-canal, and

built walls. -^

that close

by stood a school-house with strongly

is

If

Vn
in

ptDyiO, as the shade of the palm-tree

httle so the

number
2

of scholars

Deborah's time were few.

-"

Also R. Judah

b. Ilai's
is

statement

in

Cant. rab.

6. 9,

(cf.

Friedmann's

Pesikt. rab. p. 198 a),

to be considered as evidence.

He

refers the sixty

queens
sit in

in Cant. 6.

9 to the sixty nillQIl, companies of righteous

men who
;

the garden of

Eden under the

tree of life

and study the Torah

and

the eighty concubines are eighty companies of average

men who
to

study the
students

Torah outside the

innumerable.
21

tree of life

and the

girls

without number refer

According

to the parallel account in p.

(

Mo'ed Katan

III,

81 d,

1.

9,

the
:

pillars of the

house of meeting

= the

school)

were on

that occasion

shaken

but a

little

earlier in

the report the carob-tree belonged to R.

Eliezer's

49

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

known,
'

further details were

the vineyard in Jamnia

'

would be
which

proved as an extensive orchard under the shady

the rabbis sat in the

trees of

summer and
this the

discussed

all

questions.

Comparing with

passage from the Midrash Jelamdenu

discussed by Professor Krauss, on'-nnr' DB'3

^nnan W^il nnt'lM

D^p^
ycVw'l,

i^'cprD ''JN1

d^^;k

Tiv

'js

n-iinn a^poiyi nv:ijj

nv:m

pac'V

we would be

inclined to find here a reference to scholars

sitting in

gardens and studying.

But the mere

fact that the plain

word

D'J23 of the text in Cant. 8. 13

was not retained without

nv:i:: strain

any change or interpretation shows that

gardens.
scholars
sit

does not
in

mean
that

Nor can
like small

it

be said without
;

Hebrew

gardens

in the plain prose of

an agadah an

adverbial accusative denoting place must not be assumed.

Kohut
parallel

seems to be

right in suggesting from the context

and from the

in Cant. rab. 8. 13, 2 as the

meaning of

nVJlJJ

'company', 'assem-

bly'

but his derivation of the word from KOLvwvLa seems unlikely.

A\'hat is

wanted here

is

a synonym of

r\2

or

mnn,

as used in the

statement of R.

63
'

b,

n-iura

Tanhum b. R. Hiyya of Kefar-'Akko in Berakot minn ^po]!) mn^ nir,3 lE^y n^x r,':ip: m^nn pN-c*
'"s!?

form groups and study Torah, for this can only be acquired in
'.

company
verse,

JT'JIJJ

which was used only on account of

p:i

D^JJ in

the

seems to be identical with or similar to

i. 3,

used as
X13''
i

interr.

pretation of p in Cant. rab.

9. 8, Pesikt.
r.

Uirj^

;]::b

nn

(Lev.

V, 18

a), 5. I, I ':)::b ''iib

TlNn (Pesikt.
?>",

a cover, a shade overhead, just as nsiD and

Isaiah 4. 5
;

meaning and as nan in

a),

and

n^Jlii

probably meant the company

sitting

under

the

'"I2n

and

waiting, as the
p.

nsn

''22

in Tos. Berakot II, 10; Tos.

a,
1.

Shabbat XVII, 4;
p. II,

Hagigah

II,

77

59; b.

Sukkah 25

b,

26 a;

53
'.

a,

1.

21,

'for

God

as the in

bridegroom to come to the

still

bower

As nsn was even

Talmudic times used

sitting

for a

shade," foliage
private house.

under which the scholars were

could be
Babylonian

The
b,

details are in favour of the Baraitha in the

Talmud.
22

R. Hiyya

Abba

in Lev. rab. 25. 2, says

^i*

niC'V:?

n"2pr\ IT)]}
for charitable

py p3 min
men
in the

'n

^XN mi'^n

byn!'

niDim, Godwin make

garden of Eden a shade and bowers next

to the scholars.

He

took


OPEN-AIR LEARNING AND TEACHING
called
NJ13:.'^^

BQCHLER
passage
is

49I

If this interpretation

is

right, the

an

additional proof for the studying of scholars in groups in the

shade of

trees.

A. BiJCHLER.

London.
the idea from his master R. Johanan
will

who

said, in

Baba bathra 75a,

that

God

once make seven bowers

for

every righteous man, as

He

had, according

to

R.

Hama
d.J.,

b.

Haninah, made for

;

(also in Lev. rab. 20. 2

u.

Pesikt. rab.

Adam ten bowers XXXI, 145 a)

;

in the

garden of Eden

see Monatsschrift f. G.

W.
^^

XLIX
is

(1905), 18 .
rab. 24. 7

Compare Lev.

where Deut.

23. 15 2"lp2 "]S"iri?3

1M?S

^''

'S

l?^irn? ]^jnD

explained by

]IT\, to protect,

shade overhead, as by the

foliage of a tree, IL'^NI

13. 21, p.

bv

bi*

25

a,

it is

explained that

nVH^ ybu pn!?. In Mekhiltha on Exod, God rewarded Abraham's words to the
See also 4 Ezra
i.

angels in Gen. 18. 4 to lean under the tree, by spreading over his descendants

seven clouds;
Midr. Threni

in
r. i.

both cases
17
;

it

was shade overhead.

42. 4.

20;

Psalms

RECENT SYRIAC TEXTS

The Book of
Protection.
first

Being a collection of charms.

Now

edited for the

introduction,
D.Litt.

time from Syriac MSS., with translation,

and notes. By Hermann Gollancz, M.A., London: Henry Frowde, 191 2.

Scholars
'

will

Selection of

remember Dr. Gollancz's interesting paper, Charms from Syriac Manuscripts published in
',

the Actes of the Eleventh International Congress of Orientalists.

The

present volume gives in

full

the two manuscripts from which

those selections were made, and along with these, which are the
editor's private property,
is

he publishes a third parallel codex which Also he makes reference to a fourth

in the British

at

Cambridge University.

codex of similar character

Museum.

His private

manuscripts agree closely, the one with that in the Museum, the
other with that at Cambridge, while the two groups contain a

number
offers

of identical charms, so that

it

appears that the collation

inscriptions
in

quite a standard corpus

of magical

use

among
older.

the Nestorian Christians to this day.

is

His codex

was

written in 1802, the second, which

shorter,

he adjudges to be
passages and

The

Introduction notices several points of interest in the

difficult

charms, and there are brief foot-notes on

points of interpretation, probably sufficient for a

somewhat mono-

tonous series of

texts.

The magic
Mesopotamian

is

the direct heir of the earlier incantations of the

valley, familiar to us in the

bowl

texts of the early

Christian centuries^
texts.

and going back

will

to the

Babylonian magical
points of contact
e. g.

Jewish scholars
still

recognize

many

with charms
legends.

current in Jewish households,

the Lilith

The legend indeed

plays a larger part in these charms

493

494

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

;

than in the elder forms

that

is,

some sacred
is

story or reference

from bibUcal or hagiological lore

cited with prophylactic intent.

For example
to the

(p. xxxi)

'
:

King Solomon was building the house

to take hold of the stone

name

of the Lord, and the Holy Spirit was handing him

;

the stone.
his

Solomon stooped
said

he hurt

back, his loin ruptured,

and he gave

forth a bitter cry.

Whereupon our Lord

crying
is

unto his disciples.

is

What

voice of

this?

and they

replied unto him, It

is

that of

Solomon,

the son of David,

who

building the

terrific,

blessed house.'

The charm

is

accordingly of avail for an injury to the back.

An

incantation for a cold consists in the reference to the fact that

'our Lord as a litde boy and his mother were subject' to this

malady

(p.

xli).

As over

against the elder charms there

evil spirits

is

diminution of the number of species of

their place
is

exorcised;

taken by long catalogues of various diseases and

social calamities.

The same
medical

rationalizing progress

is

found

in

the

Babylonian

charms

published by Kiichler, and

also in the Jewish medical texts from Mosul, edited by R. C.

Thompson.

Also our charms are distinguished by the very large

number
for the

of saints

whose names are invoked, names which defy

all

most part

hagiological research.
in

They
is

take the place

a very

of the angelic
air

names

Jewish magic.
;

There
is

modern

about the whole collection

letter

the musket

frequently exorcised

and even the business

(p. xliii).

has received an appropriate charm

the Christians under

The unhappy

lot of

Muslim

rule

appears in the constant exorcisms of the power of evil emirs,

governors, &c.

The

written

charm

is

given a

name which
the word

is

found only

in

the Syriac collections;

p.

they are called

NIV, on

which the author gives a note,

xxv.

May

mean
is

a 'hand', with reference to the well-known prophylactic power

of the

hand

in

actual

use

and symbolically?

The work

illustrated with reproductions of the very crude designs of saints

and

devils

which decorate the manuscripts.

'

RECENT SYRIAC TEXTS

Horae
No. IX.

MONTGOMERY

495

Semiticae,

The

Forty Martyrs of the Sinai Desert

and the Story of Eulogios.

Arabic palimpsest.

From

a Palestinian Syriac and

Transcribed by

Agnes Smith Lewis,

M.R.A.S. This volume

of
the

Cambridge: University Press, 191 2.

is

another

fruit

of the travels
sisters.

and scholarship
presents
a
new-

distinguished

Cambridge

It

category of the so far confined Syro-Palestinian literature, namely,

hagiological story, of which only a few fragments

had hitherto
Besides
is

been known (see

'

Schulthess,

Lexicon,

p.

xvi).

the

Forty Martyrs
tale,

'

and the story of Eulogios, which

is

a charming

little

there

fragment

of

the story
life

of the patrician

Anastasia,

who escaped from

It
is

court

and assumed the habit

Greek form, from which

of a hermit.
is

unfortunate that none of these hagiologies

to us in their

new,

all

being

known

these Syriac texts

is
'

have been translated.

The

'

Forty Martyrs

given by Combefis in his

'

Christi martyrorum iriumphi, and

Eulogios
i

and

'

Anastasia

'

in Clugnet, Bibliotheque

hagiographe

orieiitale,

(these literary details are scattered through the edition

before us).
its

The
is

literature of the dialect accordingly

still

retains

characteristic as merely a

group of versions from the Greek.

;

The

text

but slightly pointed

we may

notice the occasional

appearance of the pointed N to denote

final e

of

n"!^ verbs.

It

appears to be carefully written, with few of the errors which have

entered
editing
b,

plentifully
is

into

the

manuscripts of the dialect.

The

almost without

fault.

On

p.

56 (Syriac numbering)
evidently for
sic

13 read 'TD for U''D.

true

Is n^annc-'N*,

n^smnCK,

the

reading, p. 25 b,

13?

If so, a

might have been

added.

In

fact

a good deal more might have been done in the

way of
is

textual notes

and comments, nor does the Glossary, which

all

intended to include

the

uncommon words and

viii

forms found

in this

volume, and also in no.

fulfil
its

of the same series {Codex

Climaci rescriptus),
text

purpose.

A
for

fresh collation of the

all

would be necessary

in

order to collect
p.

the noticeable

forms.

We may

remark TIN,

26

a, 8,

Greek en, overlooked

by Mrs. Lewis and unknown to Schulthess.

On

p.

62

b, 2

occurs

496

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

a.

another novel form,

in

Semitic word coloured by the Greek

"ID

NCV

JtD

13

"iniD

'

perchance more than a day

'.

It

appears

to be a contraction of

yis
;

or yilS,
:

known

in all the Palestinian

dialects in the sense of Ta^ews

our word

is

used to render the

conformity

related rd)(a,

'

perhaps

'

is

the shortening

artificial, in
?

with the proportions in length of the Greek words

The
21,
;

pCNK'

on

p.

57

a, 5, listed

in the Glossary

under

DLJ',

should be under

Dli^.

Moreover, the same form occurring

of
'

p.

68

b,

used in

the sense

think

',

is

omitted in the Glossary

is

Schulthess

notices but one instance of the verb, which

frequent in the

Rabbinic.
is

The

peculiar form

fvcn,

translated 'full', p. 21 b, 21,

pyn'', p.

ignored.

Observe also the form

51b,

15, translated

as though from xya, but not given in the Glossary.

There are some

be the proper name
throughout
it is

slips

in

the

translation.
ff,,

Evidently N2D,
b, 4,
'

which recurs repeatedly

on

pp. 20

beginning 20

cannot
')

Saba (we should then have the

'

title

father

the epithet,
it

old
title

man

',

of the saint in question

I

thus from p. 21 on

is

the

of father Joseph.

have not

the Greek text at hand, which

it

would not make sense.

story, p.

may contradict me, The same word also

6,

but even then occurs at the

beginning of the

20a,

where the editor translates 'he

'

dwelt there with Saba (N3D2) above father Moses

position cannot have this meaning.
I

the pre-

might suggest a
p.

common
cannot

noun,

'in the neighbourhood'.

'

On
'

36b,

21,

lDnj<

mean known
'

flung themselves
in

on him
'

may

the verb have the sense

',

the Edessene,
'

become bloody

and so mean here

bottom

flush with rage

The

text is evidently in disorder at

of p. 42 b, and

means apparently 'because the barbarians were

Page 56a,
5,
N'':)~1S^S'

oppressing their land'.

is

not 'Africa',

but

'

eparchy

',

anticipating the story which

tells

how Eulogios
translated

became eparch.

Below,

1.

11,

pins'

is

'our brother', not 'one

X'':iD''a is
',

brother' (typographical error?).

P. 58a, 22,
'

according to the literal Greek,

as in Edessene,

repentance

but

it

means here
ff.,

'obeisance'.

Translate p. 67a,

'and he
brought

(the Ethiopian, a term for Satan

cf.

Ep. Barnabas,
',

4. 9)

him out from before the

prefecture

i.

e.

as

condemned.

For

RECENT SYRIAC TEXTS

p.
is

MONTGOMERY
',

497

69 a, 19
quite

ff.,

we have

this senseless

rendering: 'Thy breakfast

safe

from these mockeries

but translate

'

in

faith

(cf.

68a, 7) leave off from these mockeries'.

5,

Translate 70a, 2

and
to

'patrician', not
'

'

eparch

'.

In 71b,
',

7
',

ND^y^ btn appears

certainly not
ff.,
'

mean

I
'.

must go to

eternity

i.

e.

'

die

go
'

to

the world

In the story of Anastasia, 82

'.

b, 7

translate

once

a week he used to go to father Daniel

'

potsherd

',

as in

1.

7,

P. 83 b, 20, SSDH is and does not need the Arabic note which

the editor wrongly appends.

translated
'

I cast the

man

into a ship

The emendation in 70 a, 14, [nd^n]2, may be supported by the

',

Greek
better,

without control from that quarter [^J^3s]3 would be

'

cast the

man

into destruction

'.

J.

A.

Montgomery.

University of Pennsylvania.

LEGENDS OF THE JEWS

Die Sagen der
Jicden.

Gesammelt und
I.

bearbeitet von

Josef bin Gorion.

Von
I913.

der Urzeit.
pp. xvi

Frankfurt

Micha a. M.

RUTTEN UND LOENING,

The
in

+ 378.

loving devotion of Jewish people to the Bible has resulted

its

developments of
biblical

narratives

which

constitute, as

it

were,

a new

world enriched and embellished, and at times

folk fancy.

distorted

by the
this

The

heroes and events of the Bible

in a kaleidoscopic mirror. of these developments are of considerable cultural interest in their influence upon Christian and Mohammedan legend. But they have an interest of their own as forming,

appear in

legendary world as

Some

in

many

respects, the chief

for nearly a

outcome of the Jewish popular imagination

after the close of the biblical canon.

thousand years

They form a large portion known as the Haggadah.

Of
subject.

of that section of Midrashic literature

recent years considerable attention has been paid to this B. Beer devoted a whole book to a life of

Abraham,

his encyclopedia by an alphabetical treatment of Jewish legends, which did not go very far into the alphabet ; he carried the treatment

derived from these sources.

Hamburger began

or Biblical, volume of his encyclopedia. Encyclopedia also gave considerable attention to the legends relating to the chief biblical characters. Quite recently
first,

throughout the

The Jewish

two extensive works have been devoted to a systematic account of the Legends of the Jews about biblical characters, one by Dr. Louis Ginzberg, the text of which is now complete in four volumes which are to be completed by a fifth containing references

VOL.

IV.

499

^j

500

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

to the sources

and other learned epilogemona ; and there has now appeared the first volume of a similar work in German which
promises to be equally,
if

not more, extensive.

The first volume, just published, deals with the legendary the material of the Jews relating to the Bible narrative from into four books: the It is divided Creation down to Noah.
first

dealing with the Creation; the second with

;

Adam and

his

descendants

the third with the Flood

and the fourth with the

latter as

upper and nether worlds.

Adam
its

is

dealt with both in the second

and fourth books

a type.

in the

former as an individual, in the

separate section
;

Each legend has

and separate head,

which makes reference very easy

of the book
is

and the plan and arrangement

for its purpose, to

admirably adapted

make

the

biblical legends easily accessible.

The

sources from which the

pseudonymous author has drawn are almost exclusively

or Aramaic.

Hebrew
of

few legends relating to the

demons

are taken

from Judaeo-Arabic sources and are given in the

the book.

last section

Samaritan and

Karaitic versions of legends are occa-

sionally given.

On

the other hand, the large material given in

is

the Hellenistic sources

entirely ignored,

and no attempt

is

made

to utilize

the Christian pseudepigraphic Hterature and the

Church Fathers.
full translation

The

legends are seemingly given in tolerably

given at

and the sources of each section are the end of the book, with occasional parallels, though no
or paraphrase,

attempt

is

made

to give these in completeness or to discuss their

list

divergencies.

Judging from the long

is

of Midrashim

and other

works quoted, the book

research.
It is natural to

the result of very

wide reading and

compare

it

with the treatment of the same

in

subject
Jetus.

and period contained

Dr. Ginzberg's Legends of the

At

first

sight

it

devoting 348 pages to

seems to be much more extensive, that section of biblical legends which

Dr. Ginzberg covers in 181.

But the German page contains many fewer words than the English one, and a rough estimate would seem to show that the German author devotes about
Ginzberg. 80,000 words to his subject as against 55,000 of Dr.

LEGENDS OF THE JEWS JACOBS

Even
this

501

comparison

is

misleading, since the methods of presenta-

tion of the two authors differ considerably in conciseness.

The
full;

German

writer

translates

or

paraphrases

his

sources

in

Dr. Ginzberg summarizes and abstracts.

Thus

in half a

page

(65-6) the
to

latter gives all the points

about the legend of

Lilith,

which 'Gorion' devotes a page and a quarter (323-4). It seems probable, therefore, that Dr. Ginzberg's treatment contains even more material than the German writer's, especially as he
draws from the Greek apocryphal literature and the Church Fathers. In the absence of Dr. Ginzberg's volume of Notes
it is,

at present, impossible to

compare the respective

writers' use

of their sources.

Turning from matter

to form (which

is

acknowledged

to

be

due
in

to the compiler's wife,

Mrs. Rahel Berdyczewski), the style

There

which the legends are told is clear, simple, and flowing. is an appropriate imitation of Luther's German, which
the vivid austerity of the

itself follows

Hebrew
'

original.

The
by

different variants

of the respective legends are introduced

'

formulae
like,

like

'

others say

',

again

we read

',

it

is

said

',

and the

which bring out the difference of sources

in

an unpedantic

way.

number

of beast-fables are introduced in the account of

the Creation

in Dr. Ginzberg's

and of Noah's Ark which do not seem to be included book; and anything likely to offend childish

readers

is

omitted or glossed over.

to

From

this point of

view the than

its

book seems

be more suitable

for children's reading

English compeer.

The
is

play of the Jewish folk fancy, as

shown

in this collection,
its

remarkable for two qualities

cosmological
flights

its

daring and

tenderness.

The
in

of the Jewish imagination, as shown

the elaborate
are
fully

embroideries of the
as

Creation and of Flood

legends,

daring as

in

Greek mythology, though

But what
with

occasionally

the

question arises
'

whether there has not been

strikes

some
even

'

contamination

from
is

this source.

one

more noticeably
of his

the

tenderness

which human

relations are treated in Jewish legends,

Adam

gives

up seventy

years

thousand to

his

most distinguished descendant

Mm

502
David,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

who was otherwise destined for an early grave. Eve is flesh of was made out of Adam's rib because a man's wife
his flesh,

bone of

his bone.

And

so throughout, wherever the

Jewish fancy can introduce a touch of

human

feeUng,

it

embel-

manly, tenderness. lishes the biblical legends with deep-felt, yet not exhausted by the of the Jewish people was

The

ethical genius
;

prophets

it

is

equally mirrored in these humbler legends of the

Jewish

folk.

ARTHURIAN LEGENDS
Romantic Literature of
thurian Legends.
the

IN

JUDAEO-GERMAN
and
their Relation to the

Hebreiv- German Romances and Tales

Middle Ages.

Part

I.

Ar-

By

Dr.

Leo Landau, M.A.

many
of the most

Teutonia,

Heft
It

2 1.

Leipzig: AvENARius, 1912.

pp. Ixxxv-f 150.

has long been

known

that

popular
versions.

romances of the Middle Ages existed in Judaeo-German almost at the Steinschneider in the Serapaeum gave a list of them 'career as bibUographer, and treated the subject beginning of his
occasionally in his Hebriiische Bibliographie
his Volksliteratur.

and systematically

in

The

romances spread throughout Europe and

all

formed a link between

from Russia to Ireland.

the nations from Iceland to Spain;

It is

a mistake to think that the Jews

of European were in any way isolated from the general course Middle Ages. In some directions, indeed, culture during the

notably in the they formed a link between Orient and Occident, better known in Jewish case of the so-called fables of Bidpai,
literature

by the

title

of Kalila

wa-Dimna.

It is not, therefore,

surprising

to find

Ages translated or

German Jews of the later Middle adapted many of the most popular romances,
that

the

Emperor such as the Dietrich saga, Flore and Blanchefleur, Vienne, and Sir Bevis of Hampton, Octavian, Preciosa, Paris and But the form in which these known as the Bovobuch
the last
'

'.

were written or printed was

hitherto attracted

and these romances had not the attention of philologists like the French
late,

LEGENDS OF THE
glosses of Rashi

JEWS JACOBS

503

and the Tosaphists^ which sometimes give the

which certain French words occur.
Jewish
I

earhest

form

in

scholars again have neglected

them because they are what

the

have
of

named elsewhere
literary tradition

'terminals',

end

links

of the chain

and

not, as

in the case of Kalila

wa-Divma^

a 'junction' from which a large

number of

trains of tradition

emerge.
Dr.

Leo Landau,

in this valuable work,

removes

this

reproach

from Jewish science and

edition of one of these

gives, for the first time,

an adequate
all

Judaeo-German romances, with

the

learned accessories which

we

are accustomed to accept from the

hands of a trained

philologist.
'

He

has chosen, for his

first

contribution to this subject, the

Artus-Hof, a fourteenth-century

imitation of Wirnt von Gravenberg's epic

poem,

'

Wigalois

'.

He
first

has

made

use of two

MSS. and

eight printed editions, the

of which was printed by Joseph of Witzenhausen, the

printer

Amsterdam
trouble
for

of the

seventeenth century

who

got

into

printing a rival

Judaeo-German

translation of the Bible (Graetz,

X, 298).

Dr.

Landau

takes as the basis of his text the

Hamburg

MS.
side

of the beginning of the sixteenth century, but prints also,

by side with

it,

Wagenseil's edition of 1699.

all

The Germanist

has thus before him

the material needed for working on this

curious relic of mediaeval

German romance.
text,

But Dr. Landau

or rather two texts
all
;

is

not content merely with providing a

he has with great thoroughness worked out

the inductions and deductions which the student of mediaeval

of the history of

German and
a valuable

romance could derive from

his text.

After a couple of introductory chapters giving in succinct form

summary

of what

is

known

of the Jewish popular

details of his edition.
is

literature of the

Middle Ages, he then gives

The

seventh chapter of his Introduction

little

less

than a

complete grammar

of the dialectical peculiarities of the language

used by the author, which he decides to be a Western Middle

German

dialect of

Rhenish Franconia, probably written by an His eighth chapter on the 'Sources'

is

inhabitant of

Worms.

equally elaborate,

and he proves conclusively

that the author of

504

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

'

the Judaeo-German 'Artus-Hof derived his

poem from

the aboveversion, as

mentioned

epic,

'

Wigalois

',

and not from the prose

But the Jewish romance writer has been hitherto assumed. uses considerable freedom with his original, improving it,

Dr. Landau's opinion, by judicious excisions and reduction of He also introduces a new incident the loftgueurs of the original.

from another Middle High German romance of Rudolf von Ems. The book is completed by a reproduction of the prose version of
the romance printed at Frankfort on the
four facsimiles of the
I

Oder

in 1789,

and by

MSS. and

editions used.

have thus roughly summarized the conclusions of the learned editor, without comment or criticism, for which I frankly do not
feel

competent.

The

editor's

thorough mastery of the subject,

is

both as regards language-form and subject-matter,

spicuous that
it

so con-

would be presumption on the part of any person

considerable attention
to

who

has

not given

the

subject

to

disagree with his results, which

nvestigation.

seem based on a most thorough

a contribution to
literature,

His book

is

quite

Middlebesides

German

philology

and

to

Judaeo-German

throwing an interesting side-light upon Jewish Kulturgeschichte.

Joseph Jacobs.

New

York.

RECENT WORKS ON MAIMONIDES

La
Metaphysiqiie de Mdimonide.

Par Louis-Germain
pp. 149.
{Collection des

Levy.

Barbier Marilier, 1905. Mdimonide. Par Louis-Germain Lew.

Dijon
:

Grands

Felix Alcan, 191 i. pp.284. Moses ben Maimon {Ma into n ides). Sein Leben und seine Werke.
Fhilosophes.)

Paris:

Von

Dr.

J.

MtJNZ.

Frankfurt

am

^Nlain

Kauffmann,

1912.

PP- 335-

The Eight Chapters of Maimonides on Ethics {Shemonah

Ferakitfi).

Psychological and Ethical Treatise.

Edited, annotated,

and translated with an introduction by Joseph L Gorfinkle,

Ph.D.
(Columbia
University

Oriental Studies, vol.

VIL)
xii

New York: Columbia University 104 + 55-

Press, 19 12.

pp.

We have before us several books on Maimonides in French, German, and English which complement each other. They have
all

been written

entirely or in great part during the last

two or

three years

good sign of continued

interest in the writings of

our great thinkers of the Middle Ages.

I

arranged them above in chronological order, but logically

Miinz's work

comes

first,

containing as

it

does a general sketch

It
is

of Maimonides's

life,

works, and many-sided activity.

popular volume and decidedly readable and up to date.

It is

divided into seven chapters treating of Maimonides's youth and

early
writings
;

of his

commentary on the Mishnah

;

of his

activity as a Rabbinical authority

of his great Rabbinic code,

the

Yad ha-hazakah
;

of his philosophic masterpiece, the Guide

of the Perplexed

of his activity as physician

and medical

writer
is

and of

his

character,

family

life,

and death.

The book

505

506

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

it

naturally not exhaustive, nor does

pretend to originality.

It

draws considerably on the material contained in the first volume on Moses ben Maimon published in 1908 by the Berlin Gesellschaft zur

Fordening der JVissenschaft des /iidenthums, a very

volume,

important

by the way,

on
of

the

various
is

aspects

of

Maimonides's work.
popular sketch
reader
in

The volume
non-technical
attracted

jNIiinz

valuable as

phraseology for the general

who may not be

by the more formidable aspect

to.

of the other volume just referred

Having acquired a general idea of Maimonides

as a great

Jew, a great authority in Rabbinic lore, a great physician both

in theory

and

in practice,

and a great thinker

is

the greatest that

prepared to study

mediaeval Jewry has produced, the reader

more

carefully

one particular aspect

striking
is

of

IMaimonides's varied

activity,

and the most

undoubtedly his work as a

philosopher and theologian.

of the
'

Louis-Germain Levy, the Rabbi

',

Union Liberale

Israelite

shows in the two works

at the

head of
aspect

this article that

he

is

quite competent to treat of this

of Maimonides's

work.

The

first

treatise,

written

in

1905 on the Metaphysics of Maimonides, contains nothing that

is

not found in his later and more complete work published in

1

191

as

one of the volumes

in the series of

'

Great Philosophers

'.

On

the other hand, the later work reproduces bodily the earlier
slight

work with very

considerably,

changes in phraseology, but

in

it

enlarges

it

especially

the
brief,

chapter
is

on

the

influence

of
in

Maimonides, which, though

outline.^

excellent

and complete

The

chapters on theoretical and

practical ethics are

is

new

in the larger

work.

Levy's work on Maimonides

at the

present time the best

Maimonides.

monograph we have on the philosophy of Naturally here also there was not much room for
ideas of

originaHty, as the

Maimonides are

pretty well

known

'

Recently Prof. Crawford, of the University of Pennsylvania, discovered

Maimonidean influence in a Spanish work of the fifteenth century. See 'The Vision Delectable of Alfonso de la Torre and Maimonides's Guide of the Perplexed in the Pitblkations of the Modern Language Association of
'

America, XXVIII,

2,

pp. 188-212.

RECENT WORKS ON MAIMONIDES

and have been treated
at

HUSIK

507

length in various special monographs.

Thus Scheyer wrote on Maimonides's psychology, Rosin treated of Maimonides's ethics, and Kaufmann discussed Maimonides's
doctrine of divine attributes.
Joel wrote a sketch of Maimonides's
originality the

system as a whole.

What

volume possesses
is

is

to

be found

in

the arrangement of the material, which

divided

into twelve chapters.

excellent

In this he differs from Guttmann, whose monographs on Saadia, Gabirol, and Abraham Ibn
the authors treated.
to

Daud follow closely the exposition of To come to details, one feature

works on Jewish
influence of Philo
to

be noted

in all

recent

philosophy

is

the

emphasis

put

upon the

on mediaeval Jewish thought. This used be denied formerly, since there was no evidence of a direct

acquaintance with the writings of Philo on the part of the Jewish mediaeval writers. To be sure, no one denied that indirect
influence there was, through Neo-Platonism as
so-called
'

embodied

in the

Theology of Aristotle

',

and through the Church Fathers

early Arabic

who

exerted

some

influence

on the

speculation.

But since the

article of

Poznanski

in the

Revue

des Etudes Jidves,

showing that some of the Karaites apparently had some knowledge of Philo,
is

all

writers give

prominence

to this matter.

There
by Poz-

danger,

it

seems to the present

writer, of exaggeration in this

respect.

The

allusions to Philo in the fragments quoted

nanski are not very definite, and as long as one knows precisely

what the evidence

is

there

is

no danger, but

as statements are

passed on from one book to another, they are likely to become

more
It

positive than the state of the evidence warrants.

is

surprising

to

find

that

Levy

(p.

6)

attributes

the

anonymous work on the

to

Reflections of the Soul to Bahya, It was recently edited by Goldziher, and the general opinion seems

be that

it is

not Bahya's.
in a note
(p.

Levy

says

51,

note 3) that the doctrine of

attributes originated with the Neo-Platonists.

The

present writer

has a suspicion, though

doctrine of attributes
sure,

it

needs
to

verification, that the origin of the

is

be sought

in Christianity.

To be

Neo-Platonism played a great role in the elaboration of the

508

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

we may
of

Christian Trinity, and

say that the doctrine of attributes

was the

result

of the
It
is

mutual interaction of Christianity and

interest

Neo-Platonism.
attributes, Life,

to

compare Saadia's three

Power, and Wisdom, with those given by Elias

viz.

of Nisibis, a Syrian Christian,

Essence,

Wisdom, and
in the

Life.'^

Levy's defence of IMaimonides against the charge of agnosticism

(pp.141, 222

ff.)

is

interesting

and

main

correct.

Maimonides's negative theology does

theology, as
to fix this
it

involve also a positive

does too with Philo.

And

yet

positive theology

we

find that while perfection

when we come and

active thought are the terms used, they

must not be given the

ordinary meanings assigned to these words, and we are

the dark.

agam

in

and meritorious is Levy's discussion Maimonides Knowledge of God (pp. 189-90) showing that with and Love of God are identical, and hence he is not a dry
Equally
interesting
rationalist

and

intellectualist merely.

The

dissertation

of Gorfinkle takes us
text,

still

closer to
'

MaiEight

Chapters',

monides himself by introducing us to a serving as an introduction

mentary on Aboth,
Unlike the books
just

the so-called

to

Maimonides's comethical

and presenting a sketch of an

discussed,

doctrine.
is

Gorfinkle's

work by

not concerned so

much

with IMaimonides's ideas as with the

text of a particular treatise.

The

eight chapters were written

Maimonides

in Arabic.

They

were translated into

Hebrew by

Samuel Ibn Tibbon. The Hebrew text has been reprinted a great many times, and the majority of editions contain a great many errors, which in some cases make the meaning hard to
decipher,

Gorfinkle did a meritorious service in his endeavour to establish the Hebrew text of Samuel Ibn Tibbon by using a number of early prints and MSS. Thus he used a MS. in the
British

Museum

dated 1273, a
a

MS. Mahzor

of the fourteenth or

fifteenth

century,

Soncino edition of about 14S4-5. ^"^ a

Mishna
2

text with ISIaimonides's

commentary dated Naples, 1492.

See Graf, Die

p.

Philosopliie iiiid Gottcskhre des JaJiya Ibn 'Adi, Munster,

1810,

52

also p. 32, note.

RECENT WORKS ON MAIMONIDES

The
text
is

HUSIK

509

provided also with an English translation, which,

literal, is in

the main precise and adequate. A very good introduction discussing Maimonides's writings in general and his ethical writings in particular, the contents of the Eight

though not

'

Chapters', Samuel Ibn Tibbon as a translator, a

editions, translations,

list

of MSS.,
',

and commentaries of the and

'

Eight Chapters

adds completeness

to this meritorious

useful production.

Isaac Husik,
Gratz College.

JEWISH ESSAYS AND HOMILETICAL

LITERATURE
Essays.

By Joseph Strauss, Ph.D., M.A. London The Walter Scott Publishing Company, pp. 264. What is JtidaisDi ? A Survey of Jewish Life, Thought, and Achievement. By Abram S. Isaacs, Ph.D., Professor of Semitics, New York University. New York G. P. Putnam's
: :

Sons, 191 2.

pp. x

+ 206.
on Jewish themes by Jewish
in

A
writers

series of well-written essays

is

always a desideratum.

Such are furnished

two small

volumes, the one by Joseph Strauss entitled Essays, and the

other by

Abram

S. Isaacs entitled
first

What

is Judaism ?

The

author of the

of these

little

books

is

an English
largely

rabbi, born

and educated

in

Germany.

His essays are

of a biographical nature, and are objective statements, educational

and informing

in character.

The

choice of subjects shows the

:

popular and yet cultural purpose of the author

Hillel, Spinoza,

Mendelssohn, Kant, Goethe's Mother, Heine, Woman's Position

in

Ancient and Modern Jewry and Zionism exhausts the category.

writer's style is lucid
;

The

his statements beautifully simple,

and

his information accurate.

He

does not aim at original research

work, but to present the main facts already ascertained in concrete

form.

In

his

presentation

of Hillel

he does not hesitate to

rules, as well as

explain

and

illustrate his

seven hermeneutical

giving the anecdotes illustrating his personality

and

teaching.

So

in the essay

on Spinoza,

in

the clear, brief

and simple

statement of his

life,

he yet finds opportunity

to explain

some
So

of the fundamental principles of his philosophy and ethics.

far

as

Spinoza's

attitude

towards
is

Judaism

and

his

relations

towards the Jewish community

concerned, the explanation

511

512
afforded
declares
:

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is
'

decidedly favourable to the philosopher, although he

One

cannot, however, acquit

him of a

certain degree

of animosity which he showed

Treatise) against Judaism,

therein (the Theological-Political

to

and even led him

of the

an incorrect

interpretation

of a few passages

author's opinion of

woman's position
:

from his own summing up

'It will

Hebrew Bible.' The in Jewry may be understood command the approval and
This he
illustrates

admiration even of our modern suffragettes.'

in various ways,
e. g.

in Marriage,
Life,

Polygamy, Divorce, Family,

Education, Society, Public

Altogether the book
is

Learning, and

Woman's

Rights.
profit

one to be read with pleasure and

by the general educated reader.

Doctor Abram
author. nature.
for a
S.

Isaacs

is

well

known

as rabbi, teacher,

and and

He

has written a

number

of Jewish books of a popular

various times

This collection of

articles, written at

number
' :

of periodicals, have yet a certain unity that justifies

this

their

assembly in

volume under a
Life,

common

title

and descrip-

tion

Survey of Jewish

Thought, and Achievement.

The

subjects that he selects are those which are current in these

is

days, although there

something repellent to the

is

faithful in

such

interrogations as
'

'What

Judaism?' 'Has Judaism a Future?'

Is

Judaism necessary to-day

however, are not the only

subjects as

What makes the Jew ? These, themes. The author discusses such
?
' ' '

History', 'Jewish Literature',

'The Jew and the Currents of 'The Talmud

and
his

his

Age', 'Jewish

in History',

'The
simple

Cabbala', 'The Story of the Synagogue'.

His

style

is

and

pleasing,

message directed

to

the intelligent but

uninformed reader.
traction

He

hopes to overcome ignorance and de-

by 'a clear and forceful exposition from the Jewish

fair

point of view, which, while preserving a

shall tell

and sober estimate,

what
is

dispassionately and convincingly

'.

to

be said

without heat or prejudice

Doctor Isaacs

is

dispassionate,

but not convincing.

fire
is,

His
force.

views are hazy, and his easy-going liberalism lacks

and

We

lose ourselves in the desire to placate.

There

however,

much

useful information on Jewish topics contained in the book.

ESSAYS AND HOMILETICAL LITERATURE

Die Seek
Dr.
Israels
:

HOFFMAN

513
\^on

Ztir Fsychologie des Diasporaji/deniians.

Daniel
1,

Pasmanik.
pp.

Judischer Verlag,

Koln und

Leipzig, 191

xvi+iii.
its

If simply regarded for

brilliant style,

the Zionist treatise

Israels:

of Doctor Daniel
Fsychologie
attention.

Pasmanik, entitled Die Seele

Zur

des Diasporajudentiims,
It is

would be well

worthy of

a remarkable illustration of sustained

its

and

forceful
is

statement throughout

in

pages.

The undertaking
all

to

analyse the spiritual condition of Israel in the Diaspora and

to

show the absence, the necessary absence, of

original pro-

ductive achievement during this extended interval.

The argument
forces were at
first

runs somewhat as follows

With the
lost.

loss of

national territory, the basis of development was

All the

directed towards preserving the national soul. a people of hope, with past

The Jews became

no present.

and a

future,

but

The

sheer unyieldingness

that

the

Jew developed
and

in

the

sphere of ideals and spiritual values was a marked feature of

the era, justified by his past achievements,
characteristic
it

of his radical nature.

The author

properly observes that

is

not even necessary to assume that

all

of ancient Israel's treasuries

it

were absolutely original and indigenous;

is

enough
their

that the

Jews grasped them,

breathed a living
counts in
life.

incorporated

them
it

into
is

lives,

and

spirit into

them, for

only the living that

He

then develops his theory of the correlation of Werthe

values or possessions)

(spiritual

and

Wiirde

(dignity, honour).

In the early centuries the Jew maintained the

the total sacrifice of the
one, dependent
Wiirde.

Werthe even at

His existence was a wretched

external influences, but always

upon the grace of

his

maintaining the hope of eventual deliverance that became more

and more divorced from

end.
original

own

active agency in securing that

in
sterility.

His

thesis

is

that

this

resulted

Nothing
a

could

be

produced.

The Jews became

race
;

of

middlemen, purveyors of the productions of other races

their

own

activity confined to

some modification of

foreign productions

514

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

or the writing of commentaries.

to the

He

would deny

originality

even

Talmud

outside of the Islishnah that was native to Palestine.

reflecting

In the Spanish period he finds nothing

Jewish develop-

ment outside
and the
Israel's

of the

poems

of Gabirol, that long for a restoration

lyric greatness of

Judah Halevi, the great advocate of

national

existence.

Of ^laimonides he

disposes with

So conversion. a slurring allusion to his apology for enforced deterioration into mysticism the result he describes the growing
on the eternal of the contradiction between unyielding insistence to foreign life ideals on the one side and the servile adaptation

on the
These

other.

Dignity was

lost,

but the spiritual values remained.

consisted of the Messianic idea of a future

kingdom of
and a holy

God

that possessed as essential features a holy people

The period of the Kabbala he describes as one of ecstasy land. and the breakwithout Werthe or Wiirde. The emancipation for down of the Ghetto is identified with the sacrifice of Werthe unSpinoza's work was not Jewish, and Mendelssohn Wiirde. spirit. contributed towards the dissolution of the Jewish
wittingly

national This destruction of Jewish unity, the denial of Jewish The destruction of the Temple. identity, was comparable to the

disillusionment that

came with Antisemitism only

had always
existed,

disclosed the

springs of Jewish hfe that

and must bring

Werthe about the rehabilitation of the Jewish nation, combining restoring its power of originaHty, its creativeness and Wiirde, and

and development.

This would come not through assimilation,

nor nationalism, but through Zionism.

'

The groundwork had

reserved for been begun, the superstructure of the Temple was the true leaders (^lite It remained for the later generations.
',

of the people, to give the initiative.

The work
is

it

will

be seen

is

propagandist in

its

nature,

and
its

a Zionist analysis of Jewish history

and

character.
it

Despite

derogatory views of Jewish achievement,

is

marked by depth

The treatise of vision. of thought and perspicacity and largeness Following in the has been translated into Hebrew and Russian. evidence of the spirit and spirit of Achad Ha'am, it is another
force that Zionism has

summoned

into

its

service.

ESSAYS AND HOMILETICAL LITERATURE

HOFFMAN

515

David Einhorn.
Essay by

Memorial volume.

Selected

Sermons and

Addresses, edited by

Kaufmann Kohler. A Biographical Kaufmann Kohler. A Memorial Oration by

Limited edition.
pp.
viii

Emil G. Hirsch.

New York: Bloch

Publishing Company, 1911,

+ 482.

collection of

German sermons

of Doctor David Einhorn in

a memorial volume on his hundredth birthday has enriched our homiletic literature. Einhorn's career covered the heart of the nineteenth century, and he was thoroughly characteristic of the

German reform

rabbi of that period.

He came

to his task

and secular knowledge, and his sermons, though not pedantic, show a grasp of the subjects of
which he
in
treats.

well equipped with both Jewish

His sermons cover

;

his career whilst in

Europe,

Schwerin and Pesth

as

well

as

in
is

America: Baltimore,
the controversialist in

Philadelphia,

and

New

York.

Einhorn

the pulpit.
as in

His sermons teem with polemics, in form as well content. His thought is trenchant, sometimes sarcastic
'

and
His
clear

witty,

never pedantic, and rarely

dull.

He

often employs

allegorical interpretation,
style

seldom
is

tells

a story or paints a picture.

and language
logical

simple and direct.

His treatment
in the subjects
fully

and

and

his illustrations apt.

Both

chosen and in
reveals

his

manner of dealing with them, Einhorn

the issues of his day.

function of the

What he himself thinks of the Jewish sermon may be gleaned from his own
'
:

statement as follows
reform,
if
it

But the sermon also requires a fundamental

fulfil
its

is

to quite

high purpose.
itself

It

must not

consist in hollow "fine talk"

and content

with glittering

adornment and

it

may
;

not find

tearful eyes

it

its triumph in sentimental emotions would then only blind instead of enlightening,

inflame the imagination instead of moving the heart.

The

people

hunger and

thirst

for

instruction.

With

tear

drops, however,

we cannot assuage
hunger.

thirst,

and with golden

will

froth

cannot

still

The

people must and

have explanation of the great

artifices,

burning religious questions of the present day ; with little speech however, these questions are only evaded, and an unworthy game of hide and seek is played that not only sets no

VOL.

IV.

Nn

5l6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

set in to the religious indifference that has
it

dam
gives

amongst

us,

but

the greatest impetus.

The Jewish sermon

has the duty

to Uft the pearls of thought out of the

deep mine of a four-thou-

cast a glance into the sand-year past to enable the congregation to Talmud and immeasurable treasury of ideas of the Bible and

the Midrashim, to
Israel

show

it

the proud spiritual tower at which

for the welfare

employed even with wounded limbs has untiringly been show at the same time by of mankind, and to
the structure rises upwards the

how much

more

it

emerges out
;

of the national limitations and recognizes its in which how its incomparable history became the wine-press

world-wide mission

enemy led to an everthe shattering blows and the feet of the cleansing of the law and doctrine from increasing purifying and
its

petrifying lees

how

change not only since that its divme according to the requirement of every age, but changes, but on the substance in no wise suffered loss by these
to

subject the forms of Judaism have been but from antiquity to-day and yesterday

contrary

therefore developed ever more gloriously; and how in tearing down but in extending the true reform consists not but in freeing the building on; not in rendering waste

and

vineyard of stones.

must not be thought that the sermon dry; called may present the materials of instruction bare and endeavour to the spirit and the feelings, it must
It

to

impress

and the combine the gentle and attractive with the earnest ascent up which it would lead the more precipitous the strong strew it with flowers the congregation the more is it bound to
;

climb to the fertile but these flower-bands must serve only to lofty standpoint mountain-tops of the divine law, and from this
to nurture the noble vintage of a

God-pervaded
is

life.'

The
groups
:

collection of sermons here given

divided into three

Inaugural and Farewell sermons

Addresses on National
;

Memorial days and extraordinary occasions

discourses.

Holiday and Sabbath

that of the

His attitude on

religious

and

political questions

is

Judaism must be changed to meet the Jewish assimilationist. Form and substance conditions of the age and environment.


ESSAYS AND HOMILETICAL LITERATURE
alike

HOFFMAN
must be
service
;

517
re-

must be
:

altered. to

All nationalist

elements

moved

no return

Palestine,
is

no

rehabilitated

or

organic existence.

Yet he

not entirely consistent

for

he

believes in Israel as a priest people, opposes

mixed marriages,
he

and would preserve the Sabbath on the seventh day of the week.

Though he would banish German absolutely essential

land of culture in

prayers

in

Hebrew,

declares

from
the

it

',

he

says,

'

Germany is the which Reform Judaism was born. Take away the German spirit, or what is the same thing
here in America.
'

German language
and
it

and
the

you have torn away from

flower.

it

the

mother-soil,

must wither away, the lovely

its

The

English sermon can have for

utilize the treasuries of

mission nothing else than to

spirit

German
is

and German
it.

literature
:

for

our religious
the
is

life

and therewith

to

enrich
there

In a word

where

German sermon

banned,

the a

reform

of

Judaism
doll,

nothing more than a

brilliant

gloss,

decorated

without heart, without soul, which the proudest temples

in

and the most splendid choirs cannot succeed

life.'

infusing with

Not the
style

least

remarkable feature of

this striking

statement

is its

close approximation to the truth.

The
interest,

and content of the Jewish sermon have changed

days,

somewhat since Einhorn's

and

his religious position

is

of

mainly to the student of Jewish history.

The Discipline of Sorroiv and Other Papers.

Abler, Late Minister

London:

George

By S. Alfred of the Hammersmith Synagogue. Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 191 1.

pp. vii+ 150.

The Discipline of Sorrow

England, Doctor
father

is

little

volume of sermons and

himself preceded his
in

writings of S. Alfred Adler, the son of the late Chief-Rabbi of

Hermann
and

Adler.

The son
is

into eternity,

this

collection

the nature of a

memorial wreath, formed of the flowers of

his

own

thought.

There are three sermons

five

religious

causeries

on various

5l8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

;

Jewish holidays
sketches.

one on the death of Herzl

and four

travel

The sermons ideals who comes

poetry.

are lyric productions of a

young man of high

to the pulpit with Jewish sentiment and sym-

pathy and a wide reading of English literature and especially

His nature

is

deeply religious, and his words breathe

the faith which inspired them.

helpful because the

They

are perhaps
idealist,

none the

less

work of a young

whom
spirit

the rough

contact with

life

has not shorn of his native high

and hope.
of

He

is

not robust, and his writings indicate the gentleness of

suffering.

The sermon

that gives the

volume

its

name
is

tells

the ennobling influence of pain endured with faith. of a

'

His concept
that of

the Duties of a Jewish Minister

inspired by the sincerity

',

another sermon,

man

and

conviction, devoted to the

service of

God, and earnest

in teaching

by precept and example

In his 'Smoke

the truth and beauty of a rehgious character.

in the

Flame', he deplores the invasion of commercialism into

of a congregation.

the

management
that

Thus

his

efforts

in this

direction are of a general elevating

is little
is

and edifying nature, but there

definite

and constructive.
such an occasion

In his hoUday reflections he sounds the central themes of the

day,

and thus furnishes appropriate reading

travel sketches are

for

to those devoutly disposed.

His

marked by

fine

and poetic perception,

and his impressions of places and characters are presented with

much

vividness

and

force.

Charles
Newark, N.J.

I.

Hoffman.

^M

A VOLUME OF THE BOOK OF PRECEPTS BY HEFES B. YASLIAH

Edited from an Arabic MS. in the library of the Dropsie College, translated into Hebrew,

AND provided WITH CRITICAL NOTES AND AN INTRODUCTION

By

B.

Halper, Dropsie

College.

INTRODUCTION
I

The Enumeration of Precepts

Although the Mosaic laws must have been exhaustively
summed up
in

during the early tannaitic period, no exact

in

number of precepts contained

the Mishnah or Tosefta.

the Pentateuch
first

is

found

The
gave

indisputably explicit
at

statement that the Lord

Moses 613 precepts

a
sight one

Mount
third
to
1

Sinai

is

that

of R.

Simlai,^
first

preacher of the
is

Christian

century.^

At
is

inclined
this
2.

assume that R. Simlai

This
is

responsible

for

far-

the traditional pronunciation of this name.

In Ezra

46

we

ha\e the Ketib v?Ob' and Kere ^p^b*.

Comp. Gen.

36. 36.

Accordingly

we ought
'

to

pronounce

it

Satnlat.

D't^'iTi

mKD

^'b^ n^r:h ib

new

mi-n

ynn
nin''

^N^roc' 'm ^-\i

inTN
DIN
iiufo

"t3:D

ntry njroK'i

cymNi
and

OTixni nnnn

pJD3 piN^ ccni

Pw'.

R. Simlai preached : six hundred and

thirteen precepts ivcre revealed

tlie

Moses, three hundred

sixty-Jive negative precepts, like

nxtmber of

the days of the solar year,

corresponding to the

and two hundred and forty-eight positive precepts, number of the limbs of the human body (Makkot 23 b).

VOL.

IV.

519

O O

520

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Moise Bloch who adopts
this

reaching statement.

view

gives an elaborate explanation of this talmudic passage.^

It
is

well

known

that

many

religious

disputations took

place between Jews and Christians during the third and

fourth
centuries.

To some

extent there was

a danger

that the line of demarcation between Jews

and Christians

would be removed, especially on account of the Jewish

Christians.

R. Simlai, a contemporary of Origen with

whom
danger,

he probably had

some
to

discussions,

foresaw
the

this

and

in

order

guard

against

possible

abrogation of certain ordinances, declared that just as the

organization of the

human body and

the course of the sun

are immutable, so are the Mosaic laws.

Accordingly, the

number 613
bolically.

is

not to be taken mathematically but symall

R. Simlai never meant to convey that

the

Mosaic precepts amount to 613, but wished to emphasize

their immutability

by comparing them with two immutable

phenomena

of nature whose

sum

is

613.

However

fascinating this theory

may

appear, there are

it.

serious objections which

with, this

tend to invalidate
in the

To
is

begin

number

is

found

Midrashim, and
a
fixed

spoken

of

by subsequent Amoraim,

as

dogma."*

Had

R. Simlai been the originator of this number, this statement

would have been ascribed to him

in at least

one passage.

One would expect to find such an assertion ^ "losn^, as some such words as
'si'rot:'

introduced by
is

customary

throughout the Talmud.

It

is

almost inconceivable that

s *

REJ.,
13.

I,

p. 208.

See Tan/mma, Ki
16;
18.

Tesc,

ed. Buber, 2

Exod. Rabba 32.

Num.

Rabba
is

21;

Shabbat 87 a;

Yebamot 47 b;

Nedarim 25 a;

Shebu'ot 29 a.

In

all

these places the statement that there are 613 precepts

indirectly referred to,

and

is

obviously taken ns a well-known

fact.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER
is

52I

a statement for which an individual preacher

responsible

should be quoted as a self-evident truth which requires no

support.

Nobody

in

the

Talmud

or

in

the

Midrash

entertains any

doubt as to the accuracy of the number.

all

Such a
that

fact

would be

the stranger

if
it

R. Simlai intended
is

number
in its

to be symbolical.

For

obvious from the

midrashic and talmudic passages that this number was

taken

mathematical sense.
in

Moreover, there are two passages

which Tannaim of

the second century are credited with the knowledge of this

number.

In the Mekilta
:

R. Simon

b.

Eleazar

is

reported to

have said
n)03i

i6

inb mvD

yTj*3 n; "^3 nci "11:^1 hp

Dnan N^m
If i/ie
nmcJi

nc3 nnx bv

mcy

'Z'b'C')

niSD

^U'n

nnn

'])r2vb

^^::^

children of
less

Noah

could not fulfil seven precepts^

Jioiv

will they be able to fulfil six

hu7uhed and thirteen!

It

should be observed that this passage offers no conclusive

evidence, since at the beginning the

tioned,

number

is

not menit

and Bloch may be right

Weiss,*"

in

considering

a later

interpolation.
at the

whom

Bloch does not quote, arrives

Yalktit Shiinoni the

same
is

conclusion, because in

number
pressed.

missing.

This point, therefore, need not be

is

The

other passage, however,

of greater weight.

It occurs in Sifre,'

and

is

as follows

^NTy

py?2jr U")

"irON

ID

n:;v3 ni^'on
-ist'

^22 psi

m^nn ncyn \h
\ytyci b\>

c^cni xi^^m
i^ijn

niND

'i

nni

v^y nin^n

]-|^^T^

nivcn

pNU^

no -yah

i'y^V

niVOn.

R. Simon

b.

'^Azzai says:

There are three

hundred and

sixty-five Jiegative precepts in the Torah^

is

and
the

no such statement
thai,

made about any of them ;

this indicates
is

if Scripture zvarned thee against blood ivhich

Bahodesh 5

''

Yitro,

'ed.

Weiss,

p.

74

a).

*
''

In a note to that passage.

Deut.,

76 'ed. Friedmann,

p.

gob).

O O

522
lightest

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

of all precepts^ how viuch more art thou warned
to other precepts
!

witJi

regard

Here we even have the exact

There
is
is

number

of the negative precepts.

no

possibility

of interpolation, unless the whole passage

corrupt, or the

name

of the

Tanna
is

is

to be replaced

by

that of an
for

Amora.

But as there

no independent reason
it

doubting the

authenticity of this passage,

as
it is.

must be allowed to stand

weighty objection to Bloch's view

in

is

also furnished
is

by the very passage

recorded.

which R. Simlai's statement

that

The explanation which

flimsy to have suggested the number.

liberty to choose

Amora Had
the

offers

is

too

he been at

any number he pleased, he would have

have made
thought of

adopted one which would

immutability more evident, P'or few people would associate

the days of the year (not the course of the sun) and the

members of

the

human body

with the idea of immutability.

Moreover, he might have

rather than the solar.

at least

chosen the lunar system

gains from that

The impression one

that R.

passage, therefore,

is

Simlai offered a homiletic

explanation for a well-known tradition.

exposition does not
lie

The novelty
in the

of his

in the

number, but

reason

which he assigns to

it.

There
ing this

is

accordingly nothing against the view of regardas a tannaitic tradition.

number

The

scribes

who

counted every

letter of the

law^ could not have neglected

precepts.

to investigate the
this hypothesis,

number of

Bloch objects to

because by fixing the number of precepts

the scribes would have been barred from finding a basis

in

the Pentateuch for their innovations

and a

distinction

would have been drawn between Mosaic and

^

later ordinances.^
I,

Kiddushin 30

a.

RE.J..

p.

200.

HEFES
This
is,

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

523

however, no weighty objection, as such a distinction

if

would be noticed even

the precepts were not counted.

The Rabbis
(nnin nai)
is

in

any case

differentiated
institutions

between Mosaic laws

and Rabbinic

{wD^n nm).

Nowhere
found

there a tendency to consider the

two

as one category.
is

But beyond a mere statement, no indication

in

talmudic or midrashic literature as to the actual enumeration.

Nor

is

there
is

any reference to a method by which the

to be obtained.

number 613

The

earliest
is

attempt known

to us to give the individual precepts

that found at the

beginning of the Halakot Gedolot.

halakic

The authorship

of this

work

is

variously attributed to R. Jehudai

Gaon
of

and to R. Simon Kayyara.

the
life

Hardly anything
it is

is

known

of either of these

men, but

certain that they

flourished in the eighth century.

Two

different recensions

have been transmitted, and there can be no doubt that the

text,

which

is

sometimes inconsistent, has been tampered

with.i^

A number of Halakists
as the foremost authority.
criticizes this

must have followed the method

of the author of the Halakot Gedolot

whom
is*

they recognized

For Maimonides, who severely

:

method, remarks

^^

yi'U

S'nnya
airt

"<:]}

P
>2
fy

bD

|S*^

N^i ni^n: nw^n ansv Dn^3 lyan np pj^^N

>:;

2sr\2

napi ^ipy^N

"in::

ntd'ijy.

Nsnnn n^n Nmny

For
all

''s

^-nixn:^

psnn^

biiba xin

b)p

who

occupied themselves zvith

enumerating them (the precepts) or with composing a book

on this subject folloived the author of the Halakot Gedolot,

and
1'^

they only slightly deviated

from

his opinions, as if the

this subject

See L. Ginzberg's thorough and ingenious discussion of

I,

in his Geom'ca, vol.

^^ 1-

pp. 99-117.
ff.

Stfer ha-Miswot, ed. Bloch, pp. 4

J,\s.\

denotes here opinions,

vieivs.

See Dozy,

s. v.

524
intellects

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

stopped
still

at the decision of this man.

These

works, however,

are

not

preserved.

Instead,

we have

a number of AzJiarot which enumerate the precepts in

poetic

form.

n^n:n nnx.

The oldest extant is that which begins The author of this composition is unknown,
in

but

it is

surmised that he flourished

the eighth century,

and was influenced by the Halakot Gedolot.

the

Judging by
it

number

of Azharot that

have been transmitted,

seems that almost every

as his theme.

liturgic

poet took the precepts

his

Sa'adya Gaon, with

amazing

versatility,

composed two such poems.

skill

Some

writers even tried their

in

emplo}-ing the Arabic language to enumerate the

lines.

precepts in metrical and rhyming

Fragments of two

such attempts, obviously by different authors, are found at

the Dropsie College.

Although the Azharot seldom had

any halakic

value, they exercised

some

influence as liturgic

compositions.

They

reached

their culminating point in

still

Ibn

Gabirol

whose Azharot are

recited

in

some

congregations.

While practically

all

these writers followed the author

b.

of the Halakot Gedolot blindly, Hefes

Yasliah seems to

have questioned the validity of that method.

Here again
observes
:^^

we have

the testimony of Maimonides

who
Dtbyi

^y Nr:D D^^nx
ni3^n^X nnxv.

c"in':i

D'^in

iipn

ny
the

jx

mjy

ni^^n^x 3nxv

The author of

famous Book of Precepts

(or the famoiis author of the

the errors of the

it

Book of Precepts) took notice of author of the Halakot Gedolot, and considered
It

strange that visiting the sick and consoling the mourners

is

should be counted, as did the author of the Halakot.

the merit of Rapoport to have been the
13

first

to suggest that

op.

cit.

p. 5.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER
'

525

by
b.

'

the author of the famous

is

Book of Precepts
conjecture
finds

Hefes

Yasliah

meant.^^
in

This
ibn

striking

confirmation

Judah

Bal'am's
it

commentary on
is

Deuteronomy.

For

in that

passage

explicitly stated

that Hefes had objected to the

method of a

writer

who had

included the visiting

of sick and the consoling of mourners

among

the precepts.^''

Maimonides, who was

in this respect

anticipated

by Ibn Baram,^ found the method of Hefes

inconsistent."
(i'lVN*),

He

therefore laid

down
all

fourteen principles
possible
fallacies.

in

order to

guard
is

against

Although Maimonides
cies,

not quite free

from inconsistenRefutations or
for

as

was shown by Nahmanides

(nircn),
it

in his

Objections

must be granted

that

logical

enumeration he deserves the palm.

like

Subsequent writers,

Moses of Coucy and Isaac

of Corbeil, follow

him with

but few deviations.

It

may

thus be said that there are three main systems

precepts
:

in

enumerating the
;

(i)

that
;

of the

Halakot
that of

Gedolot

(2)

that of Hefes

b.

Yasliah

and

(3)

Maimonides.
Against the
literal interpretation

of the idea that there

are 613 precepts in the Pentateuch, protests were

now and
is

again heard.
the
first

Judah ibn Bal'am was,

this protest.^^

as far as

known,
those

who sounded

He

blames

all

who enumerated

the precepts, and points out that there are

:

two kinds of precepts

those that were enjoined for ever

'^

See Kebusat Hakatnim,

nipa
y\s-it:^^s*

p. 58.

15

r\%i ^d ^5in |d "hv "i33X

Deut. 30.
2,

[)>Dn

m]
Loc.

jnj npi

Dv3N
's '*

Qin^JI
cit.

Dvin (Commentary on

ed. Fuchs^.

Loc.

"
was the
first

cit.

Bloch,

who wrote

before Ibn Bal'am's commentary on Deuteronomj'

was

published, stated that Ibn Ezra

{REJ.,

I,

p.

210).

526

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

for

and those that were given only

one occasion.

Now

if

the former alone are counted, they would not

amount

to

the required number, while

if

we

also include the latter.

they would exceed that number.^^

Ibn Ezra

^^-'

deals at

length with this question, and employs logical arguments

against
all

systems.

His

criticism

is

chiefly levelled at the

liturgic writers.

He

likens

them

to a

man who

counts the

number of herbs

that are mentioned in a

use.^^

book on medicine,

without knowing their

It
is

noteworthy that the objection came from writers

not
specialists
in

who were

Halakah.

For although
in his old age,

Ibn Bal'am cultivated the study of Halakah

he can hardly be regarded as a

specialist in that branch.

Moses

ibn

Ezra

in his

Kitdb al-Miihddarah wal-Mnddkarak,

in

while speaking of the Jewish scholars

Spain, says of

Ibn Bal'am during the

a Halakist.
matter
is

mciy lix

'D

np2n?2/N, ^uho studied

Halakah

latter

part of his

life^- but does not style him

The only Halakist who was undecided on

Nahmanides
and
mysticism

this

rationalism

that complex soul combining who expressed his doubts

this

whether the Talmud

seriously.-"

meant
he,
in

number

to

be

taken

But even
is

spite of the difficulties

he

points out,

inclined to

follow the majority.

All other
sort of

authorities have allowed this

number

to

remain as a

dogma.
'*
-<'

See passage

in extenso, loc.
II.

cit.

Yesod Mora, chapter

n^3*j'yn
-ins*

^
Dn?D

iddd nor
II).

121 d::*
i''^^

niab

cr^n

ninnTsn

'b]}2

njm

^33 ni^yin nc

ab Nini

nit^iE-i

-idd3

nmnrn

(towards

the end of chapter

22
I

take this quotation from Derenbourg, Closes d'Abott Zakariya Yahia

Isaie, p. 7.

ben Bilatn sur

23

See his

mJCH

to

Maimonides's Sefer ha-Miswof,

at the beginning.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

527

II

Hefes
It
is

b.

Yasliah
writers that
little

the fate of a good

lives

many Jewish
and

or

nothing of their

activities is

known.

Jews

have always allowed books to supersede their authors.

Even

in

the Bible, where every letter was scanned,

many

of

the writers are not

known by name, and

This
is

it

is

only when an

author accidentally revealed his personality that

we know
For only

anything about him.

for

perhaps to be accounted

by the

nation's conception of inspiration.

in

canonical books were preserved, and

such books the

author

is

merely

the

vehicle

of

the

word

of

God.

Wellhausen somewhere accuses the Jews of ingratitude,

because they failed to perpetuate the

memory
this

of

the

Maccabaean heroes, and excluded from the Canon the

books that relate their triumphs.

But

again

is

in

harmony with the Jewish

no
credit, since

conception.

The Maccabees

were the tools of the Almighty, and as such they deserved

God merely

chose them to carry out His

will, just

as in former

years

He

had chosen Assyria to

punish His people.

It
is,

therefore,

not

to

be marvelled at that Hefes

of,

b.
is

Yasliah, whose books were for centuries lost sight

nothing more than a mere name.

Early Jewish historical

works, like

Abraham

ibn Baud's Seder ha-Kabbalah and

Abraham Zakuta's Ynhasin, The honour of having drawn

pass

him over

in

silence.

the attention of scholars to

is

the existence of this wonderful personality

due to Zunz.

As

early as 183-2 he mentioned the

name

of Hefes

among

the rational interpreters of the Bible

in his Gottesdienstliclie

528
Vortrdgc,
p.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

397.

Ten years

later

he gave a brief sketch of

this scholar in a note to Haarbriicker's

Specimen of Tan/pun

Yerushabtns Commentary on Judges.

Judges
Hefes.
20, 28,

For

in his

note on

Tanhum

quotes the

Book

of Precepts of

Haarbrlicker did not

know

the existence of such

a writer, and he applied to Zunz for information.^'*

When Rapoport

wrote the biography of R. Hanan'el in

1830, he discussed in note 36 the authorship of the halakic

work Sefer Hefes, which was up

till

that time ascribed

by most

writers

to

that

famous scholar of Kairuwan.

difficulties, for

Rapoport, however, found a number of

some

decisions quoted from the Sefer Hefes are opposed to those

that

occur

in

the authenticated
in

works of R. Hanan'el.

Furthermore,

some passages both R. Hanan'el and the

it

Sefer Hefes are quoted, which makes

consider that scholar as
difficulties, Rapoport
its

improbable to
these

author.

To overcome

made a sort

of compromise: R. Hanan'el
his disciples

was the author of that book, but

decisions and altered others.

added some

In consequence of the suggestions thrown out

scholars
I

by Zunz,
was,

occasionally

wrote

about

Hefes.
b.

Furst

believe, the first to connect

Hefes

Yasliah with the

Orients he gave

Sefer Hefes.

In his Literatnrhlatt des

two

brief notices of Hefes.-'^

Using the sources indicated

observations,

by Zunz, he added two important them

is

and one of

the identification of the Sefer Hefes with the

Book

of Precepts.

The

other observation related to the place of

residence of that author.

For Zunz assumed that Hefes

Fiirst

had

lived in

Kairuwan, whereas

suggested Babylon

as Hefes's place of residence.

Neither Zunz nor Fiirst had

any
'*

valid reasons for their assumptions

bee pp.
X, xi

which they expressed

and

53, 54.

Vol. X, pp.

no

and 247.

HEFE.

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

but, as

HALPER
on, a

529
recent

with hesitation

we

shall see

later

discovery proved the latter to be right.

Two
same

years later
periodical,

Reifmann published a short note

and without referring to any
Hefes with the Book of

in the

writer,

identified the Sefer

Precepts.-*^

About i860 Rapoport wrote

b.

three articles on

Hefes

Yasliah which he sent to Stern.

One

of these articles,
in

evidently the most complete, was

published

Kebusat

HakamimF'
is

There the view

is

expressed that Hefes lived

in Palestine, or rather in Jerusalem.

No reference whatsoever
is

made

to Zunz.

The Sefer Hefes

with great ingenuity

and thoroughness ascribed to

articles

Hefes.

One

of the other

subsequently came into the hands of Halberstam

it

who published
Rapoport
residence,

in

Kobak's YesJmnm?^

In that article

refutes the view of

Zunz about Hefes's place of

and adduces proofs that Palestine was the home

Other scholars who
are
Avrote a

of that
less

Halakist.

more or

complete

biography of Hefes

Steinschneider,^''

Ginzberg,^**

and Poznahski."^

All that could be gathered with certainty at that time

was that Hefes was

writers Gaon,^^
26

blind,^^

and was styled by various

and Rosh Yeshibah.^
See

Resh

Kalla,^^ Alluf,^^

Vol.

XII (1851),

p. 617.

Steinschneider, in a note in Benjacob's

anDOn
27

li'lN, p.

197, seems

to

doubt Furst's priority.

Fiirst's

remark

on Reifmann's note.
pp. 52-60.
28

Vol. VIII, pp. 57-65

62.

^Hebrew

part).

29 20 31 32

Arabische Literahir der Juden,

See bibliography cited there.

Jewish Encyclopedia,

s. v.

|Kn"P ^tJ'JX, pp. 24-8; ^XTi:'^ "I2:1N, s.v.; Solomon Parhon, in his Mahheret he-'Arnk, s.
nn''w'^

D'JIK'
v. "1?:^^

D":*:)!?, p.

55-

and

yif|!),

refers

to

Hefes as
33

^\fr\

m.lJ

''JD.

R, Moses of Coucy, Sefer

in

Miswot
p.

Gadol, positive precept 48, p. 127 b

R. Abraham ha-Yarhi
^*
^^

Ha-Manhig,

67

a.
35

R. Jonah ibn Janah, Liana',

p. 15.

Alfasi, Respoiisa, log.

Solomon Parhon, he.

cif.

53

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

great
deal

of ingenuity was spent

in

in

attempting to
In the absence

determine the country

which he resided.

of positive facts, imagination was allowed to

roam unbridled.

To

the various opinions mentioned above should be added

that of Poznai'iski

who

suggested that Hefes might have

earliest writers

been a native of Spain, since the

him belong

to that country.""

Fortunately, however,

who quote among

question.
'2

the Genizah fragments at the Jewish Theological Seminary

of America there

is

a letter which settles

:

this

The

writer of that letter remarks

ijdo

Ti'^ip^^

cninr Dn^l?n ims*

n^nnp^

mc'Nn

n^b)i'

^'ha

yzn 2ir:h nivon nna

ana."*

We

thus

know

that Hefes lived in Mosul, which Jewish

writers called

"iVlTN.

There certainly can be no reason

of this

for

doubting the accuracy

letter

remark, as the writer of this

is

seems to be well informed, and

title

very careful
J*Dn in

in

placing the

Alluf immediately after

order to

avoid the possibility of taking Yasliah to be the bearer of

that
title.

As
It is

to

the

time when

Hefes flourished, we are

less

fortunately situated,

and

some uncertainty

still

exists.

usually assumed that he lived towards the end of the

tenth century.
point, there
is

But despite the consensus of opinion on

no basis
for this conjecture, for
it

this

rests

on

assumptions which proved to be incorrect.

evidence was adduced for this view.
suggests that Hefes
reference
is
is

No

positive

Zunz

hesitatingly

identical with the Alluf to

in

whom

made by R. Hai Gaon

it

a Responsum."'^

In that
3^
5^

Responsum

is

stated that R.

Hai had some

whom
am

fNITp 'B'JN*, p. 25See JQR., New Series,

letter in

I,

p. 439.

Professor A. Marx, to
that nothing

indebted for this sentence, assures

me

more can be gathered

from that
^^

connexion with Hefes.

p. 54.

Haarbriicker's Specimen of Tanhunt Yerus/ialmi,

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

in

HALPER

531
998.^''

correspondence with an Alluf

the year 997 or

Relying on

this

identification

Steinschneider states that

Hefes corresponded with R. Hai.*^

But there was not the

and
it

sh'ghtest justification for that identification,

is

more

likely that the Alluf referred to

is

Jacob

b.

Nissim.*^

Scholars also attempted to fix the termhuis a quo

the circumstance that Ibn Janah
is
'

by

the earliest writer

who
an

quotes Hefes.^"

This

is

indeed a

broken reed
him.

',

for there

probably was no occasion to quote

If such

argument should be regarded as

valid,

we could

place

many an

early writer at a late period.

To mention

only

one glaring example.

Nisi al-NahrwanI

an

older conprolific
is

temporary of Sa'adya

who

must have been a

hymn-writer*^ and scholar of high attainments,

only

known from Nathan

ha-Babli's report.

When we
it

consider

many have been doomed

the fact that
casual mention,
it

a scholar of past generations

to oblivion,

would

had

not been for

some

is

impossible to lay stress on such an

argument.

Moreover, few books dating from the ninth and

tenth centuries have been preserved, and, on the whole,

writers of that period were not

accustomed to quote their

predecessors to a great extent.

literatures

The talmudic and midrashic

to

alone were
scholars

binding
not

them, whereas
acquired

post-

talmudic
authority.

had

yet

indisputable

From
gleaned.
^o
*i

the references to Hefes nothing positive can be

He

is

grouped together with other writers

in

Q^yn D^nn, 119.

Arabische Literaturder Judeu,

62.

See also Ginzberg,

Geoiiica,

I.

p 178.

**^

Comp. Poznanski,
Op.
at., p. 25.

|J<1"l''p

""u'JN,

pp. 15, 25, 32.

" There

are a

number of hymns by

Nisi in the Genizah fragments at the

Dropsie College.

Some

of the acrostics spell out n^3^3

"'D'J.

532
various

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ways.

Thus Ibn Janah mentions some

Samuel
Hai
Hofni, Hefes.^'

of the

reliable interpreters of the

Bible in the following order:

b.

Sa adya,

Sherira, Hai,

That no
is

stress can be laid

on

this order as regards

is

chronology

evident from the fact that

b.

mentioned before Samuel

Isaac

Hofni.

Then on
Sa

the

other hand

ibn

Gayyat

places Hefes before

adya.^^

Also

in

a Genizah fragment,

which

is

now

at
is

the

Jewish Theological

Seminary of

America, Hefes

casually mentioned before Sa'adya and

It is

Samuel
fluent

b. Hofni.

a remarkable fragment, written in

rhymed

prose,

and seems to be a description of

trial

before a judge.

The
^'
:

writer

was probably a copyist

referring to the
[p]n
^d

or bookseller by profession.

The passage
[Y]^n

Geonim

runs as follows
'-\i}D2

nmn

)*3n 'b

hnini

pNi 3nii:^ ps3

hub n^ pxi nnyo irnn

nma
is

n'[n]D ab)

TT'K'Nnn Ti-iDDC' 1]) ni:?o Tix^'ro 16)

ni3

[cjmnn nT^cn dn
b.

c'DD

''b

nn^in h^ni.

That Hefes

Yasliah
is

here

meant

cannot be reasonably doubted.

writer bearing that
established.

For there

only one other

name whose
a
full

identity has not yet been

is

He was
His
it

philosopher and

quoted

by

Ibn

Gabirol.'*'^

name was Hefes

b. al-Birr al-Futi
is

or al-Kuti, and

was suggested that al-Birr

an Arabic

translation of the
this

Hebrew

n''b)i''

or vice vcrsa!^'^

However
classed

may

be^ the writer of the fragment obviously speaks of

it is

Halakists, and

interesting to note that Hefes

is

among
events,
^5
*''

the most prolific writers of that period.

At

all

owing to the conflicting arrangements,

p. 15.
*''

this

point

Lunia\
1

Sa'art Simhah, ed. Furth, p. 63.

am under
it

obligation to Professor Israel Davidson,

who

intends to

publish the entire fragment, for drawing

for

my

attention to this passage,

and

copying
^^

for

me.
p.

See Steinschneider, Hebniisclie Vbersetzuvigcn,

See Poznanski, fNITp
''C':S, p. 25.

"

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

533

must be abandoned

as a basis for determining the time

when Hefes
Hitherto

flourished.

we have only examined the

cited in the

external evidence.

Unfortunately there hardly exists any internal evidence, as

no post-talmudic writers are

Book

of Precepts.

Discussions of a polemical nature, with the exception of

one passage which

absent.

will
is

be explained later on,^" are entirely

Yet there

one point which deserves a

in

full

discussion.

Hefes gives

every precept a

rhmnd

in

Arabic of the pentateuchal

in

law,

and then quotes the verses

are, with rare

Hebrew.

The Arabic words he employs

exceptions, identical with those

of Sa'adya's translation.

Even the constructions resemble those of Sa'adya, and the

deviations
are

such as one

may

expect to occur

in

resiimd as distinct from a literal translation.

illustrate

In order to

this

point

shall

place

in

parallel

columns

Sa'adya's translation and the rhiimi given by Hefes of the

first

four precepts that are preserved,

Sa'adya
nnai in:
NO-'Np

Hefes
cnirN

^^y

ajin

N^JD
yN'-i^N

IN
's

N'onD npinNi
n?3
-i^nd
2:"'

NaviT

nsnNii'D

Nnoni*
IN

[nud

p
-d

mrba

in

NO^Np N^3JD
yN-'v^N 'D

NDn:3
in

np-iHNI

..T2

NO

Non ht:

nna:D

(Exod. 22.

5.)

.-jh HD^p

nv

;n

(Text,
nx-iD IN
jo i?3v

fol. I a.)

N^ii

niji

n::j

jni

5inyD Ti
riNOD

-iin

jn^

nin

a:in

xh

-nn^N d:i^^d n^npa

NJNDJN

nOJS
|n

nNL3J^N3

,nn nih^N am

noni?

Nh

ninijN

Dn>

i^i^ jndjn^^n
r\x:rh

{ibid., 21. 2S.)

.n3s nanNVi
See note

p bv
3
a.)

(fol.
^

Chapter

III.

157.

534

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

|D

nxD: Nnin rh
nc'i3i

>bv 33"in

D^s n6Dn>!?
-nii^N

^3p ndi ddn

DiT^a hnio
jNi

is i6:-\ bnp)

nin^N DjnfN2
NV2

jn

xasDix ^np2 nusn^

xnit:
in

rin

DTijiS*

bnp"

nnnxv
nhd

Nir^Ni

iVONnnaN

pnno'i
dt^n*

.nor^'

xn

y^oi hdd:

LDy^^a

Ncy^E nio:D^N nn
.'VNnn^N
n^i^y

(idid., 21. 29. 30.)

nan

(fol.
f'''N"iDN

3 b.)

yD3 |D yea suis* |ss

Piii'x

^xnK" nyxnj nuax "nc ajin

^oys pij^x p^y
f'cyi
jy

^oy'3

jvy

jd

ncx

3nji

nnN

-3J1

inoa

ab 'nba rhba tnid

fi-'DibN

rn hni

lonsa
'ba

vnxiJ^s'

p
|n

nnn^si

riDiy an nonNQ ^cyn

N33

pi:^N

np^

xnn

Nn-\

piiijN*

nnp^^a NniNt35s* ^ni^x

iv^' n:Dni

nm^^ xnm
--^y

nvno^N
nysoj^v

n^ pn na nxM r^zibb ipa^N

sni)

on
iD

noNi

onnw

n"

p3

rn^s

nan^i

nbi'N

niDDD^wS' asroN^N

nva^i

nan*

yv^i

nNnn

si:d^x

n^snp non
"-^y

:n^^N

"-T

p3

nn^K

dsi

"bv

3^'*i

ni33^N nano indin

nao

nT-yvl^N

nano dndn nay

'PN3^n
fNi

nonu'

nmD^N

*^y

nnp''

n^ pa nxin yao njo

by

nvn

n^s

onjy isanD^i

maa

nnxni nx^ai

3v' n:Di
nij^N*

?iiD^K rii'Nap

rhba

nK3
nnun

nin^x yoj
*i?s

:-\2"i

an^ nsri

^i^N

n''

p3 nnno^x |N3in

nns*D yiriD *^n naoy^s .lN:n p-in^s

iNDn^N
5
b.)

3Nn

^D

^iba rn^yv^N

naio dndn
xni
hjd

(fol.

nya-i''

nDniy ycii

r-ii'nD^x
^bv
inp""!

^Dyi

rnniD^N

d?:n^x rion
iDJ^i

-^ifin

^roy

Nn3 na

Dn:y

"isjnD''i

na ^oy nxii

^Tn^n iih^N pins* ND3 npin^s

:p"ii!?x

riiDT

in

(Lev. 4. 13-21.)

HEFES
It will

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER
in

535

be observed that the differences

the passages

from Exodus are more numerous than

Leviticus.

in

the one from

fact that

This

is

to be accounted for

by the

the

former are

less technical.

Moreover, some differences are

b]}2

only apparent.
21 and nnxv.
the latter
former.
;

Thus Sa'adya renders

indifferently

by

In the passage quoted above Hefes has only

but on the same page he also employs the

is

There

no need to quote any further passages,

but

it

may
the

be stated that the Leviticus passage represents

the relation between the two renderings

more

correctly.

Now
two

differences

in

the

Leviticus

passage

are

so

insignificant that they

may

be expected to occur almost in

different manuscripts of

one and the same book.

The

two manuscripts of Sa'adya's translation of and commentary

on Job, for instance,
extent.^^
differ
is

from each other to a very great

The same
ild

the case with

Bahya

b.

Pakuda's

al-Hiddya

Faraici al-Kiilub}'-

In some places the

Book
Thus
and
,

of Precepts

may
is

help us to correct Sa'adya's text.

3X3 (Lev. 4. 13)

it

hardly an accurate rendering of

it

D^i;j,

seems quite probable that

it.

is "ID

a scribal error

for ^11

as

Hefes has

The rendering
in

of

by

is

very interesting.
"iin,

Although Hefes

the above passage has

in

other

places he agrees with Sa'adya in using m.^^

Now

the

ordinary word in Arabic for sUer is^y, ovj^i^

tl>J is

^^J,

whereas

an extremely rare word, and

is /log:

in

Mohammedan works
meant

its

usual signification

There can be no doubt that

u!jJ

in

the dialect spoken

by Sa'adya and Hefes

steei'.

nothing more than

bullock or

For

it is

inconceivable

'"^

See Bacher's introduction See Yahuda's See

to his edition, p. ix.

ft".

22 2*

edition, Introduction^ pp. 7

1,

text, fol. 10 b,

la.

VOL.

IV.

P p

536
that they

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

employed such an ambiguous word which denotes
sacrifices.

hog

in a

passage dealing with

The resemblance of these two versions more striking when we compare them with
translation of the Bible printed in Beyrout.

will

appear

still

the independent

The

Leviticus

passage alone will suffice for our purpose.

Sju.l_j

It is as follows

l^L^j

^.

C)"^'

O^ J^

C^*^^

Jj];'*'^

AsUa- Jj

U-

U^J

ojjj
.

k_5^l

Xa\

j^\ ^j
^yJl
|,lol

^
^jA
jUl

j%-4^aj1

4CI4I
^^al50l

ty^
Jij-JJj

^-^J
.

p^^^^^

cU::^.^!

d^ Jl
1-3^1

*.>

.^y*^
Ji^-j

s^l (U ^yJl

l-J^Ji t5jJ

e:jj^
-j,!l

f^^'^
(^JJl
L^JJl

r*"^'^

(J

"'"^^

^^^1 Lr^J
^jJl

^jL,j cU:^.^!

s--.b.

jj

^jjll

u^

jjc

^^

J^j
j.^1

*.^j
isUji

pU::^.^]
.ytJ

%<^

\-i\i,

(^a!

!W^'

^jju. Ji-j\ ^Jl

!s-j.a)

A.:Jail

Js Uj

,yiJb

JjtfiJj

^.Jil (Is jSjJj iUC Wy-iJ s.*^

^s^'

s.Jab.

Asr^^j

!i.il

Jj^l

.^lll

(_|;a"l

U>

In this version almost every technical expression

is

ren-

dered differently from the other

two.,

and

this

would lead

one to assume an interdependence of the

is

latter

As Sa'adya
and

by

far the better

known
Bible,
it

of the two

as a translator

commentator of the

seems

at first sight reasonable

to conclude that Hefes borrowed from him.

ingly,

This, accord-

would
in

fix

the termiims a quo, and would indeed place

Hefes

the second half of the tenth century, for

for

we must
become

allow some time

universally spread.

Sa'adya's

translation

to

On
is

reflection,

however, this can hardly be considered

conclusive evidence.

To

begin with, the fact that Sa'adya

the most renowned and admired Jewish writer of the

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH's BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

537

tenth century does not preclude the possibility of an earlier,

though
at
least

less satisfactory,

attempt at translating the Bible,

into

the Pentateuch,

Arabic.

Hefes

displays

a thorough mastery of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic.

He

shows great

skill

and a sense of appropriateness

where

in

choosing Arabic equivalents for the most obscure talmudic

terms.
logical

Even

in cases

his explanations lack philo-

soundness, the Arabic words

he uses admirably
in this

convey the meaning he intended.

has no predecessors a

And
Is
it

branch he

known

to us.

at all likely that

man

of the calibre of Hefes would need to borrow from

the translation of another writer without due acknowledge-

ment?
that

It,

therefore,

seems natural to
Hefes
is

reject the theory

the translation of

influenced

by that of
Although we

Sa'adya.

The

striking resemblance of the

for in

two translations

may
in

be accounted
for

a simpler manner.

have no data

determining exactly the time when Jews

their vernacular,^"* there can

Babylon adopted Arabic as

be no doubt that this event took place centuries before

Sa'adya.

The

Jews, accordingly, while studying the Bible,

it

especially the Pentateuch, must have translated

into that

language.

Some

sort of terminology

must have gradually

developed, and remained fixed to a considerable extent,

especially in the case of technical terms.

This terminology

inevitably

had some Hebrew colouring, otherwise such

which
is

words
of

as ix<x^ for hurnt-offeringy

a literal translation
D"'D?t^>,

nhy,''^

and i*^

for peace-ojfering^

Hebrew

could

not have arisen.

first

Accordingly,

if

Sa'adya really was the

translator of the Pentateuch, he merely

committed to

writing that which had been

^*
5-^

known
Sx^.

orally,

and

it

is

only

Comp. Steinschneider, Arabische

See Freytag's Lexicon,
s. v.

Literatur der Jttden, p. xvii.

P p 2

538

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

touches that he deserves credit, not for the

for the literary

actual translation.

Subsequent

writers,

who had

Sa'adya's

translation before them, were no longer aware of the oral

terminology that had previously existed, and unduly praised

him

for

his

work.

For

it

must be borne

in

mind that
vernacular

a translation of the Bible

differs radically

made by Jews

in their

from that made by non-Jews.

'meditate therein day and

The former
and as

are enjoined to

night',

soon as they adopt a new mother-tongue, are bound to find Thus the adoption of the equivalents for Hebrew words.

new mother-tongue
which

practically coincides with the translation

be regarded as raw material for subsequent The first non-Jew, however, who wished literary attempts.

may

to translate the Bible, had to begin with a clean slate,

and

was obliged

to coin

new

terms.

These considerations, to

my

mind, completely destroy

the evidence to be adduced from the expressions Hefes

employs

in translating

pentateuchal verses.
it

In this

connexion

is is

convenient

to

discuss

two

passages in which

Hefes

supposed to quote Sa'adya

explicitly, and which would thus conclusively prove that Hefes flourished after that famous Gaon, In JQR., VI,
p,

705,

Neubauer published an Arabic fragment which he

hesitatingly suggested to be part of the

Book

of Precepts
a slightly
3,

by Hefes

b, Yasliah.

That fragment begins with

from

abridged quotation

Menahot, Mishnah,
:

6.

7.^''

Then comes the

sn-iDn:

following passage
m:;'-i

nn^nc^N Dsn snnDp npi

^d ^r\i^

|m nop n5 nnnrx^ rh

n^^s nv: ^Dvai^N

xh n^nn -cnpn pc^b

snnm

xnis* in ]N3

fsi nnyi's' r\hi

ixvn^xn
This
After

smD THD ^h
is

^i'D

ipi N'ni'yn 13-1 ncjni divd^wS y^nj

rn\

followed

by an enumeration of twenty
55

sections.

This was not noticed by Neubauer.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER
is

539

the mention of the twenty-first section there

a gap,

and

the subject

is

interrupted.

The passage
for

that follows deals

with an

important

principle

enumerating precepts.
to allow

The gap must have been considerable, for we have room for at least four or five sections.^'^
Another fragment which enumerated the
sections

first

eight
Prof.

of

Saadya's Rcshct was

published
nrL^'1^^*

by

Schechter.^^^

That fragment

is

headed n^K

T'Dsn N*in

^irt

^Jsn

p pw

h^yo'c

mo

ni^Dsna

^jy

ddp.

The remaining

lines are, with the exception of a

few insignificant variants,

fragment, and hence

identical with those of Neubauer's

Prof.

Alexander Marx was

latter.*^"

led to consider

Samuel

b.

Hofni

the author of the

for

There

is,

however, no ground

this

identification.

That the two fragments do not

is

belong to one and the same book

self-evident.
b.

In

Saadyana we have the beginning

commentary,
whereas
in

of

Samuel

Hofni's

Neubauer's fragment we have

it

a direct quotation from Sa'adya's ReshiU before

translated
into
is

was

Arabic.

Since
for

the

headings alone are

in style,

quoted, there
is

no room

divergency

and there

nothing to connect the two writers.

One

feels inclined

to agree with

Neubauer that

'

it

is

certainly not

by Samuel

ben Hofni

'.^^

On the other hand, I am now in

" There

a position to demonstrate

are a few misprints in that passage, and Neubauer,

JQR., VII,

p. 172, corrected

them

in the

name

of Bacher,
left

who had

seen the manuscript.

7t2S, p. 707,
1.

One important word, however, was

ought obviously to be
^^

uncorrected.

14,

p^DX
;

or bpIX.

JQR., XIV, p. 211 Saadyana, p. 53. It seems to me that HD is the more obliterated H might easily be mistaken for T
^^
^'

correct reading, as a slightly

Ginzberg's Geonica,

I,

p. 179, note.

"^

JQR., VII,

p. 172.

540

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Hefes was not the author
is

with certainty that

of

that

fragment, and the evidence

portion of his
a
difference

furnished

by the preserved
is,

Book of
in style.

Precepts.

There

to begin with,

Hefes

consistently

uses

Arabic

equivalents for

Hebrew
n'^y,

technical terms.
nx"i],

Thus, he always

says

nyn:^',
nii'io,

y\ST^,

n?2Xlt<,

while Neubauer's fragment

has

niVtt,

nc^yn ab.

Matters of style are always

subject to doubt, and those

will find convincing

who

are loath to rely on

them

proof for

my contention in the following

.

consideration.

The

author of Neubauer's fragment refutes

.

the system of a certain

Bar Furkan.^^

j^ order to

make

this point clear I shall

quote ana explain the words

attributed to that

Bar Furkan, especially as they are of

importance for the various systems of enumerating precepts.

nD"i22
in
irD3

Dinnnna
nioxni
"1^1

n-^ryn

xh

nt;'y

n1l^^

rh)p v: iNpiD -12

nnir^n
^D

xini

m
iK3

ms
"inr

nnnn DTj'pnnn
'z>

nnaj
njy

mv man
bap
[Nvni^N

^^DN
N*ncn

hap

y^N'TJ-'^s
s*^

n3S'nD
in

'iba

pn2?:n

D^h

N?2y

^^3b^*

'\r\:d>a

b^a

N'nnx"! xy"iw'

"...

Bar Furkan may his soul be in paradise

one

says

Count positive and negative precepts when they are

;

combined {as in the case of the hoofs of animals) as one

of them
is sufficient to

indicate them both

the opposite is
the

superfluous, since they are joined.

Turn

to

permitted
is

thing,

and

cast

away

the forbidden.

And

this

[the

pri/iciple] concerning which he said in his book of precepts.

He
its

said : If

it is

permitted

to

eat an

animal lohich chews

cud, this in itself is a prohibition against the eating of an

its

animal which does not chew

cud and

is

not cloven footed

it is to
62

be counted as one precept.

is

The name
it

obliterated,

and Neubauer supplied

ytJ'in"',

while Bacher

read
3

as n'pli*.
;

Read pb'Ca or ^PlS

see above, note 57.

"^^

JQR-, VI,

p. 707-

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS
is

HALPER
D~i.

54I

The Hebrew
ResJmt.
is

quotation

no doubt part of AzJiarot or

We
^53

have four
I

lines

rhyming with

The

style
^^'i,
is

paitanic,

and
is

think that the last word

D*i

stands for

just as

the apocopated form of n?;.

The Arabic
is

slightly
possible,

clumsy, but
for
it

my

interpretation

the only one

would not do
|N*3,

to take snnxi Nyitt' as the

complement of
Moreover, the
read pN7DX)

since there

would then be no apodosis.

)N3 (for

finite

verb after

there

is

no ground to
Accordingly

precludes such an alternative.

it

Bar Furkan lays

down

as a principle that opposites are

only to be counted as one precept.

The

writer of that

fragment refutes

this principle

from a

logical

standpoint.

Maimonides,

too, agrees with the latter, for

precepts.*'''

he consistently

counts such cases as two

clean animals
is

The

permission to eat

positive precept
is

149,'^*'

and the prohibition

172.^'^

against unclean animals

negative precept

Now

Hefes

b. Yasliah, as will
is

be explained later on at the end of

Chapter IV,

not at

all

aware of

this subtle distinction.

He

usually reckons such cases as one precept, but sometimes

as two.

Thus, that a Nazarite must grow

his hair

is

given
his

as a positive precept, but the fact that he

must not cut

hair

is

not given separately.

On

the other hand, he counts

separately the

commandment

to bring all sacrifices to the

special place (Deut. I3. 6)

and the prohibition against eating

any

sacrifice outside that place {ibid., 12. 17).

The

reason
in

why he
The
Sa'adya

counts them separately

is

because they occur

different passages of the Pentateuch.

other passage in which Hefes apparently quotes

is
"^'^

the

glossary

to
is

nilDpn

Din^D

published

by

Horowitz.
^^

The
p. 250.

passage

headed

D12^SD 6ni^N'^n*
^^

i^DDn
po 127.

Sefer ha-Miswot, principle 6, ed. Bioch, p. 20.

Op.

cit.,

67

Op.

cit.,

68

m3?nn

ni^j

jT-a, ii, pp.

63

ff.

542
iJt

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

2'b

}*sn

miDpn, and

is

without any doubt excerpted from

the
this

Book

of Precepts, as will be pointed out at the end of

chapter.
n'3 ^ip

The note on nnbn

It is,

runs as follows

n:27n

a^no

nnyo am nyro^s.

however, easy to prove

that the explanation attributed to Sa'adya does not form part of Hefes's glossary.

For

it

is

impossible that Hefes

should quote an opinion different from his

refuting or accepting
it.

own without

Moreover,

if

he wanted to give ex-

planations

by Sa'adya

differing

from his own, he had occasion

"i^^y,
it

to do so in the next word.

Hefes translates nyvp by

while Sa'adya, according to

Solomon Parhon,"^ renders

against

by

UDp.

Then

in

this very passage Hefes quotes a talmudic

is

statement on nv which

his

own
It is

explanation.
all

This statement
the
difificult

is

placed at the end of the passage, after

words have been explained.

did

thus evident,

that

Hefes

not

interrupt

himself

in

the

middle,

otherwise he would have placed the talmudic statement

immediately after his translation of nv, especially as this

word occurs before

njniri.

It is also to
X>nr2.

be observed that

Sa'adya does not translate njn^n by

translation of

The

text of his

Exod.

30.

34 has

N327,

while Derenbourg

gives a variant riyo.

We
is

thus see that this note in the

spurious.

glossary to miDpn did'2

The

copyist did not

have the Book of Precepts before him, but excerpted the

passage from Ibn Bal'am's Kitdb al-Tarjih?^

To any one
Hefes

who

studies Ibn Bal'am's

works

it

is

inconceivable that he

should have incorporated the entire passage from

*^

Mahbci'ethc-'Aritk,

s. v.

yi*p.
it is

'

At the end
''in

of the passage

said

fD ni5N?3

bXDS^N

rnr\ HTi^'l

n^y rhb^
misread the
1885,
p.

ny^n

mm"' i^ ^"h^n n'-jin^s

aNm.

The

editor

text.

These corrections are by Steinschneider, Moiiatscliri/t,

288.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

it.

HALPER

543

verbatim without commenting on

various opinions side
this
:

He
really

usually quotes

by

side.

What

happened was
those

Ibn

BaFam gave
all

various opinions

among which

of Hefes were prominent, and the copyist

collected

subsequently

of Hcfes's explanations

under the heading

Y^n 21?

"i'C2n.

He was, however, unable, in some cases, to

It
is

differentiate

between the words of Hefes and the comments

also

of Ibn

Bal'am.

possible

that

that
'

spurious
himself,

explanation of Sa'adya was added by the

redactor

who obviously was not well The result of all these

enough

informed.
discussions appears convincing

to enable us to state that for determining the time

when Hefes
he was dead

flourished
in

we only have

a terminus

ad

qitem

the

first

half of the eleventh century, since

rhh'ii.

Ibn Janah, when quoting him, adds the formula

nrom

but

the tennijms a quo must be

is

left

open, until further

evidence

brought

to

light.

Vague

and

unfounded

assumptions are of no

avail.

Out of the

four titles,

Resh Kalla,

Alluf,

Rosh Yeshibah,

and Gaon, that are bestowed upon Hefes by

to him, the first
is

writers

who refer
by him.
by

the one that was actually borne

^^

This conjecture of Rapoport's

our fragment
in

is

strikingly confirmed
h^hii.

which he styles himself twice as

in

dn-|.'^

That Hefes was no Gaon

demonstration.

the technical sense needs no

In Sherira's Epistle, where a practically

complete
given,

list

of the

Geonim
of this

of Pumbedita and

Sura

is

no

mention

scholar

is

made.

Writers

subsequent to the gaonic period gave this term a wider

denotation, and applied
it

almost to any great Talmudist.

is

Thus Nissim

b.

Jacob of Kairuwan

also dignified

with

" Kobak's Yeshumn,

VIII, p. 58.

"!-

See

text, fols.

8b, 25

a.

544
that
title.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Indeed Sherira himself does not always keep to

the technical sense, and some of the

Amoraim

are styled

by him

as Geonim.'^
definite,

Nothing

however,

is

known

of the functions of

the Resh Kalla. the

title

It is

usually considered
is

synonymous with

Alluf,"^

which

also obscure.
is

The

prevalent
in

view among Jewish scholars

to the Gaon.
ha-Babli,"^

that he

was third

rank

This

is

based upon the report of Nathan

and there can be no doubt that within the

constitution of the Babylonian

Academies
two

this

was actually

the case.

But there

is

sufficient

evidence for the assumption

in

that the term

Resh Kalla was used

different senses.

Here again Rapoport's ingenious conjectures help

up many
JpniD
n)\)'

to clear

difficulties."'

He

drew attention

to the prayer

in

which the Reshe Kalla are mentioned before

the exilarchs and the heads of the academies.

For
titles

it

is

hard to get reconciled to the idea that the

are

enumerated at random.
this prayer

He

accordingly concludes that

was composed

in Palestine

where the Resh Kalla

rb^
''y''\b

was the highest dignitary.

The words

refer to
'ly^^

the preceding words ^Ntj'H syisn n, while

^*L^nh

smb

xzn

^:nh
"''^

Nnm

refer to

bin
'

ni.

Ginzberg, too, in his

Geonica

has pointed out that

besides the seven

mb

TS-i

the title of the seven most prominent members of the Academy, there must have been also the N^3 ^^"^ who took

an active part

in the instruction

given at the Academy'.

The
'^ '*

same scholar gave plausible reasons for his hypothesis

See Neubauer, Mediaeval Jeivish
Rapoport,
loc. cit.,

Chronicles,

I,

pp. 31

>

S^-

is

undecided on

this matter, but

Poznanski
p.

is

of

the opinion that the terms are identical.

See

D^3VJ'

C^^JV,

48-

The

proofs he advances are, however, not convincing.

75

See Neubauer,
I,

op.

cit..

II.

pp. 78

ff.

''^

See

op.

cit.,

pp. 63, 64.

"

p. 8,

note

I.

'

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

545

that originally the head of the

Academy

at

Pumbedita was

styled

Resh Kalla, not Gaon.^^

there
is

Then
that the

a talmudic passage which tends to prove

in

Resh Kalla was higher

the
if

rank than the Rosh

It
is

Yeshibah during
Berakot 57a that
is

amoraic

period.

stated

in
it

one enters a shrubbery

in his

dream
if

a sign that he will

become a Rosh Yeshibah, while

he

enters a forest he will

become 'head of the sons of the

is

Kalla

'.

Now

as a forest

larger than a shrubbery, one

is

inclined to think that a

Resh Kalla was more important

assume that some Reshe

than a Rosh YeshibahJ

At

all

events

it

seems

safe to

Kalla were heads of independent academies, and owed no

allegiance to the Gaon.

This accounts for the fact that

title

some

scholars outside the gaonic academies bore the

Resh Kalla.

There would then be no need to assume,

title

in

some

cases at least, that this

was conferred by the

of respect.

Gaon upon

foreign scholars as a
this class of
is

mark

That

Hefes belonged to

Reshe Kalla seems to be

styled

clear from the fact that he

Rosh Yeshibah by
Resh Kalla
to
in

Solomon Parhon.*^

Moreover,

the

the

gaonic academy would

hardly have ventured

write

a comprehensive work on Halakah.

We

know

that they

were not even allowed to answer Responsa.^^

''^

Op.

cii.,

pp. 46-50.

''^

Rashi,

who

evidently

knew

that the

Resh Kalla was

inferior in rank

to

the

Rosh Yeshibah,

explains the passage in the following

is

manner
is

a shrubbery which consists of big and small trees, and

for a

dense,

a sign

Rosh Yeshibah,
;

for

young and

old

gather together to listen to his

lectures
is

while a forest which consists of big trees not close to one another
is to

a sign for the head of the pupils, that

say, the

Resh Kalla who

This com-

explains to the pupils the subject expounded by the teacher.

parison
*"

is,

however, too forced.

32.
^i

See above, note

ggg Ginzberg, Geonica,

I,

p. 8.

546
It

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

should be noted that the meaning N^r has not been
It is

satisfactorily explained.
in
it

usual to vocalize

it

N?*?.

and

deference to custom

I transliterate it
it

accordingly.

But

seems doubtful whether

take
it

yields a suitable meaning.

for
is

To

to denote

crown seems unlikely

various

reasons.
NP'^i,

To

begin with, a crown in Aramaic

usually

not x?3.
laiu,

Then even
is still

if

we connect

it

with the croivn

it

of tlie

the sense

obscure.

Rapoport takes

to

signify a lectiire^'^ but does not

exj^lain the

etymology.

The most
^<?^,

plausible suggestion appears to

it

me

to

vocahze

it

and assign to

the signification oi assembly, gathering.

A striking parallel
As
that
a
writer

is

found

in

Arabic jJiS^and

i3.U,

both of

which denote academy, university.

Hefes
is

only

known by

his

Book

of

Precepts.

All quotations hitherto found can be traced to

book which was a storehouse of Halakah, philology,

it

and philosophy as

was understood

in

those days.
it

First

and foremost he was a Halakist, and

branch of Jewish learning that

is

chiefly in this

his interests

were centred.
far

Philology and philosophy claimed his attention only so

as they

had any bearing upon Halakah.

in

His book was the

b.

standard work on Halakah

Bahya

Pakuda's days.
in all
b.

For

in

enumerating the various authoritative books

branches,

Bahya names the Book of Precepts by Hefes

ail

Yasliah which gave a brief account of

laws as compared

with the Halakot Gedolot which contained only those that

are obligatory at this time.*"
^2

It is

always quoted with the

Jeshnrun, VIII,

p. 63.

ma^ni nipiCD niz^n Jinv1*i;

J.^-^\

Ija

j l^

'j^.

Ulj

n"^^*'

Duties of the Heart, ed. Yahuda,

ibit

p. 7.
5).

It is also

quoted by Kaufmann,

Die Theologie des Balija

Pakiida, p.

HEFES
highest

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

547

respect,

and the author's

decisions are

usually

accepted.

There can be no doubt that had the author

written this

book
the

in

Hebrew, the references

to

it

would

have been more numerous.

sight

As

it

is,

the author was lost

of with
in

disappearance

of the

knowledge

of

Halakah
to R.

Arabic-speaking countries.
in

The few

references

Hefes that occur

books by writers who did not

know Arabic
precepts, as

are borrowed from other sources.^^

satisfied

Not being

with a mere enumeration of the

was done by the author of the Halakot Gedolot,

and, centuries later,

by Maimonides. he gives a lengthy

In the ethical precepts he had

discussion of each detail.

occasion to expound his philosophical speculations which

show him

to be a clear thinker, well versed in the philo-

sophical doctrines of his times.

Whenever he quoted an
remarkable for

obscure passage from the Bible or rabbinic literature he

appended
precision.

to

it

commentary which
is

is

its

There
in all

sufficient

testimony that he was dis-

tinguished

these branches.
is

As

a rational commentator

of the Bible he

quoted by grammarians, lexicographers,

like

and commentators
Parhon, and

Ibn Janah, Ibn Bafam, Solomon

Here, too, as
in

Tanhum

Yerushalmi.

the

case of Halakah, his opinions

command
^^ is

the greatest respect,

and are usually adopted.*^ Even the ill-tempered Ibn Bal'am

who had no
**

regard for authorities

glad to find in Hefes

Thus Piske Recaimfe, 38

Solomon Parhon
See
in

b, is

a direct quotation from AKasi's Responsa,

109.
*^

his

Mahberet

lie-

A ink,

s. v.

JJlfp,

adopts the

interpretation of Hefes against Sa'adya's.

^

Moses ibn

Ezra,

al-Mithadarah

wal-Mnddkarali,

quoted
p. 7,

b}'

Derenbourg, Closes d'Aboii Zakariya Yahia ben Bilant sur

Fuchs,
(lit.

Isa'ie,

and

S/i<rf/(?;7, p.

23.

riDTJ'

\12

THN Q?D^

U^, Nobody escaped his attacks

Ins net).

548

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Naturally Hefes did not entirely

support for his view.^"

escape the severe criticism of Ibn

Baram who
for

in his

com-

mentary on Deut.

30. 2 blames

him

having counted that

verse as a precept and for interpreting R. Simlai's statement

literally.

And

if

writers on the Bible are greatly indebted

still

to

Hefes, there can be no doubt that he laid under

greater obligation early lexicographers and interpreters of

the Mishnah and Gemara.

is

His influence upon Maimonides

evident from the remarks of the latter in Pe'er ha-Dor,

140, 142, that his errors in certain matters are due to his

having followed R. Hefes.

Some

of

the

philosophic

doctrines

of

Hefes
b.

have

fortunately been preserved for us

by Judah
more

Barzillai,

a writer of the twelfth century.

In his commentary on the

lies

Book of Creation^ whose value

in the

lengthy

quotations from books no longer extant than in the author's

own

views, he gives at length the

first

two precepts of

Hefes's Book.

This passage

is

an important contribution to
In order to appraise Hefes

mediaeval Jewish philosophy.

as a philosopher
it

may

not be out of place to reprint the

it

entire passage here,

and translate

into English.

This

is

also rendered necessary

is

by

the fact that the printed edition

not free from errors.

Halberstam who edited the text

did not see the manuscript.

According to the evidence of

is

the transcriber, the unique copy upon which the edition

based teems with

errors.'^^

Add

to these disadvantages

Nu!? D'-Dn*^
TWl
HT.

nnin

nh-'d

jn^

^Np nriD^N |not

xnnp

nypi

^'h'^ii

saiv in the

Book of Precepts by R. Hefes something which

strengthens

my

assertion that the narrative of the concubine took place

closely

upon

the
to

time of the conquest.

He

said : because at that time the

tribes

were alloived

intermarry (Ibn Bal'am's

^^

Commentary on Judges
p. ix, note.

20. 28, ed. Poznanski).

See Halberstam's preface,

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

549

the circumstance that Judah b. Barzillai did not see the

Book

of Precepts, but quoted the passage second hand, and

the corruptions will

be accounted

for.

Owing

to these

cogent reasons,
i'Ci'

hope to be pardoned

for this digression.^^

incN3 u^nnc-'noi unyn in'b ijniN nivo n^lK^J^^n ni^ttn

Die ^bi psD

nimn PK2

!?3n jns* Nintj'

uaab
Nini:^

iJNin x^^;nn^

im
laai?
i'-c

ba nni3C'ni orn nyn^i ^"a^nan^ noN

inrT'D

nyn^ rnnN
''s

nnc'nrD

-inx^ ^a
::k'

D''"'n3

nriNt' niya

noib Dvn nynn

n^i
inyn"'
)b
^"-yv

Jji

.i"n3
''

itrN

inajEi'

d^sj^

ha"-

n^ din

a^n3i3 -imn ^33i' n^wn^i -jnyn

i'N i^tJ'nB'

inn^ ^n nni^'n1 'tsi

>n^
^3
^s*

r!?ya

pnT n^n
pnan^

r\2^:]^ n^^a-w

.noana mn^i D-m^

n:nNi
^1ni'

|o -ipyn

n^ ^n
-\f2i6
^3

n^B'*

n^jc
n^i

>m

n^jjh

noN

-imn

i3

*ns-i5J'

vsn

niun

nyn n^ nb ^x
Nin D\n^N*n
pt:'^

n^c*^

n^ '"i'sun
'3

bv

miD

Nin

pB*!?

ncNn NVo:n
^3

^m

'n
'^21

''Si

.b'n

''n^n3i3 b^n nihi niD> Nin

.oijiym

niD>

Nin d'h^jn

/ivcn -im

mN
"jy

Ninrj^

nnx aba

'n D^^'a

Nip: ab) .D^^i?N nii n"'K'Nn3

^i'man 'n \)^b '3

D^Vn^ts'

nx-in x^n

^3^
D^vn^

piNi an Nine- c^niso 'n ptrh

N^JN
1^

pnN

Dili'

xh

Q^tj'ynn
dji
i!?

b::

bv

p^n

NintJ'

b3N .pnN
*

n\n't:;

ny n^^pn^ ab

n^]!J2r]

piN* Nine' nt^ynn

D"'JiB>Nin

noN

.nB'yi iin'-Ni

xonp mc'

^^n

id-.-'c

q^
^?bD

d\i^n*

p"i:>i'

DMi?N 'n
*3

nw]3 DV2 ^'"Tnai

hid

by ab^ Q^iy

dd-

Tarn

Commentary on
is

the Sefer Yesirah, ed.

quotation
li'Ni

introduced by the following remark

Halberstam, pp. 55, 56. The D'>~innnDn \t2 iriN 31131

:

ni3^n rhnr\2 nii*cn ^n^ "bab

i?N-iK'^

^'r ^'ha

pan n3no p^nynty

t]-iin

irni5N 'n
nns* 'n.
^^ ^1

yDtj*

'31

133^ ^n nnc'ni

orn nyn^i v-)3n

Deut.

4. 39.
1. 13.

Eccles.

The reading

there

is

DX

TinJI.
93

Comp., however,
i. i.

i.

17.

92

Isa. 44. 19.

Gen.

s*

Bereshit Rabba 13.

3.

The reading there

it

is "l''3TD.

See Theodor's

edition, p. 115.
'^

Gen.

2. 4.

From Hefes's statement

seems that the midrashic remark

550

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

nvi '"i^nana nn^un bai

ona

ba
^yi

n?Dsn i^dn^i

vnnny>

d^13

nm^

'n^

iny^ pnc'3

'

^c ^d a^c-np

bnp2 inmi^
.iicrj^n

?is 'n

nx^a D^rc*

^byn ^nxDC'

nn ^y niv nnno

pxn

bi

n^bs*

^nn n^

rnn-n

vn\^:y
.Q^i:n

^iD!?nn:c'

D"yNi

-^ain

iri:N^"i

1=2
^3

nv

jvc'^

^^yn
D!?^:N

i^[nm]
.-lytj'n

^dc ^n: isnc ny

ij:3

c'r:c'

mrnD
nii^

'^'^nan

nn

;:nDs-:'

noN^

rn'

NintJ'

my "'ps
^'r

idnjc'

^3 tj'^N

3^ by r\W'^' nvx-> n?:!bnnb din invt:^

"irnn-i

ncj^i
Nin
It is

T5^n-c

no

y-ii

min

-\)^bb

iv^'

^in

'"^pm niy psi

it is

n^n^
5.

was made upon

naturally

this verse.

In the Midrash, however,

on verse
is

more appropriate on the foimer, where

Q'^HPS' 'H

mentioned

for the first time.

96
97

Ps. 89. 6,

7.

The manuscript'has
The
edition reads

n?0.

and

it

is

corrected by Halberstam.
"iiniD'C'

98

D^VS Dimi
it

13^

nnJC-',

which gives no
suit the

sense at
context.

all.

Halberstam emends emendation

is

to

li^-n^nK', which does not

:

My

quite obvious

D was misread as

and the

word was
D"13T1, but

therefore divided into two.

mill may
may

perhaps be read as
for

in^Tl

is

more

suitable,

and the conuption may be accounted

bv the

fact that T

written in a cursive hand

in

be easily misread as D

What Hefes wrote

Arabic was no doubt n7N1p5<1

is

Dm^y.
often
I

The

idea expressed

that

all

rational beings

nNCDN n27nrt< 1p know that He is

This
is

fS")

the

true God, they only differ as to His

names and

sayings.
its

is

a thought

met with

in

mediaeval Jewish philosophy, and

origin

in

Menahot

ID

a,
99

where

this verj' verse is cited.

i, 11. is

Malachi

100

This word

missing

in

the text.

As

it

is

the method of Hefes in this

and passage, as well as in the fragment of the original, to explain each word doubt that he elucidates the phrase Tiy pS of the phrase, there can be no
Deut. verse, and that
it it

has no connexion with the preceding.

il'O).

Hence

is

necessary to supply some such word as

it

Hefes wrote n?1p,

and had one of the Ibn Tibbons translated

he would have put il^NI.

it

But our translator lived before that period in which

rendered that word by 10N3C'
1"! 102

was considered

and he therefore fashionable to imitate the Arabic idioms and constructions,

n?31
,

or perhaps by

IDSC

n1

The printed

edition has pNI,

which

is

obviously an error.

Pirke Abot, 2. 14.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH's BOOK OF

PRECEPTS HALPER

551

fna iiD\ni nui^:

ijyn^

nvN-i3 un^
ijn:
^3

nn

.nn?^:i

2iy xin jn^^xi

nns'?2i

nou

|no
.-nij

nn^

inyiJi

?n3:i

hnij

^1D^^^^

.|nn3i

7y nnanoc' nno

-j'^::^

'ai?

Dovyo nou xh did^

.1330::^

-ins

-i\'r '2

i3n:^3o

ns

c'n^oB'

mini Cwxn nx
pi
.ps-^
n^nt^'i

n^cn
niyi

pj^

n^osn

ly^jni

n^an
n^rrn

ch)v 'bib:
1^5

d^dsjc'
xi^ij^'^

.nnn^ inN
nn^s
^3

pi

nnx

^JK'

'i?

D?2vyD
n!?i

nou
[mo^

mo^

n^yn^ D^n^iDni
htdi nnu^i

-inxoi

.anvyo ini^j

^^'^nnx ^3
i^^^

n>viv
c'^

nbv^

lovyo iDiJ -im

b
-iL"x

pNi idvi i^iv

^3

ijaaf?

n:>3n
yn^i

1:y^^E^

pnx irnji

i^cntD^

isim nhyn nvv

113^

^3

\snm ncxn
pso

nnn

mi

UD-iy^
.1^
i!?xni

x^

n^nkv xim nn^cn x^ni

n?:i
i?x

xb bn
n:ini

iDx pi
nvxnn
1^

n-iyn m?on

pn^nn ^c
d33\x

!?x

"'''a^n^n^

.hp

^ni^ir

n^xn

njinni

'""irm

ne'e
n^^pn^

n^yiv 13X pxi Xi03 D\i!?xnD' ij^nnD'n?:^

xini
."IT

innnM unynn

nii
.nr!?

u^T

'n

njv^ni ^^'n^n;Di3

nuj

-inir

^nhr p>om njijon

nD)i

u^x-lT

3"yx

pjyi?

nn^^ anp
pxt>'

xintr ^"^I01

hud

nnir

ij>\n ii5X3

i:yn* ^ivd

iniyc^
i^xi

\xj3n

Mja

nn^
^3

pdjs: ux-^r
i:^^jn nyl^'n

prn
p>isQ
ni-r

unyn

i?x

pn^L"D
x!?

ir^

.pao

^b ixn ^xn
'"

prcro irM
pjy nyn!?
^0*

[rj"jy nni ny::' ynvi]

pxc' -inx?:i

inipi innii'i
n^y:;]!

^xnn

ux n^ycD

.1J-l3T^t^'

[ijn3ix3j"

The sentences enclosed in brackets were omitted by the copyist through homoioteleuton, and were afterwards supplied at Halberstam's request by two gentlemen who had the manuscript before them. See
Halberstam's preface,
^*

p. x.

and notes on

p. 290.

The The

printed edition has

nnX, which gives no

108

sense.
107

"s
los

Isa. 40. 18.

Deut,

4. 12.

Ny^_

j^. 8.

printed text has IHDI.

"^ These words are added in the same way as is explained in note 103. Instead of nyj' the printed text has T,"13^, which gives no sense. I am
not confident about this emendation.

no See note 103.

VOL.

IV.

Q q

552

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

nniN

in"iiry3

inis*

D\sn

irNn

i/S3

nas^cn nnyr^

nny nsN^o
n3:n x^i]
"^

3ipo ^iron

nr "3 i]cy "v^'d i:\su' "zh

^^^^* nyoij'

nny ns nynn
N^^n

nivp s-113 'n chrj

n^ ds nyn^

"'3^n3n3 [i3^ nynn

n^i ?ir' sb ;-nsn

mvo

n^iti^n

nivan

.minn^ npn ps

y:^^

1:3b nt:N3 nnN Nin

e]i3

psD

dvj-'

"b

prrs'n^i

Ninn

nn"^ i:niN

Dvj>

nram nx-iD
'n

i^

3vj'n3
^'"ip^

n^

.in^iT
^^

nns my
n^3r'^'

psi irnui;'nr33i

'n

n^i"'

^ry"' p^^

'^^^^
^3

s"ysi

Dbiy3

n3n
'"^

pK'b^ ^^'^on^

x^K 13 n'3rn

j<^

nm

n;n3i

v^n mnn

-pnNni

p!3Nn^ i:k D^r^ni

.my
^n-i

yi-^T3i

irfD^3 'n y3"w":

"'my 3'n3n3

mx

-33

N^i

Diy^D

xbi

N^

1^3331 i?D>y3 nns* sinu' 'ntiui n?3K3

yijyji ^i;tr

p^nn^i t:yi:n^i n3-in^ )rhi:

inx bi
ib

^bi iits

Ni'3i

nu^n

.|3n;ncs;i

^ir:'i

nb3m n^nn

-i:"!

nisn'oi n3nn?Di
ijr'J"

pj'T.'i

unnn^i
i:N'-n3i

'n ^Nic'^ yotj'

"-3^n3n3 n^sa nnx

in^ir ins* px::'
):b

n^ n3r n^yn^

pn3

c'sn^

"'npyn ^y
d^3"i

pn3n^

nvnm
-isctsni

.nns
D^3-n

'n

irn^s*
I'jy

nns nns

-isDronkT
'31

-n3n''

nisom

nnx
ic3

nnx
'^^"'3

myi
"1-1371''

'ii

Q^^^'t.*'

"insci

.d^jicxi
p'vJ'xi

nin-j-

xin

|3"i

.pDD

''^3

iDr:n
cnpitD
';i

b^
'2

nnxn*j^ y'n'3

nnxn
^3-1:1

cn^iD

'i:x

nnxn nnxu> nn^

nnxni nnxn '='/y

^b

.nnb DnpirD inx

nnx x^x mn

nn?:ix pxi '---inxn nsor^n

13^

b^

pt:*wsn

n3r rbvn' iixinc' nsnn nncx

it

-n3nrj'
is

nnx?3i

"1 Kaufmann, p. 335, emends

to alter the text.

to

)'?:Xnn^.

But there

no need

The Hithpa'el

is

here used as the bibh'cal Niph'al.

'"

Comp.
'12

Isa. 22. 23.

See note 103.

4. 10, 9. 3,

Isa. 40. 28.

"* Zach,
1^5
'i''

and manj' other places. and many other places.

it

Exod.

Isa. 66. I,

where

is

'7:1, not V-''"!.

"^

Ibid., 62. 8.

"* Deut.
Ic,
^^^
^"'^

6. 4.

"8 Arabic 1" Arabic

l^^l
Ic

The

printed text has

pi.

L^.

The

printed text has

nnXH,

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

IIALPER

553

nvrh pn' i6 b^n

Nnm

."Jir

i^

px:;'
c'^l"

-nan:

p:;'N-i

^3^
i?30

pt^sn
[li?]^--'

noN3

nns* sin ^3

in^iT

121

^^i?

i:-i3Tnir

D^Jsn

nnx

i:^si

^iidi
"'3

n^nn
-ip^yni

i^

c'^i

oyon^i nn-in^ yi:y:i

"uyT*
pwXi

fiui

M^L^'1

niTSi

nnx irn^x

n^ai
D\ni'N

i^nh nvs-in
Nin ^jx ^:x

!?d

inNoi .ip^yn ^y
iiS"i

iTHNi n^DN ^jx

noy

o
'n

nny

'-^tddi^

ab

DK nyT N^n ^"Tna myi

yj^*

.^j-vo

n^o pxi

s'd-in

^jni

Tivno

ipn px

xh

fiy^^

xi?

p-ixn

nivp

xnn

ohy

\n^x

nycc

'

The

first

precept enjoins us to unite our mind and

;

thoughts on the truth of the matter

exist in our heart,

to

make our Creator

of
all

and to consider

Him Lord
written
&'c.
:

things

without a shadow of doubt, and without any other thought

to

know

that

He

is

truth
it

as

it

is

Knoiv therefore
knozv
;

this day,

and

lay

to

thy heart,
:

The words

therefore this
after a man's

day imply

while thou art yet ah've

will

for

death his knowledge

not avail him, and

he

will not

be able to repair the error which he committed

life.

during his

And

the words,

and

lay it to thy heart,

imply that thou shouldst lay

this
it

matter to thy mind

written
:

and the

vision of
to seek

thy heart, as
to searcJi

is

And I applied
The proof

my
it

heart

and

out by wisdom.

that laying a thing to one's heart

is

makes one understand

to be found in the

words of the prophet, who says

concerning a

man who

does not set his heart to differentiate

:

between the essential and the unessential

to

He

calleth not
to say.

mind,

neitJier is there knoivledge

or understanding

1^*

See note

103.

^^4

Deut. 32. 39.

'^^

Isa. 40. 28.

()

554

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

/ have burned half of it in the fire. And the meaning of the words, that the Lord (mn') He is God, is that He is existent
in truth, for the

word

Nin denotes

something that

exists.

And the name He is fundamental,

In
the beginning
nr.^ after

Dvn^s signifies something fundamental, for

and

He

is

everything

as

it

is

written

Elohim

ereated.

He was

only named

man

and the universe were created.

states that

The word
all.

nrn^ explicitly

He

is

Master and Lord of

Seest thou not that the word mn^ explicitly states that
.

He

is

Master of

all

created things

Nor can any one be

is

proclaimed Lord until the thing over which he

Lord

becomes a
unless
it

fact;

similarly no being can be established

has a master.
not

But the name Elohim

imply priority, or

is

funda-

mental, and does

posteriority, or

the existence of a created thing.

The

ancients say connin"" made earth name concerning a

cerning the verse in the day

when DM^N

and heaven : He
complete world.
in

mentioned a complete

The words
and angels
all

///

heaven indicate
for
all

all

that

is

heaven, stars

worship Him, and

believe in truth with

their

power and understanding,

as

it is

written

And

the heavens shall praise

Thy

ivonders,

also

Thy

belief in the assembly

of the holy ones.

For

zvho

in the skies can be

compared

itnto the

Lord?

the sons of the mighty is like unto the

Who among Lord? &c. And

which
is

the words, aJid npon

earth, rational beings
all

the earth,

signify that
;

on

and animals

for

it

is

evident from

things that

He
this,

is

the

God

of truth.

All rational beings

acknowledge

and believe

in that thing,

although His
it

names and words vary among them.

of the same,

For

is

written:

For from the rising of the sun even unto the going doivn

My

name
is

is

great among the Gentiles.

else indicate

And

the words there

none

that

He

is

the only

HEFES
one

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER
Our
one,
all

555

in truth, as I shall

explain in this section.

teachers
proofs

of blessed

memory
it

said that a

man

should learn

that might possibly occur to

is

him that

He

is

and there

no other, as
that
tJioji

is

said:

Be

diligent to learn the Lazu,

to

so

mayest knoiv zvhat

to

ansiver a

Jieretic.

am
one

obliged

explain

here this
in

proof

in

order that

may be
is

strengthened
all

the truth that

He

is

one,

and

the Creator of

things.

Know

that all things

that exist

and are known, vegetables and animals, are

earth,

composed of four elements, which are

and
to
is is

water,

fire,
it

air

it

is

from them that they are created, and

will

is

them that they

return,

and become

effaced.
in

This

known by
visible,

true demonstration.
tested.

The element

them
is

and can be

Now

since the element

visible

and can be

tested, for they are established

and blended

together,

we know from our understanding

that another
their

creator

moulded them, and they were not created of

own

accord.

For some of these elements may overpower

as,

the others, annihilate and destroy them,

for instance,
;

water extinguishes

fire,

and the wind dries up water

and

similarly in other cases.

Moreover, they decay and vanish.

that

Similarly
created
selves.

it

is

known

the spheres and

stars

were

by some one

else,

and were not created by themthe understanding of our

Now

since

we know by
by

heart that everything

that nothing
is

has a creator and a founder, and

itself,
it

created

is

clear

and evident

with truth and certainty that

the world,

He who
it, is

founded and created

who

rules

and guides

Master of everything

without doubt or uncertainty.

He

is

God

alone to
it
is

whom
:

no image or likeness can be compared, as

written
zvill

To zvhom then
compare unto

ivill

ye liken God? or wJiat likeness

so did

ye

Him? And

Moses our teacher say:

556

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

no form only ye heard a
^

And ye saw
it

voice.

By

these proofs
in

is

established in our minds,

and becomes manifest

and that we know of

our thoughts that

God

exists,

Him And

no form or likeness except the splendour of His glory;

as
it is

written:

And he

beholds the form of the Lord.

that

is

the form of the splendour of His glory, and that

is

which
not

approximately near His glory, though they do

one
another.

resemble

When
it is
it,

we

enter

house,

although the builder

who

built

not present,
as
if

we know
present

that undoubtedly a builder built

at the time of
its

if

we were

construction.

But

we

try to conjure

up

in

our mind

the

form and likeness of the builder,

his stature, the colour of his hair, and other details,

we

would

fail

to

accomplish

it

by mere

belief.

Now

since

we
a

are unable to grasp, from his work, the details about

is

man who
I

like us,

how much
all

less

can we conceive

the likeness of the Creator of

things, blessed
it

be His

name
in

give this proof in order that

in

may

be fixed

our heart, and established

is

our mind with certainty,

is

that the fact that a thing

is

made

evidence that there

it
;

a maker, as

if

we had

seen

him make

and the

intellect

cannot deny the existence of the maker merely because

he

is

not present, for this parable makes this idea clear

to the mind.
tJion

As

it is

written

Hast

tJiou

not

known

? hast

not

heard?

The everlasting God,

the
not,

Lord,
neither

the
is

Creator of the ends of the earth, fainteth

He

weary, there
'

is

no searching of His understanding.

enjoins us to consider the Creator

The second precept

as the only one, and to believe in our heart and thoughts

that He, in truth and without

any doubt,

is

one,

and that

there
to

is

no other besides Him.

We

must not attribute

Him

any likeness or semblance of any corporeal thing

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

although such things occur
tJie

HALPER
in

557

in the world, for

Scripture, as
the Lord,
cases.

instance,

eyes of the Lord, the

hand of

the earth is

My footstool^
human

and many other similar

in

These expressions are only used

in

order to liken
it

Him
arm

accordance with

speech, as

is

also written:
the

TJie

Lord hath

sivorn by
It is

His right hand and by

one

of His strength.

also our duty to believe with truth

is

and certainty that

He

in

His essence and glory,

without increase or decrease, without conjunction or division,

without change or motion.

But everything
;

else besides

Him
end
;

increases and decreases

;

is

divisible

becomes new

and old
is

is

joined and divided

;

has a beginning and an

is

subject to change

decays and
to
:

set firm.

None
whose

of these things,

however, apply
it

our

Creator,

memory
Lord
is

is

exalted, as

is

written
is

Hear,

Israel^ the

our God, the Lord

is

one.

to prove that there

no other

And he who besides Him at all,

plural, of the

desires

should

investigate the law of singular

and

number
plural

and the numbered.

is

It will

become evident that the

evident that

composed
2, 3, 4,

of units, as the ancients have taught.

Now

since

&c.

come

after

i, it is

is

without

any doubt prior to any other number.

that the plural contains
others, for after
i

It is also established
i

i,

and that

is

prior to all the

only say

2, 3,

&c. after

we count the we said

other numbers, and

i.

we

Now

since the truth

of the matter has been established that our Creator,

whose

name

is

exalted,
is

is

prior to anything that

like

is

first,

we know

that there

none

Him,

that

He

has no second or

anything similar.
that

For those misguided people who declare

He

has a second cannot be consistent with a perfect

mind and say that

that

He

is

one.

Since

it

has been established

first,
it

He

is

prior to anything that

is

is

manifest

558
that

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

He

has no second.
it

In consequence of all the reasons

is

we have mentioned,
of
all
all

inconceivable that the Creator

things should

have any of the qualities possessed

by
is

other beings.

For

He

is

one

in

truth,

and there For

no other besides Him, as we have stated above.

anything that possesses a similitude, adjunct,

divisibility,

changeability, corporeality, and motion must necessarily be

subject to increase

and decrease, and must have a beginning

is

and an end, and hence

proofs
as
is
it

not one at

we know
written
luith
:

in truth

and principle
/,

is

See noiv that

even

P>om all these that our God is one, /, am He, and there
all.

no

God
and

Me ;
:

kill

and make

alive ;

I ivonnd and

heal J

tJiere is

none that can deliver ont of

My

hand.

It is also

written

Hast thou not knoivn

the

hast thou not

heard?

The everlasting God,

Lord, the Creator of

the ends of the earth, fainteth not^ neitJier is

He

weary,

there is no searching of His understanding!

In this passage the kernel of mediaeval Jewish phi-

losophy

is

contained, for

it

is

practically on these lines

that later Jewish philosophers proved the existence

and

unity of God.

Kaufmann was

certainly right in pointing

out that
of

Bahya

followed Hefes in proving the existence

elements.'^-'^

God from
in

the composition of the four

Here same

again Hefes meets with Sa'adya

topic

who

treats of the

the second chapter of al-Amdnat wal-Vtikaddt.

They both
occur
in

explain the anthropomorphic expressions that

Bible.^-"

the

The
is

difference

in

temperament
Sa'adya was

between these two writers

always
126
1=7

clearly marked.

in a polemical vein,
b. Barzillai,

and consequently treated the

the Scfer Yesirali, p. 335.
AbU.)^)|]

See Judali

Commentary on
Jti..lj

Comp.
|_j9

especially ^l^^..*

^1 dxi^l [l.-i^

sl*^

iaflUl

\iXS. (ed. Landauer, p. 89..

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

all

HALPER

559

subject from

possible points of view, refuting actual

and imaginary doctrines.

his

He

is

never content to expound

own

beliefs,

but

is

always at pains to prove the unHefes, on the other hand,

exists for

tenability of
is

any other opinion.

calm and impassive.

convictions.

Nothing

him but

his

own

His thoughts and ideas are simple and

naive.

He

does not enter into intricate discussion, but

gives illustrations from familiar objects.

victions are to

As

his

own
and

con-

him

self-evident, there

is

no need to

refute
his

the

doctrines

of others.

Grant

his

premisses,

conclusions will follow quite naturally.

Whether Hefes wrote any

is

special treatise on philosophy

is

unknown.

As

such a book

nowhere mentioned, the

he incorporated
Precepts.
all

assertion

may be hazarded

that

his

philosophical speculations in the

Book of

Another book by Hefes

is

alluded to

by himself

in the

Book
of

of Precepts.^-^
{/.^^-o,

This was a treatise on Quantities

i.e.

or Measures

Dmyc).

But only the intention

this subject is

composing a book devoted to and

it

recorded
out
his

there,

is

not

known whether he

carried

resolution.

It

should

be observed that the passage in

It is as follows
:

question
"iys*

is

slightly corrupt.

nnn nnB'l
'JNyroi^N

"["nNpc^N*

ni^ aon
"D

''bv

why

np fsh nn^^'n^js hu^D

T/ie

n^

maj

jx

3N*n3
;

oniyw-bs*.

explanations of these

subjects are long

to treat

we abridge

them, because ive have in

mind

at fall length of all the quantities in a book ivJdch

we
as

shall devote to this subject.

it

The verb

?iy is

ambiguous,
it

usually denotes

lie

relied upon.

Accordingly

would

be reasonable to assume that the book had already been

written.
resolutio7i,

Dozy, however, gives also the meaning oi prendre

and
^-*

this suits
Fol. jpa,
1.

most admirably the continuation

I.

See note

to that passage.

560
TiD-\
It is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the latter word, which
is

imperfect, that forces

the conclusion upon us that

when Hefes wrote

that remark

the book on Quantities was not yet committed to writing.

Whether
It is

it

was ever written cannot be stated with

else quoted,

certainty.

nowhere

and

in

absence of any corrobora-

tive

evidence about the existence of such a work, this

left

question must be

undecided.

As
that
it

to the glossary to the

it

words of mopn didq (I'Dsn

nniDpn did-sd DND^n^^x) ^'-^

can be stated with certainty

It is

never formed a separate work.

a very brief
It

commentary, and extends over half a page.

was the
difificult

system of Hefes to give an explanation of the

words that occurred

that he quoted.

in the biblical or rabbinic passages

'

Such
is

commentaries

'

are found in our

fragment.

^^'^

It

to the credit of Steinschneider that he as an extract from the

is

recognized this
of Precepts.^-^^
It
is

commentary

Book

This conjecture
is

now

indisputably verified.

unlikely that Hefes

{]'^rh

the author of the glossary

|''S2^x)

to the
in

Halakot Gedolot

n^nj

which
of

is

mentioned

Genizah fragment containing

lists

Hebrew and

Arabic books.^^-

We

know

that

Hefes was no admirer

of the author of that work.

We

have the testimony of

criticized

Ibn Bal'am and Maimonides that Hefes severely

the

method of

the author of the Halakot Gedolot, and he

little

would have had

work, unless

reason to help to popularize that

that he wrote the glossary in the
still

we assume
life,

early part of his

while he was

under the influence

of that great codifier.

129

It

has been printed

ff.

in its entirety

by Horowitz

in

m^^nil

fll^J

n*2,

II,

pp. 63
'^
1^1 132

See

fols.

27 b and 29

a.

Arabische Literatur de) Judeit,

62.

See Poznanski, |N"lTp 'CJS,

p. 27,

note

2.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH's BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

561

Two anonymous
to

works on Halakah have been ascribed

Hefes without

any

justification.
J.

Part of a

halakic

Midrash was published by Dr.

the
title

M. Freimann under
author.^=^^

Tnm,
The

Hefes Alluf being given as the

faulty,

This assumption rests on

binations.

though ingenious, comitself

identity

of

the book
is

cannot

be

established with certainty, and there

not a particle of

evidence to justify any connexion with Hefes.

There

is

accordingly no need to compare that book with the

of Precepts
in

Book

order to show the difference of method

adopted

in this

work.

Indeed, Freimann himself saw the

weakness of

his position, his

and

in his preface to the

is

second
diffi-

volume admits that

culties.^-''*

assumption

full

of serious

Nevertheless he allowed the

name
of

of Hefes to

appear as the author.

The statement

PVeimann that
^'^^

Hefes lived after the author of the Midrash Hashkem

rests
b.

on a misunderstanding of the passage from Samuel

nD"'nw'
T\\:h>r\.

Jam"s

Freimann had

this

passage

in

a
b.

Hebrew

translation

which was very vague.

in the least

Samuel

Jam"s words do not

author of that book.

connect Hefes with the

He

merely gives a certain opinion

j'sn
"i

about nmjn, and then remarks

b\ eil^N,

xna^D

(I)

n^N ripno^N

\n"i

This

is

the luay ivhich

Hefes Alluf entered, that

opinion.^"''
is

is

to say, Hefes expressed the

same

The
title

other

book

is

that which

known under
it

the

of myvpt:n IDD.

Rapoport

at first ascribed

to R.

Hanan'el.i^"
122

But having been confronted with a number

for this identification arc gi\en in
liis

His reasons

preface,

I, 3.

^2*
135
^^^

Chapter V, towards the end.

Preface, vol.
I,

4,

end.
in

See Steinschneider

Geigers
;

Zcitachrijt, II, p. 77
ibid.,

^btd.,

XI.

p.

94

Hebrdische Bibliographic, 1869, p. 133

1873,

p. 4.

1" See his biography of R. Hanan'el. note 36.

562

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

was obliged to give up that view, and

of difficulties, he

subsequently transferred the authorship to Hefes.^"^

He
"iDD

even goes to the extent of suggesting that the niyvpon

was part

of the

Book
is

of Precepts, and dealt with

civil law.

The name
passage
in

niyvpc

accordingly an allusion to the talmudic

it

which

is

stated that he

who wishes
there

to be
is

wise should occupy himself with

civil law, for

no

branch of the law greater than

that."''

There

is

apparently

some support

for

this

view

in

the fact that

actually

one of the
in

quotations from

the

"lyvp^n

"liD

occurs

the

fragment of the Book of Precepts which has been preserved.

Thus
i\T\'2

it

is

said in Piske Rccanate,

464

7'T n""i1 Ji"-|

IDDD

pi

n"ya^ 0^^201

ny

r\'h

in^c

^33
is

d:p

pai;

pxn ;"ysn

D'.yvpon

1203.

The same
more

opinion

expressed by Hefes
:

who
pixn

gives a
Ni'iN'

detailed description of the procedure

\y^'cv

D3sn^x ^hhii

'h^

p"iNi

Nnynos

|n

n?:s3

"'2

pcvD^N

\ni?Nn
-^-\

ncn

\^-2rh^
jy

^nx nspn

i:Din i^sT:'"
nvN'-^'s'

;nN'

no

"irh Dnm!?2

hap

pycc'

N2sn

1x2
tJie

jxcr^N.

If

Reuben complained against Simeon,

Reuben
satisfy
to satisfy

Jjidge mnsi compel

zvhereivitJi

Simeon.

The amount
it is

he

is to

him

is

not fixed as

in Palestine ; but it

might
town

be
in

determined by some of

the respectable people of the

accordance zvith the circumstances of the

tivo litigants.

If
be

Simeon refuses
excommunicated.

to
^'^'^

comply zvith the

decision.,

he

is

to

This concurrence of opinion, however,

as accidental, for a

must be regarded
ties are cited

number
decision.

of authoriIn Piske

who rendered
p. 55.

the

same

'"^ '2^

Kcbiuai llakainini.

Baba batra 175

Pol. 2 b,
11.

b.

See Rapoport,

op.

cit.,

p. 58.

"*>

12

ff.

The case
is in

treated of

is

as follows

Simeon owes

Reuben some money which

collected in Babylon.

the category oi fine, and hence cannot be

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH's BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

563

Recanate, Alfasi, R. Hanan'el and myvpcn nsD are quoted,

while R. Meir of Rothenburg ascribes this opinion to the

Geonim,
ingly,

Alfasi, Natronai,

and

Hefes.^"''
n"ij;vpr:n

Rapoport, accord-

might have ascribed the

idd to Natronai.^*^
is

On

the other hand the Sefer Hefes which

frequentl}-

quoted by French and German Halakists should be allowed

to have Hefes as
tions
its

author.

Although none of the quotain

from the Sefer Hefes happens to be preserved

is

our

fragment, and there

for
this

thus no evidence of a positive nature

is

identification, there

no

sufficient

ground

for

rejecting this obvious connexion of Hefes with that book.

This Sefer Hefes was

in all probability the

Book

of Precepts

which the Halakists who were not familiar with Arabic

quoted second hand, and hence the name of the author was

unknown
hood of
into

to

some of
For

them.^*^

There

is

hardly any

likeli-

that

book having been translated

in

in its entirety

Hebrew.

that case

its

disappearance would

have been strange indeed.

Two objections have been

examination they
will

raised against the identification

of this book with the Book of Precepts, but on careful

be found to have no weight.

It

has been remarked that the quotations from the

Book

of

1" Responsa, ed. Prague, 250. See Rapoport, op. cif., p. 56. "2 I cannot resist the temptation of putting down a suggestion which occurred to me, and might occur to some one else, though I am perfectly

convinced
as a

it is

utterly unfounded,

and

that

is

to consider the

myi'pCn
is

"ISO

translation

of the "inN'pD^iS

uNHD.

The

root Vi'p

sometimes
,Js

of

synonymous with 3Vp, which would be a good equivalent for its significations. But, as in Hebrew, the technical term
"3

in

some
this

is "liyi",

suggestion cannot be seriously considered.

Abraham

of Lunel,

who

quotes Hefes in

:i''njf2n,

pp. 6r a and 67 a,

took the passage from Isaac ibn Gayyat.

it

Similarly, in Piskc Recanate, 386,

is

is

explicitly stated that the quotation

borrowed from

Alfasi.

Comp.

especially Judah b. Barzillai's quotation discussed above.

564

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Precepts are of a different nature from those of the Sefer

Hefesy"

This

is,

however, not borne out by the data

can be safely asserted that
all

at our disposal.

It

quotations

from the Sefer Hcfes, with the exception of one or two

which

will

be presently dealt with,

may have

easily

formed

part of the
in

Book

of Precepts.

See especially the passage

Or Zanid,

III,

Piske Baba Kainma, 370, where the

is

exact meaning of
that verb.

r\'^7\

determined by biblical usage of

of Hcfes throughout his

This

is

the method

Rook of

Precepts.

The
is

other objection

is

based upon the fact that Hefes

in

supposed to be quoted
his Sefer
':i

the Sefer Hefes.

Gadol}^'' says:
I'sn

R. Moses
y^n naoni

of Coucy, in

Miswot

iTnunpD nmn3

D^nc iw2du' pnj

If

id jm:

n^n

lyy

y\T\2

;n3L" 'ninD3 p:ni:i.

Hefes was the author of the Sefer

is it
?

Hefes,
his

it is

asked,

how

possible that he should mention

name

in this

manner

Rapoport, who anticipated

this

objection, suggests an ingenious, though hardly convincing,

solution.

Hefes, he

says,

was blind, and was therefore

unable to write.

His pupils, accordingly, wrote

down whatall

ever he dictated to them, and subsequently added

the

customs their teacher observed.

they called the book
with the
title

As

mark

of respect

after their

teacher, and

dignified

him

Gaon.^^"

The

explanation,

however, has
undecided.

failed to carry conviction,

and scholars are

still

But a careful examination of the passage

Gadol
will

in

Sefer Misivot

not only do
it

away with the

objection, but will

enable us to use

as

proof that Hefes was the author

of the Sefer Hefes.

That R. Moses of Coucy does not

is

quote the passage verbatim

evident from the fact that

'" See Poznauski, J{<n"'p "'C'JN, p. 28.

1^''

Positive precept 48,

p.

127 b.

^^^

Kebmat Hakamim,

p. 56.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH's BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

565

he does not state under what circumstances the marriage

documents are to be brought.

of procedure, but does not say

He

only gives the

this
is

mode

when

to be done.

Of

course the circumstances are fully explained in the

Sefer Miswot Gadol, and hence the reader sees to what

it

refers.

Accordingly the quotation from the Sefer Hefes

R. Moses of Coucy, wishing to avoid

is

not in oratio recta, but in oratio obliqua, and the original

Jnjron pi.

words were

jnjDH pi

it was. For if he said might have been taken to mean that he himself was accustomed to do so. This hypothesis is not without foundation. For this practice in the case of a widow or it

ambiguity, stated whose custom

divorced

woman who
is

lost

her marriage document

in

is

given

at full length

by R. Meir of Rothenburg
as follows:
nni:

the

name of the
nna'na

Sefer Hefes, and

'i

m3x::> nc'x j'ann Syn 3n3

in

IN

'1

^xn?2i

nsDin ^sx
fno

ncn:nj
''jni3i

njDi?Nnji

jnjon

pi

nyn'j'3i

nninsD rh

.Tnianp h^ nnins.^"

Here we have the same passage from the same book in oratio recta, but instead of the words psj j'sn -yo jnu nM p, we simply have :^v.:i^T\ pi. That the last two words were
not added

by R. Meir of Rothenburg ^*'

is

evident from the

n\n

omission of the sentence

pw

pan lo

jnij

p.

It

thus

becomes quite

clear that R.

Moses of Coucy, who seems

that Hefes was the author

to have been well informed,

knew

of the Sefer Hefes, otherwise he could not have amplified

the words Jnjnn pi in the manner he did.

Further support, though

is

less conclusive,

for this

view
of

to be derived from the curious fact that a

number

'*''

Responsa, ed. Prague, 852.

"8 Indeed, Mordekai on Ketubot IX,

234 ed. Wilna^

it

who

quotes this

very passage, omits these two words.

But

is

obvious that he borrowed

the quotation from R. Meir of Rothenburg, and did not

know where

it

ended.

566

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Halakists of the thirteenth century ascribed this book to

R.
a

Hanan'el."'"'^

Rapoport conclusively demonstrated

that'

number of

decisions quoted from the Scfer Hefes are

in

opposed to those found

works.
It

R. Hanan'el's authenticated
led

was

this

consideration that

Rapoport

to

accept the suggestion of Reifmann, anticipated by Fiirst,

that

Hefes was the author of that

book.^^^'

Now
if

this

confusion of authors can only be accounted for

the real

author of that book had the

to stand for J'sn 31.

initials

r/'-i,

which were intended

But to some Halakists who were not

familiar with Arabic this

name was unknown, and they

"i.

therefore took these letters to stand for 7N::n

Had

not

these letters been the

initials

of the real author, the con-

fusion could hardly have arisen.

We
(2)

thus have three arguments in favour of the author(i)

ship of Hefes:

The obvious connexion

the

of the

names;

the quotation in Scfer Misivot Gadol and

;

Responsa

of R. Meir of Rothenburg

(3)

wrong

ascription to

R. Hanan'el.

On

the other hand, no evidence whatsoever

has been hitherto adduced against his authorship.

There

are,

however, some quotations from the Sefer

Hefes which, to
of the

my

mind, could scarcely have formed part

Book

of Precepts.

Thus from

the

Or Zarud

it

seems that the Sefer Hefes contained Responsa of Natronai

and decisions of
often

Paltoi and the Academies. ^""^

to

Now

have

had the occasion

remark that Hefes never quotes

Moreover,
in others
is

post-talmudic authorities.

in

some
-i2D.
I

cases this

work

is

called i'sn

"I3D,

and

V^nn

The

latter

occurs in the passage where Paltoi

'^'

quoted.

therefore

See Rapoport, R. Hauan eV s Biograpliy. note

Kebiiat Hakaiithn, pp. 55
III,
ff.

36.

^^'
1*1

Baba kamma 281, 284.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

567

venture to suggest that there were two books, one called

j'Dn

120,

and the other

'^'Dnn -idd.

The former was

the

Book
latter

of Precepts,

and meant

the

Book by Hefes, while the

was a

collection

of gaonic responsa and decisions,

Y^^\^, ""SD,

and was probably vocalized

^s. 34- 13-

the allusion being to

Later writers confounded these two books, and

of.

the distinction was lost sight

extracts from the

We

consequently find
J^ann isoa,^^-

Book
is

of Precepts

headed

while a

Responsum

ascribed to the

)'Sn "idd.^^^

Ill

The Book of Precepts

It
is

fairly certain that

first
it

Hefes

b.

Yasliah's

Book of
giving an

Precepts was the

in

attempt to codify the talmudic laws

Arabic.

Indeed

may

claim

priority
all

in

exhaustive, though brief, account of

logical order in

ordinances in a
his pre-

any language.

He went beyond

decessors

by

collecting all the precepts,

and arranging them

into groups,^^

Instead of arranging positive precepts in

in

one group and negative ones

practically
all

another, as

is

done by

writers,

including

Maimonides, he incor-

porates

all

precepts, positive and negative, belonging to one

category, in one book (^va).

He

then divides them into

to
their subject-matter.
i53 /^/V/.,

two or more sections according

i=i*

Or Zarua Baba kamma

,

370.
p.

281.

Rapoport {Kebusat Hakamini,

58) states that Hefes arranged the

precepts without any order or logical division, but divided them into chapters
in

accordance with the punishments.

That

this is incorrect is easily

seen

from the preserved fragment as well as from the two precepts quoted by Judah b. Barzillai. The passage in Maimonides's Sf/fr ha-Miswot, p. 55, upon

vhich Rapoport bases

his assertion,

does not in the least warrant such

a conclusion, as will be seen below-

VOL.

IV.

568

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in their turn

These sections are

subdivided into positive

necessary, he assigns dif-

and negative precepts.

Where

ferent classes to precepts that are obligatory throughout

all

ages and countries, and to those that are only incumbent

in Palestine.

during the existence of the Temple, or only

It

was a monumental work, a code

in

the real sense of

the word, and contained a good deal of material which

from the

strict

point of view of the codiiier might have

irrelevant.

been considered

But as a theologian Hefes had

to assign reasons for every precept.

What

other writers

did

in

various treatises, he attempted to incorporate in one

book.

Our fragment, which

others, that
to

consists of sixty-three closely

written pages, comprises

of

fifty

complete precepts and parts

about fifty-one precepts.
extent,
fair
it

two

is

say,
in

Although they greatly vary

will

be readily

granted that w^e have here a

length of a precept.

sample of the average

assuming
than a

We

are thus justified in

that these sixty-three pages represent a

little less

twelfth part of the book, minus the introduction, so that

the enumeration and discussion of the precepts occupied

approximately
introduction,
it

eight

hundred pages.

Add

to

this

the

which must have been rather

lengthy,^-^^

and

is

evident that the entire book contained something like

a thousand pages.

As we do

not possess Hefes's introduction (Ji>A*) to this

state

book we cannot

with

certainty

the

reasons that
It is,

induced him to compose the Book of Precepts.

ever, easy to

how^-

see

that his

purpose was mainly halakic.

in

Not being

satisfied

with the treatment of the subject

is

the Halakot Gedolot, which

to codify the

incomplete, he determined

ordinances in
I'^e

more convenient manner.

See below.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH's BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

569

Aramaic
and

Furthermore, Arabic at that time practically supplanted as the vernacular among the bulk of the Jews,
this

book supplied a much-felt need.

It

could be

used by the layman

who

did not care to enter into the

in

minute discussions of the Talmud which was written

a dialect that few understood in those days;
the

while even

profound talmudic scholar might profit by it, as it contained all the sources upon which the decisions were
based.

Zunz

hesitatingly suggests that

it

may have

been

directed against Karaitic works of the

written at that time."^

allusion militates

same title that were But the absence of any polemical against this view. There is only one place
This
her

where Hefes
is

refutes the opinion of another scholar.

in

connexion with
b^,j-

the age

when a

girl

attains

majority.^"

^g

^j^^

dispute turns on the interpretation

D^B'nn hk'b' n^n*

of the statement of Samuel

nnnb nny:

pn

ps-

12b,

it

is

obvious that

the scholar whose view Hefes

refuted was a Rabbanite.

As
that
it

to the structure of the

Book

of Precepts

we know

had a lengthy introduction (J^xo) which, apart from defining the author's system and method, gave a survey of
the principles underlying the biblical and talmudic ordinances. Hefes states ^^^ that in the introduction he explained and discussed all cases where option was allowed.
It

was

in that part

of the work that his strictures on the author

of the Halakot Gedolot were expressed.

Although neither

Ibn Bal'am^so ^or Maimonides,^6o f^om whom we know that Hefes criticized the method of the Halakot Gedolot,
156

Haarhriicker's Specimen 0/ Taiihum Yemslialmi, p. 54. '" Text, fol. 22 b. 16 Fol.

17

a,

II.

17

ff.

1*^

Commentary on Deut.
Sefer ha-Mtsivot, p. 5

30. 2

ed. Fuchs).

''ed.

Bloch).

r 2

570
States in

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

what part
it

occurred,

it

is

legitimate to assume

that

it

found place in the introduction.

to
his

For

it

is

in

the

introduction

Sefer ha-Miszvot that Maimonides

criticizes his predecessors.

It is

impossible to say exactly

how many

parts the book-

consisted of; but there were at least thirty-six of them,

for the

thirty-sixth

part

is

quoted by Hefes
is

himself.^'^i

In his treatment of individual precepts he

quite methodical,

though monotonous.
in

He

practically uses the

same formula

every case.

Positive precepts are introduced

by

a;in
'n:n,

or nt:Nn, while negative ones invariably begin

all

with

of which verbs are either used impersonally or have nynu' In a comparatively few words a risiime
is

as their subject.

of the biblical law

ramifications

given.

He

then goes on to state the

and ampHfications added by the Rabbis. He always quotes the passage upon which his decisions are based, first giving the pentateuchal verses and then the
rabbinic passages.

In this respect he radically differs from

his sources.

Maimonides who does not reveal

at

The entire range of tannaitic and amoraic literature is the command of Hefes, and he makes ample use of both
of
all

Talmudim and

halakic Midrashim.

He

refers to

the
of

Tosefta, Sifra, Sifre, Sifre Zuta, and to both Mekiltas,

all

which seem to be of equal authority to him.

instance

A
in

curious
^"^^

may

be given here.

The Mishnah

Kelim

records a controversy between the schools of Hillel and

Shammai concerning
wrapping up
scrolls.

the defilement of bands used

for

Shammai's school maintain that such

ritual defilement,

bands are subject to

no matter whether
Hillel's school are

they are embroidered or not, whereas

of opinion that only those that arc not embroidered are

161

See

te.xt, fol.

12

a,

1.

15.

^''*

28. 4.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH
to

BOOK OF PRECEPTS HALPER

Rabban Gamaliel adds
this matter,
is

57I
his

susceptible

uncleanness.

opinion that in both cases the bands

cannot be defiled but the

The Mishnah
in

gives

no decision on

Tosefta explicitly states that the matter

to be decided
Gamaliel.^^^
in

accordance with the opinion of Rabban

in his

Maimonides

commentary on the Mishnah,^^^ and

his Code,^'''^ disregarding or overlooking the Tosefta, rejects

Rabban Gamaliel's
as
is

view, and adopts that of Hillel's school,

usually the case

when the

Hillelites

and Shammaites

disagree on a point of law.

Hefes, however, decides in

accordance with the opinion

of Rabban

Gamaliel, and

quotes the passage from the Tosefta (without indicating the

source, as
is

his

custom) as his authority.

material at our disposal
it is

With the scanty

impossible

to attempt a reconstruction of this work.

Nevertheless
writers,

from the quotation found

in the

works of other

and from the numerous

allusions in the preserved frag-

ment, we are able to glean a few details which give us some

idea of the nature and contents of the other parts.

The
first

introduction has already been referred to above.

The

book contained
the
first

ethical

precepts,

as

may

be seen from

two precepts quoted by Judah

to
this
it

b. Barzillai.
it

The

numerous references
considerable length.

book show that

was of

In

Hefes had the opportunity of

giving utterance to his philosophical and theological speculations.

This book also dealt with the relation of

God

to

man, and hence some of the ordinances appertaining to

fruits

first-

and heave-offerings were described

ethical side of

there.^^''

For the
in that

same reason the

vows was discussed

book, and a principle was laid

1'^^

down whereby
^^* ^^^

to

know
22.

Tosefta Kelim, Baba batra

Hilkot Kelim, 22.
6.

6, 4.

Ed. Derenbourg, p, 217.

text, fol. 13 a,
1.

^'

See

572

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

what kind of vows may be made nowadays, and which are

forbidden.^
*^"^

It

also

pointed out
to
fulfil

that

the judges

are

obliged to urge a

man

his vows,^^^

and that the

it
;

vow

is

to be carried out during the time set for

set,

if

no

time was
tunity.i^''

he must carry

it

out at the earliest oppora

Maimonides, too, preserved

supposed to belong to the
xn^ya
in:
^^.n"-

short sentence

which
follows

is
:

first

book.

It is as

yni in n:sa

snarK

':sjd pji^hi

pnx

sn:o^

\)r2'^ N'nyj^:

ab.

Otit

of thcvi arc
iliat

tJiirty-tivo cases

con-

cerning

ivhicli

He

informed ns

He

ivho

is
;

blessed
all

and

exalted will supervise their committal, not ivc

of them

are explicitly stated}'^

Maimonides who explains

this pas-

sage says that the thirty-two cases are twenty-three persons

who

are punished with being cut off (nn^), and nine

who
book

are put to death b}- God.

treated of
It should,

We

thus

know

that this

certain

transgressions

and their punishments.

however, be observed that Maimonides does not

in this

mention Hefes by name

1"

passage.
"2
1.

It is

the plausible
'n^N' "in:^Ki

sn^ys
See

nr

x^

not fsr^T^x

xin

sn^ys
rg;.
'^^

nr

^JINSs i?XD^N 'D

i>s 1""

Nn:vy NJI^T npS

20
b,
1.

Md..

text, fol.

4.

Ibid., fol.

21

b,

1.

20.

Sefer lia-Misivot, ed. Bloch. p. 55.

^3- translation of the last

word

is

against the

Hebrew rendering

of Ibn

Tibbon,

who
to

translates [IDVD

by

D'2'iyj, guaranteed.
it is

Although that word happens

it

have that

signification,

more than doubtful whether

suits the context.

Moreover, Maimonides
:

explains the words JID^'C NHy^Cj in the following

ni n^D'1
off"

manner

n5N JDV

yjl

n5x

ni n'"l3^,

tlial

He

lulw

is

exalted explicitly itated that

He wotdd cut
Illy for |0i>
.

one

and put
is

the other to death.

Here again Ibn Tibbon has

?

But where

the guarantee expressed

said
is

or

what need
to

is

there for a guarantee

What Hefes
or

that

some punishments are

be administered by God

Himself, and this would naturall3' be in cases where the Bible states ^JjlHSni

some other word.

fifth

Now
is

(.v^ means be placed, deposited, and hence also

contained (in the

conjugation, which has a passive meaning).

a simple

The
the

signification he stated

development of he made

it

contain

'^as

contents of a book,.

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH

BOOK OF PRECEPTS
^''^
;

HALPER

573

conjecture

of Rapoport

but

it

has no independent

corroboration, except that in the preserved fragment Hefes

enumerates twenty actions

for which,

according to tradition,

God, not man, administers punishment.^'^

Then even
from the
""D

if

we grant
book.

that Hefes

is

meant by

VNirri'N 3S*n3 dhnv,

is

it is

not certain whether the above quotation

first
is

Maimonides uses the expression

^VD ^1N

which

not elegant Arabic for the Jirst book, and

?1N7X 7VD7N.
aivival
It is

ought to be

only

in colloquial

Arabic that one says

nauba

'

the

first

time

',

instead of annaiiba al-fda,

Is
it

or

better

still,

al-marra

al-idd.

not possible that

Maimonides merely meant at

if

the begimiing of a book, as

It is true that

he would have said ?VS "nv *d?i"3

it

Ibn

Tibbon who rendered

in
its

by

ivcxnn
it

'y'^^l
is

took the phrase

colloquial sense;

but then

quite possible that

the translator misunderstood the author.

To
himself.

the second

book we have one

allusion

by Hefes

From

it

we

learn that
all

that

book dealt with

the

acquisition

of slaves and

the laws appertaining

thereto.^'*

The

third book, part of which

is

preserved, dealt with

the laws of damages, and contained four sections.

Our

fragment begins with the middle of precept

1'^^

8,

section 3

Kebusat Hakamint,

p. 58.

"]n3n
173

n^^x hi w^t'S no^i? i^foi. 4 a, 1.21). The same usage is found in Hefes (fol. 8 a,
beginnmg of the second
book.

1.

i6), D^N*

^VQ^JX

^IN*

"'2,

at the

wN:jnn

n:j2 "'^

nan

jy ''::nDJ

explained this precept (concerninga

satisfactorily in the

iha h^sha S^e "'2 iiy man sold into slavery

:

"iny.

i have already

for theft, Exod. 22. 2)

midst of

my

explaining the law about the acquisition of

a Hebrew slave, at the beginning of the second book

I have thus no need

to

mention anything here

(loc. cit.).

574

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Further on a detailed
discussion of the

of this book.

precepts that are preserved in this fragment will be given.

For the present

only wish to remark that

it

seems to me

that precepts 3-8 and 10. 11 of section 4 of this book do

not belong here.

All the other precepts deal with damages,

while those just mentioned treat of sacrifices.

Considering

the numerous errors that crept into our copy such a supposition
is

not precluded.^"-'

Of course
is

the reverse
it

may
here,

just as well be the case, that

to say.

is

possible that

the

precepts dealing with

damages are misplaced

while those treating of sacrifices are in their place.

alternative suggestion

This

would

find support in the fact that

the immediately following book also deals with sacrifices.

The

fourth

book

treats

of free-will

offerings, vows,
It

consecrations, and a few other priestly laws.

thirty-six precepts,

contains

which are divided into three sections

according to their subjects.

The

fifth

book

is

devoted to special kinds of

ritual

defilement resulting from coming into contact with dead

bodies or creeping things.

As

the ramifications of these

precepts are extremely vast, while only a few verses are

devoted to them

in

the Pentateuch, each precept extends

the

Fourteen pages are taken up by two precepts and a portion of the third. There are two references by Hefes to the sixth book, and from them we learn that it dealt with the tithes of
first

over considerable length.

com,
''5 "'^

&c.,^'^

and the various kinds of

fol.

blood.^'^

It is

very

See, especially, text,

a,

1.

ii.
(foi.

i^N b^isha ^D NrnDnjD nni'-yD^N

ijjfsijN

13 a,
>s

1.

18).

"

^B

i^asn ab

q-i

bi

nyn-j*

a^^iba

^m

n::n:Di

nbba NK>

fX b'^'Slbn

Xnn^

'^NTI^N.

IVe shall emtmerate the various kinds

the book which follows this one.

0/ blood in the precept 'ye shall eat no blood' in

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S BOOK OF PRECEPTS

HALPER

575

likely that its

main subject was things that are permitted

Tithes and blood

to be eaten and those that are prohibited.

would naturally be included under these headings.

The
found

tenth book dealt with various kinds of blemishes

in animals,

according to an allusion to
is

it

by

Hefes.^"^

The
that
its

fourteenth book

once referred

to,

and we learn

theme was the

book

firstlings of animals.^''

From
teenth

the reference to the second precept of the nineit

seems likely that that book dealt with

Hefes quotes a passage from

various kinds of defilement.

tractate

Nazir dealing with certain causes of defilement,

:

and he then remarks

shall explain this passage in the

second precept of the nineteenth book}^^^

The
treated

thirty-sixth

book was similar

found
it

to
in

the tenth, and

of blemishes that are

human

beings.

According to the allusion to

devoted to the elucidation of
various kinds of blemishes.' ^^
It will

this

book was specially

all

the terms used for the

thus be seen that Hefes arranged the precepts

in a logical order,

but tried to follow the Bible as closely

ethical precepts take precedence of all

as possible.
others,
for

The

they are

the
of,

mainsta}'

of

religion.

These

ordinances disposed

the author at once takes up the

laws in Exodus, which are followed

by those

of Leviticus.
is

Keeping the
please

logical
26

arrangement
As
this

in

mind, he
in

obliged
book
it

God

;fol.

b,

1.

7).

remark occurs

the

fifth

obviously refers to the sixth.

"^ le'Ny^x bi-D^N "D nnN'^rs"! i^n m::' "-diddjoi.

the explanation
(fol.

i simii compute
the tenth book

of this subject (of blemishes; and similar ones in

12

a,

I.

21).

'" i^^N ^vai?N 's

iSmanjDS

n^-^n

nnon^Ni

(foi.

13 a,

1.

19).
1.

"0 6^^x ^vai^x |D i^N ny^-^tt'^N ^s hpi'N

^*'

Nnn ma'JDi

(foi.2oa,

16\

See

text, fol. 12 a,

1.

14.

576
to deviate
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

now and

again from the biblical order.

This

naturally unavoidable, as precepts of the

same character

are found scattered in

two

or

more books of the Pentateuch.

Thus

the cardinal precepts of the fourth book of Hefes's

in Leviticus, for it is in

work occur

that

book

that free-will

offerings are first

mentioned
that

but there are a few kinds

to

of

these

offerings

are

be found

in

Numbers.

Similarly in the case of vows.

The laws
of
in

appertaining to

a Nazarite arc to be included in this category, but they

occur

in

the

sixth

chapter

Numbers, while other

the thirtieth chapter of

ordinances about vows occur

that book, and

some

are in Leviticus.

{To be continued.)

PROLEGOMENA TO A GREEK-HEBREW AND HEBREW-GREEK INDEX TO AQUILA

By Joseph Reider,
Dropsie College.

CHAPTER n
AQUILA'S

KNOWLEDGE OF THE HEBREW GRAMMAR AND LEXICON

we speak of Aquila's knowledge of the Hebrew Grammar and Lexicon, it should be understood that we cannot possibly have in mind a systematic treatise of
1 8.

When

Hebrew grammar

or a Hebrew-Greek lexicon ready-made,

but rather that empiric and practical acquaintance with

grammatical rules and the meanings of words without

which no translator could operate at be said of the period antedating the

of the

all.

At

best

it

may

rise of

a scientific study

Hebrew language
Thus we

in

the tenth century that gram-

matical reflexion manifested itself then in a rudimentary

way.

find empiric observations in the talmudic

literature which,
""

however, do not go very

far."''

On

the history of grammar, see Steinthal, Geschichtc der Sprachwissen-

schaft bet den Griechen

I>

und Romern mit

besonderer Rucksiclit

auf

die Logik^

1895, 25

ff.

V.

d.

Gabelentz, Die Sprachwissenschaft, Hire Aufgabeti,

ff.

Methoden und hisherige Ergebnisse, 1901, 17

The

history of

Hebrew
nSC,

grammar

is

treated in

full

by

S. D. Luzzatto,
;

Ptolegomeni ad una grammatica

Franc. Delilzsch,
]\'\'\Z"'

ragionata della lingua ebraica, 1836, 11-71

Isagoge in gmmmaticametlexicographiam linguae hebraicac, 1838;

W.

Bacher,

Die

liebr'dische

Sprachwissenschaft (vom 10. bis

zum
;

16. Jahrh.',

mit einem

einleitenden Abschnitt uber die Massora, 1892

of

specifically- the

beginnings

Hebrew grammar by Bacher, Die Anfdnge der hcbr'aiscJien Gmnitnatik, ZDMG., XLIX, pp. I and 335 ff. The grammatical observations of the ancients are summed up by Berliner, Beitr'age sur hcbr'dischen Gramniatik int Talmud itnd Midrasch, 1879; comp. also Bacher, Anfdnge^ 3-7.
ff.

577

578

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

When
b.

it is

remembered that both Saadya and Menahem

"^

Saruk have quite primitive ideas concerning the nature

of

Hebrew

roots

and to what sad consequences of a

in Kalir's paitanic

practical kind these erroneous notions led

productions/-

it

were

idle to

expect any sounder views from

is

Aquila.

Just because Aquila

given to etymologizing,''^

the foregone conclusion that he will have exposed himself

to the pitfalls

of a primitive

root theory

is

verified

all

too well.

The
haustive,

following examples, which are

by no means ex:

may

serve as an illustration
05?

Dt2N

is
;

combined
ipx
is

with n^3 3 Kings 21. 27 where

fused

= KCKAt/i/eVos^
^"l^y^p

con-

with 110

Deut. 26.

17
a

where

is

rendered
;

arrrjWd^co, a

word used by
90
(91).

for 1'pn Ps.

/7.era)(f?>/o-erat

45

(^6). 3
'"l3Nri,

n^^

with

N13 Ps.

10 where
10;

comp.
21

ixfrayeiv

=
xat

ii'^r]

32

(^^).

::'i3

with

C'N^

Ps. 68

(69).

where

dn^yvdxrO-riv
trsiJ,

renders

n^lJNi^

but

airoytvcoaKeti'

otherwise renders

comp.

Kings

27. i; PSN* with pl3

Job

41. 7

where

v-epiKxvai.^

P''^i^,

v-nefjiKx^lv
;
"i=i5

being used by
with
"iJN*

a' for
I.

?''^k[

Prov. 12. 2 and Isa. 58. 10

^i^^iri

Deut.

17 where

KpD\//^rj?

according to
b,

BM,

so also Sifre
D^Jan

quoted
nin

by
nin

Rashi

and

Sanh. 6

7a:

"inai

X^

with

Ps. 61

(62).

4 where

inriinip

= eTrt/Joi-Aewere,
-"iio

comp.
where

k-ni^ovkri
'T.t^'O

uniformly

=
o-f,

niin

r\y

with

Isa. 51.
7

23

= =

eba(l)tC6vTiov

comp.
;

Ps.

45
38

(46).

where
19.

^ha(^iC(Lv

rightly

renders
;

i'lO

^n'

with

hbr\

Ezek.

where
"'

n^niJ

hpcLOr]

nr with
roots

p' Jer. 25.

(32. 24)

where

The

triliterality of

Hebrew

was discovered by Hayyuj (end of

century\

the tenth and beginning of the eleventh century) and the theory perfected

by Ibn Janah
"^2

(first

half of the eleventh

Comp. Zunz, Die synagogale

378
ff.

Poesie des Mittelalters, p. 121 and par-

ticularly Beilage 9. p.
''^

See above.

10.

;: ;

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

nji^
J^p^

REIDER
i.

579

is

translated
nii^

by

TeOokcaixivi],

'made
nnbri

turbid,

muddy':
10
is

with
'"iiprp,

Gen. 49. 10 where

the rendering for

(rva-TT^jxa,
rinjp^
;

which

used

for

is

ti]v

Kara^avriv
f^ooei'o-etv

Gen.
avTov
Jer.

32. 2,

apparently from the root hnT;

is

'ni^'^
;

Job 37. 3
(31). II

combined with
">^5

"iiB',

so Rashi
n'J'?

I'l^

with 119

48

where
is

k-nUpav^v;

with
p^rD

"^^J^

Ezek.
npB' in
'ip.f^

20. 8

where
15.

'il'?*!

translated
P'^^
(31).

by

I'jXka^av

with

Gen.
N^'3

2
r""^*

where
Jer.

=
is

ttotiCoi;

an

abbreviated
**^'^

with

48
39.

9 where

N^'fi'

(Ttrai;

^"^'"^

Job

13

combined

= avOova-a with H 'Upa^

ri'pD

e^ekev-

(hawk,
ctk^vo^
:

falcon)

''^^3

= o-Keuacrr?/?
in

Isa.

32.5 combined with V?

rho with ^^? Ps. 118 (119). 118 where

a

airea-KoXoTriaas,

word used

two places

for ^??,

comp.

Ps. 67 (68). 5

and

Isa. ,^-.

14; the

same confusion
;

is

evident Job 28. 16, 19

where n^pn
Isa. 19. 1
nsn"!
av

== ava^X-qOria-eTaL
is

nay with 2^V Exod. 19. 9 and

where ^V (cloud)

rendered by iraxos (thickness)

is

= KOI mp-evaeL Eccles.

hvi'ap.Ls Isa.
"?>*

12. 5

combined with
Nnir
;

'12 Kap-nos

4. 2

by confusion with
is

on the other
from
3if3

hand
pii' is

Ezek.

20. 6, 15
?T,

rendered
i. is

crTaaLs

{^T)
;

confounded with

Prov.

27 where

ni5!ii*=z e-n-tx^o-tsN^*;;

nwS'X

k^eXOov Deut. 23. 13 (14)

is

derived from

rather

than from Kiv (but perhaps a

of the nikkud)
;

in

agreement with the intent

6'
e'

D'*>7

toIs

e^ekevaopivots with

and
188

to

Num.
N*?^

24, 24 (comp. Barth, Nominalbilditngen'^^

p.

below, also Chajes,

from

Ps.

R^J., XLIV, p. 226) is likewise is accommodated to 73 (74). 14

;

derived
11^*

'^'''i

Jer.

49. 14 (29. 15)

for
">'V
;

where
V>'J

r.dpioyr]

(which usually
i

= liif?)

stands

nyif

to

Isa.

6^.

where

nyi:

KaTaarpoovuvm',

word used Job

^nyi"!
D'^y'if

12. 23

for rWQf;

again Jer. 48 (31). 12

I'll
;

where
Hos.
59

arpcaras, Kal arpuxrovaiv avTov

i)

to niT
Ps.

II.

12 (12.

where
*yy^"jri!?

it

e-n-tKpaTwz;

yii

to nyi
;

(60).

10 where

r]Taipi]<jaTo,

so Rashi

yy^ to

580

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

VTn
(ii:

ny^ Jer. 15. 12 where

[XT]

7mm fratiget)

is

translated
'.B"^n

by

apfioaei,

HS";

to

N3") Ps.

45 (46). II

where

laO-qT^;

on the contrary
TTpo(Tr}vri<i

XS"^
;

to

ns";

Prov. 15. 4 where

I'lB'b

iiBnp

=
is

y\5i(TCTa

]y^ to

HJB'

Deut.

6.

where

QJ^^SB'i

rendered by

oewepcoo-ei?,

and also 28. 37 where

nr;;^'

19.

Conscious of the various functions belonging to the

various conjugations in
differentiate as

Hebrew, Aquila endeavoured to

much

as possible between

them by using

certain types of
verbs.

Greek verbs
pi'el

for certain types of

Hebrew
to

Thus, the

and

hiph'il
in -ovv

are

expressed

a large degree by verbs ending

n^-iin
J^'j]!?

and

-dCf"', -(.C^iv:

= KaTajBi^ai^Lv, and t^^^>n = hytdCew, n^3 = a^wow, T3?n = ovvajxovv, TW e^taovv, n>n and n^nn = (owvv and = koKo^ovv, n^EJ'n = ttotCC^lv, TOK'n = aKovTiCnv, y^Dr{ = cTKavbaXovv, r\^fr\ = ayvo-qixaTiCiiv, or nnin = ^oiTiC^iv, ^nc? and D'3f n = dpOpiC^Lv, = (TKop-niCnv, and r?r! VT, ynin and HN-in = yvwpiCdv, &c. Verbs with -ovv and are less frequently used for the kal, e.g. = boKifxdCdv, 22D = kvkXovv, |2C' = aKr]vow while the pi'el and
"i^i?

">7i?!?

"I'^NH

I'ra

-t'Ceti'

]r\z

hiph'il
e.g.

are sometimes

rendered also by ordinary verbs,

r\m and n^n^n

y'lan

bLa(f)9LpiLv,

^m =

iTTt(TTp(ptv,
is

nt^p

= = =
pi.

vcf)paLVtv,

KdfxTTTa\

The

hiph'il

sometimes
P''T.nn

rendered also by a combination with

icrxvpoTTOulv, P^y)

iroulv, as e.g.

= alvoiroifiv, JTlin = yvixjarbv

the hiph. and
i^^jn

iroulv, JT'OVn

acpcavov ttouIv.

Moreover, verbs with -vvav are sometimes

employed

to render

more

rarely

the

as, for instance, i?^?

and

ijieyaXvvetv, 3^LJ\i

dyaOwuv

and ^ekrvvew,

p^H'in

= jxaKpvveiv.
of
roots
in

''*

As

to

the confusion

the

Septuagint

comp. Frankel,

Voystudien, p, 200.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA

20.

REIDER

581

Where

Hebrew

intransitive verb

=
"i??^

a Greek passive

verb, the pi'el

and

hiph'il of the intrans. are

rendered by

the active of the Greek verb.

^5fp

and "i^pn
;

ffxinTiXav

= Koko/3ova6at, Thus = koXoIBovv V^'^ = (ixTrtirXaadai, V^b' and T^f^ = "^^S = bvvaixovcrdai, "i^^^n = bvvaixovv ^ [xeTecapi;

i^l^a

= oKa^'8aAoGo^at, ?*K'3n = aKavbaXovv "153 = /Bapvvea-QaL, = /3apvviv p2 = hiacTKop-KiC^aOai, pSH = hiaaKopniC^eiv D^l = v\}/ov<Tdai, D^in = v\j/ovv nyn irXavacrOaL, nynn = TrXarav Dri = reAetoro-^ai, Dnn = reXetorv NCC = fxtaLveaOat, NStD = niU' = e^to-oucr^ai, njtr = k^iaovv Hob' = ev(f)paLve(r6ai, ixiaivHV mSK' = ev^paiviiv.
bB'l
;

l^Iian

31.

The

passive conjugations are invariably rendered

by

the Greek passive, the stem remaining the same as in the

active, if the active exists.

Thus VT

yiyvuxTK^tv, VliJ
;

=
;

yiyvaxTKeaOcu
80/ixerr,

^ns

ypdcpeir, 3riD3
;

ypd(f)e(Tdai

nj3

oiko-

n3n

= olKohop.el<TdaL /><3 = p.oXvvtv, b^'^ = poXvveadai = 7rA?;o-o-ety, HSn = -nXricTa-ia-Oai. Where the pass, is
^333
it is

found translated by the active

mostly due to a different

vocalization on the part of our translator, as, for instance,

Job
iD^n,

28.

15

iri;;

8wo-i

presupposes the pointing

]^\

(sbj.

so also

6').

On
is

the other hand, there are a few

passives construed as actives, but in these instances the

whole rendering
'*ripriD3

paraphrastic.

Thus Gen.
6

30. 8 \^'n33
;

D^n'PN

a-wav^a-rpe-^iv

pe

debs

(Twavaarpo^riv

Isa. 26. 3 niD3

int33
;

^n
6

"3

on
ni.i^^

77'

avT<a -n^-noidaai, unless a

read

Jer.
;

16.
(45).

DnJ'

xb]

=
''3

ovh'

ov

pi]
oi^k

(fiaXaKpcoa-ovaLv

avTOVs

38

27

">3"nn

yp^rx^

on

iJKOvaav to prjpa.

There are likewise some actives rendered passively, thus

Lev, 15. 3 D^rinn
eo-^payto-^rj
(Trrtpdri;
;

('

inwardly transitive
5
^nn,?^

',

GK.,

53 d-g)

Job
18.

5.

apdijaeraL

Ps. 92 (93). 3 IN^^

;

= =
45

Jer.

23

^n?pri-^N

|U7;

e^aAei^^tu/

50

(27).

582

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

jSSn n^VV D^Onp^ N7"CN

eav

jUT/

crv\i^r]a-6S)cri to.

eAdxtora
n^nari).

Ezek.

13. 22 niS3ri

]t.

...

riixavpcaOri

(implying

The
Gen.

hithpa'el

is

naturally rendered

by the

active,

comp.

5. 22,

24 ^kri!l
;

= koI TrepteTraret
Jer.

Ps. 21 (22). 28 lin^f^^

2?-^i?

Kat 77poo-Kvi^?/(roT;(ni'

46

(26).

14

=
;

(tttjOl

or the

middle, comp. Isa. 52. 2

as, for instance,

''nnsrin

= TrepiKva-at

or the passive
;

Job

5.

'l^?T"!

= koI

eTriTpi^-qa-ovTai

Isa. 52. 2

22. Aquila's

knowledge of Hebrew syntax could only

if

be gauged

fully

we had more continuous

texts of his

version than

we

possess now.

But even with the limited

means

at our disposal, considering even the fact that in the

fragments preserved, outside the large recently discovered

remains, complete sentences and phrases are rather scarce,
it is

easy to see at a glance that his knowledge of the rules

governing the construction of the

sound.

Hebrew
be

sentence was
fact that in

Of

course,

we must bear

in

mind the

individual cases Aquila's exegesis

may

at variance

with
:

our own.
{a)

This

is

proved by
perfect

the following illustrations

is

The Hebrew

largely rendered
3"}^

by

the

Greek

aorist, as, e.g. ^^J

"'J^I^J

eKaOicrev,

ijyyLo-ev,

1"i3y

=
;

-naprikQov,

huTt]pi](ra.

In a few characteristic passages

:

the Greek perfect takes the place of the aorist

Gen.

i.

29

Ezek.
I

3.

9
9.
;

^^T^}

Uhi^Ka

Exod.
;

7.

T^D^

z= hihiuKo. ae
"'npi?

Kings

24

"'HN')!?

=
as,

Ke/cArjKa

Ps. 30 (31). 23

k^ippt\x\xai

Jer. 18. 12 ^^'^^

is

d-nriK-nicTTai.

Sometimes the
and
is

pluperfect

found,

for

instance,

Ps. 24 (25). 2

30

(31). 15

where

''lyinDli

=: eireiToiOeiv. Qliyb'

Or

the imperfect
;

used, as Deut. 32. 17

(119).

=
',

erpixtc"!'

avTovs'^^

Ps.

118
;

174

''^T^^
I3in

Ezek. 22. 29
''

= (i^'-X^l^V^ Jer- 2. 24 = = e/3iaCoi'To. When the Hebrew pf.

nSXC'
~i]}\i^

eiA/cuer

refers

Aquila combines the verb with

Opi^.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

to

REIDF.R

583

God and His decree

it

is

properly rendered
e^eAeuo-erat
;

by the
used

future: Jud. 4. 14
n^K'n

NJf^ ('"^j'T)
.

Ps. 76 (77). 10
is

fj,i^

(inkijrr^Tai

Similarly

the

future

to

indicate an action the accomplishment of which

lies in
1

the

future:

Job
;

18.

20 ^^^^
8.

=
21

ahjuoi^ija-ovarLv

41.

nnT33
is

=
is

bLa^ev(T(TaL

Prov.
for

^^
Ps.

Ni'D

cvpy'ja^i,.

Abnormal
for

da-d-

Kovaov

fxov

"'2n*:i?

(22).

22

which there

a variant

etVr/Kovo-a?

based on the Syrohex."^

is

In a conaor. subj.

ditional clause the pf.

aptly translated

by the
ixi],

Ezek.

3.

18

in"iri]n

bLarmXfi (supply Kal

in

dependence

on 3 cum
''K>7t

infin.).

Examples
^6.

of the

present:
;

Job
6.

24. 5

(^epxovTat

30

b'nQ
;

eKTrera^et

Prov.

8 rn^X

<rva-Tpe(f)L

(gnomic tense)

and with reference to God

Jer.

10. 7 nnx^
is

irpeTTet

(or i-m-npi-no).

The
the
:

pf.

with

prefixed
17 where

rendered by article

cum

pt.,

comp. Eccles.
pf.

2.

'''?'yr^

=
:

TO

'TToLovpeiov.
i

Similarly,

with

T^^?

pie-

ceding
.
. .

Jer. 7.

'l^n"i'^?<

6 yv6ij.(vos

10.

25 "^lyT-N^
rcov

"^pv:

ytvioaKOVTa

34
Tovs

(41}.

^^H'Tf?^

yevofxivajv;

52.

15

^''?,^

""^^

(p-TTcnrctiKOTas.

The
idv
p.i]

pf.

with DN

preceding
as,

is

translated

by the
syONl
4

aor. subj. preceded

by
with

idv,
\i'3

e.g.

Ps.

40

(41).
(19).

(Kal)

tXOij

preceding Ps. 18

V^m
24

"jjli

=
3)

ov

aKovo-ef].
:

Two
pt. aor.

asyndetic perfects are brought into subordination

cum

pf.
;

aor.,

as

Ps.

9.

(10.
is

f'NJ

T]in

vAoy?;o-as

bUavpc

a similar treatment

given a
=iJ^

pf.

followed

by

an impf., comp. Ps. 59

liTi(rTp\l/as

(60). 3

^niB'ri

riD3N

dvp.oidds

was, and a

pf.

followed by an impf. consecutive,

comp.
{b)

Ps.

49

(50). I NIP^l l^T

1

AaA?/(Tas e/caAeo-e.
is

Kai

The pf. with consecutive cum fut., as, for example,

T\)r\\

usually expressed
koI (.arat

by
20

Exod.

26, 6

and elsewhere;
VOL.

('^)'?Tir'l
''^

{k-oI)

oiao-reAf/
29.

P^xod.

18,

Comp.

Ta3lor.

loc.cit., p.

IV.

S S

584
(s.

THE JEWISH OPARTERLY REVIEW

Field);

Ezek.

3.

17;
;

riNn^i
''"'Spl

^al

KoAeVetj Jer.

7.

27;

n~psi

Koi fpels, ibid., 28

is

Kat K6\\fovTai

Zech. 12. 10.

Sometimes the future

Ps.

replaced by imp. aor. (praes.), comp.

Kcd IXaa-diiTL
jxi.
;

24

(25). II '^'IrPI
'JIN

Jer. 29 (36). 12 cnK"}!?^

TTopevecrde.

2ri3?ni

Kol
is

TTLKaX(Taa6

KaX

Or

the

Hebrew form
infin. aor.

conceived

a.s

expressing a purpose and so

preceded by tov
is

is

employed

form which, as
inf.

will

be seen below,
7

otherwise confined to the

3(8
''3

with the

prefix

as, e.g., Jer.

(45).

10 n^yni

tov avayayelv.

When in dependence upon

aor.)
)

cum

imperf. (orav

cum

coniunct.
kch
.

cons,

cum

perf.

is

naturally expressed
',.

by
. .

cum

coniunct. aor.. as, for instance, Lev.

orav
TrapaiBfi
. . .

15

nsDm
1

pyon-'jp

kql apApTij.
in

The

perf.

with

conscc. in an

iterative force
9.

becomes

Greek an imperf, comp. 3 Kings

25

'""^.V,"!)!

=
,

Kol aveiSCfiaCev.

On

the other hand,

is

when the

Hebrew
infer

pf. is

joined to a
Jer.
7.

weak
28

), it

expressed correctly
ef/yprai
:

by the pf comp.
that

nn"|3:i

Kat

we may

the
7. 2.

preceding

<^'}?^

was rendered

eK-AeAot-ey,

comp. Mic.
(c)

The

impf.

is

generally rendered by the Greek

fut.,

as
aor.

V]^
is

=; yi'caaoixaL,

^1P^

KaXicrco,

J3p'^

crK-qvutaci.
:

The
2.

used for the impf frequentative or iterative

dve'/3rj
; ;

Gen.

n?y'_

avia-TTja-av

Job 21. 10 ?'3^^ = ibva-TOKrjaer 30. 12 ^I^VI Ps. 17 (18). 44 ^jn^y^ ^1. 13 DNOX = vTrepptxl/a
;

= =
lO

ibovKevaav

jjlol

54

(^S):

^5

P''^'?^

eyXvKavaixev

94
;

(95).

DPX = hvai]pe(TTi]di]v I02

ID
DT?pi<

(103). 7

VIV
in'

Tjp.vvdixr}v;

Isa.

26. ID

= kyviapiaev =
j/AeryfJ?/.
;

II7

(l 18).

Naturally,
(38). 21

the Greek impf.

'31Jtp'^^

may

avTeneivTu

be employed, comp. Ps. 37 68 (69). ; ^ot (comp. )

;

am =
aor.

iiria-Tpecpov

(comp. likewise @)

IT)^

kiriKparow (so read

for k-n^KpoTovv).

The

impf.

is

also translated
instance.

by an

when

it

carries

on a pf

as, for

Job

21. to ^i-T z=

: :

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

efe/3aAe:
iyvboadrj
I'jyyLaav
-,

585
V"]])

Ps.
;

7.

16
7.

bv^)

dpydauTO

73
;

(74).

Prov.
41. 2

21

^3n"''iri

t^oufxer

Isa.

30.

^IV?!

= =

ir'?

eSouKe.

Similarly the aorist renders an

imperf. which in poetic style replaces a perf., comp. Job

10. 19 ??1N (the force of the imperf.
in the apodosis, verse
is

clearly that of a perf.

i8a

in its interrogative

form being
C'T!^
''''5

the equivalent of a negative protasis

''^nx>'i'7

carries on the interrogative

a-n^viyQ-qv.

a"s procedure

is

uncertain)
is

The impf

frequentative or
9.

gnomic
;

rendered

by the present: 4 Kings

"|3ip^

CTKr/rot

Ps. 61 (62).

I.

32

13n^;n

=
;

dyaTTore
Isa.
6').
;

14.

'"I?.?:

fpe^i'Cet

38.

12

= eAawet Job 38. 18 i-ifiovKivere Prov. 4 15. 18 33 yijri = ya'dJcrKerat 'U'^a^ = eKreVret //e (contrast
20 Jnr
'^T\n\'r\r\
: ;

"JD-'Ji^ri

aorist a a

Jer. 27 (34). 17 n^nn

yii-tTui

stands

on a different plane

the imperf

is

conceived as describing

the nascent event (Driver, 26), hence the Greek present.

The

impf. expressive of a general truth and attached to

is

a substantive with omission of the relative (Driver, 34)

aptly rendered by a part., comp. Ps. 41 (42). 2
av\oi)v
(a'
TT 77 paataafxiv OS
;

'*^VJ^

<>^3
<*);>'

m^

Isa.

40.

15

''^'^^

P"^?

=
.

AeTrroz^

appar. pointed
;

?']'?)

^aK\6p.vov

Cso

according to one
.

edition)

Jer.

10.

N^''^

^9?

apyvpiov

(pepop-^vov

Hos.

5-

13

-'"^T

^?^"''^
3('')"^t)
j

{"irpos

f3a(nX4ay
3"i;

OLKaaop-evov
T]bop

(a

apparently read
hiKa^ovTi.

^"^1

again 10. 6

=
is

{f-iacnXd)

Similarly,
"Tlti*^

when the antecedent

covers the

implied
niorsii

Ps. 90 (91). 6
insanientis.
Ps.

^^PP =

a-no hy]yp.ov baipLOviCovTos

=a

The
8

pt. likewise

impf circumstantial
ai^Tw avix(popa)

34

{0^^).

yX

HNit'

inxnn

(e-eA^eVw

ov yLV(^(TKovTi.

Two
Job
kv

asyndetic imperfects are brought into

10.

subordination:
eOavixdaTcticras

16

'?

N?snn

ab'rii

Kat

i-ta-pe^ai

kpoi;
is

similarly

an imperf asyndetically
infin.
:

following upon a perf

'1''''?^-

expressed by an

Deut. 32. 29

!l?33n

6(f)\ov icro(f)i(Td7](Tav

k-iaTaaOm.
S s 2

586
{d}
a.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW The

ON
impf. after particles
:

cum

impf.

lav

cum

coniunct. pracs. sive aor.

4.

frequently (exx. for the present Gen.

aya9vvJ]s
/3.
;

a*ip^ri"DN

lav

Isa. 21.

12

Jl^ysri'DX

lav

7rt(7;r7/re).

*3

cum

impf. in a temporal sense

=
^3

lav

cum

coniunct.
(kci
tai')

praes.

sive
;

aor.,

comp. Ex.

21.

18

P'l^

""i?"!

=
:

hiay.ax<JiVTai

Deut. 24.

22 (20) U3nn

=
(a

(eo.i;)

pa[:iOL(Tyjs.

Or
NUJ
NU"

the temporal force

"2
''D

may

be expressed by a
l-^epxojji^viov

pt.

Job
in

5.

21

"to'O

a-u
ntro,

-TTpovoy-ris

had

mind
an

n^K

the

usual

aversion

to

personifying

inanimate object;

comp. the
(c)).

identical case Ps. 90 (91). 6

adduced above under

On

a different plane
vHifrii
. . .

is

the
'3

concessive force, comp. Jer. 50 (27), 11

oTL l-cx^dp-qre
. .
.

^nob*!!

Kal Ixf^iJ-^TL^^T^ (the tenses

exactly as

in

= @

the

pf.

at the

head of verse 12

is

rendered in

by an

aoristj.
y0.

"^P^

X?

cum impf. Note (P?) cum impf. =

15)

Jer. 17. 7 npn^

f/?;

^K'^5

6 -rre-oidds.

cum
ij.ri

coniunct.

aor.

comp.
i^'^.^^)
;

Ps. 9. 36 (10,

Ni*J2r)"73 =:

evpeOfi

(implying

Jer. II. 21 nion Xpl

e.

Kal ov

fxi]

aiToOdvijs.

"ly

cum

imperf.
Ps.

ecus

av sive cws uv
2
"^ilJ^'iy

cum
ai'

coniunct.
TraplXOn
;

aor.,

comp.

56

(57),

ecos

140 (141J. 10
(.

1uy.X~"iy

= ecos
=

ov -napikObi.

'IS

cum

imperf.

/:/7)7ror

cum
;

coniunct. aor., comp.

I

Ex.

19. 22

psn? =
cum

p.r]~0Ti hLttKoyj/tj

Ps. 27 (2S).

Hcj'nri-fE

=
3

lxi]~oT (Tiyi'icnjs.
>;.

07^(3)
Dntp

imperf.

=
;

irpiv

cum

infin.aor.

Kings

3.

n3?>
Trpty

Trplz;

a0(T9i]vaL

Jer.

38 (45). lO
in

n',0;

D-iD3

=
6py]

aTTo^at-eti' avTov.

Similarly with perf.

(90).

the place of
r,p\v

the

imperf.

Ps.

89

^"i?'

O'ln

Qim
is

Te)(6rivai.
[e)

Cohortative and jussive.

The

cohort,

expressed

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA- REIDER

by the
subj.
aor.,

587

comp.
is

e.g.
:

Gen.

r.

26

nb'V^

7rou;o-a>ju,ey.

But also the optat.

found

Gen. 46. 30 nniDX

aor.,

aTToddvoijxt.
i. 3, 6,

The
Ps.

juss.

is

rendered by an imper.
22
''O^

as Gen.

14;

32

(SS)-

=
Isa.

yevitrdoi, yevridi]TU), yevcr6(oaav;

or

by

the

optat.
(25).

aor.,

comp. Job
26.

20.
IC'3"'

23

"1|?P^"!

kuI

vejicrai;

Ps. 24

14

alayyvOiiriaav.

Note

Job

29.
:

13

N3ri r= e'A^ot

(mistaken
2,

exegesis).

With a
;

negative

Ps.

24

(25).

20
;

niJ^i3X"?X

fxi]

alcrxwddriv

Prov. 24. 28 ^nri-bs

jix?/

jury

yirov

Jer. 27 (34). 17 lyjptJ'n-^K

=
;

aKOVT

Ps. 118 (119). TO

y?^~?N :=
;

''3.3K'ri"bX

=
;

//?)

ayvornxaTiaij^

jxe

4 Kings 23. 18
(/iji7j)

/ji?/

(raAeurraroj
I

Prov. 24. 17

-'2^?^i'

ayakKidadoi

Job

I.

14

I?^'!''''?^

M'/

rr/ojz/wo-aroj

(=
KOI

fbtJ^ri-^s,

comp. @).
impf. with
aor.,
eiTTei-',
1

(/)

The

consec.

is

generally translated
^<'^i?!'l

by

with an

as

^^V.

"1DN*1 =: Kcil
y!pB'*i

T^-t'^I

= = KO.I

x-'^'-

fy^vero,

Koi eKdKeaev,

(vX6yi]aa>y
is

^^'1

kuI

i)p^v,

Kol //Kouo-e.

Naturally there
5. 22,

occasion to use the

Greek

imperf.,
I.

comp. Gen.

24

"H.^l'^'I

koX Tre/HeTrdret

Exod.

12

1VP*1

(koi)

iiTiKycdvovTo
;

and even the

20
VD''D

pres.,

comp. Job

7. I.j in^ril

= Kal at/jetrat

Isa. ^^J.

1IJ'n|l*1

KoX kK^pacraei vbara

6e,

avTrj'i.

Note Gen.

6. 3 (2)

'li*"]*!

tSoVres

where both the

participial construction
freer versions,

and the

particle

are after the

manner of the

(g) The Hebrew imperative is rendered by a Greek Examples with successive imperative aor. sive praes. imperatives: Gen. J. 28 where r\^22] r^Nn-ns wj^pi uyi ns
n"1^ =z av^dve(rd

koi TTXrjdvvecrOf,
;

Kal

TTkrjpuxrare ti}v yfjv,

'"^"'l
'

kol

vTioTa^aTe avTyv' Kal i7nKi)aTe'LTe

Ps. 4. 5

^'^''r'^

^^f''!

Kkovtladi.

kiyere
Kal

kul

aioiTrijauTe

Isa.

7.

"i^K-'n

DpB'n")

(pvkataL

ijavy^a^^.

Nevertheless
5.

we meet with
2 bb

instances of subordination, comp, Joshua

(TiLCTTfjiypa? Trepaep-e
;

yw\

Kat

Ki.

J. 2

ItJ*")*!

13p

irop^vOh're'i eK^rjTi]-

5 :

588
(Tare
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

;

Isa. ^$. J ^l^K'

Wpl
fut.

=
(t')

kol iXdovres ayopda-are.

Abnormal
but

the use of the

for the
;

Hebrew
has
in

imp. Gen. 42. 16

aTrax^^T-e,

''"'Pf;?^

bedrjcrea-Oe

(a
fut.

@
!

imper.

a remnant of the
corrupt)
for
(d'

may
n

be found

the conflate (and

iJKovrra aKorjv

a/na-)(6i]idi]rrerrQo.i
;

Job 37. 3 we find

is is

yi'^C' lync^'

apparently there

an error of transmission

has aKove
(/i)

aKoijv).

The

infin.

absolute
in

rendered

(a)

by a
:

part, or

(d)
I

by a verbal noun
Kings
14
20. 6

the dat.

Examples

(a)
;

with
2
:

pf.

?K^3

7XtJ'3

otTOVixevos
;

rJTija-aTO

Kings

= hLafTvpa^v biirrvpas with an impf. Num. "ISn-DNI = (koI) eay aKVpiav aKvpuxrij Ps. 131 (132). 15 30. 13 "1SJ = ei/Aoywr evkoy/ja-oo Isa. 56. 3 ""ibnn: ^'nnn = ^1?^ hiayuipi^oiv OtaxoopiVet; 6 J. 10 b'W = xa'P'^i' X<*P^?'^oM' Jer. 13. 17 yp*]ri Vbn^ = koI baKpvovaa haKpxxrei; 39 (46). 18 D^C = pvopevos pixTopai = 51 (28). 58 1^1^?^ i^3^ N3 = (p\6iJ-(i'09 (Taktvojiwov (ra\(v6/](T(TaL Hab. 2. 3 lib's = iinbcon-eL eTrtSw; ij^a (or (\(v<rTai}. {b) Lev. 13. 7 pnn^PI nn^'n = gia^^opa hLacpeepeue Deut. 31. 29 Ps. 131 )31 = alvi(TeL alviaovcnv Isa. 59. II n3n3 n'jn = (132). 16 <t)9oyyfi (jjOey^ofieOa Jer. 6. 9 ^V^V) bbSV = KaXafxr) KaXafjiriaovTaL 44 (51). 29 1'^lp^ Dip = orao-et frrryfroyrai 49. 12 (29. 13) n^in npj = KaOapia-pco KaOapiaOriai]. When the infin. absol.,
12,
riVN3 Y^^
;

Ti-izi

tTIK'

^t:.^p^

rre

"1^")$?

n'ii'Sri

'IJ?"!^

in

continuation

of

preceding

finite

verb,

appears

as

a substitute for the

is

finite

verb (GK.,
translator:

113. 4), a finite verb

used

by the Greek
.

Job
44

15. '^^

^i'JI
.
. .

riin

avviKafSe

Kal (T(Kev

Jer. 32 (39).
.

^y^'!

Dinm

aina*! i3p>

KTr]6i]aoiTai Kai ypa(f)-^aovTai

(?)

Kal (T(ppayiadr]<TOVTai

^ V

<^

The
:

infin.

construct
1

is

occasionally expressed
koto avafiamv
n);p
;

by
23

a noun
''l?C?

Kings

8.

36
;

ni7i?2 ==

Ps.

30

(31).

= f^ daiJif^Wei. p.ov
'^i<i31

31 (32). 6 NVtt

= eJs KUipdv evpeVeo)?;

etToSoV o-ov
;

120(121). 8

^nx>;

eo8oV aov

Kal

131

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

(i 32). I inisy

REIDER

589

= (caKouxtas.
:

Elsewhere the following methods are

verb
is

resorted to
tions
in

(a)

finite

employed, so

after preposi-

which become temporal, modal, or

:

final
;

conjunctions
Jer.

Greek

Ps.

^^

(34). i inia^li

ore ?}\Aotcoo-e

40
;

(47). i

^nnpn
7333

= =

ot

eXafiev.

Isa.

7.

2 yiJ3

ws

(Ta\ev(Tat,

34.

fe)s

aiToppel;
(33). 8

Kings 21

(20). 12

Vb^?

w? iJKOvaev.

Jer.

26

rii?33

7;rtKa avveT^ktcrfv.
;

4 Kings 23.24
=
ottw?
az;)

0'i?V'

lyPr*

oTTco?

ai^ao-TTjo-j/

Amos
DFl'ny

l.

13

^'01'^ fy^r"

ilxTTXarvvcocri.
TeAetft)0(S(riy
;

Num.
Deut.
(but

14.
2.

33

(=
(=
9.

^lin) "iK'X-'iy)

14 Dri~iy

isn T^^<"^y)

= (eo)? = (e'ws

o5>

ereAeiw^j?. Comp.
.
. .

also
it is

Exod.

18

nnp^in

Din-fpS

k6i\itXi(^6i]

uncertain whether
{b)

^'}^}J} is infinitive,

see Luzzatto

ad

locinn).
finite

in

temporal constructions the

after the

conjunction and

verb

may
by a

manner of the
''v3

freer translations be replaced

participial construction,

notably the genit. absol.

ayiaC(i\ikvr\<i
kopTrj'i

Isa. 30.

29

^'^'^'^'pj}'^

ws vv^

(a

a\ contrast 6

wv vv^ tov

ayiatrOrjvai.

kopTrjv)
infin.

similarly with a
Isa.

nomen
3")

actionis in the place of the

cstr.

30.

25

:^n DV3 z= kv rjixepa a-noKTap-ivov

TToKKov
fj"l3'1

(note the

literalism

of the sing.!);
;

Exod.
19

4.

10

TXO

01770
. .

Tore \ak/](TaVT6s {(Tov)

.

Deut.
. .

I J.

^'il3K'3
.
.

''JtO'lpni

'^33tt'3^

"^03^31 := KaOrjpievov

kol TTopiVop.4vov

Kol KOLTa^ojx^vuv Koi hiavi(TTap.ivov (contrast (^

which adds aov,

only that in the

with the
pt.

first

two instances the pronoun goes both

(oikw, oSw).
a-ov

and the noun

6')

Origen,
(c)

however,

who
Hos.

followed a [a
;

added
(28).

sub

ast, see

the variants
avrov
;

apud BM)
9.

Jer. 51
''liB'3

59
rw

^^^3^3
/xou.

-nopevop.evov

12
is

=
=

(KKkivavTos

more

literal

rendering

cum

infin.

=
;

kv

cum

infin. praes. sive aor.

Gen. 36. 24
}*3i5n3

iri'y"!3

kv rcu (ioaKnv avTov:

Ps. loi (102). 23

(VT<2 a6poi(i<y6ai
(22).

Prov. 8. 27 ipn3
Kol

hT(uaKpif3d(iv'y
;

Ps.

21

25

iy^tr31

iv

Tw

a.vafioi](raL

similarly

590
27 (28).
infin.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

2
;

Ezck. 17. 17

T]bK'3

h' Ta> e/cxwo-at.

(d) ^
:

cum

nearly alw ays

nib'ili?

tov

cum
;

inf.

pracs. sive aor.

3 Kings
;

21 (20). 9
Ps.

TOV

TToiT/o-ai

22.

49

rinpp =1 TOV TTopevdrjvai,

;

30

(31). 3 ^^rtJ^in^
;

rou aioCnv

ij.t

32

(33).
ere
;

19 b^^rh
Eccles.

=
=:

TOV pvrrairOat
DIJDpl ^C)N7

90

(91). II TlIO^p

tov (pvXa^ai

2. 2

TOV
;

avWiyeiv
Isa.

/cat

rou orui'ayayery

4.

23

"IH-tn?

row

(j>v\d^a(r6aL
;

50. 4 nyib
"ISPr"!

. .

roD yvG>vai,
.

VbB'f'

70?)

CLKuveur
(TUi
. .
.

Dan.

9.

24

DJ^npl

N^pfj

row avvTeXe-

Kal TOV reAeiwrrai

koI tov e^ikdaacrOai.

ybtrjj

Occasionally

we
also

find cocrre
ets

and

inf.:

Eccles. 4. 17
19.

=
ei?

JVre aKoveiv;
i^ovatav
infin.

and a noun Ezek.

I'^K'an^

14

^it'oi?

and

30. 21

et's

t-nihecTixov.

When

cum

implies

readiness to do an action

(GK, by a
also

114

i),

the Greek translator

uses a finite verb: Ps. 24 (25). 14 ^f'i^rh

= yvoipicrei,
11
(16)

avroiy.
10.

Finally
'^'^V/

it is

also rendered

part,

fut.,

comp. Joshua

^^

=
(j)

fto-i]dyam'.

Comp.

Ezek.

21.

n^iop

i]Kovr]iiivriv

(= H^IDp ?). The part, is rendered by

perfect

a part, of the present, a

aorist

or

tense

(with
49. 21
24.

preceding

article
',

for

Hebrew
yT\3
II^*?"!'?
")ify

"n).

Thus Gen.
;

fn-jn
|3ri

6 hihovs

Ps. 149, 9
;

=
f)
*

yeypajxjxirov

Ps.
Isa.

12

6 oTa^jut^coy

Eccles.
;

V'P
*

dh(l)s;

45.
. .

9
.

y] =^ hiKaCop-evos
avvTeTpLiJ.fj.(vo9
;

^'^.

''?'^9

/3e^jjAoj//ez-'os
;

Jer.

So. 9

(Tvvex'jp.evov

Amos
with

6.

3 D^'^?n

oi

dTTOKexi>^pi(Tp.ivoi.

The

part.

pass,
is

an

active

signification

or

when
comp.
^\>^:)
;

denominative
3 Kings
Isa. 6-^.
I

properly rendered by a part,

act.,

6.

4 D^sp^

aTToftXlvovaas

(combined with

"inn

bLa-npeTrcov.

The

part, in a circumstantial
is

clause describing a concomitant action in the past

ren-

dered by the imperf, comp. 3 Kings 20

Kal avTU9 tTsivvev (for the

(21).

12

nn'B'

N^m

=
4

form see Thackeray, 120, foot-note)

;

Job

2.

3K^^

Nin]

{Ka\) avTus (eKaOi^To)

Jer. ^J (44).

; ;

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

^r""!

REIDER
verb
;

59I

X?

l(TeTiopeveTo kul i^eTrujjiveTo.

But elsewhere likewise

finite
is

the

Hebrew

pt.

is

expressed by a

thus,

in

accordance with the context, the past

aor. or pf.

expressed by the
4. 11 "i?N*

and the

pres.

by the
033

pres.
aTr4dTo
;

Comp. Job

wAero;

Ps. 32 (33). 7
;

Jer. 49. 14 (29. 15)

;

r\t>^

^??l!n,?.

= u.Tti(TTd\i] = TiTiJLi]TaL
1.

Eccles.
Jer.
{

5
3

43.

= a-noKiKpvnrai Dan. 9. 26 nriX = {<tv) iyKpovei,^ Kings 28. 9 ;*X3rp = giacrvperat =e Isa. 52. n^DO = fTTtrreiei in combination with 1)^
Job
I

20. 26

HDD

tJ'iHiriJp

^N'itJ'

1(7

71

j-et

.j

= (^eTL

av))

Exod.

9.

pMnp

=:

f TTtAa/ji/iai;?/

and
the

ver.
pt.

17
is

7pinD?p

avTLTTouj.
:

In

combination
i<S

with
Ns: n^n

'Tn

rendered by an aor.
Tvai'.

Jer. 26 (^^).

aiTos e7Tpo(pri-

Here and there the

(esp.
n!|L2Q

part,
in

is

also rendered
-ro?),

by an

adjective
6.
J

a verbal
TTipLykvffia
;

adject,
;

comp. 3 Kings

8,

29

Ps.

54

(55).

9 nvb
r\iibp^

nnn

oTrd

TTvevpiaToi

\ai\aTT(ahov9
1

117

(il8).
eKAefcro's^

23
;

=
is

OavpLaa-Ti]

Prov. 10. 20 and 22.

btbvpLOTOKOL
;

in^; 1=

Cant.

4. 2 n'iD\snp

= = =
5

Jer. ID. 9 Vi^ip

(XaTov.

The

part,
2.
;

occasionr'^i'io

ally

expressed by a
;

noun, comp.
6 nixptp

Eccles.

-n-Aayz/crts
rriijfii

Ezek.
;

6.

e/jtyioAtV/^ara
;

21.

20 (25)
nitonb'

=
37.

TiepLoxv^
;

23. 14
I. 1
''N"|3

ni'^nrp rz: /ui/;t7//aa

Dan.

9.
;

26

ip-qix(I>aeu)v

Zeph.

8 Hpnai

KaTa(nTovba(Tp.6v
;

comp. also
10,

Job

18 pVID

0,9

upan-L^ avyxy(T( ojs

Prov.

{k)

As
as,

to the noun,

it

is

generally rendered by a Greek

to a

noun, but
neuter,
D?a

may
for

also

correspond
rinnx

Greek
n5:2

adj.

in

the

instance,
J'^H

eVxaror,
"'E^D

KuOvypov,
^^yV.

aKUT^pyaaTOi',

(vp.ojT6v,
;

av9i\xov,

ivaWaKTLKov, \V^
^g-> "^9?

oti/zaAeoy
;

and

also to a part. neut. as,

;

T]^riK'''p3

= AetTToy Exod. lo. 5 or part, perf. pass, neut., as n?"''?^'^^ = eo-Kono-joteW yJ/s Ps. 73(74). 2q = ra eyKaraAeAetjU/i/eVa Jer. 48 (31). 32; D'^ynj?'? =
b'-avo'Lyui'

nc\7Q

592
\j.ejx(jiKr]}xh'a

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Jer. lo. 15.

The Hebrew noun

thus
;

is

sometimes
;

rendered also by an
(\x~krj(j6rii'at.
;

inf.,

riTiny

daaKovci-v
?

>^V^^
'^'^^'rr'

TrayibevOijvaL

= TrfpivorjaaL = ets and

^9*^
'n"^lJ^7

and with
to

prefixed
fxov.

= =

l3oi]di'](TaL

noun

governing another noun

attributively
kiCav -erpav.

in

the genit.

may
24.

be expressed
7

by an
}*yi'

adject.,

comp. Ezek.
6 (5)
is

y?D-n'n^

N.jE Isa. 9.

apparently combined
<Tvpf3ovAoi.

with abs as accus.

(=

nNpD3

nifj;),

hence davparrrds
to

noun may also correspond

as. e.g.. iVj"C
oti;os")
;

an

adj.

with a
;

noun
"ion

understood,
avaTr]p6s (sc.
DB'pK'

and

^3"iy

SfxaXi]

(sc. yrj)

=
;

D'^V

=
;

atyeta, J^nri
'"l^c^^!?

idvdiva (sc. bipixara)

(sc.

T/jtrrj

(sc.

r][x4pa)

=
;

airoppriTOs

Aoyo?).

A
T^'

noun

in the accusative

may

be rendered by an adverb,
;

comp. n^3

TTeTiOiOoTUis

Deut.
;

=
=

op^w? Eccles. 12. 10

Ps.

eTTiorrj/aoVcoj

46

(47).

10 n = fxaTrji' Job 9. 29 = -LKpQs Isa. 33. 7 p*3'^i? = "^P nnriy = KaLpiojs Deut. 32. ^^
12.
;

p'1

Kej^ws Ps. 2. I.

noun

in

the genitive

is

sometimes

transl.

= al(ovios 3^ = KaTaaKeirarrTas (or crKeTracrras) Num. 7.3; '^1^ = aypios 4 Kings 4. 39 sometimes also by a part, as "i^PP = riiJll^X = Trtorevcui' Prov. 28. 20 7llx(pLl3kri(TTpivp.h'os Isa. 51. 20 mDIDCI = vTTopAvovTos Kct (rvfXTT~aTr]fjLivov Isa. 18.7; = KaTaKeKav\ih'ov Jer. 51 (28). 25 or by an adverb, comp. Jer. 14. 3 ri)2X Qipp* = aAvj^ws elprjvrjv.
by an
adj., as

n^pc

eAarrjr

Exod.

37. 17; Q^iV

IjDI^ ^15

'"'?''.?^

Nouns

of the type kefll, katll {kattil), katul are aptly

in
-ro's,

rendered by a verbal adj.

r'O'Z == a2;o?]ro?,

comp.

"i""!^

ayaTiryro-i^

^'v^ := e-tTrAacrros-,

"^"''7?

=^ eTrt'Aexros",

r"PC' ^^

oXlKp.y\Tos,

i^nzi

e/<AeKrds or eiiiXeKTOi
"i^'^i?

or

by a
^*pJ

part. pass,

as

"'''13

a(p(Dpt.(Tph-os,
^'^^^}

o-wfo'/xei'os,

and

1N?E

Ka6i(TTap.ivos,
crT)]\(ji)pLevos.

= (~r]pp.iios,
;

"1^1^=
a-'

KaraAeAet/x/jie'i'oy, 3'>'3

= =
a'

Note Prov.

27. 16 (a
it is

Kai 01 AotTroi) KiKpvpixivos

ftopias

av^p.o's

/ niViSV n*3DV

not quite clear what

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

read (nn
;bv

593

nmp).

Forms

of the tyi)e

/.'af/l/

are rendered
p.B),
}*"''!V

by the

pt. act.,

comp. ri?

biaKonToov (hence

==

KaTabvva(TT(va)v (hence

}'"i.y).

Similarly
i-vV

I'lin

{kattul),

comp.

Prov. 12. 24

O'Vl^i.C

(TWTefxv6vT0)v.
^pi^,

(^<^./"^V) is

correctly

denominated from
^'rt//

"lyj?*

hence

rpixiCn-.

The

intransitive

is transl. by a part, pass., comp. US' = = TidXaanivos, = apaiovfievos = KCKpaTaiojfx4vos. Note also njDC' = avriK^nxhn], nan = ep.-nTiaaopAvi], paj = (a(f)pvooiJ.h'os, h'icTKipooy.ivo'i.

{katil}

K.iK\iy.ivos, ^"^

?"^

^J?

I^ri?j5^

An
extreme
ending

instance where Aquila perhaps in a striving after

literalness
is

failed

to

perceive

the
is

archaic case-

i-

afforded Isa. j6. 9 where in^n

airov.
is

rendered once

((aov avTov
>

and another time to ^wa

when

periphrastic of a genit.
36. 24
pvniff)

expressed
;

by the
3.
1

genit.,

comp. Gen.

tov ^e(3ey(ov
12.

Joshua

t^^E'? (distributive)

tov

(tk/j-tttpov;

23

^jf'jf'

^y =

idvow

T^s FeAye'A.

With

reference to the
is

noun

it

is

also important to note

that the abstract

7'ice

often translated

by a concrete and

versa.

Thus

concr.

pro

abstr. are, for inst., t^si JiaNi

;

(K\ip.(a(T(Tov(Ta \lfvx<]
(roni]p,
l.^y

Deut. 28. 65

ni^ifsan

KaTaKopot.,

yj^.".

= =
18.

p^?

T\ovp.4vrm, ni^SjC
ny-i

(SaaiXeh, HD^OC
At/^-w

= /^ao-tAfvj,
14.

^oj]^os-,

^Nli'nn := ao-^fi/owres

Jer.

Abstr. pro concr.

-to-r7//x7;

m^ =
pi.,

aoiryjpia.

But

b^SB'P

= avveacs

and

is

perfectly in order.

Moreover, the abstr. sing.

may be
J^JIV

rendered by a

as

nnnN

kyKOTakuixixara,
(Ps.

r\''\^,

(TvWrifeis, "JDn

^eot, nbyp

^'pya

61 (62).
hoLp-aarCat;

@),

KpvTTTa,

ri''r2-]ri

o-weTTt^eVets-, n>33n
:

and the

abstr. pi.

by a sing. D^an? = fika(T(^r)ixia, D^M = o-u^uyta and o-vraAAay?;, On^n = 677001877, CIM = e^iAarr/xo?, niDirp = ^^-^i;'.
D^Sns

//7]/xa,

64po(Tvini (Prov. 9. 6

comp.

(5 Uj

<t'

6'

Saad. and Ibn Ezra second rendering),

D^priSi

k-niKvais,


594

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

nnx

dkhpL^; D'vzy.}^
;

a-nukavaL^, D^3^:nn

= bhjiTLi,

anncri

=
pi.

T7iKpa(Tjj.6s

but

we

also find the abstr. pi. rendered

by a

= ivd<a, niN"]ip = Dvvyri = eyaAAdy/jiara. (TiLcpOfia, Qv?5'!'? = eTTLTribeviJ.aTa, The dual is mostly rendered by a sing., comp. D^SX = dvixos, = (vyoi, D^sysy = eT8o9, 0):m = vCotov, si^ti' = ano= ucrcpves, ^ID^^^ = but also by a pi., comp. \qyij.a
as, for instance, D''^.^5p

= (.Tn.-nod-qimTa,

D"'1C''^

Ll)}]ii^p

^".'^^D.

Aa^itSes.

The

sing, collective
"'IS

is

mostly rendered by a

pi.,

comp.

"ti53

aiyes,
^V^"^.

i= Kapirol., '^i^i?

Ki^toes,
<S.

??^

XcKJivpa,
(tot;

comp. also
certainly
/xo'rrxot

bdKpva.
;

Rut

Hos.

/jioVxou?

^.^Ji!

'Hx??/

possibly also Jer. 50. (27) 11

a^o-77ep

x^^^V^

=
=

^'^1

"'-^^"^

/ ^^1
is

'"'^?J/?-

Conversely

we

find

pi.

collective
Cljii

which

rendered

by a
D''PD3

sing,

collect.,
Q^?V

comp.

Lp.dTLov,

cnn^

a^kijvi],

(ia,

KidoXoyia,

T\'h^^^

^T:i(f)vXXU,

niSDi*

aTpaTLo.,
is

D'"}i)'K'

Kpt^?/,

D'lD^

rpi;f.
Dji'3 =^
]-^^

The
d^ypa.

sing.

of material

transl.

by a

pi.,

comp.

upMixara,

"l*^3

(rdpK^s,

H^^

=1 uAes,

DPIB

(irdpaKes.

The
3|3X

adjective

is

often

rendered

by a

part, as, e.g.,

eKAeiTTOr, '"^'135= (Tii^pptvov, ''K'pn

IJ.ep.iaap.ivo'i,

HNSj

2V~\ =1 TT(Li>cov, "113^

= 'niTrX'i]yp.ivov, = p.edvoH', ivB' =

rii?i?pi^y

= evcoTrXiaph'OL, ^5^I? = T^lV = TrapeaKevaa-ixevos,

Sometimes we

tvQ-qvovv.

also find the adj. (in a neuter sense) rendered

by a noun,
== }xaKpv(Tp.oi.
"inc'

thus

Nptp

p.ia<jp.6s,

hia-nXoKai,

0''ph"1

In Prov. II. 27 Aquila seems to have pointed

for

"in'B'.

Note

also the rendering

of ny"iD

''n

=Q

(papaw Gen. 42. 15.

23.

Under

the head of lexical peculiarities the following

(arranged alphabetically) deserve to be signalized:

is

Ijii?

which

usually taken to
a'

mean

a basin used in ritual

is

translated
sacrifice
f.

by

TTpodvpa
24.

preparatory

or

preliminary
M71S.,

Exod.

6 on which
||^JX

comp.
is

RJiein.

LX, 475

(Deissmann)

which

generally rendered 'band, army'

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AOUILA

(from

REIDER
is

595

Aram.
ayaXixa

ei^N

=
=

wing, hence wing of army)

translated

by

a'

glory, delight, statue, an object of worship

D''b^p2
(S)

(comp. aydkixara

Isa. 31. 9)
it

Ezek.

12.
'

14 which

makes
comp.
is

it

not impossible that a derived

from

=133
1

embrace
2.

',

pB':ni eisjon

Sanhedrin 60 b

^^i:^{
||

Kings

36

rendered by
it

o-uAAoy?/
"13^*

a gathering,

collecting,
1|

hence

a derived
is

from.

to gather, collect

^N Ps. 41 (42). 3

combined with
0-'

Ti^

and rendered avKwv

hollow way,

comp.
nny)
;

TTbia

(plains) for ni^JX Ps. 28 (29). 9 (parallel to

fits

the meaning certainly

the context admirably),

ir^biov

and a (VN

avXiav Deut.
in

n. 30 and

Judges
is

9. 6, in

the latter case

agreement with

XT

||

fi^x

rendered

Jar. 52. 15 vTioa-T-qpLyixa

18.

16

taT-qpiyiiiva

= @
\\

an underprop, comp.
^3^{
||

ni:roN

4 Kings
7.

plummet Amos

is

translated yaviiiais (a brightening, shining), on which

comp.

Field

ad

loc, n.
is

1 1

f.

N33

balsam-tree
5.

(BDB)

or oak

(Konig)

translated 2

Kings

24

(f)povpi](ns
is

(watching,

guarding) and ^3J

(j)povpr}ij,a,

= spring

Job 38. 16

likewise rendered

which proves that he derived them both from the

(the biliteral 12)

same root

[comp. Jerome on Mic.

et
<l)povp->](Ti,v,

7.

MABUCHA enim
ad locum
renders
avvoyj]

magis

-noAiopKiav
in

id

est

obsidionem et custodiam ...

Hebraeo

sonat.
14.

Taylor

rightly calls attention to

'coarctati sunt
'.

Exod.

3 where
rr'

D^?;i3

Note that Job

'323.

38. 16

has

as an equivalent

of

Perhaps the root was

t^^l
II

combined with n^snc, a synonym of

Ps. 87
(88).

n^s,

comp.

rr'

(\>povpQvp.^vov

N^3.
is

M]

nbn

duration,

world (from ibn

abide, continue)

rendered throughout

Psalms by KarabvaLs {dcmersio,

latebra),

comp. Syr.
||

t^L*

creep, sneak, slink, and talmudic "hn hollow out

violence,

Don

wrong Hab.
r.

2.

17

is

translated
6.

by

at/za

(blood),

comp. Gen.

31.

6 (on Gen.

11):

d^dt niD^atr ni

Don

596
-^^n
II

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

chaff Isa.

;^^.

1 1

is

given the meaning of

||

'

soot

',

aldd\y],

according to Field's emendation

n^n

n">33

Gen. 35. 16

Kud' oooj- ttJj yj/s,

hence the 3
still

is

taken as the preposition,

but the derivation

transl.
^_}J,^^\

remains obscure, comp. Sa'adya

or
ii'

who
2

^-^ J--*

and also takes the

-in>

as

prefixed, see

con
is

nnvj'D, 93

and

nac, 79,
(Lat.
:

D^Q3
!|

= rafter
comp,

Heb.

2.

II

translated

by

[xdCa

massa),
V

Schleusner s.v.
Koirpoi
II

who quotes Hesych.

'

/^a'C"

iJ.(iJ-ayfx4vr]

"lins?

meaning
||

capital

'

is

rendered

Amos
is

9. 1

by
is

otKoSoV'/^a (building)

ob^^N! '3
^I'O

Ps. 117 (118). 10

which

usually combined with

uTL
iiixvvuij.-)]!'

'circumcise, cut off'

rendered
off,

avTovi

[= @)
(sweet,
it

because

warded them
T^O
it

perhaps derived from

is

hro 'in front

of

||

=
is

Job

28.

18
to
\\

rendered

y\vKv

delightful)

difficult

believe that a

combined

with pTO (see Schleusner

is

s.v.)

n''n3

'
II

nostrils
it

Job 41. 12

rendered by

nvpaip.a (a

burning
'

body),

is

apparent that a

thought of Tin
is

be hot,

burn

njnip

gift Eccles. 7. 8 (7)

made
jno,

to correspond to

(VTovta (vigor), Schleusner correctly suggests that

our trans-

lator
'

combined the word with the root

'

comp. Arabic jLl

Judges
3.
0-'),

be stout
Field)

and Hebrew
(eis
ti]v)

Q^^nn
||

njn-^tpen

23
see

(s.

-napaaTaha
||

(comp.

and

Moore's Commtntdiry ad loan n

is

pny
Ps.

=
30

arrogant (of speech)

(31).

interpreted

Kings

2.

and

19

by pArapais
'

(transplantation), hence combination with

HTDi: Ezek.
Ps.
II

P'JjiVH

remove

'

||

7.7

=
is

crucrroA//

(contraction)

3Dp
|i

destruction

90

(91). 6 is translated

by

hr]yp.6^

(biting,
(30).

gnawing pain)
d6poicr}x6s

y:"i

= moment
1|

rendered Ps. 29

6 by

(condensation)

t^'nri

IdvOivos (violet-coloured)

Exod.

25. 5

and Ezek.
Shab. 28
a.

16.

10,

to

which comp.

H
is

NJ13DD

)'':ii:3

DD

An

interesting

feature

of Aquila

his

recourse to

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

REIDER
Thus

597
=iS|^

cognate Aramaic or to later Hebrew roots.

Jer.
'21

44 (51). 10
'

is

rendered
'
||

fKadapia-erja-av,

comp. Aram.

cleanse, purify

Tjb^ b'^T} Wn|j3 Jer. 6. 11 is translated

on e^e'xea which leads Field to believe that a confused ^on with Syr. ''^-oo,, but it must be noted that
(Koiriaa-a

a
is

is

credited

by

the Syrohex. with a better reading which

oici*m.:a:i>

in

keeping with the Hebrew

is

^^U

||

nh Gen.

40. 6

rendered by yCpt?

finest meal,

comp. talm.
tob 61 c

Nmvn
(2,

'white flour'

(Gittin .56a),

see p.

Yom
i.

6):

nin

^^D

'j

n:ni

nhh
;

|o nb pyioc'

pai (comp. Mishnah

2. 7

nn,

so Palest, reading)

.similarly iln

Esther

6 aeptvov (Midr.

Es.

c.

nr-i>^x)

comp. Aram, (but

also

Hebrew)
also

iin

=
in
is

be white, see Anger,

De

Akila,

p.
f.

19
||

ff.,

Krauss

Steinschneider's Festschvift, p. 154

''"1N3

Ps. 21 (22), 17
Jo,

translated vcryyvav, hence o' derived

it

from Syr.
full
!|

late

Hebrew
10.

nyj

'render ignominious', see the

discussion

by Taylor, Cairo Genizah Palimpsests, 20

4
is

ff.

3ri3Tp

Deut.
it

rendered by ypacpdov (pencil), hence he pointed

in

3J^?9

which

Mishnic Hebrew means 'a writing

tool,

pencil, stylus',
Isa.

comp.

for

example Kel.
aTiiXoaixa
(filth,

13. 2

Dri3
1|

gold

13.

12
it

is

rendered

dung),
||

hence he

combined
26. 22
in
is

with late

Hebrew

Dri3

= stain

D'^H,^ Prov.

rendered

yor]TLKoi
it

(beguiling),

hence construed
:

the sense in which

hypocritical

occurs in

Midrashic literature

'flatterers,

sympathizers',
i.

comp.

Sifre
2.

on
41

Num.
is

II.

and on Deut.
(^iVTov

27

||

Nn2i:3

firmness Dan.
it

rendered

(plant), a sense in

which

occurs in the
to

Targum and
I

Syriac, comp., for instance,

Job
f.
||

14. 8
nj^is

and Payne-Smith, Thesaurus

Kings
25. 31
is

Syriac?is, p.

2436

which

is

usually taken to
Auy/xo's

mean

'tottering,

staggering'

rendered by

(spasmodic affection of
Jl's
'

the throat, hiccough), hence on a par with Arabic

to

598

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

hiccough' and Syr.

used
in

Uoo^ =
in

oscitation (Field),

it

is

also

the

Talmud
'33.^
II

the sense of 'lump, ball, swelling',

hz'
r\p''z

comp. HuUin
-iNi^*

134 b m:*^;
3

and Nega'im
T?!

10.

10

^-^ np'S)

Kings
it

6.

17

eva-xoXia
''WS
is

(leisure),

hence he combined
ni'niJ'i
n'li^'

with 'H}^^

(Aram.

leisure)
||

Eccles.

2.

8 the

meaning of which
KvAtKia

unknown
(in

is

translated

by

0/ kvKlklov Kal

cup and cups

it

the

same sense

also @, ^,
it

and

XI^),

hence

is

not improbable
to cast, sprinkle,

that he derived

from the Aram. HT^

pour.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

REIDER

599

CHAPTER

III

AQUILA'S EXEGESIS
Aquila's translation, while eulogized by the Fathers Synagogue on account of its adherence to Jewish tradition,^' was condemned, and severely criticized by the
24.

of the

Church Fathers

for its

tendency to obviate christological

interpretations of certain passages through a literal and oftentimes etymologizing rendering. Aquila's first

biographer

says of his version ovk 6pd^

Aoyto-juw ^P^a-aixivos,
tij

aXV

ottcos
to.

hLa(npi\\nj tlvo. tG,v p-qTStv, V(rK^\l/as

TTfpt

T(ov o/3' epixriveia

ha

XpLarov
calls

rats ypacfyaU ixip.apTvprip.iva

aAAco? eKgwo-et.'^

Jerome
his

him
and

Iiidaeiis^^

and Euthymius, speaking of

proselytism,

baptism

subsequent

says

of

his

version:

Hie

itaqiie

iratus Christianis, multa pervertit?^

Bar Hebraeus, too, credits Aquila with a Iiidaica mens,^^ while Theodoret stamps as viciousness {KaKovpyla) his rendering of
1133
Pal.

bN

by

Icrxvpos bwaros.^^

Special emphasis
H^'Ti
'"1

" Comp.
1^

Meg. 71

c,l. 10:

DJITl
^jdIji

.*

Nn

-\2
'-i

D'^'l

n^DI' '1

nDNi
"i^aO

iniN iDi?vi v^)r\' 'i

n^D^El''
.

nTri?x

>:zh

nnnn

mS
{ep.

ijn ob'pv

This
:

is

in

agreement with what Origen says of him

ad

African. 2)

(piKonixoTipov ircrrtarev^ivos irapa 'lovSaiots epurjvtvKfvai

T7}v ypa<pTiV a,

fxaKiara uwOaaiv oi dyvoovvrti riju 'E0pai<uv Sid\(Krov xPV<^0ai

ws iravTwv ^idWov imTfTevyfieuw.

That the popularity of a among the Jews

fifth

was

still

in the

ascendant in the fourth and

3. 5,

centuries

is

attested

by

Jerome on Ezek.
novell.

and Augustine, de

civit.

Dei, xv. 23, also

by Justinian's

146

at vero
.
.
.

ii
.

qui Graeca lingua legunt

.
.

LXX

tnterpretum uientur

translatione
''^

verum

licentiam concedimiis etiam Aquilae versione uiendi,

Epiphanius, de mens, etpond., 15.

Prnef.

"
"
*2

ad Dan. and
in Psal.

Prnef. in Job.
81

Pmef.

Comp. also Hexapla on Hab. 3. Comp. Hexapla on Ps. 26 (27). 6, n. 23,

13.

Quoted by
IV.

Field, Prolegomena, xx.

VOL.

600
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

on his rendering of
passages like Dan.
n^iJ'D

laid

by

rjXei^ixh'os

instead of
^_

XpLo-Tos in

9.

26 and of n^py^^ jg^^

j^

by

vavLs as against -napSho? of the Septuagint.^*

25.

The

fact

is,

however, that when we deal with such

it is

a literal translator as Aquila

quite difficult to arrive at

a definite conclusion concerning his exegesis.

Any

criterion

might

fail

in view of his etymologizing process which leaves

us in doubt whether, in deviating in a certain point from

the generally accepted meaning, he intended to voice his

own views
It is

or those of the

Synagogue

to

which he belonged,
its

or else he simply adhered to the letter for

own

sake.

this circumstance no doubt that accounts for the rather

{ov

mild verdicts of Origen

ovbe TTapa tcS 'AKvXq),^^

Kdrai -napa rot? 'E,8patot9, bio-ep

volunii-

and Jerome {ia7ndudinn aim

iie

nibus Hebraeorum editionem Agtiilae confero,

quidforsitan
nt amicae

propter odmni Christi synagoga mntavcrit,

vienti fatear, quae

et,

plura reperio)?^
less

ad nostram fidem pertineant roborandam Nevertheless, just because it is more or

Aquila's
version
'certainly

free

from

subjectivity,

marks the beginning of thorough exegesis of the Old

Testament
'

^'

if

by exegesis we

really

mean an attempt
Scriptures.

to

get at the true meaning of the

Hebrew

We

must not overlook the conditions that brought

83

forth Aquila's

Comp. Schurer,
This

Gcschichte des jiidischen Volkes

im

Zeitalterjesit Christi,

II*,

613, n. 12.

is

another of a"s translations which Field characterizes

{Prolegomena,
et

by the word

krvfioXoyiKw;

xxii), for

he likewise renders

n^
8*

by

aKd'Kpiiv

Lev.

8.

lo

ah, and T\T\pip

by

aKutxixa Lev. 21. 12.

On

this crucial point in the controversy

between Jews and Christians

comp. Swete's Introduction to the O. T. in Greek, p.

30. Aquila's rendering

here must have been particularly distasteful to the Christian Church, since elsewhere (Gen. 24. 43) the same word is translated by dnoKpvcpos, while
vfavts is also used for nbinil Deut. 22. 28.
85 87

Epist.

ad Afric,

3.

^^

Epist.

ad Marcellam.

Burkitt, ygi?.,

(1898,, 211.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

translation

6oi

the literalist's importance as a barrier against the unsound methods of dogmatic and allegorical
interpretation which culminated in Philo and disregarded

and

Aquila stemmed the tide of philosophical exposition through his method of translating verbatim, with
literal sense.

the

absolute adherence to the original text, thus paving the

way

for the

modern

historical

and philological methods

sense therefore that Aquila

of interpretation.

It is in this
in

becomes important

the history of Biblical exegesis.

26. In the following

all

pages an attempt
of

is

made

to record

the important
in the

phases

Aquila's

interpretation

as

exemplified

extant fragments of his version.

27. In the first place

mention must be made of differences

b*

arising out of the reading of

(or D) for

^ and

vice versa.

Thus Gen.

26.

20

pi^'V

is

rendered

(rvKo^^avria,

and
all

^ptS'ynn

iavKO(jidvTy]<jav,

which, by a comparison with

the pasP'^^V

sages where this word otherwise occurs, yields

Ipfynn.

and
all

In this interpretation a
it

stands alone

among

the other versions which derive

commentators.
7T\r](T[j.oin]

26.

from the pDy, so the ^^ nynK' and V2f are both rendered
r\V2^

NH

which at once suggests

This interpretation
is

(comp. Ezek.

16.

49)

and

V3b'.

supported by a and
:

S;

opKos points to (n)ynK>._job 12. 23 N^?'^p

7:\avcop leads

to N'JK'D, so o\ S, also Rashi

KaTa(rKr]V(L(TL

under DnJ:iN ^^

22. 2 f^D]

points to

|3p'^

in

which interpretation a and

:

6^

stand alone. Eccles.

2.

25
;

K'^in^

(peiaeTat implies b'^n;

D^n^,

so also a and Syrohex.

nriK'V

@,

d'

and

appear to have read

points to
i^tJ'n

Isa.
is

22.

15 |2bn:

top
a'

aKJ]vovvTa

in

which a
6^.

supported by
ni"2p'^:

only {top a-Krjvo^oLovvTa).

a'

16 r^VUfb or
;

eh K6pov

a'

6'

[so

in

the

Aiiciarium

but

r.

opKov with Procop.

ei?

and Jerome adduced

all

by Field ad loann. M],

u^aixovriv @,

go back to T t 2


602
nV^^^.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

66.
'

9
',

1''3tJ't<:

TTpoaboKiav hdaca goes

'

back to

">*3f<

cf. 12B'

wait

'

hope

in

which a follows

(so also S).

'nki]pa>(Teco9

Jar. 5.

24 n"y3^

TrXrja-iJLovds

a (second edition) 6\
s.

@,

pleniiudinetti

ID, all

read nyab'
edition
in
in

nyn'B';

but, according to

Jerome,
klBboixahas,

the

first

agreement

with

read

comp. Syrohex.
D2riN
^'^''l^'J1

the margin quoted by Field.

33.

39

NtTJ

for

which

only

vixas

\i]ixiJ.aTL

is

preserved, but this or

''r'(^)'?'^^

is

sufficient to
is

prove that a read

''n'B'3"!

and

Nb'3

he

in

agreement with

<r'

ID.

28.

Next

in

order are renderings resting on a pointing

different

from that of our masoretic text, of which quite

in Aquila's version
<r'
:

numerous instances occur

"liC'
:

Gen. 49. 6
^IK'

reixo? implies

">^Er,

so

D5
i.

XT

cf.

Ps. 17 (18). 30

retxo!*'

"'

e',

re(.'x'""/^

'

Exod.
,

5.

16

'^'35?

nx^m

koI

a\iapria Xaco aov

"^^V nx'orn.
6')

e.

the

first

word was taken

as

the noun (so also a and

and a construction was effected

(cf. 6' ei?
;

as well as could be done

tov Xaov arov

a\ on the

other hand, pointed ^^V nNism)

the traditional pointing, riN'^m
(cf.

@, on the contrary, supports

;

= riNDm

whether

@ read "^^V?

Jer. 37 (44).

17)

it

is

not easy to determine.

riiif^^'O

38.

11

(acptyiJLivovs
a-'

points

perhaps to
30.

inst.

of

riii'SK'p,

so

6'

XL S,

comp. verse
13)

A similar variation
38. 13

is

involved
ri'lfiiK'O.

in 39. 6 (36.
It

where

avvea(f)Lyixivovs is

used for

should be borne in mind that the noun

a
(r(f)LyKTi]p,

rii'nK'O is

rendered

by

comp. Exod.

and

39. 16 {^6. 33).

Lev. 21. 23

'^iJpO (to ayLaa-fxa

Tj

v^ for to 6vop.a v*) for ^^~.

Deut.
ID. II

5.

20

piapTvpia impl. T\i]}n for n'lyn (contrast

@a

6').

T]b

Dp

ava.(TTi]6i aavTc^,

a accordingly pointed ^p in

which he stands alone.

of
D^5it|'3
;

22. 9 dpyixov points to Q^vl instead = ovk according to Pitra peculiar to a. 32. 29
^^
;

and

BM

(from the margin of

;

M)

this

would imply NP on
in

a par with the Sept.

Field,

however, will be right


PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER
attributing ovk
h'orja-av

603

(v

sw^ nomine !}

to a glossator, the

genuine a

rendering being preserved elsewhere (Nobil.,

:

Procop., Syrohex. ace. to Masius)

vodv (or

kvvoiv)

would

be foreign to a"s diction as an equivalent of DDH, whereas

(TotpCC^aeaL is perfectly in

order, see

Index. Judges

5.

22

niln^O:

i(pop^(6vro}v,

appar. preceded

by

LTnraiv,

hence a

construed nnnnr? d^d (agst. the accents} in a genit. relation (for the second n)ini see chapter IV). 9. 6 2^n |i^x-Dy =

iirl

ireblov

(TTr]\(aixaTos,

hence

3i'n,

so

(orao-eco?)

and

XT

(KDOp); but in

all

likelihood a

merely identified the two,

so also Jewish commentators (Rashi, Kimhi).

^^l^jp.

Kings 15. 32
the word
is

aiTo Tpv(f)epLas,

therefore

nnyo
o-'

or

nnyo

combined with nv likewise by

((i/3pos)

and

(NpJDD)

Tpifxoiv,

according
m,vr\ -1^23

to

Lagarde,
.
.

presupposes n^3nj?o._
.,

19. 13, 16

T:av -nXijOo^

hence 1^33 for

1^33,

which
of @.

is

by no means worse than the reading 133 (liver) But also another, more appropriate reading is
2

credited to a for which comp. Field, note.

'3i*n

Kings

i.

19
:

aKpi^aarai with

which agrees the reading of the Itala

it

considera; they both connected

with the Aramaic 3r,

it

while

(cTTTjAwaor)

and

IT

(pmnyn\s) combined

with the

Hebrew
KaKKov

3VJ or 3^f^ pointing ^3jfn._3.

aTTOorao-eo)?,

^6

n-jsn niao hiih rov

7.

T7]i

hence

iTID.

Kings

(44)

[DDT

was prob. pointed

stands for pSDl,

]hD]

cf.

(comp. Jer. 23. 14 where pSDi equally the parallel nisyoi) z= Kal (hp6(Pco<rv, so
n^npni vvas read ink (n^Dpni or) Ttppni
ofi

U and S. 9.
Kat
e^u/^ia

35

WK

avro.ii.
(t'

and

15.

4 T3 was pointed

X^)?-

Xvx^or, so

id rt?

5, and among commentators

Kimhi.

4 Kings
II. 6

9.

33

o-v;

^Pi{<

^O for ^rix ^0, so

^'

e'.

HDD

(XTT^

bLa(pdopas A;

Field
it

suggests

rine^'p,

but

more

likely

they read HDO, deriving

from np3

to pull or

tear away.

The same etymology

underlies the

Targumic

604
"IriB'Nno,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

only that
;

combined

it

with the late

Hebrew
4.

ne^n

sc.

nynn hdm

comp. also IG and Kimhi.

Job
Q''iiy[9

2 "i^T

perh. implies "^H

XaA^crai, so 6'

S. j.

I^Di^^

D'?V^"^?1

=
so

irpds (vo-nXcdv apdr}(TtTai, a

it
0-'

apparently pointed
n3>'

deriving
|?a,

from
XT

|3if

(from which

shield), cf.

D''ii2D

from

and

Rd^shl ibid. D^SX

cr'

was pointed
n''\

D:cif

(=
'

D^xoif)

hi^Sivres, so

ID,

also
??iK',

IE under
HptJ':

12.
6'.

17 Xa^vpa
as prey
^'^^\.

leads to ??^ instead of

so
28.

the meaning being

instead

@.

21.

24

TTorto-et

points to
I'^''^^

of

a'

',

15 ow

gcicret

yields

for

Vi^T.^,,
Cirin^

so

33. 16

goes with
masoretic

and

S
34.

in

reading
^idx

ttX/^^^l

avrovs for

DJ^n^

as

ypevaixa
it

6',

who

pro-

bably pointed 2T3S

and construed
313.
!)

as a noun with the

same meaning
while a

Cf. Jer.
is

15.

18 where D^P

3|2t< i?03
\}/vhes,

(against the accents

rendered by
i/Sajp

w?

{JSojp

and

a-'

have d?

eKXelirov.

Ps.
bii,

2.

7 pn"bs
6'

lo-xwpou aKpt.^aaix6v, a

apparently pointed

so also
in

= S

and

Jer.,

comp.
pn
bs*

also

an anonymous Tanna
;

Sofrim

4. 8

(t^np nr

nn

mcDX)
also

difficult as

the

Hebrew

construction

will be, 0! 6'

(cf.

<;')

prove that the received order of

words lay before them

?N

likewise appears to have pointed

is

which

it

renders Kvpios, but the genit.

(84). 8.
^J?.i?;.]

transposed.
p.ov

See further below on Ps. 83

3.

5 koX t-naKovaerai

shows that a
pointed
'''^133

9' pointed

for ^??.y*l. 4. 3 ^^23

9.

was
""Jisn,

a pointed

''33Jn

= o\ hloiol = ibcapi^o-aro

jxov.

14

"'t^y'nN"]

r\\r\)

and HNT

etSe,

so Jerome, and

among modern commentators Baethgen, Nowack and

Duhm. 9.
acrijSeia

36 (10. 15)
fxr}

i<^'?^ri-bn

iy^l-Bn-inn
',

(KC^nrrjeriaeTai.

r)

avTov tva

vpe6fj

avros

at the first blush the

assumption presents
^"il"^^

itself that a

(and so

6'

5) pointed
merely

and

N^'^Jji,

cf.

Graetz; but V^t being masculine, the

that

supposition

is

more plausible

the versions


PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

REIDER

605

sought to obviate the anthropomorphism, as XL does by

another device
^5
(i^)- 3
''"^.''"^^1

(3

pers.
(lial)

pi.

in

the

impersonal sense).
iiov

vTTpiJt.yd(rL

(the pron. appar.

does service also for the following

second
jxov is
^^'=1X1.

-nav eiXi]}xa,

or else the
c.

wanting

the dat.

by

anticipation of kv
aTro

dat.)

hence
D"'rit2j

16

(17).

14 n^n'OO

Te6vr]K6r(av,

hence
''rirp

so a'
is

and Jerome.

Cf. also Isa. 41. 14

'Lrp.,

where

bvrp\

rendered re^t-ewres
Iti'i}'?,

again

"'HD.

26

(27). 7

iK'i??

implies
is

e^^rrjaai',

e' <r'

read

''i^fil?.
;

31 (33). 4

'''^^S'

rendered

ets Txpovoix-qv fxov,

it

hence
nb*,

'I'^'b

also

@
""by

6' e'

and

Jerome combined
quoted
V. 7
'3^'^
''3.")

with
loc.

also

Menahem ben Saruk

e//ot

by Rashi ad
was read
""il")

v,

l-n

for \^y.
\x.ov).

atVeo-ts /xou,
=iJ:"'2n

so
for

{ayak\ia[x.a

(34). 6 a-noj3\e\}/aT yields

'tO'lin

in

which

a' is

a and Jerome. 45 (46). 11 idet]Te for ^2"in suggests ISin (= ^S'Dnn)._48 (49). 9 rt/x^ points to ii^^, so

supported by

&5
IS"};

and Jerome, hence

"li^M

for

I'^l'i.

v,

14

^2f]^

was pointed
^^"]?1
:

by

(Tpex^Lv)

and

Jer.

{cm^reut).y. 15

(/cat)

iiTLKpaTt](Tov(TLv

=
a

^T)^^ ?

53

{^^). I

and 87

(88). i

nbnn was

pointed
dyaTT^o-et

n'3h?p
ere

by

a a'
a'
t

6' e' {k-nl xopeia, 8ta xopoi3).

-j',

apparently

54 {^^). 23 they pointed ^^f^.'!

Briggs's suggestion
0!

(rr 13nN''),cf. also Jer.

(in

caritatem tiiam.
that

his

commentary on Psalms)

read

^2n^

is

unnecessary.
o-coo-er.

t^^

{^^6).

"nVs implies perhaps "D^a^gie-

58. (59). 16 Koi yoyyv<T(a(TL points to ^^yl) inst. of

^^vll, similarly

and

Jer.

{murmicrabtint).

68
so

(69).
c'

23
6'

D^i^f[5l

KoX

ds

avTaTToboa-eis,

read

D^tp^-)E^|)1,

and

and Jerome.
l(Txvpd9
dcos,

83
so

(84).

D^"^bx-^N;

was pointed

'ba b^

@ S

and some modern commentators

contrast a
(]oX/
2. 7.

(Oort, Baethgen,
4.

Duhm),
"i^N

laX) and Sofrim

8 (hn

ptJ'N-in).

See above on

Ps.

90

(91). 2

ipN

was probably read

Xiyoov, so

and Jerome, while


6o6
read

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ii?f<''= epeT.

109 (no). 3 instead points to yields so @ 115. 2 (116. of = so Jerome. 138 of was pointed 15 146 so @, yields so @ "AAAoj. Prov. of 24 haCpov points to = 18 imdvhpov. was pointed
fxera a-ov
^tsy
"^^V,
e'.

11)

bidxl/evcrixa

3T2

inst.

2)3,

(139).

''^^V

^P>'y

oo-ra /xou.

(147). I (yKcajxiov
6.

n"ip] for n"i!3T,

V~}.

o"',

inst.

jn,

7.

C'l'^

^)Pi}

D''"^'^

ixeOva-Ooiixev

Ttrdcov a

0-'

0'.

Geiger, Urschrift, p. 398, believes that this

was the
pf^N,

original.
;

8.

30

riQy]vov\i.kvr]

points to
it

r"^^?

instead of

so Rashi

all

the others derive

all

from

;i:x

firm.
Drip

10. 29 a

goes with
for Dri?.

the other versions in reading

^f''-^)

(rw

cLTku))

13. 13

was pointed Dp^^

Dinx

eip-qvevet

by
13

a'

c',

cp. also

@.

14.

"I3

was probably pointed

kX(kt6v,
cf.

DON

(part.

pass, of Dia)

(f)aTVLd(eTat

IE

(n"d)

and

RLbG;
;

similarly

6\

who

in

addition

reads

D'S^^ |iN3 for

rX3. 20. 25
pijpLa

^"TP y^^, a B^np as

"i^"^

apparently pointed
subject
">?''^

^l\)

TjyLa(Tp.h'Oi

he construes

and

B'piD
'^?'^)

as
so

object.
o-'

5'

S.
'Jy,

25.

II AaAwy

yields

for "^^t

27. 16

nn

JDS
fsif,

/Boptas dvp.os a

o-'

koi 01 A,

hence

they pointed
"11*1

iQ^ or

so .

30.

{koi) KarriveyKev
0-'.

points to

(hiph.) inst. of Tl^ (kal), so also

31. 5

'JJ?

'33, TreVrjroj

yields

so

6' '

and XT. Eccles.

(inf.)

i.

6 nnb 3niD, the second

this in
first

=
8.

kvkXov,

hence 32D

or

3('')2D,

view of the

evidence of Syrohex. that a translated the

by a

part.

eAoATjo-e

points to
|P13

'B'n inst.

of

^'^.

cp. AaAei in codd.

of @.

jri3

10. 6 73En
;

Igco/ce roi; dcppova.

hence a pointed
is

^3En

in

the vocalization of the second word he

supported by

SU
i'SD

and a

as to the

first,
'f)>l.

cp. XI 2n^. 12. 10 koi

;

IE

explains

as

"is'nn D'iT

of the type

avviypa\}/ev points to 2*in31

for 3inD1,

so XT

ports

MT.

Cant.

3.

ri^.^i^p

implies nibipio

5 D sup= cnrd 6vp.idp.aTos.

ID
'C^

in

Isa. 3.

12 QT^ which was read

by

and
and

implies
N3in

QTJ

and a

(aTrairorrrf?), 6' {haveicTTai),

''"IC.

REIDER

607

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

7.

II (h

abi]v

points to npNB', so a'

(3d6os).

6' X)

likewise prob.

pointed npNK' (di

n-jii-D

9.

6
o-'

(5), 7 (6) 6'

f]

to fx^rpov implies
it

for n-ibo

-Q;

NnniN and

iraibda der.

from

-|D>

com p. Lagarde's note on

i6.
P''ny

this

word
inst.
a'

in Semitica^ \, p. i6.

lo ovK
:

aLvi(Ti

implies iHr^^

of

'J'^r^?'.

23. 18 HDappl
P^iy

(jcai)

ets eaOrjaiv /xerapo-ecos,

apparently pointed

construed as a noun in the

24.

literal
c.

sense of transplantation.
1

16

"ipxi

implies

"ip^l

(pf.

cons.)

=
;

Kal

kpd a

6'
;

seems to have read likewise

pf.

{koI epovai)

u like TI and

reads the
1J3"!1

with simple
0-'

i.

26. 19 koX alvio-ovartv points to

for ^^1], so

^';

also

may have

pointed like the

to

Three or

else

by way of freedom adjusted the form

and
a
V.
0-'

pcip^ in
6'

order to avoid the apostrophe.

to
"ID'

28. 16 ^e/xeAtwy

points
. .

instead of IQ^
OavixaaTuxrai
.

likewise

XL

5.
N??lI

39

''^"^3^

^'r'S^ :=

pLeyaXvvai,

hence

and

''"'"^Jn

in

which a

stands alone.
6'

30.

eh

ixaprvptov

suggests ny^ for ty^, so a

USX);
XT

similarly, Zeph. 3. 8

where a
for
N2r,

is

supported by

S.

v.

22 pvTios suggests
points to
a' is

N2f

so , 6\

v.

25

fxeya\vi'o[xivovs
;^^.

Qv'^Jt? for

^V"^?P, so Tl

and

o-';

likewise

also

by

and 6\

18 where

supported
"ly?,

^^. 9 e^envaxOr] a

d'

points to
is

niph. of lyj, inst.

of

"lyb.

This form of the niph.

'J?.

found in

Hullin 51
"yi

b,

though Rashi reads

ixov,

38. 12

'y^

was pointed
TL,

halpoL

so

6^
;

the other versions,

D''y^).

among them

agree with

MT

(but read the plural

^^. 5 ^e/SrjXoi-

n4vos points to ^^^}^ (profaned) for ^bh^ (pierced).

OVK
(XiTavevcra^

implies

O"?!!
^I'pl.,

for

HvC, SO S.

Kakea-cL

iO\y\

instead of

so 6\

57. 10

58.

12 kqI

60. 16 ibn
1

was pointed
ife''?

Ip)

Kal fxaa-Qov
*1^^.

by a a
16

6'
;

likewise 66. 1
(or

where

was

pointed
^3.^Na

6'^.

ayy^ic-T^vcrai

ayx^iaTiva-ov)

implies
Xii?

(imp.) inst. of

^3.^a,
a-'

so

.64.

i (63.

19) Nib for

is

implied

by

ovk, so

d\ and Kareppevcrav points to vt3 for


6o8
i?t3

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

(unless

the dages

is

d.

forte affectiiosimi, or, as

L

IG
.43

expresses himself,
&-^

(jj-j j>-^

\j^ ^"3

L_iS^l Ja.1

jj.x^l

8ji.j

!^

Is^l,

he compares i?in Judges

5. 7

and

notes that
artificial

in

Arabic hkewise the pausal accent

so a 6 (5)

effects

gemination),

6';
*!.???

in

this

sense also

for

(TaKria-ovTai)

and S.

v.

D'''^V

w? t/xanoy

fxapTvpLoiv,
^13'=|

hence
'l^'^,

a' a'

read Dny.
0-'

Jer. 5. 28 \6yovs ixov implies

so

6'

and

ID,

but this

is

a bad construction unless

;

we assume
points
to

the reading V^b for V}

'tiHi?

omits
ey

it.

6.

i^yiaaav

inst.

of
;

V^"^i?.

v.

27

Aaots

ia-xypols

">^7^ '^y? inst. of

9. I
":'')!]

'^m
'i''^]

the

pi. constr. is

found also in

= .

inst.

of

with most versions.

10.

6 and 7

irdeev

oixoLos o-nt
^'"'^l

^ic3 i^SD as against

V.

MT

P^??,

r^^.

XT
n-'

D.
so

so 6\ comp. 30. 7
tr'

19 appdaTTjixd 13

12.

from Syrohex.,

= ('):bn (MT '^r^, so a' KX7]por6p.r]aav = (MT so KUKa & ra irovrjpd a, hence X). 13. 23
[xov
^^n,^,

=l^n3),

a',

to.

they read yjn

for yi.n.

17.

16

utto KOKta?

implies nyno for

^r^,
with

and

with prefix '3. 18. 2 ^n^ for n?^

(/ct'7)o-eco?

0'.

20. 17

nin was construed as a noun

conception), hence read rinn,

comp.

ZAW., XVI,
lS*"]i?

81.

31

(38).

KaXiaare a
''JSp

a'

points to

inst.

of

1^'1l^.

34 (41). 18
2t'

(MT
(45).

35^),

implies ''5?P = (icottlov. ^6 (43). 15 k-nia-Tp^^ov so @ freely -ndXiv and U 3^n. According to

Field a's second edition had KaOia-ov (based on Syrohex.).

38

22 20

^lys^n

implies U"3!:n

Karihvcrav, so
cr'

0-'

1).

46

(26).

iyKiVTpiCoiiV

p.'p,

SO

a'

and

It).

48
.

(31).

aKotin'o-are

^rc^n

(MT
for

has the pf ), so @,

o-'

accord, to
''P.?^

Syrohex.
for
''^^'y

49. 16 (29. 17) a

''^^f'SJil

and

o-'

seem

to have read
.
.

and

"'b'v'^

(Karao-KTji'ouj'ra?

k-niXaii^avo-

pLivovs).

avTov).

49. 19 (29. 20) ny^ans

49. 30 (30. 8)
latter

= ^npans for Taxvvarc = ^'5?^^ inst.

as

n^''?"!i<

(KaTaaTrevo-w
P^P.V.p

of

(but
a

prob.

the

was intended

imperative),

so


PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA
supported by
akriOiia (so

REIDER

609

&

S.
if

51
= =

(2cS).

13 n??N would imply ri

86,

@)

we

trust

Codd.

88

but accord, to
i.

Syrohex. a agreed with

MT:

)]^"so/.

probably read
Tn

('^)??J?

(TTpoyyvXov, so XT.

Ezek.
=
34
^ri^5<"5,

7 bjy

was

7. 7

e7n8o^o'r7/s
n^l'n

=
6',

(MT
in

nn),

a'

6'. 16. 8
D"'l"'^

(Koipoj) /^aorwi;

ny

a'
njiT

but

sec. ed.

avvaXXayrjs.

v.

n3^T

imp).
a'
o-'

=
a'

-nopvi],

so

a' 0'.

V.

50

et6e? impl.

''0''<")

for

so

6'

D.

17.

Kap-iTovi

suggests nnsi, the mishnic

pi.

of

''IB,

hence

read niNB for nnsQ or rnxna for niNlb (accord, to Baer's

text).

20.

77/30?

avTovs implies D^iN for

DriJ<

(a

always

renders nx meaning
ripevv7}(rev

ann by
similarly

irpos
0'

with an ace).

21. 13 (18)

impl.

jnii,

though

in a different sense.
/i'.-'i^

V.

21 (26) TTapard^aL (or Trard^at) impl.

ct'

for the pf.

inst.
ff.,

S"??!?,

so a'

6\ also @.

23. 21 o-u^vyous

o-ou

= ^IH"^
p.

of

^^"i!"^,

so

tr.

According to Geiger, Urschrift^

("1"^)

396

would

have retained the original

he
it

in all
;

the other places where

while here he changed

differs

from

MT

in the

word Ti

purposely to avoid profanity.

i<.?P,

24.

irX/jp^is

implies N?o

for

so a

6'.

v.

12 t^Opa points to nnn

inst.

of

T\'^1,

in

which a stands alone.

2^17^19.

27.

24

koX Kibpos points to ^''T]^\ for

^?n>i.

Hos.
of

8.

10 Kal XiTavivaovdLv yields ^^]) for

|1^?,

13 av(o(pek4s

=
;

MT
0-',

pN.

Amos

5.

2,6

ava-Kiacrp-ovs

rii3D inst.

rii3D
2.

@,

and possibly also

and

ID

read

nSD.

Jonah

D''lt3^J?

impl. C^DE'??

a-nb

^vAao-o-oWwf.
n'?,

Mic.

2.

6 ow KaTa\ri\lnj

(=3B':) 2B: K^ inst. of 3?^

;

SO

U
is

and Jewish commentators

X-qxI/rj

similarly 6. 14

where
;

koI Kara-

can only correspond to ^WD)

(MT
2.
i.

JEfl)

also here a'

supported by Jewish tradition.

7 a' read i?i<,T for

"il^^^j]

and

1^;;

nby for

"iK^'n

oy.

Nahum
MT
has

8 and aviaTaixtvoov yields

HDiprp

= VDipD
p.

(comp. Wellhausen, Z^^r Texi der Biicher

ff.)

Samuelis,

18

while

1^9^ P

most of the other

versions read

"i''9ip3,

which gives better sense.

Hab.

2.

15


6lO
ef

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

(Jer.
:

iTnppL\}/(os

de emissione) could well correspond to

14. 19 in this sense
;

n('')DDrp,

which word occurs Job

construed D??'?
in this

probably
3.

also

6'

way

airb x^^-ecos.

(yyCC^Lv

corresponds to 3^p3, likewise @,

MT ^^i??. Zach.

0-'

S
so

h
ID.

t<3

II. 7 axoCvLafxa points to

V.

Dv^D

for Q^^^Hj so
"i'''!?*,

and

13

V7rpfiy46r]9

corresponds to

hence a read
of
DJ^ip?"!,

'^'l^^

for

"i"!^.

14. 5

(fj.(f)pax6/i(reTai.

DJDD:'!

inst.

(5) '51

and

ol

Xomoi (= the reading of the Orientals,

20
n>>'Jp

cp. Norzi).

V.

was read nbvo

^vdov.

Mai.
in

2.

3 Vl^D'^i^

is

rendered by avv rw /Spaxton, hence a read

It

y^^O'fl?.

should be noted that there are

addition

many
it

cases of different vocalization

1

involved in the change of

consecutive to

copulative

and

vice versa, but

was

thought advisable not to include them here.

39.

Here and there Aquila divides the words

from

in a

manner

different

MT

naturally the exegesis

differs.

Thus
(comp.
;

Ps.

9.

n^O'py a
I

combines to niopy
nicpi? is

veaviorriTos
reaytorTjrcor)

45 Aquila go most of the

(46).

where

rendered by

with

versions, XT alone
n"'S^
^3''

= MT. 44
7.

(45). 3

n^D^D^

is

broken up into
so

KoAAet

(KaXXicoOris

(or
is

4(ca\\a>7ri(r0rjs),

@
na

o-' e'

ID

Jer. Cant.

(7)

n>mn^
7.

divided into
(8. i)

D^?^iy

dvyarrip rpvcjioiv,

so 5.
^r?

Eccles,
""a

30

Dsnna

'n is

divided to read Dsn nb

see above, note 52.

= tls S
ID.

w8e o-o<^os.

Isa. 2.

20

ni"iQ "ibn?,

54. 9 nb >d

was

read nj
IX 'pnyn

C"'3

ws

at 7;//epat

Nut, so

0-'

e' IT

Jer. 15. 11

''3

was construed

TX ^3 n'yi ^3

ort -novripa

on
in

rove.

30.

Aquila's

exegesis

may

also

be studied

words

which though remaining unchanged yield a different meaning

than that generally accepted. a word used by a for
'

Thus Gen.

30. 11 nJ
it

= evCoivia,

"ins,

hence he took
is

in

the sense of

troop

'

not

'

fortune

',

the latter
is

found in TL and S, also

:

Rashi, while the former

adopted by Ibn Ezra

in:

i:

DyD

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

49- 3
''?^^* ri''^'*"?.

REIDER

6ll

Kc^aAatoi' Avtt???

/xou,

hence der. from pN

=
=

trouble, grief, so a'

der.

v.

D'^n-iajp

dmo-Koc^at
v.
o-'

(avrcoz;),

from

n-;3

to dig, so so
;

IE under
XL
N'r^inn

N*"';

14 D^nsK'D

kAt/pcoz;

(lots,

estates),
5.

and
^JK'

ixiTaixixmv;

similarly.
bidcjiopov,

Judges

16

Exod.
*3B'

25.

nybin

hence he der.
;

(scarlet)

from
;

= o-KwATjKoy n:^' = change,

be different
K^'Xi

similarly, 38. 5
is is

'venom'
'rain'

35. 23, 35 Deut. 29. 18 (17) rendered by kc^oA??, likewise 33. 33; 32. 2

and

D-j'ty'^

translated

by

TpcxiCJvTa 'hairy'

and
"lyb'
'

v.

17

Dnj;'^

iTpixLiov avTovs,
i

both therefore der. from

pledge'
'

to be

hairy';

Kings

17. 18 Dn3ni|' their

is

rendered by
'

avixfxL^tv avT(ai>,
^^<.^T-

hence derived from ^IV

(avT-qv),

to

mix

Job

3.

= i^oXvvai

der.

from

i^sa

=
6'

to stain, defile, so

probably
'

pjJD^

(moisten),

Rashi and IE l^b^, and

o-'

cover ', with which contrast @,

'

and

who

take

it

in the

sense of
if it

redeem
^^<
'

'

30. 12 I^N
'

is

rendered by i-m/Skvaixos as
2.
it

were
I.
;

cloud

(comp. Gen.

6 in Field), so also
is

Prov.
eki\l/Ls

26, while in

Ezek.

;^^.

rendered rightly

Ps.

34

(^^).
Vr^.

20
'

n^
;

>^p,

^Opoa
'

yrjs,

hence
of

a'
'

took
quiet

it

in the sense of

second,

moment
(6^).

inst.

J??.";

',

@
to

probably read

'\p.

64

14 >? 'corn'

is

made

correspond to k\kt6s, chosen;

construed as
"'''ifi'
'

79 (80). 12 nn^ifp
'

=
'

Ofpia-fMov avTTjs,

harvest

inst.

of
IB'

'

boughs

90
so

(91).

*i5tJ'^

haiixoviCovTos,
n"^
;

combined with
12.

'demon',

also

IE under
nnnn

Prov.

26

"in^

TrepLo-a-evcov,

similarly '^
"^W, likewise

id, hence derived from "V) instead of

;

Ibn Ezra

20. 2 isyo'?
'

vTrepiBaivoiv
3.

a a

6',

construed as hithp. of "QV

"'^yrir'

pass

',

comp. Deut.
(fit
'

26 where

= v-nepTidivai hence der. from TV

;

27. 6 nhriiyj
'

= i/certKa

for suppliants),

to pray, supplicate

inst.

of

TV
2.

'

to be

abundant';
to
-IK'S

31. 9 ni^^a

avbpem (manliness) with reference

;

'proper' and

fntJ^?

nwn

Eccles.

i.

14

11

6.

6l2

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ji'VI
;

and
vofxri

I.

17 are der. from

5.

nj)n

'pasture' and translated

;

Cant.

13

"l^V

eTrtXeKros (or eKAcKro's), so XT NT'nn

Isa. 14. 19

"I???.?

ws

t'xwp,

which according

to Jer. (in Field's

note)

means
127

tal?es,
ff.)

paedor, smiies, Nestle suggests

bi*?.,

{ZA W.,
as
?2fp.,

XXIV,
since

talmudic

but

it

is

hardly necessary,

n^':

has the same meaning in the

^''^'"'^

Talmud
^^

comp.

Pal. Seb. $S^'-

^^"""^

'"*^'^'^^

^^^'^

^'^^^

'''"^^*

= v-no\xivovTos, so ]Qv.exspecta7item, 2^'C^rh ^snc*^ n^VJl; 18. awriixvovTi, 28. 27 (*i"^n3 = der. from nip = to hope
'] '\\^'\p_
;

^2,

hence Y^'V was construed as a

sense,

part. pass, of

)*in
?;

with active
KTiiais

comp. Prov.
'

12.

24;

30. 23
'

'?I''3pO
'

=
'

aov,

in the sense of
rinb;

I!;2p

acquisition

not

cattle

39. 2 """^TiN

t6i^

oIkov t5>v apoixaTiav,

hence taken
^riy23

in the

sense of
is

nK33 'spice', so Rashi; Jer. 10. 17

'bundle, pack'

rendered

ttj^ e-nLTpoTTi'iv

aov for which

in

Field suggests hrpo-n-qv

it

shame, humiliation,

which sense

occurs in talmudic-

midrashic literature, so Men. ben Saruk quoted by Rashi,

IG, Kimhi;
V'i]3

14.

14 ^^^X
is

o-/<e/\t(r/ios

(snare);

48

(31).

30

(his boastings)
D^"=l?
'

transl.

by

e^alpera,
9. 2,

hence

identified
10.

with

members', comp. Ezek.

D''"!J

11

and Dan.

51

(28). 2

was taken

in

the sense of winnowers or

also

scatterers
nnii

AtK/.iT]ras
*

by both a and a, so
the
sides
'

52. 23

meaning

on

fastened;
KcvToScrar,

Ezek. 21. 19 (24) Ni3

= =

avyip.pevai,

hung

up,

Kei^rwo-ay,

where read
Septuagint

comp.
:

Field,

note,

and

Swete's

where O'^^ has

is

x^'-P"-

nevTova-a.
a-',

If then this reading

is

common

to both a

and

which

not impossible,

they probably construed

N*"12

as a

participle

and

Kevrelv

(prick, stab) in the sense of cutting

down

or destroying,

comp.

23.

47
;

DC^-^"''^?

in^i^^'

i<"i.?i

where
h' oA?/
;

@
r?)

likewise

has

KoraKerret ktX.

25. 6

^tpN*'^~7riZl

Sia^eVet (Tou

with

all

thy disposition

{6'

read

ins'K' ^3n)

27. 24 D^J?n^

\13:|

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

REIDER
40.

613

iv [xaywCoLs (rvyKi\xivois (put together)

43
nbt^'

D^riaSJ'

eTTto-rao-ft? (first

edition

from ^^f, comp. 24. 3

of snares

^l-nCaT^.
7. i

(Tov)

Hos.

9. 8 ^S\>\

ia-KoiXooiMhrj, full

Amos
n??
;

\ is
4.

rendered by ydCa (treasure), confused with

Zach.
cor-

7 nixti'n is der.
k^ia-bXTLs

from

niB^"

'

be equal
;

'

and made to

respond to
ixoi,

(equalization)

12. 5 \^ Hi'DN
It

KapTip-^crov

constr. as an imper. instead of a noun.

ni3
is
'

must

also be

mentioned that
'beautiful', so

dwelling

'

is

often confused with niNJ

^33

b:i}

'foolish'

combined with

'sink,

languish, wither'.
31. In the preceding I have tried to illustrate Aquila's departure from the accepted vocalization, punctuation, and

interpretation of single words of the masoretic text.

In the
as

following

intend to discuss his

method of exegesis

exemplified in phrases

and sentences which sometimes

receive a singular treatment and yield a sense different than that transmitted to us by tradition.

Gen.

3.

16
is

T]rii5VJ'ri

z^ a-vvdcfjaa

(Jer. societas)

is

a free

rendering and

probably due to some midrashic interpre-

tation with reference to conjugal union and marital relation.

midrashic meaning perhaps underlies likewise @'s

^770-

o-rpo(/)j;,

comp. Ber.

r.

ad

loc, ed.

Theodor,

p.

191 (^ai^

Iti'VS

npiD'n^ ^HiFn inpic^ni?),

and also Midrash Lekah Tob,

ed. Buber, p. 27 (T^^X T\pW7b uii^).

Hence Nestle {Margiin

nalie7itmdMaterialien,^.6)

is

hardly justified

suggesting
in

^ryim
in

for
it

in this place,

nor Ball (Genesis

SBOT.)
to
opii-f,

doing
it

in all the places

where

it

occurs.

As

of a',

probably also goes back to a midrashic interpretation,

p. 10.

comp. Frankel, Einfluss,

Ibid., 4. 7

DNb

3^p^ri-QN Xi^n

(o^k) khv ^yaOi^vrjs, dpeVeiy

;

if

thou doest

well,

thou wilt please

this is a satisfactory

rendering,

n^f being taken

as the apodosis in the sense of

6l4
n-ja

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

m)^
;

in this

interpretation a
6'

is

supported by most
cf.

versions, particularly

S
aiD

and D, and commentators,

n'\:'V

especially

IE: y:z
is

X'JTi

DN.

@'s rendering of the

whole phrase

based on consonantal variations, see Margolis,

(1907), 249
f.

ZA W., XXVII
/did.,

14.

and

D"''^U'n

pcy

ru>v

-npLveuivcov

as

quoted by Jerome and restored by Lagarde {Hieroiiymi

quaesiioncs Jicbraicae in libro
(note,
ilicibiis

Gcneseos, p. 23) and Field

is

ad he).
consitus
r.,

Upwecov or
in

TrpivfLv

an ilex-grove {locus goes the Midrash

^n;a
n\-i'j'

Field).
p.

With
410)
:

(Gen.

ed,

Theodor,

\'''n\:>

dh'l;'

(see

Lagarde, Mittheilmigen, IV, 362)

TUiv aKtSiv

on the other hand,

"C^'

&

{anioena nemord) goes with

N''D"n2 cp. a' ev

"IK^'O
''IK'yB'

rw

TTapabei(r(a t?/? dxTT/s D.J^'Ji?

Gen.
the

2. 15,

similarly XT^
(/.

N^!jpn,
*

cp.

the

alternative

in

Midrash

c.)

/^/(f/.,

22.

n^ltpn
v\in)Xi'iv.

)ni<

riji'

KaTa(f)avfj,

cr'

rijs

oTTTaatas,

ti]v

Comp. Mid. Tanhuma on Gen.,

Dipo ?nniD Nin no noix ixr 't

ed.

Buber,

p.

112:

n-nNn-i;'

Exod.

19.

22 for D'jnbn^ according to the larger Cambridge

ot

Septuagint, a wrote
Upi.ls,

irpta^vrfpoi instead of the usual 01

which

is

the reading of

and the other ancient

versions.

It is clear that a

smoothed over the anachronism

institution,

(the priests

mentioned before their

'

Exod. 28)

by

his rendering

elders

'

the rabbis for the

same reason

make of them the 'firstborn' (Zebahim 115b; Mekilta, ad loc). Contrast Wiener, Pentateuchal Studies^ 230 Troelstra, De naam Gods in den Pefttaiench, 17. Curiously
enough,
in 2

Kings
a'

8.

18 (sons of David!) a

(and, ace. to

Barhebr. also

and

6 ^iBpalos)

has Upels, while

makes
;

of

them

avAapj^at

and

a'

(ace.

to cod. 243)

axoXdCovres

cp.

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

20. 26

615

0-'

and aAAos;

Upv<!
i

and 3 Kings

4.

a'

a Upevs

(omitted by )

Lev.

8.

Chron. 18. 17 i^on T^ D^JK'Nin 8 D^enn-nxi on^xn-nK = roh <^cono-piow Kal ras
cp. also

reAeiwo-ei?,

in

which most of the minor versions coincide.

For a

similar interpretation,
pD^^r-OL:

comp.

rnnm nx

D^nin

in>-im

nx, and again Pal.

Yoma 73 b pTNOC nniN Yoma

:

VII end, 44 c

DiTJS^ pc^no fnc* D^Dini ^xnc^i) pn\xD

[n;j

'nix

imn

nx.

Contrast

Trjv

brtXaxrw Kal ri^v aXi'id^iai;

and

comp. hereon Frankel,

Einfliiss,

100

f.

Job

18.

14

nin^^2 iytp^ ^nn'y^ni

^ai e7rt/3,/V6rat a^ral toC

I3a(n\4(0i avvnap^ia

and there
first

will set

upon him the King's

non-existence.
a
ct'

In the

place avv-nap^ia for nink (so also

1 7) suggests that it was etymologically connected with >? 'not' (nin^n was prob.

27. 30, cp. avv-napKTos a' 24.

pronounced

in

Aramaic fashion
is

ninf)3),

as

may
<t'

be proved by
elsewhere for

the fact that avvirapKTOL nsn-x^ (Prov. 19.

7)

employed by
95

and

n^b^b^ (Ps.
i^"'S'3t?

(96). 5,

combined
18. 15.

with 7N) and awnap^ia for

j-/;/^

nomine Job
in

Then
of

the construction Twrhl -^rh

1^0^ mnb

the sense

^^r^(^) r\\rhl is interesting.

/(^/^.,

30.

13

^c^p:

nnna

p?:^->y

1^,1

i^^,s>v

^Aao-rcSrros-

ai^eVrrjo-ai;

upon the
Vr^\

right (hand) of the sprout they rise.

st.

Here

a read

as a constr.

to nnis

and made the

followed by

subj.

impersonal.

In this interpretation he

is

6' ,

but

opposed by
cp.

and Jewish commentators.

As

to

nniB,
^^>

Saadya
Ps.

c-iDy

kind

of thorn, and

IG under

2.

II

"l?"=ip^J

=
;

KaTa(f)LXi](TaT eKAe/crcis

kiss purely,

i.

e.

worship

in purity

interpretation

may

This be considered as an attempt to avoid

o-',

so also

Jerome, and Rashi.

the christological translation of 13

able
that
IV.

son

but

it is

remarkeven

Jewish commentators

like

IE, Ki., and

VOL.

U u

0l6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

felt

Maimonides
tation.

no

difficulty

in

accepting this interpre-

21 (32). 7
KVKAwo-ei?
\xe
;

''???''2'^

Pr*?

'*?.?

ctlVeo-tj

p.ov,

biaacoCoiV

Tiepi-

seems to have read

'Tl

(my

praise, saving

thou wilt surround me).

similar interpretation, including

is

the disregard of the accents,

fxov, XvTp(i>(Tai lie airb

also found in
[J-e
;

to aya\Xia}xa

rdv KVKXcaddvTcav

while Jer. with his

Iai(s
^3-j

inea

salvans, circumdabis vie to

comes nearest to a.
(which a
renders

thus becomes a parallel

1J.01)

'^ "inp

aT.oKpv^-l]

while t^k
D^l^J?
""^tt

is

taken as the infin. absol.

67

(68).

22

D"'3^K'n VnS";

o'la-ova-iv (aTreva-jx^vciiS

^^ Alyv-nrov.

Jer., too,

renders D^sp^n
to

by

velociter.

This led

many commentators
read
"'?'?

assume that the text originally

dittographed and then D added).

C'^'?

or) DB'n

(^

But aside from the

speak against
it

fact that TTptafiets of

and k^aii of

ID

we must
is

also consider that Aquila here,

and hence also Jerome,

supported by a Midrash which

interprets the passage to

Teh., ed. Buber, p. 320).

mean

n^^jnn^ D^:ir3Di D^K'n

(Midr.

This example should be added

to those in II.

68
fxov

(69).

''oVc'
toi;

^D-^
O^ov

^T^.

^^?

ereAeV^Tjo-ay

o\

d(f)6a\ixoi

TTepifihovres

(ixov).

a (and so a) apparently
^n'.rp

substantiate the masoretic pointing

against

bn^l?

pre-

supposed by
92

and

'^.
''^^^

(93)- 3 T?"?

'^^"'t?

i-nripOr}

TroTap.S>v iSddrj

avTwv.

The

passive construction was apparently adopted so as not

to ascribe an action to the (personified) rivers.

TTOTaix&v anticipates avTcov.

The

genit.

119 (120). 5

^f'P

"r^l?

npo(T7]X.vTev(ra kv p.aKpv(Tp.&.

In

construction, the same sense, though following a different These versions apparently failing to and o-'. also

recognize

in

y:?^

the

name

of a people (so

mediaeval

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA REIDER

Jewish commentators) combined
to draw, drag, cp. iMidr.

617

the

noun with
505
:

TIK'O

Teh., ed. Buber,

nj?

^rr\W

^129
V7re>eim
0-'

(130).
Ki^'pioj;
;

4-5
in

njn;

wf?

Ni,n

jypb

=
CjlD

^Wk.z;
a'

0o>t;

disregarding the p1D2

n-jin

goes with
for Nlin.

^'

who

at the

same time read

(=

x-iiri)

Note

(^o^o'i for Nl^n,

7.

Cant.

(5)

p3^n2

i^ linXoyiaii^, cp.
^b^r^

Cant.

r.

ad loc.

Vy^n^

n"!?

pajo V'b \2:^'\m

jni^-nn

with reference to the

Synhedrion, see above,

/did.,
pb'e-i

n. 48.

airolSXijTcov,
7.

a word

used by

a'

for

bi33

Lev.

7.

18 and 19.
is

However strange
it

this rendering
;

may

sound, there
9, a'
is

no reason to question

as pointed out in

wont to

translate proper names,

and particularly
a'

so in the
into

Book of

Canticles.

Apparently,

broke up

pl^on

two parts

(see above, 11), pjy

pi^'2

the second element

'

he

may

have combined with

baixaa-Kds-

*to kiss
i)

or

npyJ,

cf

np^pri.

Comp.

at,xaTos

4,ih]ixa

aXfxaTo^ -noriaixos

(Ono-

mastica Vaticana, Lagarde,

also Bar-Ali in

0mm.
s. v.,

Sacra\

190, 32);
:

comp.

Payne Smith,

p. 919, col. 2

^^sxa^,
]Ui^<x,

6/

UooW?
7.

Jla:iX^ isi-^' .i=cu^M wo,o

D'pnnB

U??

Cant.
7ro/j(^,;pa

(6)

n^os-

-1^9 ri^anss
;

tj-^^-,

nhi

dj

/3ao-tAe'co9

h,h^ij.4vov fSepar^ix

a'

here violates the

with ^bp, and
a'

athnah construing ?nnN3 as

this despite the fact that

in constr. state

follows

MT

with
in

goes

a'

who only
a^tJnna

differs

from his

contemporary

translating

It should be borne in mind that a^ while not addicted to transliteration as 6', still indulges in
it

by dk^ixam.
freely than

more

a'.

Isa. 9.

(5) ni22

^x

j'vi^

N.^Q

ictj; N-iip?i

io3t^ h^

mban
U U

^nrii

Kal

kyh.TO TO

ix^rpov

iir'

^^lov airov, Ka\ ^k6.\,^,v ovo[xa avTOv,

6l8
eaviiacTTos

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

(TvixjiovKos,

l(Tyypoi

ovvaros.
(

That

read

ni^'tt

was already stated above

Semitica,
I,

28),

comp. also Lagarde,

^i^a

16

f.

The
<j'

rendering of

^X by

laxvpb^
is

hvvaros has

been
it

criticized

by Theodoret, though he
6'.

followed in

by both

and

This rendering, as Field

a"s style rightly states [Prolegomena, p. xx), agrees with

generally and
25. 8
a'
n^*?.^

it

was hardly right to

))h3.

style

it

'

wickedness
ei?

'.

Tmr\

KaTa-noiria-eL rov

Oavarov

riKos.
^jntt

likewise construes m?2n as object, the subject being

nin; of the following phrase.

So

also Rashi.

, on the

contrary,

takes

men

as

subject,

so

also

Saadya and The two

points

Ibn Ezra.
"8.

11-12

^"in

'^ir^

^TTavaaTo
all

yered

}iov.

words are connected by

the Greek versions which at

6' ^iiXiirev)
;

the same time read ^10 (so

likewise
to

and
as
this

U PDS
bm.

bin;

I!)

gmctis
it

also
ni^n

implies

Jewish
(comp.

commentators explain

by

metathesis

Kimhi among
modern
>2^'v
it

others),

and

view has been adopted by

scholars.
is

How

a formed a pause with the constr.

hard to understand

possibly he read a
;

word

read '"Q^ '^f^' before bin specifying KaToiKovvrm' or else he

nil bin.
50.

13''J?B'B??

bVnrp

Nl.Tl

[kuI]

avTos

/Se/STjXwfieVo?

otto

aOernQv

vp-S>v.

Quite so XT:

W3in3 bnmi
'

with reference to
'

the Temple.

But

has hpav^arUOy]

wounded, pierced

all modern and likewise most Jewish commentators and Aquila exegetes derive it from bi'n = pierce. Undoubtedly

as well as the
application.

Targum sought to

tone

down
Ka\

the christological

niV 'Vl^ Jer. 6. 18 D3 "iK'S-nS

yvG>Te

fxaprvpiav

tt/v

oZaav

avTols

a'

therefore takes nny in the sense of

it

nny

as to D? he

apparently construes

as referring to the

PROLEGOMENA TO AN INDEX TO AQUILA

people of Israel.
Aquila's reading
lyni,

REIDER

619

forms the basis for

which, however,
fails

Giesebrecht's emendation to nvn

to account for the part. ns\
avTS>v

kqI ot itoiixaivovTes
Tl:'N

to. -noiixvia

points to Dnnny

^yh],

while on

m
;

is

omitted

altogether.

34
V.^b

(41)- 1^ ^}^.^

^;J?p

kvb>i;Lov

Tov ixoaxov

hence

a'

read
ixov

disregarding the accent; contrast

TL

Kara -npoao^-nov

and

-mp.
(31).

48

30 r^3
;

]2riib\ in-inj;
is

,)

^ij^,, airov, Kal ovrco,^ ra

(^aip^Ta avTov
for ov(x)
ovT(,)s

oiJrcos

probably an error of transmission

is

the transposition of the accent

in addition

supported
;

by

@ %Tl

which

read

in"jny for "innnj;

vnn

is

rendered
separate.

etymologically

and

derived

from

112

be

Ezek.
?>

2.

10

^ni

n.jnj

o^rp

n^^s-

nw?^

=
;

(,al)
a'

yeypa^/.ei.oi;
CJ^i?

ctt' airroiS

KnVij

/<al avTi[3\y](Ti.s

Kal ^a-rai

construes

in the sense of

]':\>,

deriving
.Tn

it

from
be
;

njp

to buy, possess,

while
there

^^1 is

is

der.

from
in

= to

for this interpretation'

no analogy

the versions nor in the commentaries.

Aquila's exegesis, it is safe to say that mostly on Jewish tradition as manifested in Targum, Midrash, Talmud, and developed in the
32.

To sum up

he

leans

works

of

Sa adya, Kimhi, Ibn Ezra, Rashi, &c.

alone
it

Where he seems
fact

to stand

is

probably due to the

that the

traditions in question have not been preserved.

The most

frequent grouping
vacillates

among
this

between

is a' Ti; D, while 6' group and the Septuagint, bearing

the versions

out the contention of scholars that he was simply a reviser of the Alexandrine version and not an independent
translator
like

(comp. Svvete, Introduction,

p.

43,

and Schurer,

Geschichte^, III, 440}.

with the above group,

Symmachus more but now and then he

frequently goes
follows his

own

620

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

or that of the Septuagint.

way
it

As

to the relation of a' to ,

is

evident that the former diverges as far as possible

latter,

from the

proving once more that his version was

intended as an antidote to the older Greek version.

{To he contim(cd.)

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HAKOHEN

By a. Marmorsteix,
Jews' College.

Among
I

the various fragments of the

Taylor-SchechCambridge

TER Collection

at the University Library in

found (Nov., 1905) four poems which make us acquainted with new names and new facts hitherto unknown in the
history

of the Jews at

the
is

end of the
fixed.
I,

Gaonic period.
i,

The
n'^in

date of the fragments

p-in!?

we

read:

nrj'

n"jpnn,

954 years after the destruction of the

Temple, that
is

is, 954 + 70 = 1024. The name of the writer mentioned HI, 47 ]r^2n omax incx p nay Dy .X'y^ p.
:

The

writer
life

compares
with the

in
life

that

poem

the

events

of his

sorrowful

of Joseph in the Bible, therefore

we may assume

that

his

can be no doubt that the

name was poems are in

Joseph.

There

the closest conclearly

nexion one with another, for

refers to the others.^
in
nr

we

see

that

one

The
;

first

three

poems
:

are written

an alphabetical order DV

the fourth begins

nn>3mi -iDrx

mno, and
between

is

to be said on the fifteenth of the

several

month

Kislev

the

portions

of the

Eighteen

Benedictions.

The

particulars

furnished
life

by the poems

concerning the events of the poet's

1

and the position

f.

See

fol.

T,

I,

19

II,

17

III,

19 and IV, 4
III,

ff.

or III. 5

22

IV. 14

f.

or

I,

II (the
n!?1

death of his brother) and

31

IV, 19.
5]D',^

n:^'1a^^ TTlDT '3

D'pim
2

D^nnp
poem.
runs

U
:

Itry -11-N1

DV^i'n bl

is

an express allusion

to the third

The

first

D^JOTH II^JI
;

n''C\n I^TN
pyT^
''-221

the second

y'pn

p-^-fa

nn

"li-ipiD

>J1j;o

pic*

the third

DV

^2

inZH.

621

622

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

in
is

he held
birthland

the

community

are as follows.

The

writer's

not Egypt, where he became a prisoner."

The
in

origin of his connexions with

fact that the prisoner's wife

Egypt might be found

the

was from Egypt.*

in

We

learn,

however, that the writer's married state was

degree
called
friends
unlucky."*
Din''2i

the highest

His enemies were

my."

Jews.*^

They
his

are

"pinv

The enemies
the writer

of to-day are the

of

yesterday, and
says:
'n^^'j'n

confesses
(Pd^t)

sins,

when he
"nnDiDJ

nuN nam

"Tinns*

nnr
bv\.^

myn

an

pi ^nnry Dn\srj'i dhu^ini

"may

nncxjo

We

infer that the former friends

and present enemies are none

else

than Karaites, and that the writer associated with

them.

Thus
from

it

follows

that

there

were

Karaites
in

in

Palestine,

which country the writer came,

first

the

tenth century or in the

century.^

twenty years of the eleventh

In

other passages, likewise, the writer speaks

about his

sins.^

The immediate cause

prisoner,

for the sufferings

and punishment was that the enemies took

ceedings against the

legal

profor

who having answered

unable to pay
it.^^

a debt of 240 duhnanim was

bitterest

His

enemy was a Jew designated

writer

as ^nnytD.^^

The

must have belonged to a respected and

and he himself occupied a high
, .

pious family,^"
"'

position.^*
">t22

III, II

Dni'o 1^2 ^nrh n'b^pbp2

f.:

.r]in \niS'a ^bv

j'lnto

^jk d:i.

III,
III,
I,

26
16

;n2 h^ nb-nn ^nni ;*in^

^

n.'S

'JiX"'trn

^jn d:.

6
'
9

f.

1,22; 111,8; IV, 60: D^y-it:

'

my.
Warsaw,

24.
S.

IV, 31

ff.

See the remark of

Poznanski, Die karatsc/ie Famtlie Firuz,

1913, p. 16, n. 2.

"
"

I. 7-

IV, 60:

niNo

b^yz'i ^^n in'^-ih any

ana
III,

'b'^^'h

mn

lensi icp

"^y ains D^jjm n^yaiNi.

12

IV, 83.
I,

"
\p\
-,

27

IV, 79.

"

24,

nnayn

iv, 65, :?x

^no

my

b'^i'o.

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HAKOHEN

MARMORSTEIN

623
all

The
his

situation of the poor

man

Is

very sorrowful, for

goods and

all

his

property are taken from him, his

:

house and fortune ruined

from the deepest dungeon he

looks for redemption and salvation.

But who

is

the

man?

If

it

be only the life-story of

argue,
it

a private individual, then,

public
interest
if
it

we might

cannot claim

But even

nor demand a place in Jewish history. were so the documents would still merit

attention, there being

light

more than one point which throws

of the Jews in the beginning of the

on the inner

life

eleventh century and on the war between the Jews and Karaites. are able, however, to say more about that

We

man and
sight.

his family

than would seem possible at the

first

For we have found another important document from the same Genizah, now in the possession of the well-known
scholar, Mr.
I

Elkan N. Adler, M.A.,

in

London, to

whom

am

indebted for his kindness in allowing

will

me

to use his

MS., which

furnish the answer for

letters

all

our questions.

Cod. Adler No. 223 contains

from

Abraham ben
to

Joseph Hakohen,

buT^^' )-iN r\2>z"

C's-i,^^

^he head of the

schools in Palestine.
first

The names of the persons

whom

the

letter

was addressed are omitted, but we read that

they were followers of the Rabbanites and the Law.^^

The
DK'I

"

p.

3 has

name

jmnJO

muna
ni^z'^

[H^H

Dmax
^idi^

'1

Fl^^n

n-ha

nnj^NH n^i3D yj ^nic^ jon

fragment contains four pages.

cni

n31d
letters,

n^nj.

The

Two

pages are

the others the

"

1.

(nyicn) Di?>n:n^ n^cpo

d^^-jdi

fyj'bi

nny^ d^d^c'i d^o^pj n^nab

nyv.^'n

'12 vv): bi^y^^

n^^onD D^D^iy nyrj-n 'nayc-'in^ D^Diby

^?

n2 f3nm njan c^z^np) tjmp

D^JipTi nnvj'.-i
1.
.
.

Ty)

ijk i:ddi

yy

n^ohy

Q-'jn-in.

10

''Wcf^

(n^^io)

nsSo

^:i'p>

nnisD

D-'snt:

dtid^

D'^ai^'n

624
second

"T"^

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

addressed
to the

letter

is

holy congregation

in

Hamath and

Rakath.^'

It is possible that

we

have here

before us the formulary of the letters sent to the com-

munities from the schools or authorities of Palestine or the letters for the safe conduct of ambassadors or delegates of

the school-heads.
of Zoan, Egypt.
betical

The

third letter

is

to the congregations
in

There are two formularies, each

all

alpha-

order, enumerating

their

merits,

the highest

being that they are supporters of the Yeshibot;^** and,

secondly, peaceful and faithful people.
learn from these fragments that there

At any
in

rate,

we

was a

spiritual

head

of the communities, even for those abroad,

Palestine,

and the bearer of

this dignity

was Abraham ben Joseph

our texts, and

Hakohen.

His son
life

may
is

be our Joseph ben

in

Hakohen, whose
lived about 1024.

described

Abraham who

p.

3a,

1.

18

annc

niTni

nt^'^D

n^.n:;

''cn)':

nnci^ npnni nonn ib'n niB'npn nibnp bi^ ^nins'^'D '^nj ^d^h^n {3 h, 1. i) mi'oa

D^i3

Wnn:

D^ainsi Dnp>

u'^dd 'J3 Q'niD ^ni^B'ym

.
.

nnm
'2^

n^inai o^D^m

a^rao ^nuny pv^'D

Doibc'

mnnn^ ^omns
^onmoi

D'''i^:i

D"'bn3i

D''3t:p

macnD nmn
. .

nnn^i'D npnir

Dn'-ps

niEDn^'

nniD^
ni:nci

^i^n ii?x'b

omD^^c^ pi^vjD nii;y3

. . .

m^npm

nnn-i
hn
)*p

nunxjn
Dy
113^^-3

^iiipn ^3

n\sn ny

^i6^

nn^nn nun

m
unj

nmm myrj-^ Dy b^ vn^ nmmn ;*^n^

ix*^^
.

pN^

m^c irnnb

D^ipni i^^^i^i irnvj'n

n^D

n:;^

nuD

1 .

13^ lyn.
18

p. I a

'^ir^D

''3?3iD

nm3
nn^'j"-

''3ni3

n'3r:N: yj3 ^nu'o

nN30
'p^inn

nniy niiy oniy nr^y

p.

nyiD ^?nD) nyo.

'j^k'o
.

nun?3 ^p^mo ni?2n^D

niv: nin nn nn
.

nmn

"ims*

pnn

bin::"'

n'3

n::'

fy:3

'nc?

nyoD nn

r\^n.

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HAKOHEN

Going
just

MARMORSTEIN

625
that

a step
in

further,

we must here note

Schechter found

the Genizah

important material for

an unknown chapter of the history of the Jews in the eleventh century.i^ Bacher used it and reconstructed from
it

the

names of the Geonim

But the
is

in

Palestine at the end of the

Gaonic period.^o
dignity
Palestine

origin

of the newly founded

obscure.

We may

say that the Geonim in

We

were the descendants of Abraham Hakohen. read, namely, Masliah (1131) Gaon was the son of Solomon Gaon, who was the son of Elijah Gaon,

the grandson of the

priest.2i

Solomon Gaon, from the family

:

of Joseph,

Bacher restores
is

If our opinion

right,

pnx p. we may advance the suggestion

't c>iip ::'x-in fn::n

that

Abraham
is

the priest,

who

is

mentioned

in

another

fragment
Joseph,

published

by

Schechter,^^

whose

father

was

none

else

than our

Abraham ben
in

Joseph, the

head of the family of the Geonim

eleventh
article

Palestine in the

century.
I to

It

would
all

exceed the limits of

my

points which may be deduced from the present publication; suffice it to say. that Joseph was the last of the Rashe Yeshibot, and that
after or with

were

show

the

new

Holy Land.
been
^' ^o

him begins the line of the Geonim in the For all we know, his sufferings may have

in

connexion with the new order of things.

p.

Saadyaua,

80.
',

'Ein neuerschlossenes Capitel der jiidischen Geschichte

/O/?.,

XV,

p. 79ff21 22

JQR., XIV, p. 450, n. See Saadyana, p. 67,

1914, pp. 637-8.]

I.
1.

6,

and

p.

68,

I.

15.

[See

ZDMG.

now my

article

626

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

n^2n p-in^ n"3pnn njc

^jno n^D

^nr:pJ

Dipr
ibiN

....

n'2'c^n

nn:i

n"'?o^n

niNO^ ny rn^:
[.
.
.

n^:i:nm ^3xi
^Ji-n
^"t:^

ni^'i

....
.

n idh] n-iDn

iyi

nnvfpT 5

nxr N^ni ^n^V1

^

w2:b 'no

[^nsk-n]

nns na-n
yn
b-ipb

;-'yo
.

yna

c^:

[^J'w'yro

'ttd:
'nyr:^'

''J^ma
;->^'''.

nnr ^^m^

nn^
n^3s*.

'nnb

/3

mya nSn

n^; n^ob \nN^i> 10

byi '^y

en xb

-i^:

;2 "mTos "n^^no

mc
^2

2^,,

^^

pD
pby

nns *p2

^:i^n'

Pmpn mnx
ins

nNi ;n3C
}'n

13
14

ny ncxi /,nN^

nmo bb
sbo

(?)nn'C' ,rn

pniM
'no

/bs* 'Dr:n

;b^y?^ pn:i nxT

^^

? )'P

15

^>2N2

c'x-1

^iDy

"1^:1

^J^^=2

^^

'7

;n-iinD0 ixn^ ab pn

cno ^:hy
'
'

lorcn ^nc ny :noiNi

18 19

;nsnp

xbi ^nyou- n^ nb':?oi ;n'C'V2

sb

n^aa nniD

on
Ta

'rb^:2
'n

;ry mo32 "^3

':oc

'n^oiJ

'is
n^*

ioini 30
21

^nc

-ly

:nr:isi

nnph

vj'pa

nasb

;:'r2i

^2

i^See IV, 31.

/"ps. 82/2.

'

See

III,
6. 5-

27

ff.

'

Cp. Esther6. 12.

Msa.

Cp.Isa. 6.

II.

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HAKOHEN

MARMORSTEIN

627

'Pnynn my^ >nmy

^nxsD N^i
no:i
^nr:

;-idixi

^(n)yinni nun nno 'nNo

^jil'

23

'"^DixDi ^no

Din>3i ^-^nv
^dijoi

rny

24
25

pnn
n^
.

nn^DT^y

ivd"||

onnn on^ai DL"nn ny

"

mry

ly

ipm

o-nvci

np:n npjm

i:co

inp> 26

irnixjp
njtroi a^iN

^3d

i:;^

n>nm

n:yci irniyc- yoOTi ,npjn ab 27

.

...

-IV

u^

-ivin >3

'i^nnvcn

p ij^

nvin irniTno n>nni 28

29

IT' -ivn '3 13^

"i^N*

yby

.D^nyD dn
yc^"'
.

o^na dn d^d^j
n>i:
i^Ni

30

DV3 irnpyv

"aD^bnno
ij:n3

'bzni 31

^3

"-nN

,nnn

....

32

1J^3N
.liN'ipn

33
tj^^JE*'

nn^D

mtjy

34

II

''Jin

nnci

nn

ivipo ;:iyo

pv*:'

-j^^n

pyrx

nnN^oi

^^>^3

iino^

>b

d-i3

^ci ^^^vn^

ha^i

nnx nni

hrp

^c'l

^nnD3n nnx N^n '>hp nj ycc

't
:

(?)vTNn 4

c'sjn ^vno nyi

my ndh

n^k'

dhn pN^j
dn p^i

ionj naiKTin

nnf

''

-ii?:y>

^0 'n -iio::'n nijiy

^crsj

>bv

Dm

'*

^apn

6
7

^"j3n

^Snnmnc'ni ^^y

ciDynnn
--a

^nn'>'^

nina i-idtn
|ni jnai

"ii'DJi

-n^ njiDD ^^^nn-'^Dn

^cy

^mn

tit:;!'

'
10

See Gen. 19

5.

q^

j^g 23_ ^^
11

j^^^ ^^

^^^

Lam.

3. 45.
;

Lam.

i.

3.
r. is

" See Jer. 14 22

2. 5.

12

See Ps. 130.

"
'8

Ps. 130. 2.

"

B. Berakot

7b and rob.

Ps. 130. 3.

Jona

2. 8.

"

ps_ j^q ^^

628

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

''.-ip"'0

T"i33rDi

TT30

rinJ2

ppim

nna!? inn nns

^"j-d:

'2

''l^c^si

10

nniroc'o "i^nn-i^ nsc^-

'3

nm

snpn

'n

n
12
13

|cJo

D^Jiy

^^bs

i^^s*

pyiN D^:iy

nnoi
,d^i3
.

xb

frnS '"-ip3^

^'.ohy nyi nny 'i ^y ^nt^^ ^n^

.D^^^s

pb

n^on^n Nnnb nns

mupa

i^:^ 3-ir 'n^o

n^^2i: ioid ^n^s:

t^d

14

^n'h'nn

HTp ^n^^nn
^n
i^x'j-n
.

'ni?s
.

nnx
n^s

;nsjp N3pi avc^ ps^i pn^;

.

^npy^;

17 18

'jnac'n

mrfi

n:riyi

sb nno

ir^y !
"jbrn i-ias

N^ron ^:nDni ^^ nny Nnni

,

n^sn nn^n

19

m3TN nsn

^3?-mn

mx b

^m^n^

(? iiJO'^)

Nip3 20

.DiisB' 3in

"ly

jn^

^^y

22

III

inim

1^'

^JK'DJ

nyn pyr
^^

^'t^'Dji

dv ^22 nnas
hd^d

^-^'d:

nmx pns
yn-j'

|\si

^jm

nnn

inyT n^nnn

n:-j'

nicy

p
""JN

^dv by nny

(^:^'x^)

"vnsh vasb

cniN

-isdii

,ims-i2 niDibn
d:

nns

4
5

nnu'y yat' "inx

n:rDO nynxi n-i^si

Dibn ^niNnn nrj' 6

".vns bs

N^^'in

run
^3^

njiyo pic^

....

^3

^nyn^i

^ncn

^Di^B' U'^N n^n ^nb23

d: -'iniDDc^i

um
nnp

innr:>i

imbx^'i 8
nt^s*

T2

''^Zi:

pn''j'i3:^n

iniN^ni D^^NyD-iT^ yniNi nne^yn inn^D on

D^bipbpa

"innao 10

.... n:n ^nsn

^^

'bv 10:

^:s*

n:i

Dnvrob in-nam

n
7.

"

Ps. 130.
22

5.

Ps. 130. 6.
23

20

Sam.

2. 30.

"

ps. 130.
49. 23.

Gen.

27. 10.

Gen.

37. 2.

" Gen.

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM

vn^

HAKOHEN MARMORSTEIN
ixn-'j^

629
12

HD

ny mj nni

anvD

n^a 'nn^

,nj3iD' ^niN ^inno ^yn

^JN*

^531

nayin

^3

>j^yn

^n^Ni

16 17

DJ ^n^ya ^nbp npy^i ^-i^yrn vi^y r^ns*

nn

i~
^JN d:

/i^yvi 2-1 >D2 'JOL-n ^n^y^ n^^y ^nms*

18 19

ab^b

ii72'

^vb}-\2 D-' ^rnn

^sb nu^

la^b'ni

niN^m

i^niyn

nnn
^^i

ini^np

-itrNi

nioii?nn

dn

i^t

fpv

21

ninj -inx ^^y ncp

^mn^nn

>^

n!?^:::'

n ^m^r

^jn d:

22

^b'j
ix^-j-n

^JN'

d:

D^N-iip

vn iniN nmoi n^^voi

]p]

oniDNni

24

riDv^
>JiN'trn

onnyn

>b

iNnp> o^^sn

^j^ya

>n^M 25
n:i'N

'jx DJ ;,n3

mu^

QM^mi jns-^
ni?^^n \nni

pn

26

m22 vnxoi
Dn^ ^n-iD:3 ^ym
.vni:3i VJ3

v^
^ns-rD

^j'-iD

pn

nc'x 27

-is-

d3

-i-i?d

-nsj^ vjnx na'Nai 28

b
my

v^n!?

i^
nn
s-!?

^moa

onum
n^
^:3

0^03

td

29

^n-rnj

^Js*

DJ
.

^'^

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^js*

30
31

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.
.

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ab

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32

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dj 33

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pn^

,01^:^3

onina

n^sn^ v^Dn
:

itdF 34

nyDT nxn ^rn

io':y

ny ^d^^uo ijn
^jn,,
:

iroji

^303 )npb 35
.

ib^ N^i "^b ??iDr D^^nx

dji nna::

rS

D^pic^yn 36
^3

jojnn nN^3 lyoc^ >tis ^jn d: -^a^ ,^ni nnn nyjj nc^n
Gen. 37. 20. 2* See Genesis Rabba,
^^
=^*

37

2c

Gen. 37.

7.
27

ch. 87. ch. 21.

Gen. 39. 20.

^**

See Genesis Rabba, ch. 84; Mas. Soferim, See Genesis Rabba, ch. 93.

630

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

inDS

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13

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Gen. 48.

ri.

"

Gen.

t.

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HAKOHEN

MARMORSTEIN
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n^i 41
name,

See

III,

ff.

SI

Allusion to the third

poem and

to the writer's

VOL.

IV.

X X

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69

JOSEPH BEN ABRAHAM HAKOHEN

ibip VK)\y'
i^^vnroi

MARMORSTEIN
[? re'iji:
.

633
70

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74
75

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'b

u
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v2 v^D33
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Dinoni

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77 78 79

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82

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Q'h'^i i3pni

92

Postscript.

Since
LXVII

writing this article

have found

some more unknown material

for the earliest history of the

Geonim

in Palestine, vol.

which

will

be published

in

the fourth

number of

of the Zeitschrift der Dcutschen

X X

634

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Besides the new material

Morgenlttndischen Gcsellschaft.
the

name
45

of

Abraham
J.

is

to be found in the Memorial-List

in
p.

pubhshed by
p.
fif.,

Greenstone

this

Revtev/, N.
ff.

S., vol. I,

and

Marx,

ibid.,

67
in

shall

deal

with

Abraham ben
Memorial-Lists
us

Josef Hak'ohen

an

article

sent to the

Reime des Etudes Juives

in

in Paris.

There are further new

the possession of Mr. Adler, which will give

some new

particulars about the descendants of

Abraham
in

Hakohen and answer

the question asked

by

the scholars,

why
the

the children of
dignity of

Abraham Hakohen did not follow their father, and why the children
(?)

of

Abraham's brother

Judah secured the leadership of the

academy
furnished

in Jerusalem.

At any

rate our publication has

new material

for the history of the

4-^, P-

Gaonate

in

Palestine (see also Poznanski, REjf.,

283).

A HAD HA-'AM'S ESSAYS

DNVin

'vm

pbn

oyn nnx hnd

y'y-in

DnoNo
.

paip

o^a-n ny'-is bv

pp. 247.
Selected

8'^.

phn

N^nsin

'piDN^nx'

man
Hebrew

Essays by

Ahad Ha- am.

Translated from the

:

by

Leon

Simon.

Philadelphia

Jewish
80.

Publication

Society of AxMerica, 19 12.

pp. 347.

Achad-Haam.

Am

Scheidewege.

Erster Band.

Aus dem Hebrai19 13.

schen von Israel Friedlaender.

Zweite verbesserte und

vermehrte Auflage.
viii

Berlin

Judischer Verlag,

271.

8".

The three publications just indicated by title strikingly illustrate Ahad Ha-'am's unique position in the world of Hebrew
letters.

His collected writings which merely reproduce

with undiminished eagerness by

essays,

published, read and discussed previously, are yet read, or rather

re-read,

a constantly growing
to the

public.

But A. H.'s influence

reading world.
find

is

by no means limited

Hebrew

He

is

the only

modern Jewish

writer

whose words

an echo

in

the whole Jewish Diaspora

and

penetrate the mysterious and impenetrable boundary which divides

Jewry into East and West.

translation,

It is
first

significant that the

first

German

as well as
is

the

English

translation,

of a neo-

Hebraic work

connected with the name of Ahad Ha-'am, and

observes
fail

he who

carefully

public

Jewish

life

in

its

practical
silent

manifestations will not

to detect the powerful

though

share of A. H.'s ideas in the shaping of Jewish

reality.

This exceptional character of A. H.'s

literary activity

cannot be

accounted

for

by mere

literary merits, greatly

and

justly

admired
all

as they are.

The
so
it

secret of A. H.'s appeal to the

Jews

over

the world

lies,

seems

to us, in the fact that his formulation

635

636

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

is

of the Jewish problem

such as to appeal to universal

in

Israel.

For the Jewish problem had

lated

and handled

as

modern times been always formua i)roblem of Jews, and the problem of
divisions,

Jews,

depending on external

was,
all

indeed,

radically

different in the East

and

in the

West

that

one section had

a problem

a right to expect of the other was sympathy, at most charity.

But A. H.'s formulation of the Jewish problem

oS.

as

Judais7n, as the supreme question of our spiritual existence,

all

points out the danger which threatens

to

Jews alike and appeals

in the heart of every

the highest aspirations which

lie

hidden

thinking Jew.

No wonder

therefore that the formulation of the

spirit, or,

Jewish problem as a problem of the Jewish

as

we

say

nowadays, of Jewish culture, possesses an

for all Jews, irrespective of origin

irresistible attraction

and

affiliations,

and

is

now

disseminated, as

seen by the above publications, through the

medium The
tative

of the three languages which practically

monopoUze the
largely

higher literary output of Jewry.

fourth

volume of Ahad Ha-'am's essays

still

is

made up

of reproductions from the Hashiloah,

the

most represen-

Hebrew publication, and to a lesser extent from other The only new contribution consists in extracts from periodicals. papers and letters bearing on the history of the order Bene Moshe
which
at

one time played an important, though

silent, part in

the

development of the Palestinian movement.

in all the four volumes.

The volume

con-

cludes with a brief but helpful analysis of the essays contained

It

may be added

that several of the

into English shortly

essays in the fourth

volume were translated

after their first publication.

As might
interprets
will

well

be expected, the bulk of the volume

in the large sense in

is

devoted

to the Zionist
it.

movement

which the author

But even those who stand outside the movement

'

read with keen interest his article on

National Education

',

or his powerful,
in Jaffa.

though cautious indictment of the Gymnasium

will

Those who admire Ahad Ha-'am the man

of his two-sided personalit)',
loving,

find

reflection

cool,
in

searching,

im-

placable,

yet

reverent

and

benign,

the

beautiful.

'

AHAD

HA-'AM's essays

FRIEDLAENDER
(p.

637

analysing, yet touching necrologues

on Lilienblum and Lewinsky.

103) with
its

His

article

on the Russian revolution

will

implacable
after

logic

and sharp-edged sarcasm

reality,
'

be read to-day,
if

his

prophecy has become

interest.

with undiminished,

not heightened
'

His

article

that A.

H,

is

on The Question mark of Judaism indicates a keen observer of Jewish conditions in America.
(p. 87),

His short essay on 'Impudence'

which clothes serious

thoughts in a graceful and even playful form, shows A. H. as the

master of the essay.

The

emphasis, however, of the

articles that
'

present

volume
'

lies

no doubt on the two

'

stand at

its
'.

head

The

Sovereignty of Reason
subject-matter

and

Between two Stools

By

their

they are also the most

interesting to the

readers of this Review.

'

Between two Stools indicates the attitude of those Jews who

'

waver between Judaism and Christianity.

in

The

article is clothed

the form of a criticism of Claude Montefiore's

Commentary
His

on the Gospels,^ and gives A. H. the opportunity to examine the

cardinal differences

between Judaism

and

Christianity.

analysis of the fundamental principles of Jewish ethics as contrasted with Christian ethics
is

probably the best and profoundest

subject.
ethics,

momentous character of Judaism and Jewish

contribution
to
this

The

'

impersonal

the refusal to accept

ideal, the definition

human
'

being as the embodiment of the

'

of

altruism

as

'

inverse egotism

',

the objectiveness of the Jewish

ideal of justice against the subjectiveness of the Christian con-

ception of love,

all

these

and many more thoughts, scattered

study and
uttered

throughout

this

brilliant

with

an exquisite

beauty and lucidity of expression, show what a rich harvest this

great

and

difficult subject
'

may
of

yield

when handled by a
',

master.
offers

His essay on
by

The

Sovereignty of Reason

which

an

analysis of the life-work

his

Maimonides and was

called forth

700th anniversary, reaches even more directly into the

domain of Jewish Science.

over
1

By

his vast erudition

which extends

all

branches of Jewish

literature,

by

his

wide historic out-

An

English translation of this article by Leon Simon appeared in the

Jewish Review, London, September, 1910.

638
look,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

by
his wonderfully
fit

balanced judgement

Ahad Ha-'am seems

present
in

eminently
Surely the

to

handle the tasks presented by Jewish Science.

is

man who

able to

interpret the
in

the

light of the past

ought to succeed

making the past

always
fought

intelligible

to the

present.

But A. H.
his

has

shy of

this

province,

and

essay

on

Maimonides remains the

only

attempt in

this direction,

an attempt which merely sharpens the

possibilities

edge of our
neglected.

regret
It
is
is

by revealing

which are consciously

that

no

exaggeration

to say

the

study

on

Maimonides
Ha-'am's pen.
are

one of the most

brilliant

achievements of

Ahad
style

All the great characteristics of his

mind and

shown

to their best advantage in the treatment of a

theme
study
It
is

which has evidently been not only the object of close

but also of deep, one might say, affectionate
difificult

interest.

to say

what

is

more

to

be admired

the complete mastery

over the material, the profound grasp of Maimonides's metaphysical

doctrines, the original conception of the underlying principles of

Maimonides's system of

ethics, the
life

subtle psychological inquiry

into the connexion between the

crystal-like,

and system of

his hero, or the

one

is

tempted to

say,

Maimonides-hke
is

lucidity with

which a subject accessible but to few

even palatable
to the ordinary
is

made

intelligible

and

Hebrew

reader.
it

Though

this

not the place for polemics, yet

is

only

fair

to state that, with all our appreciation of the superior merits of

Ahad Ha-'am's essay, we cannot agree to The greatest achievement of Maimonides

by the
title,
',

its

fundamental
as A.
'

thesis.

lies,

H.

indicates

in the fact that

he proclaimed the

Sovereignty of

Reason

that in a period, in

which reason was made subservient

to religion,

he had the courage to make religion subservient

to free the latter

to reason
this

and

from

all

external authority.

But

construction

ascribes

motives to

Maimonides which are

essentially

modern and

therefore an anachronism.

To be
',

sure,

Maimonides
*

believed in the sovereignty of reason, not, however,

is

because religion
is

not above reason, but beneath

it

but because

religion

identical with reason.

^Maimonides

at

no time doubted
divine

and on many occasions emphatically acknowledged the

AH AD HA-'AM'S essays

FRIEDLAENDER
to-day

639
This

origin of the Pentateuch in the strictest sense of the word.

whole-hearted unquestioning acceptance, by a

critical turn of

man of Maimonides's
is

mind, of a

dogma which
is

the

first

target

of theological scepticism,

in itself characteristic of the

period
his

and

its

scholastic

way of thinking

to

which Maimonides paid

tribute

no

less

than the great

Avicenna, or Averroes.

Mohammedan philosophers, However this may be, the belief,

far

Alfarabi,
logically

pursued, means not the sovereignty of reason, but the sovereignty

of the divine.

That Maimonides was

more

radical

and
is

far

more
him
and
Bible

successful in his rationalism than his predecessors

more

the result of his pedagogic outlook upon the Bible which enabled
to see in the
still

Scriptures a popular

manual of philosophy,"
which made the

more so of

his marvellous exegetic skill

truths.

yield

sacrifice

was ready to what he considers the outer meaning of the Scriptures

Aristotelian

Maimonides

to the results of philosophy, but

what

his attitude

would have
Aristotle

been,

if

the utter incompatibility between Bible

to him,
is

and

had been conclusively demonstrated

be demonstrated.
to

difficult to say.

Fortunately for him this incompatibility was not and could not

At any

rate,

it

does not seem to us admissible

conception which lay

make Maimonides

responsible for a

completely beyond the horizon of his period.

The

English translation of

essays culled from the three

Ahad Ha-'am offers a selection of Hebrew volumes which had heretofore

more
general

appeared.

The

essays

chosen are of a

and

philosophic character, while those of a more decided publicistic

tendency, particularly the articles containing A. H.'s criticism of

Political

Zionism were eliminated. The wisdom of

is

this principle of

selection

apparent, for

it

would have been purposeless

to offer the
itself

criticism of a
IS little

movement

to a public to

which the movement

more than a name.

The

English translation,

and

only

I
'

have dealt with

this particular aspect of

'

Maimonides's ideas in

my

article

Maimonides as an Exegete London, 1907;.

[Annual ofthe Union of Literary Societies


640

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

he who has tried the experiment knows the difficulty of rendering Ahad Ha-'am's clear-cut and idiomatic Hebrew^ into another
language,

is

an excellent piece of work.

It

is

true

to

the

language of the original and to the character of its

own

language,

no higher compliment can be paid

places the translation
is

to

any

translation.

In some
I

too

literal, at least for

my
I

taste.

have

examined only a part of the volume, but

following unnecessarily literal renderings:
p.

have found the

1.

42,

16,

in

the

days when the temple stood';

p.

60,

1.

16, 'like

a stone which

none has turned';

God].'

p. 77,

1.

i,

'the destruction of the

House

[of

It is regrettable that the translator

has been so sparing

with his notes.

to the

The

biblical verses

which are known, of course,

in the transla-

Hebrew
as

public, should have

been indicated

tion

they stand, they must be bewildering

to the English

reader.

On

the other hand, a note like the one on p. 45 which

merely explains a Hebrew idiom of Ahad Ha-'am, such as could

easily

have been rendered by a corresponding English phrase,

of that beautiful
little

spoils the effect

essay.
'

P. 64, note

r,

gives a misleading definition of Haskalah.

The

application of

modern methods
history
'

of research to

Hebrew

literature

and Jewish
(where, hown. i,
is

is

not exactly characteristic of the Haskalah, but rather

is

of Jewish Science which

ever,

defined on p. 65,
out).

n.

'problems' ought to be stricken

P. 75,

a
5.

misunderstanding.

The

verse

is

a quotation from Jeremiah 27.

In conclusion
is

should

like to point out a sin of

omission which

of a

more

serious character.

Mr. Simon has prefaced the

in

volume by a thoughtful introduction

conception of
provide to

which he indicates his

Ahad Ha-am's philosophy, but he has failed to readers, many of whom will hear Ahad Ha-'am's name
any biographical or bibliographical data.
this
is

for the first time, with

This
to
if

is

the

more

regrettable, as

the
I

first

English book

be translated from modern Hebrew, and

should not wonder

many a
Mr.

reader even failed to recognize that

It is

a contemporary.
give

to

be hoped that a second edition

to

Ahad Ha-'am is may

improvements

Simon an opportunity

adopt

the

suggested above.

AHAD
The third
edition of

HA-'AM'S essays

FRIEDLAENDER

641

publication

of the constant spread of

may finally be mentioned as an indication Ahad Ha-'am's influence. The German

Ahad Ha'am is one of the few Jewish books in German which have lived to see a second edition. Ahad Ha-'am's essays have evidently taken a deep hold on a certain section of German
Jewry, particularly

among
their

the academic youth.

am

informed

that the Jewish student societies in

Germany make

the admission

and promotion of
A. H.'s writings.

members the

Jewish societies follow

the system of the ^?^r^r//f;w^/za//^;/ dependent on the study of

The German
It

translation differs in

its

make-up
the
first

from the English.

limits

itself

to selections from

Hebrew volume, except for the last essay on Nietzsche (from the second Hebrew volume) which was added in the new edition. The essays selected are mainly of a publicistic character bearing
largely

on the Palestinian movement,

is

for

the

Jewish

public

m
It

Germany
is

far better

acquainted with that movement than

in

England or America.
of the

An
ideas

introduction

supplies
offers

the

necessary biographical
short
analysis

and bibliographical data and

principal

of

Ahad Ha-'am.

The
in

second edition has been carefully revised by the translator

conjunction with the author.

The
by a

Jiidischer Verlag promises

H.'s essays which
is

the publication of a second

in

volume of A.

the course of preparation

different translator.

MITTWOCH'S ISLAMIC LITURGY AND CULT

Zur
Entstehungsgeschichte des
islamischen

Gebets

und Kultus.

By

Prof.

Dr.

Eugex Mittwoch.
40.

[Reprint from AbhatidlVissenschaften.\

lungefi der

Konigl preussischen Akademie der

Berlin, 19 13, pp. 42.

The above
author which
is

treatise

anticipates a larger
'

work by the same

to deal with
all its

the influence of Judaism

'.

upon the

law of Islam in
tion of the

branches
cult

It limits itself to

an examinato fix

Mohammedan

and

liturgy

and endeavours

642

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

of

the share of Judaism in the genesis of this vital province

Mohammedanism.
Judaism
others.

Stray

facts

illustrating

the

influence

of

in this particular direction have

been pointed out by

Professor :Mitt\voch, however, has gathered the material,

both Jewish and

it

to a searching analysis.

Mohammedan, systematically, and has subjected Many points of contact observed or

ingeniously conjectured by our author are as obvious as they are surprising. Thus the Mohammedan prescriptions regarding bodily
purity as a condition for prayer closely resemble those of Judaism,

and the author

is

right in supposing that these precepts,

in

which

have gradually come into disuse

observed by the Jews of Arabia

Judaism, must

still

have been

{p. 14).

The

ablutions preceding

prayer, which are so characteristic a feature of the

ritual,

Mohammedan

no doubt go back to Jewish models, and one has only to

the

read Lane's description of the implements for ablution {Planners

and Customs of

Modern Egyptians, Ch.

parallels.
'

Ill) to

be vividly

reminded of Jewish
sponds both
regarding

The requirement
intention
',

of the niyya,

the concentration, verbally the

in

during prayer, corre-

conception and term to the Talmudic precept

while,
it

Art/?e/(7;/rt (p. 16),

may be added,

the expression
its

of this intention in a definite formula has,

in

at least,

parallel

a similar practice of Judaism.^

The

Kibla, the direction in

prayer, originally towards Jerusalem, subsequently towards Mecca,

is

universally recognized as an adaptation from Judaism,

as an
interesting illustration of the

and

it

may be added,

mutual character
that the Jewish-

of the relationship between the two religions,

Arabic writers designate

that

in turn the

Mizrah of

the synagogue by

Mohammedan

term.

The Jewish

practice of standing at the

wall during prayer,

and the

further precept that

no separating

object be placed between the wall and the praying person, have

been taken over by Islam

1

(p.

15).

The term .WJ/

'J^H,

(originally

The formula plO

"ijnn or J13D

which

is

still

widely used,

originated in the Kabbalistic circle in Palestine in the sixteenth to seventeenth century. Comp. A. Berliner, Randbeuierkungen eum tdglkken Gebetbuch,
I,

p. 36.

As

the environment

was Mohammedan,
it.

the formula

may well

have been borrowed from Islam or influenced by

mittvvoch's islamic
salot)

liturgy friedlaender

643

from Aramaic xni^V was borrowed, as Professor Mittwoch

rightly points out (p. 6), not

from the Christians but,

like other

Aramaic terms, from the Jews of Arabia and was employed, as

the author ingeniously conjectures, not only in the general sense of prayer, but also, corresponding to the Talmudic designation of the Shmoneh Esreh as NDlbv (or n^sn), in the specific meaning
of the essential part of the

Mohammedan
particularly
',

service,

in distinction

from

its

less essential

portions.

The Kiydm,

or the standing

recitation
as-sa/dt,
'

of the Saldt, and

to

the expression
in the sense of
*

akdma
reciting

make
',

the prayers stand up

Jewish practice of standing during the Shmoneh Esreh and the designation of the latter as

the prayers

strikingly resembles the

'Amldah (p. 16), a resemblance which is the more interesting since the other gestures of prayer prevalent in Islam (particularly
kneeling and bowing, see a different term.
is

later)

might have naturally suggested

The KirSa,
trace
is
'

the recitation of the Koran, which

is

an

essential part of the Saldt,

convincingly identified with

limitation to two
daily

VDC'

DNnp, and a

of

its

original

prayers, as in Judaism,

subtly detected by the author (p. 17).

at the

The Saldm,
is

'

the greeting

end of the

Mohammedan

liturgy

closely corresponds to the Dl^K^n .1313 and, just as in Judaism,

repeated twice (qi^l"

D*c^

and

DI^'J'

nc'iy),

the second time,

and with the same movements of the head towards the right and the left Thus the influence of Judaism upon the Mohammedan (p. 18).
ritual,

in exact accord with the Jewish practice, inaudibly

not only in

its

general outlines but also in

its

specific

details, is raised
It

by Professor Mittwoch

to indisputable certainty.

seems to me, however, that Professor Mittwoch goes somefar

what too

in

the application

of his theory.

Having once
illus-

established by an array of interesting, sometimes striking

trations, the

importance of Judaism in the development of the

cult, the

Mohammedan
particular

author concludes that everything in this

source.
place.

domain of Islam must be derived from the same

is

But such a conclusion

however close and

entirely unwarranted.

In the

first

Professor Mittwoch himself will surely not deny that a parallel,

striking,

does not always imply borrowing,

644
but

'^"^

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Thus
the

may be

the result of similar historic conditions.

author endeavours to prove (pp. 31, 35) that the

Mohammedan

precept which limits the holding of the Saldt al-jiinia, the public Friday service, in a misr or municipality is derived from the

opinion of R. Eleazar ben 'Azariah (Mishnah, Berakot, IV, 7) that

the

Musaf

service be only held

military

"^^y

nann.

But the

rise of the

amsdr from

camps and the

role of the public service in

Islam as a disciplinary factor, and as a manifestation of communal and even political Ufe, fully and naturally account for the condition attaching to the Friday service.

In a similar manner,
of holding

Professor Mittwoch connects the

Mohammedan custom

the holiday services, in distinction

from the Friday services, on

the musalld, an open place before the mosque, with the Jewish practice mentioned in the Mishnah of holding the services on
fast

days (on the occasion of drought), on the street

(p.

34).

But, apart from the incongruity between festivals and

in both cases the greater attendance to be expected

fast

days,

on such

occasions makes the use of an open place, East, perfectly intelligible, and similarly the

particularly in the
larger

number

of

benedictions required on these occasions both by Judaism and Islam are fully accounted for by the solemnity of the ceremony.

striking illustration of a coincidence without

is,

any

historic con-

nexion

in

my

opinion, the

raf

al-yadain,

'

the raising of the

hands'

(p. 18),

a supplication recited with raised hands at the end

of the obligatory prayers.

The term corresponds

it.

verbally

to

D^DD

nX''C'J

yet has nothing to do with

first

It differs essentially

from the Jewish ceremony,

it

in its application, for in Islam

it

is

neither a priestly function nor has

is

the character of a the duty of every

blessing, but

rather a supplication,
It

and
its

is

praying person.

further differs

in

external form, for in

Islam the palms are drawn together and

It
is

lifted toivards

the face.

evidently one of the numerous ancient gestures of prayer

preserved in the
gesture, which,

Mohammedan

ritual

and

differs

from the biblical

as indicated by the verb iy-|D generally applied

to

it,

consisted in stretching out the palms.

it

Again

seems to us that

in his

attempt to prove the complete

mittwoch's islamic liturgy FRIEDLAENDER

645

and systematic derivation of the Mohammedan ritual from Judaism Professor Mittwoch does not take sufficiently into account that,
judging a /'n'ori,
it is

scarcely conceivable that the religion of Islam

which teaches as a cardinal doctrine the abrogation of Judaism and Christianity could adopt from either systematically and, hence,
consciously a whole set of practices or liturgies. An examination of the legendary and, what was originally identical, the historic material of the sacred literature which Islam borrowed from

Judaism shows the extensive, sometimes completely obliterating

modifications which have taken place in
mission,

the

course of transcase

and

it

is

only natural

that

in

the

of concrete

which have to adapt themselves to stubborn reality such modifications should even be more extensive. Another factor to which Professor Mittwoch does not pay
institutions

the influence of Christianity. We need not accept Wellhausen's dictum that Islam owes the dough to Judaism and the leaven to Christianity. Nor need we agree to the clearcut formula of Professor Becker, who in his highly interesting
is

sufficient attention

study of the same subject,^ distributes Jewish, Christian, and Persian influences respectively over the three periods marked by the life of the prophet, the Omayyad and the Abbassid rule. But without going to the extreme, the probability of Christian influence on the Mohammedan cult must be admitted

a priori.

For the outstanding, unrivalled importance which is assigned to prayer in Islam, the fundamental character of the Salat as a system of kneeling and bowing, it was just this aspect of the Mohammedan prayer which aroused the resentment of the free

Arabs, the very designation of the mosque

of prosternation
',

as masjid,

'

a place

the indisputable dependence of

Mohammedan

religious architecture on Christian models, all this clearly suggests Christian influence, in spite of isolated Jewish parallels which can be quoted and are quoted by Professor Mittwoch from

Judaism."
398.

* 3

Zur
The

Geschichte des islamischen Kultus,

isolated

Der Islam, 19 12,

p.

Talmudic utterances about the importance of prayer

note 6) cannot account for the much greater emphasis

(Mittwoch,
laid

loc. dt., p. 5,

on prayer

in Islam.

According

to the

Talmudic conception, study

is

646

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

To
quote concrete examples, our author endeavours to derive

the five daily prayers of Islam from the three Jewish prayers by

assuming that the Mificha and the Aid rib prayer have, on account of the latitude in the period of their recitation, been amplified in
Islam into four prayers
(p. 11
f.).

But such an adaptation would

presuppose not only an intimate study of the Jewish ritual but

also a conscious tendency to adhere strictly to
it,

and such a
expressed

tendency

is

highly

improbable.

If

the

frequently

view which draws upon the

five prayers in

Parsism be unacceptable,
to

and

if

the assumption that Islam

has simply endeavoured

*

increase the obligations of Judaism

does not carry conviction,

indeed Professor
five prayers

then one would rather

feel inclined to derive, as 13),

Mittwoch himself

faintly suggests (p.

from the

on Yom Kippur. For from the purely psychological point of view it would appear natural that the services on the high holidays made a greater impression upon the Mohammedans and were
in

consequence better known to them than the services on other

days,

and there are some other indications in the same direction.^ Again, the public service on Friday is shown to be an exact
(p.

copy of the Sabbath service

panying benedictions, the
ipID Dips are

27

ff.),

and the Musaf

prayer, the

Pentateuch reading and the prophetic lesson, with their accomsitting

down during

the Gelilah and

drawn upon

to explain the details of the

Moham-

more important than prayer.

Judaism
',p.

The same

applies to the prosternations in

17 below).

An

isolated parallel to masjidis niPintiTI n''2 in the

ed. Schechter,

Fragments of a Zadokite Work,

^

comp.

ibid., p.

xxv.
to reduce

The legend according

I,

to

which Moses advised Mohammed

the number

of prayers to less than five (comp. Goldziher, Mohaitmicdanische

36)

Studien

may, apart from

its

anti-Arabic tendency, also have

in

polemical tendency against the small

^

number of prayers

Judaism.

The frequently quoted explanation

to point to the

of the institution of the

Addn, the

call to

prayer, as a conscious departure from the Christian knocker and the

Jewish trumpet, seems

Shofar on

New Year,

the function of

which was misunderstood. Similarly the frequent prosternations on Yom Kippur (partly on Rosh Hashaita) may have served as a contributory cause
to impress

upon the Mohammedans the form

of prosternation as an essential

feature of prayer.

''

MITTVVOCH'S ISLAMIC

LITURGY FRIEDLAENDER

647

ritual. Fascinating and brilliant as the whole hypothesis arouses our suspicion by the very extent of imitation it presupposes, an imitation which would only be intelligible if Islam had consciously set about to reproduce the Jewish
is,

medan
it

liturgy.

And

indeed when, armed with

this healthy scepticism,

we approach
its

the hypothesis closely, the resemblance loses

tion.

To

take a specific example.

is

much of The outstanding

fascina-

feature of
is

the Friday service

the double
sits

sermon or Khutba, which

so

arranged that the preacher

moments
alldh)

of private devotion.

down in the middle for a few The most important component

'
:

parts of the

Khutba are

as follows

the praise of
'

God {hamd
'

and

'

the prayer for the Prophet

'

{as-saldt

aW 7i-nabi\

the

Koran

recitation {Kird'a), the

recommendation of the

fear of

God'

{al-7vasiyya bi't-fakwd),

and the 'supplication

for the Faithful

corresponds, according to Professor Mittwoch, to the reading of the Law, the

'

{ad-du'd

IVl-vm'mimn).

The

Koran

recitation

recommendation of the

fear of

God
'

'

to the Haftarah,

'

the praise

God' and 'the prayer for the Prophet' to the benedictions accompanying these recitations, the supplication for the
of
Faithful
to
\vr^ti

Dip>,

and the

sitting

down

of the preacher to the sitting

down during Gelilah. Yet on close examination we find that none of these points of contact is such as to carry full conviction.
First of all, there is a radical and, on the assumption of historic connexion, scarcely explicable divergence in that in Judaism these various parts of the service are distributed over a number of persons, while in Islam they are limited to one. Then the

recitation consists only of a few Koran verses. The 'recommendation of the fear of God is entirely different from the Haftarah, one only need compare the specimen oi 2. Khutba reproduced by Lane {Manners and Customs of the Modern
'

Koran

Egyptians, Ch. III).

The

sitting

down during
from the

Gelilah
sitting

is

in setting

and purpose fundamentally

preacher,
offers

different

down

of the

and even the 'supplication for the Faithful' which the most convincing point of contact may be a natural
slippery

coincidence.

How

such wholesale comparisons

may be can be
;. ^,

VOL. n-.

648

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

fact

seen from the

that Professor Becker in the article quoted

facts

above marshals a whole array of

to

show the complete

true or nearer to

Sunday

dependence of the Whether Becker's theory service.

Mohammedan

Friday ritual on the Christian

is

truth can only be determined by one

who

is

intimately acquainted

period with the form of Christian prayer such as prevailed in the

as under consideration. The adaptation will scarcely have been above all, as systematic as Professor Becker is extensive and, But, if one may rely on what is rather inclined to assume.
his deria subjective impression in this domain of hypothesis, corresponding scheme vation of the double Khtitba from the

of

the

Christian

service

seems more natural than Professor

Mittwoch's fascinating comparison.

the
truth will

As

in so

many

other cases,

be found to

lie

midway.

Islam did not consciously

It

or systematically imitate

Judaism or Christianity.

borrowed

unconsciously, one might say,

with childlike inconsistency, the

elements

it

needed

for its growth, often

guided by externalities

which which catch the eye, hence the imitation of minutiae

seems so

surprising.
ritual
is

Further investigation

may show

that the

Mohammedan

indebted alike to Jewish and Christian these models and may also lay bare the transformation which adaptation to a new and in models have undergone in their

many

respects radically different environment.

difficult

In the delicate and

domain of interreligious relationship

agreement

is

often impossible,

called upon to supply the lack of objective

and subjectivehypothesis is frequently But whether facts.

is

we agree with

all

of Professor Mittwoch's theories, there

no

doubt that he has greatly advanced the subject of his inquiry.

Even where not

will
will ultimately

tenable,

his

ideas suggest possibilities

all

which

have to be borne in mind in

bear rich
fruit.

future investigations,
is

and

The author

right in emphasizing,

Judaism upon against recent denials, the fact that the influence of limited to the time of the Prophet, but Islam was by no means
imporwas of great importance I would say, of much greater development and tance, during the subsequent period of the
consolidation of

Mohammedan

law

(p. 42).

'To

illustrate this,

mittvvoch's islamic
as
if

liturgy friedlaender
Mohammedan
fully

649
prayer

by a paradigm, by the theory of the

cult,'

and
His
is

was, as the author

tells

us {ibid.\ the purpose of his

book.

This

purpose Professor Mittwoch has

achieved.

has whetted our appetite for the larger project which to embrace the whole province of Mohammedan law, and every
treatise
is

one who
in

interested in the important

and

attractive borderland

which Judaism and Islam meet

will

or a mutual

exchange of

goods

look forward with keen anticipation to the promised

publication.

Israel Friedlaender.
Jewish Theological Seminary
of America.

V y

AN EGYPTIAN DOCUMENT FOR THE

HISTORY OF PALESTINE
Quite
recently,

the

Russian

Government

has

issued

magnificent publication which for thirty years has been awaited

most anxiously by

scholars, viz. a part of the papyri of the

museum
sailor,

in St. Petersburg,^ containing

some of

the most precious texts for

Egyptology, such as the famous story of the shipwrecked

and another
which
I

story of great literary

and

historical

interest

on

do not

yet feel able to report.

By

the side of these texts

from the Middle Empire of Egypt

Pap. 11 16

(after

2000 B.C.) appears one

of quite an unexpected character, of which nothing had been

rumoured so

far:

a, verso.

At

first

sight, this list of

official accounts, dealing principally with payments in grain from

the royal granaries,

is

very unattractive.

After closer examination,

however,

it

proves to contain a piece of great importance for

I believe

the history of Palestine which

to the

my

duty to bring directly

a
list

knowledge of Biblical students.

It is

of Palestinian

ambassadors to

whom

rations in grain

and beer were measured

the variants of both

out from the governmental magazines, probably at Thebes.

This
versions

list

appears twice in the papyrus

in

and the apparent mistakes

the

rendering of

some

geographical names prove that

we have not

the original report,

but a somewhat hasty copy of

it

taken from a hieratic manuscript.

Thus

the

names

are, in the best case,

I transliterate

second-hand
full,

tradition,

and

need some
^

criticism.

the text in

Les papyrus hieratiques

tios.

iii^,iii6A

et

iii6b de rErniitage Imperial

fol.

Si.-Pt'tersbourg, 1913.

8 pp., 28 + 4 plates, large

6:;i

It

has reached

me

through

W.

Golenisheff's kindness.

652
PI. 17,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

67) Account of the grain furnished to the nobles {tna-ra{Sa-h'i)"-

y-na) of Syria 68)

The messenger

of the foreign country of Ma-k(e)-ti

beer, jars (?) 3, of (?) (grain)

measures
ditto

69)
70) 71) 72)
73)

The messenger of A (emend

K'z)-7i-ua-ra-tu,

y{ayka-si-pi/,
\^Sa\7?ia-t{J)ii-na,

[Ta- \'a-?ia-A'i

74)

Tl-n-fiY,

75) 76)

S[a'\-rn-7/a,

\E)-s-ka-ru-na,
J///-su{\)-ra,
(?)^'

77)
78)

Ha-U(-7tia,

Second
PI. 22,
1.

List.
. . .

183) Account of the grain

:

184) Ha-ti-tii-7na (determinative

grain, 7

foreign

man

!),

beer,

jar

measures

(+

a:

+_y?).
i

185) [the messengjer oiMa'k{e)-ii,

Sa-rn-7ia, beer,

ditto, (grain)
i
(

measure

i (

+ ;r).

one

jar,

measure
i

+ .r).

186) ditto Kie)-7i-7iara-ti(,

\E)-s-ka-ru-7ia,
i

ditto

(same)

(same).
i

187) ditto Y{n)-ka-sY-pu,

ditto (same).

Hu-su-ra

(same).
i

188) ditto Sa-7na-dn[^7ia\,

189) ditto Ta- a-7ia\-k'!\
i

ditto (same).

ditto

(sameV

190) ditto

Ti-n-fiY.

"

See the Egyptian passages on

this

name

'nT; HnT
I

?;

Astett

und
its

Europa, where, on the statements of some inscriptions,

had narrowed

meaning

to

that

of

'

Phoenicia

'.

The name

is

largely used in a very

vague sense, and may partly correspond to the Semitic Canaan, partly to
Syria at large.
^
*

bold abbreviation of the group for the often repeated

',

word

wpivty

messenger

as

believe.

The

scribe thought probably he could take such

a liberty at the end.

DOCUMENT FOR
(At an isolated place,
for the
'

TFIE

HISTORY OF PALESTINE
1.

653

pi. 15,

2)

'

Account of grain and beer

bushels
(?) 10,

messenger oi Ra-kr-sa, daily

'.

15,

which makes

prince measures 20
I

do not enter upon the metrological

these questions here specially

questions, which

seem

to

me
text

quite indifferent.

Furthermore, the evident corruptions of the

difficult.
I

make

limit

myself

to the geographical names.*

These

are, following the

arrangement

of

list I

Megiddo.

The name
It

stands

first

because of the very prominent

first

part played by that city, not only during the

campaign of
direct

Thutmosis

III.

had an important

situation

on the most

road over the Carmel, connecting Palestine and Phoenicia.

also in the great Palestine
list

Thus

of Thutmosis III

(JfFAG., XII

(1907-8), no.

2.

K{e)7i7iaraUi or

Kinuaratu

is

the Kinneroth of Naphtali.

The

Egyptian writing, agreeing closely with the K{e)7innrafi/ of the

great
list

(no. 34), decides in a very

remarkable way the pronuncia-

tion of the
tradition.

name which

is

rather uncertain in biblical

is

and other

Especially the ending -u

a clear indication of a long

final syllable -at or -of.

Y(a)-ka-si-J>u

seems

to

be the biblical Achshaph.

The
(')
is

initial

seems to be a corruption of the ordinary aleph-sign

syllabic

of the

orthography

change of akp/i

and yod

otherwise
is

impossible in Egyptian.
It

The

vocalization,

indeed,

strange.

must not be used to connect the name with Achzlb-Ecdippa,

I

as

is

never

s for

the Egyptians.

It

might only be possible that

we have above an erroneous

in the vocalization
;

assimilation of
is,

Achshaph and Achzlb

the latter

however, rarely a very reliable

matter in the wild orthography of the Egyptians.

list
*

The

Palestine

writes

\E)-k-s(a})p (no. 40) with an unusual syllabic sign

transliteration of foreign
p. 58,

For the

names

in

hieroglyphs see m3-remarks,

Asien

und Europa,
for

considerably corrected, MitteiUingen der Vorder1912, 237.

I

asiafischen
Tu-ii'i-pa

Gesellschaft

{MVAG.., XII,

prefer to write, e.g.,

what, according to archaic Egyptian orthography, might be

,

written also

Twnyp ^

&c., in order to distinguish the

style.
(I

'

syllabic

'

or 'vocalizing
i

'

orthography from the archaic

ordinary Egyptian
voo',

write

for the

two

strokes,

for tiie

when

used as a vowel.

654
which,
after

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

its

most

common

Egyptian value

{sop),

ought

to be sap.

Sa-ma-du-na

is

a very remarkable

rendering
b,

of

the
to

name
have
it

Shabbathon.

The

w, where we should expect

seems

arisen from a very strongly-voiced pronunciation of the bb, as

leads in other cases to the dissimilation

writes the
(cp.

7/ib

for bb.

Ramses

III

same name

Sa-bii-du-na,
I
;

Thutmosis III (73) Sa-b-tu-na

MVAG.,
Ta'anach

XII, 23).
is

am

not quite sure about the situation."

common

the ending appears as ka or ki in

Egyptian renderings, as
pX"fc'[N~i]
'

in

cuneiform.
'

God's summit

is

new name,

unless the city be

identical with the important place

mentioned three times by the

in Galilee, Rti-sa-k{a)d-s{a),
is

Egyptians
\V\\>
tJ'N")
'

{MVAG.,

I.

c, 17),
'.

probably

holy summit
I

Such a variant of the name

not

altogether probable,
T)-7i-ni (with

think.
/ in

a special
or

the

first

syllable

which ought to
is

point

to

long

diphthongic

pronunciation)

difficult

problem.

The strongest argument against the impossible comparison with Dan is the mi also otherwise the two names are similar. The uncommon initial syllable occurs in the little great Palestine list (no. 98) only in the name Tipu-nu = 'Da.\h6n
;

(in

Juda?).

It

would not be impossible to see a graphic cor-

ruption of this

name

in

Tinni

only

it

would then be necessary

as constant, while

to consider that strange orthography

Tipu-nu
1.

we have D{e)-b-7m by
the explanation open.

its

side

{MVAG.,

c, 38).

Thus

leave

Saruna

is

the city
list

Saruna of the Amarna Tablets, Sa-ru-tia

which seems
'.

of the Palestine

(21), the city

'

to

have given

its

name
to

to the biblical

plain of Sharon

In the

name

of Ashkelon the

initial,

which would point rather

Egyptian

an E- or /- than

to the traditional A-, returns in other

passages,
^'

and seems,

therefore, to deserve

some

attention.
In hieratic
rii, is

Golenisheff advocates the reading

6'rt-;;/rt-n<-;/a

= Samaria.

texts,

however, the combination

r-\-ii,

instead of the syllabic sign

very

unusual and here quite improbable.

Samaria

is

never mentioned by the

Egyptians;

it

must have been an insignificant place before Omri.

DOCUMENT FOR THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE

In Hu-su ra
I

655

see nothing but a corruption for Iln-san-ra,

which

is

the usual Egyptian orthography for the important city of

is

Hasor (^a
seems
to

a well-known combination

j?/,

because simple

be uncalligraphic).
;

The

signs sa

and su are very

similar

in hieratic

otherwise
i-::=V.

it

would be very

difficult to furnish

instances

of Egyptian
I

cannot do anything with the

text,
it

last

name, Ha-tu-ma.

In the

second copy of our

the
list,

has been placed at the beginning of

totally disfigured

radical (//=///),

and

is

by an erroneous doublet of the second misunderstood as a personal name. The

in the

abnormal amount of grain rations

suspect that the

second place makes

me
(as

name
1.

originally stood at the

78),

end of the

list

in the first instance,

and was followed by the sum

total

of the rations for the ten or eleven ambassadors.

The
city

strong

disfigurement of the
of the

name makes such

possible.
I

a thoughtless copying

numbers quite
I

do not think a

DDn, DUn

can be found.
into the

know nothing

better than a bold

list

emendation

{MVAG., XII, 32, no. ri8: the identity of this name wath Ha-m of the list of King Shoshenk, c, 38, is not certain). I myself am not quite
of the large geographical
/.

Hu-ma

convinced of

this

emendation.
list is

The
1500
B.

principal importance of this

that

it

gives us an idea
i.

of those cities which in the time of Thutmosis III,*

e.

after

c, were seats of kings.

Only an independent king would

chiefs

deal directly with the suzerain in Egypt;

under

his rule

had, of course, to communicate through the agency of the king

otherwise
it

would have been high treason

tolerate

for

them, just as

Pharaoh could not

one of

his vassals to write to Assyria

or to the king of the Hittites,

This selection of names agrees

I)

well with the enumeration of (royal

cities in the great list

quoted

here so frequently, and with the

Amarna

tablets.
'

The Egyptian

expression

'

messenger

may mean

the ordinary

carrier of a letter, or the dignified

ambassador possessing some

The papyrus
it

is

not dated, but

in the

W.

Golenisheff gives good reasons for

III.

connecting

with a papyrus

Louvre, written under Thutmosis

656

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The
this
first
list

rank and power.

'

expressly calls

them fnarayna
literally

'^

noblemen

',

but

must not be

understood too

Egyptian vanity may have included the simple

letter-carriers.

More remarkable
for their

is

the fact that the Egyptian government paid

maintenance.

This would agree with their coming as

I feel

bearers of tribute or in other important functions.

doubtful

whether every bearer of a tablet to the Egyptian court could

claim support from the Egyptian
at Pharaoh's residence.
.a

officials
'

on the road or those

'

Thus those messengers may have had

character.

somewhat exceptional

At any

rate,

they were hardly

gives us the

an accidental gathering.

The

selection of

names

impression that a small caravan was formed in Galilee to keep

company on

the unsafe roads of Palestine, and that

'

it

picked up

a couple of similar

messengers

'

like the

one from Ashkelon.

enumeration
is,

The Egyptian arrangement The most

is

of the

names

in their

of course, quite unsystematic.

important contribution to the history of Palestine

J?a-kY-s(7, i.e.

the isolated mention of a messenger horn

far,
;

Lachish.
this

So

no Egyptian

inscription or papyrus

had mentioned

place

the Petersburg papyrus confirms that the city was then as

later, in biblical times.
I

important as

direct the attention of

my

readers to the remarkably

good vocalization of the name by our

the

Egyptian, agreeing absolutely with

the tradition.

cuneiform Lakisa and

In general, the orthography of the foreign names

here

is,

notwithstanding the copyist's blunders mentioned above,

better than the average,

and confirms
for Asiatic

my

contention that the

caricatured imitation of cuneiform vocalization, which the Egyptians

of that period employed
useful information.

names, sometimes yields

Cp. above the remarks on Kinnaroth.

W. Max Muller.
University of Pennsylvania.
s
'

Vocalize Q'd;/, the Canaanitish

"'"1^0,

Arabic

^jy.*,

with the amplifica-

tive

ending

-on.

END OF VOLUME

IV,

NEW

SERIES

DS 101

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