Limit and Continuity In this rst lecture, we study the functions, that is the way in which one quantity

y depends upon some other quantity x, according to y = f (x). In particular, we shall study those functions for which y varies continuously with x, in the sense that a small change in x results in a small change in y. First, let us consider some examples:

Example A y

Example B y

Example C y

x x x

f (x) = x2

f (x) =

x2 , x = 0 1, x = 0

f (x) =

1, x0 1 , x < 0

The function in Example A should certainly be considered to be continuous. There are no breaks or jumps in its graph, and it is clear that a small change in x produces small change in x2 . In Example B, at x = 0, y = 1, a slightly change in x away from 0 will result in a sudden jump in the value of f (x) to a value near 0. The graph is broken at x = 0, so that Example B is not a continuous function. Example C illustrates a function which is not continuous because of the jump at the origin. In this lecture we study the behavior of f (x) when x approaches a value, say, a. approach does not mean equal Two ways to approach a given value: (i) approach from right, (ii) approach from left.

From right From left

1.5 0.5

1.1 0.9

1.01 0.99

1.001 0.999

The arrow on the left points to the right in the above diagram indicates that x approaches the value 1 from the left. Likewise, the arrow on the right points to the left indicates that x approaches the value 1 from the right. Example 1 Consider the function f (x) = 2x + 1, what happen to f (x) when x get closer and closer to 3? x f (x) 2.5 6 2.9 6.08 2.99 6.89 2.999 6.998 Table 1: f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer to 3 from left. x f (x) 3.1 7.2 3.01 7.02 3.001 7.002 3.0001 7.0002 Table 2: f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer to 3 from right. The table in above shows that the function f (x) approaches 7 when x get closer and closer to 3 from left and right. Denitions: Left-Hand Limit (LHL) If f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches a from the left, we say that L is the left-hand limit of f (x) at a and we write
xa

lim f (x) = L

or

xa, x<a

lim

f (x) = L

The symbol x a indicates that we consider only values of x that are less than a. Right-Hand Limit (RHL) 2

If f (x) gets closer to L as x approaches a from the right, we say that L is the right-hand limit of f (x) at a and we write
xa+

lim f (x) = L

or

xa, x>a

lim

f (x) = L

The symbol x a+ indicates that we consider only values of x that are greater than a. Example 2 Consider g(x) = x2 What happen to g(x) when x gets closer and closer to 3?

2.9

x g(x) = x2 2.9 8.41 2.99 8.9401 2.9999 8.9994 2.9999999 8.999999 lim g(x) = 9

x3

3.1

x g(x) = x2 3.1 9.61 3.01 9.0601 3.0001 9.0006001 3.0000001 9.0000006 3

x3+

lim g(x) = 9

As x gets closer to 3 separately from left and right, the function g(x) will separately approaches 9. Therefore, the limit of g(x) = x2 as x approaches 3 from either sides is 9. This is illustrated in the diagram below:

g(x)

x 3

Example 3 Consider f (x) = 1 , x 0 1, x>0

What happen to f (x) when x gets closer and closer to 0? x f (x) -0.5 -1 -0.1 -1 -0.01 -1 -0.001 -1 As x approaching 0 from left we see that f (x) approaches -1, i.e.
x0

lim f (x) = 1 4

x f (x) 0.5 1 0.1 1 0.01 1 0.001 1 As x approaching 0 from right we see that f (x) approaches 1, i.e.
x0+

lim f (x) = 1

f (x)

1 x

0 1

The limits of f (x) from the left and the right are not equal, thus we may conclude that LIMIT DOES NOT EXIST as x 0. Question: When does the limit exist? The limit of a function exists when

xa

lim f (x) = L

xa+

lim f (x) = L

equal

that is to say that the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left is equal to the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right. This can be written as
xa

lim f (x) = L

This means that we make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be suciently close to a (on either side of a) but x = a. In other word, in nding the limit of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a, we never consider x = a. In most of the cases, f (x) need not even be dened when x = a. The thing that we only concern is how f (x) is dened near a regardless of what happens at a. Conversely, if
xa+

lim f (x) = R

and

xa

lim f (x) = L

where R = L, then the limxa f (x) does not exist. Example 4 Evaluate the right-hand and left-hand limits of f (x) = x2 + 2x 1 at x = 1. x f (x) = x2 + 2x 1 1.1 2.41 1.01 2.0401 1.0001 2.000400001 1.000001 2.000004000001 Thus, we have
x1+

lim f (x) = 2

x f (x) = x2 + 2x 1 0.9 1.61 0.99 1.9601 0.999 1.996001 0.9999 1.99960001 Thus, we have
x1

lim f (x) = 2

Since LHL and RHL are equal

x1

lim f (x) = 2

and

x1+

lim f (x) = 2

Therefore, the limit of f (x) does exist and can be written as

x1

lim f (x) = 2 6

 Example 5 2x 1 , x < 2 f (x) = 1 , x2 x What happen when x gets closer and closer to 2? From left: x f (x) 1.9 2.8 1.99 2.98 1.999 2.998 From right: x f (x) 2.01 0.4975 2.001 0.4996 2.0001 0.49998 Thus,
x2

x2

lim f (x) = 3

x2+

lim f (x) = 0.5

lim f (x) = 3

and

x2+

lim f (x) = 0.5

Since
x2

lim f (x) = lim f (x) +

x2

Therefore, the limit of f (x) does not exist. The diagram of function f (x) is shown below: f (x) 3

0.5 2 1 x

Continuity Using function notation we represent the value of the function f (x) at x = a as f (a). Function notation gives us a nice compact way of representing function values. To evaluate the function, everywhere we see an x on the right side we will substitute whatever is in the parenthesis on the left side. For example, to evaluate the function f (x) = 2x2 5x + 4 at x = 1, we get f (1) = 2(1)2 5(1) + 4 = 1 This is represented by the diagram below:

y 2 (1, f (1)) 1

0 0 1 2

It can be shown that (by evaluating the LHL and RHL) the limit of f (x) exists when x approaches 2, lim f (x) = 2
x2

Let us consider the following function: x2 + x + 4 1 f (x) = 2 x + 1 5

, x < 2, , x > 2, , x = 2.

However, f (2) = 5. In this case,

x2

lim f (x) = f (2) .

This function is represented by the graph below:

y 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

This curve is discontinuous because there is a sudden jump/broken when x = 2. Denition 1: A function f is continuous at a number a if
xa

lim f (x) = f (a)

This requires three conditions if f is continuous at a: 1. f (a) is dened (i.e., a is in the domain of f ) 2. lim f (x) exists
xa

3. lim f (x) = f (a)

xa

These statements say that f (x) is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x approaches a. Likewise, if f (x) is dened on an open interval containing a (except at a), we say that f (x) is discontinuous at a if f (x) is not continuous at a.

Back to the example above, if f (2) = 2, the curve becomes

y 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

The curve is now continuous as the broken point on the curve has been lled by the solid dot. Denition 2:

A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

xa+

lim f (x) = f (a)

(See Example 5 of the previous section.) A function f is continuous from the left at a number a if
xa

lim f (x) = f (a)

(See Example 3 of the previous section.) Denition 3: A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the interval. Example 1 Explain why each of the following functions are discontinuous? 10

 2 x x 2 , x=2 3. f (x) = x2 1, x=2 4. f (x) = [[x]] Solution: 1. Condition 1 fails because f (2) is not dened. 2. Condition 2 fails because lim f (x) does not exist (innity).
x0

x2 x 2 x2 1 , x=0 2. f (x) = x2 1 , x=0 1. f (x) =

3. Condition 3 fails because lim f (x) = f (2).

x2

4. Condition 2 fails because lim+ f (x) = n but lim f (x) = n 1, thus lim f (x) does not exist.
xn xn xn

11

Evaluate limit of functions There are three ways to evaluate limits 1. Substitution 2. Factorization 3. Conjugate Substitution method Example 1 Given f (t) = Solution:
t

sin 2t , using substitution method evaluate lim f (t). t t lim f (t) = lim
t

sin 2t t sin 2() = lim t 0 =0 =

Theorem 1: A polynomial is continuous everywhere, i.e., it is continuous on R = (= , ). P (x) = c0 + c1 x + + cn1 xn1 + cn xn

Remark: For all continuous functions, we can evaluate limit using Substitution method. Denitions: For any polynomial functions P (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn where c0 , c1 , c2 , are constant. For any real number of a,
xa

lim P (x) = lim (c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn xn )

xa

= c0 + c1 a + c2 a2 + + cn an = P (a) 12

 Example 2 Given f (x) = x2 x 2, using substitution method evaluate lim f (x).

x2

Solution:
x2

lim f (x) = lim (x2 x 2)

x2

= (2)2 (2) 2 = 0

Denitions: A rational function f (x) is a ratio of two polynomials f (x) = P (x) , Q(x) Q(x) = 0

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials. Theorem 2: Any rational function f (x) = P (x) , Q(x) Q(x) = 0

is continuous wherever it is dened (in its domain). Example 3 Evaluate 2x3 3x2 + 2 x2 5x 3 lim

Solution: This function is rational, by Theorem 2 that it is continuous on its domain except at x = 3 . Therefore 5 2x3 3x2 + 2 2(2)3 3(2)2 + 2 6 = = . x2 5x 3 5(2) 3 7 lim

13

 Example 4 Given f (x) = Solution: x2 x 2 , evaluate lim f (x). x2 x2

What happen when we use the Substitution method? If we substitute x = 2 into f (x) we obtain a value which is equal to zero divided by zero. Important Remarks: The substitution method cannot be used if the denominator of a rational function gives 0. Factorization Method If a rational function is formed by some polynomial functions and if it is factorizable, we can use the factorization method to solve the problem (Example 4 continued): x2 x 2 (x 2)(x + 1) = lim x2 x2 x2 x2 = lim (x + 1) = 3 lim
x2

Conjugate Method Quick Review: Recall what is conjugate, for example Example 5 Evaluate x4 lim x4 x2 x3
conjugate conjugate

x+3

x1+2

x12

Solution: As the function consists of square root, we can use the conjugate method to solve this problem as follows:

14

 x+2 x4 x4 lim = lim x4 x4 x2 x2 x+2 (x 4)( x + 2) = lim x4 x4 = lim ( x + 2) x4 = 4+2=4 Example 6 Evaluate
x3

lim

Solution:

3x x+12

3x 3x x+1+2 lim = lim x3 x3 x+12 x+12 x+1+2 (3 x)( x + 1 + 2) = lim x3 x+14 (3 x)( x + 1 + 2) = lim x3 x3 (x 3)( x + 1 + 2) = lim x3 x3 = lim ( x + 1 2) = 4
x3

EXERCISES 1: Evaluate each limit using the suitable method. 1. lim

x2

x2

x1 x1

4.

x1/2 2x2

lim

2x + 1 x1

x1 x1 x2 1 x11 3. lim x2 x2 2. lim 7. Given f (x) =

x2 x 2 5. lim 2 x2 x 3x + 2 6. lim
x1

x2 1 2xx

Sketch the graph for the function f (x), and nd lim f (x).
x1

x +2, x<1 2 x + 4 , x 1

15

Innite Limit and Limit at Innity Denitions: Let f be any function dened on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. If limxa f (x) = , this means that the value of f increases (positive) or decreases (negative) without bound as x gets closer and closer to a, but not equal to a. It is important to note that the is not regarded as a number. It just to express the values of f (x) do not approach a number, i.e., the values f (x) become larger and larger (positive or negative) as x becomes closer and closer to a, and so limxa f (x) does not exist. Example 1 Consider h(t) = 2 . What happen to h(t) as t gets closer and closer to 1? t1 lim h(t) = lim
t1

2 t1 t 1

Does any methods learn earlier work in this case? How to evaluate the limit of function h(t) as t gets closer and closer to 1? In fact, it appears from the table of the function h(t) as shown below that the denominator t 1 is a small negative number as t approaches 1 from the left, and h(t) is numerically large negative. Likewise, the denominator t 1 is a small positive number as t approaches 1 from the right, and h(t) is numerically large positive. t h(t) 0.9 -20 0.999 -2000 0.99999 -200000 lim 2 = t1 t h(t) 1.1 20 1.001 2000 1.00001 200000 lim + 2 = + t1

t1

t1

16

Lets sketch the graph to see how this function behaves. h(t)

2 t1

We see above that LHL and RHL at t 1 are not equal and thus the limit of h(t) does not exist. Example 2 Evaluate 2 x1 (x 1)2 lim 2 (x 1)2 50 200 20000 2000000 2 (x 1)2 50 200 20000 2000000 2 = + (x 1)2

Solution: x 0.8 0.9 0.99 0.999 lim x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001 lim +

x1

2 = + (x 1)2 17

x1

As x gets closer to 1, both the LHL and RHL are approaching positive innity. Thus, the values of the function do not approach a number, so the limit does not exist. Denitions: Vertical Asymptote The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of the following statements is true: 1. lim f (x) =
xa xa

2. lim f (x) = 3. lim+ f (x) =

xa xa xa

4. lim f (x) = 5. lim f (x) = 6. lim+ f (x) =

xa

For instance, it can be seen in the graph in page 17 that the line t = 1 is a vertical asymptote of the curve h(t) = 2/(t 1). Horizontal Asymptote The line y = L is called the horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either
x

lim f (x) = L

or lim f (x) = L
x

is true. Example 3 x 1/x 0.1 10 0.01 100 0.001 1000 0.0001 10000

1 = x0, x>0 x lim

The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the curve 1/x since it satises condition 3.

18

 Example 4 lim + x + 1 = x2 1 (x 1) x1 (x 1)(x + 1) 1 = lim + = x1 x + 1 lim +

x1

The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote. Example 5 x x1 What happen to f (x) when x gets bigger and bigger and bigger.. towards INFINITY? f (x) = x x1 101 1.01 1001 1.001 10001 1.0001 100001 1.00001 x Thus, x =1 x x 1 In this case, the line y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote. lim Example 6 2 x x + 1 What happen to f (x) when x is large? lim 2 x+1 99 0.02 999 0.002 9999 0.0002 99999 0.00002 x Consider Consider

19

2 =0 x x + 1 The curve 2/(x + 1) approaches 0 as x getting larger and larger. The illustration of this case is given in the diagram below: lim

Thus,

Remark: At innity the limit of a polynomial is given by the limit of the monomial with the highest degree. Example 7 lim (2x2 x 1) = x 1 2 2 x 2x 2x 1 1 = lim 2x2 1 2 x 2x 2x 2 = lim 2x = lim 2x2 1
x

Example 8 2x3 5x2 3 x x3 1 What is the horizontal asymptote? lim 20 Evaluate

Solution: 2x3 5x2 3 = x x3 1 lim = Now, we consider the highest degree terms. 2x3 5x2 3 2x3 = lim 3 = 2 x x x x3 1 lim Thus, y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote. Example 9 Evaluate
x 5 x3 2 x2 1 x x3 1 x3

lim

3 x3

lim

2 x52 1 x13

3 x3

=2

lim

What is the horizontal asymptote? Solution:

x

9x4 5x2 3 3x3 1

lim

9x4 5x2 3 = 3x3 1

9x4 x 3x3 3x2 = lim x 3x3 1 = lim = 0 x x lim

Thus, y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote. EXERCISE 2: Evaluate the limit and nd the vertical/horizontal asymptote. 1. x x2 x2 4 x 2. lim 2 x x 4 lim + 3. lim

4. Find lim C, where a and C are constants.

xa

2x2 + 3x 1 x 3x2 2x + 4

21

Rules and Theorems Rules: (I) Finite case Let a, b and c be any arbitrary real numbers, and suppose that
xa

lim f (x) = L1

and

xa

lim g(x) = L2

Then 1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L1 + L2

xa

2. lim [f (x) g(x)] = L1 L2

xa

3. lim [cf (x)] = cL1 ,

xa

for any c R

4. lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
xa

5. lim

xa

f (x) L1 = , g(x) L2

if L2 = 0

6. lim [f (x)]n = L1 n
xa

For those who are interested to verify the rules in above, please refer to the appendix. Example 1 Given lim F (t) = 8 ,
t2

lim G(t) = 2 ,
t2

lim H(t) = 0.1

t2

Compute (i) lim[2F (t)G(t)H(t)]

t2

(ii) lim
t2

F (t)

(iii) lim
t2

F (t) + lim[H(t)]2 t2 G(t)

Solution: (i) lim[2F (t)G(t)H(t)] = 2(8)(2)(0.1) = 3.2 t2 3 (ii) lim 3 F (t) = 8 = 2

t2

22

(iii) lim
t2

8 F (t) + lim[H(t)]2 = + (0.1)2 = 3.99 t2 G(t) 2

(II) Innite case When we evaluate the limit of a function, we have to nd an appropriate method if the following indeterminate forms are encountered: 1. innity minus innity, 2. innity times zero, 0 3. innity divided by innity, 4. zero divided by zero, Example 2 Given lim F (t) = ,
t2 0 0

lim G(t) = 2 ,
t2

lim H(t) = 0 .
t2

Compute (i) lim[2F (t)G(t)]

t2

(ii) lim
t2

F (t)
2

F (t) G(t) + lim (iii) lim t2 G(t) t2 F (t) Solution: (i) lim[2F (t)G(t)] =
t2

(ii) lim
t2

F (t) =
2

(iii) lim
t2

F (t) G(t) + lim t2 F (t) G(t)

23

 Example 3 Evaluate
t

lim (t2 t) =?

Solution: Since
t

lim t2 =

and
t

lim t = .

So that
t

lim (t2 t) =

is an indeterminate form. But with dierent approach we can

t

lim (t2 t) = lim t(t 1) = lim t(t) = lim t2 =

t t t

Theorem 3: If f (x) g(x) when x is close to a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches a, then lim f (x) lim g(x)
xa xa

Theorem 4: The Squeeze Theorem If f (x) g(x) h(x) when x is close to a (except possibly at a) and
xa

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

xa

then
xa

lim g(x) = L

The Squeeze Theorem says that if f (x) and h(x) have the same limit L at a, then g(x) is forced to have the limit L at a. Example 4 Evaluate
x0

lim x2 sin

1 x

24

Solution: From our trigonometric knowledge 1 1 x 1 x2 x2 sin x2 x 1 sin Since

x0

lim (x2 ) = lim x2 = 0

x0

By using Theorem 3, x2
x0

x2 sin

1 x

lim (x2 ) lim x2 sin

1 x0 x 1 0 lim x2 sin x0 x

x2 lim x2
x0

From Theorem 4 we conclude that

x0

lim x2 sin

1 =0 x

25

Appendix Note: This section is for reference only. Proof of rule 1 (Sum Rule): Let > 0 and consider |[f (x) + g(x)] (L1 + L2 )|. By the triangle inequality that |[f (x) + g(x)] (L1 + L2 )| |f (x) L1 | + |g(x) L2 | . Now choose 1 > 0 and 2 > 0 so that 0 < |x a| < 1 and 0 < |x a| < 2 |f (x) L1 | < /2 , |g(x) L2 | < /2 .

Next put = min(1 , 2 ). If 0 < |x a| < , both conditions above come into operation and so |[f (x) + g(x)] (L1 + L2 )| |f (x) L1 | + |g(x) L2 | < /2 + /2 = , i.e., f (x) + g(x) L1 + L2 , as required. Proof of Rule 3 (Coecient Rule): If c = 0, the function cf (x) is just the constant zero function and the result is clear. So assume c = 0. Let > 0. Choose > 0 such that 0 < |x a| < |f (x) L1 | < It follows that |c f (x) cL1 | = |c| |f (x) L1 | < |c| i.e., 0 < |x a| < |(cf )(x) cL1 | < , as required. Proof of Rule 2 (Dierence Rule): By using Rule 3, g(x) = (1) g(x) 1 L2 = L2 . Then, by using Rule 1, f (x) g(x) = f (x) + g(x) L1 + (L2 ) = L1 L2 . . |c| = , |c|

26

Proof of Rule 4 (Product Rule): Write f (x)g(x) L1 L2 = [f (x) L1 ]L2 + f (x) [g(x) L2 ] . Then |f (x)g(x) L1 L2 | |f (x) L1 ||L2 | + |f (x)| |g(x) L2 | . Since limxa f (x) = L1 , there exists > 0 such that 0 < |x a| < |f (x) L1 | < 1, which in turn implies that |f (x)| |f (x) L1 | + |L1| < 1 + |L1|. So 0 < |x a| < |f (x)| < K, where K = 1 + |L1|. Combining with the earlier inequality shows that if 0 < |x a| < , then 0 |f (x)g(x) L1 L2 | |f (x) L1 ||L2 | + K |g(x) L2 | . As x a, |f (x) L1 | 0 and so |f (x) L1 ||L2 | 0, by Rule 3. Similarly, |L1 | < 1 + |L1 | 0 as x a. Therefore, by Rule 1, the right-hand side of inequality above tends to 0, as x a. It follows by the squeeze theorem that |f (x)g(x) L1 L2 | 0 as x a, i.e., f (x)g(x) L1 L2 . Proof of Rule 5 (Quotient Rule): We write 1 1 |g(x) L2 | = . L2 g(x) |L2 | |g(x)| 1 1 2 |g(x) L2 | . L2 g(x) |L2 |2

There exist > 0 such that 0 < |x a| < |g(x)| > |L2 |/2. For such values of x then 0

As x a the right-hand side of this inequality tends to 0 (by using Rule 3). So by the squeeze theorem 1 1 0, L2 g(x) From this result and Rule 4, f (x) 1 1 L1 = f (x) L1 = , g(x) g(x) L2 L2 as required. i.e., 1 1 . g(x) L2

27