Study Guide midterm CLAR 120 (second version, 27 September 2011) List of concepts/places/buildings/artifacts you need to be able to identify

for the midterm. Essay questions will be added later. Dates -memorize all the dates in the red boxes in the timetables on the course slides Images (what is it, where found, approximate date, why important?) -identify all images in the assigned chapters of Gates, except those related to sites that were not discussed in class Map IDs (point out on map): Near East, Anatolia (Turkey), Mesopotamia (area between Tigris and Euphrates), Euphrates (bottom river), Tigris (top river), Taurus Mts (Anatolia), Zagros Mts (Western Iran [towards right of Fertile Crescent]), Aegean (northern part of Mediterranean between Greece and Turkey), Crete (largest island off Greece) Levant (Mediterranean (east) coast line) Phoenecia (Levantine coast) Attica (middle part of Greece above Peloponese) Technical terms history: after writing / prehistory: before writing/written sources Neolithic revolution: beginning of agriculture (plants in the 9th-8th millennium) and domestication of animals, as well as more sedentary lifestyle cuneiform script: wedge shaped script used in Near East for ~3000 years, seen in Uruk with the Sumerians, developed in 4th millennium BC, wrote on tablets and baked them, initially developed from pictographs for record-keeping tell: raised part of land in elevation due to successive layers of habitation megaron: large room often used in ancient buildings polis: Greek urban center with control over surrounding territory emporion: colony founded by Greek city state for use primarily as a trading post, independent city within a region controlled by another power apoikia: more self- sufficient Greek colony that often becomes powerful city-state in its own right, independent of mother city although ties remain ethnos: early Greek system with several coexisting villages with little or no urban center Excavations/Sites (where, when, main characteristics/architectural features, why is this site important?) Jericho: Neolithic settlement o Where: Jordan River Valley in Palestine, north of Dead Sea 9th-8th millen.BC o known for tall 8m high towers (for storage or ritual?) and large stone wall (west) for either defense or flood protection o PPNA settlement had mud brick houses with open space between them, later to rectilinear houses in PPNB

o evidence of veneration of ancestors and religious practices o also shows evidence of planning and organization needed to build wall & towers atalhyk o Where: Turkey 7500-5400 BC o rectangular mud brick houses with rooftop entry and no roads between them similar sized houses suggests similar social status o 14ha, estimated population of 2500-5000 o decorated houses with paintings, animal skulls and horns (used as mantlepieces or bench accents) and buried deceased under floor of house time and resources devoted to craftsmanship/dcor => importance of having expendable resources for decoration o evidence of metallurgy, domesticated plants and animals o known for control of obsidian (volcanic glass) trade, next to obsidian fields o only houses, no central public market/ religious places Gbekli Tepe: oldest sacred, monumental architecture; ritual or pilgrimage site o Where: Southern Turkey old phase with round buildings = 10,000-9,000BC, newer phase with rectangular buildings = 9,000-8,000BC o at least 20 circles of large T-shaped stone blocks with sculptures and decorations, two pillars facing e/o in center o no evidence of habitation, maintained over generations (continued construction) Eridu: early Sumerian city with early large temple complex o Where: bottom point of Fertile Crescent near Uruk Ubaid period (5300-4000BC) o early temples of mud brick with an offering table and altar in center, grows outward in size, has many siderooms, decorative o buttresses support roof Uruk: dominant, one of first, and largest city of Sumer o Where: bottom point of Fertile Crescent 3500-3200BC o composed of two villages: White Temple and Eanna precinct come together to form Uruk (temples dominant in city) o White Temple: white plaster walls, raised on platform, ramp circling up, possibly for processional, ritual use, dedicated to god Anu o Eanna precinct: many tripartite buildings, as was popular style o Uruk head gypsum/limestone mask ; Uruk vase alabaster, 3 registers of pictures showing crops and animals, men presenting offerings, goddess present Ur (city and tombs): city in Sumer most extensively explored o Where: close to Uruk 3100-1200 (Bronze Age) o contained 16 tombs around centrally located cemetery with elaborate grave offerings and rituals (including human sacrifices) also, possibility of king and queen being buried with servants and horses the lyre with bulls head and Royal Standard: box or plaque with 3 registers of figural scenes of royalty animal sculptures with lapis lazuli people buried had access to lots of resources/valuable belongings o vaulted chambers (corbelling) in tombs, beginning of progression to arch and dome, pitched brick (bricks successively tilted to form arch) o had ziggurat w/sequence of podiums and possibly colonies as well (pottery of Uruk style found in other places or maybe due to trade?)

Habuba Kabira: city with material culture very similar to Sumerian cities, possibly a founded city or colony (? theory due to planning) o Where: Syria (upper point of Crescent) mid 4th millen. BC (only ~150-200yrs) o more regularly planned streets (perhaps designed) o had terra cotta drainage pipes, indicates planning o extensive defensive city wall o pottery characteristic of Uruk, as well as use of tripartite buildings o written documents present, incl. clay tablets, sealings, bullae Knossos: largest city (with large palace) of the Minoans (Bronze Age culture of Crete with palaces as hallmark) o Where: Crete 2000-1400BC o had no fortification wall, paved roads led to palace o large central court pointed towards Mt. Juktas (mountains important spiritual meaning) o lots of storage space in long narrow rooms (pithois=storage jars, also grain silos) o lustral basins and cult rooms and throne rooms, ashlar masonry o also had craft workshops for production of luxury items and residential quarters o bull-leaping fresco bull seemed to bear importance o many archive rooms with records o palace functions included ceremonial center, storage center, economic/government/administrative center Gournia: fully excavated (by women) Neopalatial town o Crete date o small settlement on a hill with palace-like building at summit (had qualities that mimicked palatial centers like central court and storage areas but not considered palace) surrounded by many small rectangular houses o houses usually 2 stories: people on top and storage and animals on bottom o long winding road connected main building to religious shrine Thera/Acrotiri: Thera=series of small islands with center sunken in due to volcanic explosion, Acrotiri = main city on Thera o Where: southern Aegean sea possibly abandoned/ruined by 1450 BC o ash and pumice from explosion helped preserve remains o valuables are gone leading to thoughts that inhabitants were aware of impending disaster (perhaps due to series of earthquakes) o extensive wall decorations found in houses stylistically similar to Knossos, pottery styles similar to early Crete o ship fresco: ship travelling in water in front of towns Mycenae (city and tombs) dominant culture in Greece during 14th 12th cent. BC o Where: central and southern Greece in Late Bronze Age o spoke earliest form of Greek, wrote Linear B o citadel on a prominent hill top with large fortification walls (Lion Gate as main entrance) o separate buildings for various functions as opposed to Minoan palace serving many functions o Shaft Graves: two clusters, stone lined rectangular trenches placed at bottom of shaft lined with rubble walls and marked with stele cumbersome, sometimes cleaned out and reused buried people had greater build, perhaps greater wealth

elaborate grave goods: bronze daggers with silver inlay, funerary masks of gold foil (Agamemnons mask) (Minoan influence in craftsmanship) o burials of choice becomes tholos tombs: corridors leading to domed tomb of well-cut stone masonry, corbelled Treasury of Atreus (ca 1300BC) burials wouldve been in pits in floor o megarons (sometimes called throne rooms) elaborately decorated o megaron at Pylos, Palace of Nestor no fortification wall, large low circular platform hearth, floors and walls decorated with frescoes, megaron surrounded by rooms for econ. activities Troy supposedly sieged for 10 yrs (Greeks (Mycenean) - Trojan War) o Where: western coast of Anatolian peninsula on Aegean Sea 2900-1100BC o several layers of circular habitation layers o Troy II: major site of early Bronze Age (2400-2100BC) stone brick and mud fortification wall with sloping surface, towers also had megarons, freestanding (not in palace), circular platform hearth like Myceneans series of long rectangular buildings (megarons), town with smaller houses o Troy VI (1800-1300) and VIIa (1300-1260?): greater area, ~200m diameter citadel had larger walls 9m high with towers lower wall around rest of Troy Troy VIIa; may have been earthquake damage or siege, material culture hard to use to verify textual events due to ambiguity Pillar House, buildings had slight trapezoidal shape towards center o city may have been place for people to go for safety, contained resources and wealth of the land of people Hattusha capital city of Hittite empire of Late Bronze Age o Where: central plateau of Anatolia 1800-1200BC o large area encompasses many different peoples o migrated west from Central Asia o expansion to borders caused conflicts with Egypt (Battle at Kadesh) that ended in stalemate o kingdom had not many large cities, slightly more rural o ~2km city wall with casemate plan (earth filled stone) and elaborate entrance gates, also used natural landscape to enhance walls Kings Gate had relief of king, corridor that was possibly processional Lions Gate (like Mycenaean lion symbolism) o large number of temples (31) o Temple 1=large temple complex (cult center) with 182 storage rooms around temple, also had archives with clay tablets rectangular building with central court o Yazilikaya: sanctuary created using natural rocks in landscape to become monument buildings in front of 3 natural chambers created by rocks, stone reliefs carved into walls Meeting of the Gods with eagles, pumas, people in profile; King Tudhaliya IV relief of king, large in size, possibly deified Ugarit: important coastal city (Canaanite) for trade, Late Bronze Age

o Where: west coast of Syria 14th-13th century BC

city state with king with control over city, harbor towns, and some of bordering territory on a tell inhabited since Neolithic intermediary between Mediterranean and Near East trade maintained some autonomy through local agriculture and industries with ports for trade, exported rare purple dye o two main sectors: royal palace with fortified gate for entry and acropolis, which contained main religious buildings incl. two temples to main city gods palace: sloped fortification wall (glacis), corbelled vaulting, ashlar masonry, many rooms around large courts, bottom floor public and upper floor private temples had similar plans with 2 main rooms: porch and sanctuary temple dedicated to gods Baal and Dagat, located on highest part of tell Baal temple almost tower-like, extends high up, may have also possibly served as light house o large archives of tablets found, as well as luxury items like gold plate, ivory head sculpture o highly irregular street layout and varying house structures of a few stories, tightly packed tombs underneath houses for burials o people of all classes lived together o main port: Minet el Beida o trade driven by metal resources (Iberian peninsula) Uluburun: shipwreck with details regarding trade late 14th century o copper and tin ingots found o also gives information about building/structure of ship wood preserves better underwater o cargo included raw materials (main cargo, had enough to make 11 tons of bronze), manufactured gods, personal items o Cypriot, Levantine, and Mycenaean pottery found o jewelry, beads, precious stones o bronze tools and weapons, cedar and ebony wood, writing boards, as well as variety of foods o most believe ship was rom Levant/Syria but with international crew and trade small protective deity statuette duck and lion shaped weights from Levant or Ugarit may be indication of a characteristic system used by certain culture Gordion capital of Phrygians (from SE Europe) (when, where, development of city in 9th-6th c BC) o Where: on a tell in central Anatolia o ~900 BC fortification wall and 2 large buildings present, possibly beginning of kingdom o late 8th cent BC = King Midas o 6th century BC building refitted with terra cotta (baked clay) o terrace building of 8 megaron units (ceramic vessels, pottery of different styles, spindles, looms, textile and thread production evident) rows of buildings separate, did not share walls (citadel initially destroyed by fire 800BC then rebuilt, separate=harder to spread fire) o significant architecture: o o o o

orthostates: upward slab of rock used to elevate mud bricks, sometimes carved into sculptures megarons w/antechambers often present in citadels walls up to 10m high, ashlar masonry patterned mosaic floors found in megaron (trend that spreads to Greece) timbers often used to reinforce walls similar construction to traditional Anatolian buildings o tumulus (tumuli) grave mounds, over 100 found including childs with carved wooden toys largest one, 55m high, possibly grave of Midas father (Midas Mound) found intact, largely constructed of pine, juniper, cedar wood (oldest wooden building) many grave goods found: bronze vessels, some with food remains, ladles, bowls, decorative inlaid designs wooden furniture, tables, fibulae (pins to attach clothes) names carved into wood of tomb walls o taken over in 333BC by Alexander the Great (Gordion knot) Athens (Archaic [600-479BC] and Classical [479-300BC] period, separated by Persian defeat) one of primary powerful Greek city states o Where: territory of land called Attica (central part of Greece), coastal plain o head of Delian League, largest city state in 5th cent BC, densely packed population o haphazard street layout with modest houses small rooms around a courtyard o Acropolis on naturally topped hill o notable buildings: Parthenon: dominant temple under construction when Persians sacked city, rebuilt sculpted pediments and frieze, decorated with themes of mythical battles: civilization v. barbarism 12m high cult statue of Athena Pnyx: place of meeting of assembly Panathenaic Way: road through middle of city state Archaic agora: civic center, market place, boundary stones mark limits of agora (may have been semisacred place Fountain house: important civic building with spouts to obtain water Altar of the Twelve Gods: considered center of c-s, in agora Bouleterion: council house for 500 people, met daily Keremeikos: cemetery outside of main city, worried about pollution of dead; graves initially marked with large decorative vases with geometric shapes, later used grave markers o later ran into problems for food production for population, began expanding outward (ex. Sicily) to secure resources classic consumer city: extracted goods from surrounding areas o produced and exported luxury goods and olive oil, leading producer of pottery Persepolis capital of Persian Achaemenid empire o Where: S. Iran 6th-5th cent. BC o palace had large throne room, audience hall, large treasury o located on a large platform with wall around it

o sculpture of people of various places of empire bringing offerings to king o Delphi religious sanctuary of Apollo famous for oracle o NW of Athens, lies on slope of 2 south-facing cliffs o Sacred Way: road on way to temple lined with treasuries to safeguard offerings of various people and places o extra room in back of temple where Pythia (oracle) would often give advice, seen to be words of Apollo answer usually open to interpretation (gaseous fumes?) o Siphnian Treasury (island of Siphnas): elaborately detailed sculptures, marbsle, columns in shape of women o theatre also o hosted Pithian Games and music competitions winners would dedicate offerings to gods, often bronze sculptures Pithekoussai colony on island of Ischia on western side of Italy founded by Euboeans o 775-750 BC, important trade partner with the Etruscans o found Mycenaean pottery => early interaction with Greeks o cosmopolitan: Phoenicians, Carthaginians, local Italian tribes, etc. o located at a place where lots of trade converged, exported metals o cemeteries contain material evidence, with elaborate grave finds and fiulae o knowledge of Greek artistic trends and cultural patterns: Nestor Cup Cyrene colony located in northern Africa 630 BC o founded by Thera in search of place for more food production/living space due to overpopulation o had an agora, acropolis, Sanctuary of Apollo, theatre, stoas (pretty standard Greek design) o also had own mint to produce coins: importance of trade and money exchange Epidauros sanctuary of healing god Asklepios, individuals often went to be cured o est. in 6th cent BC flourished in 4th o abaton: long stoa where people went to sleep, advice appeared often in dreams o tholos: frequently found circular building o well preserved theatre that could seat 14,000 built with stone into hillside Priene small well-preserved Greek colony o on Turkish peninsula coast mid 4th-1st BC o well planned perpendicular/parallel streets (Hippodamean Grid) o prostaos house with courtyard in center and hall-like room in front of oikos (main room) Olynthos small Greece city with preserved house architecture o Northern Greece mid 4th c BC-mid 3rd c o not many monumental buildings o floor mosaics of pebble or tesserae (cut stone) o pastas house with 2-3 main rooms behind hall-like area rather than just one

Briefly describe: the main categories of evidence for the past o textual: people writing about lives/societies, local thoughts o material: objects left behind, archaeological remains

o environmental sources: climate and landscape patterns/features (tells) the earliest villages (when, where, what did they look like, changes over time) o Where: Fertile Crescent o Natufian (12,500-9500 BC) first villages in foothills of Zagros end of ice age (Pleistocene) allows for settlement o Neolithic villages: circular houses with wooden beams or thatched roofs primarily mud brick houses storage facilities and small villages of 100 people or less (1 ha) o 9500-5000BC later begin veneration of ancestors in PPNB with rectangular houses and ancestors buried underneath o domestication causes shift to more permanent and larger settlements o 6th millen: shift to floodplains; 5th and 4th milen: more irrigation-based, larger villages Domestication of plants and animal (definition, when, where, what, importance) o begins in southern Levant around 9500 BC o domestication of plants first in 9th-8th millen: wheat and barley o ~1/2 millen later, domesticate animals: sheep and goats, later on cattle and pigs o begin actively selecting for certain characteristics of plants and animals o importance: people become more permanently settled, impact the landscape, different perception of landscape idea of property, population increase, potential for enduring social inequalities the earliest cities in southern Mesopotamia o Catalhoyuk, Ur, Uruk (see cities above) o Eridu: (Ubaid period) early village with increasing complexity contains early temples (significant in early cities), mud brick buildings offering table and altar in center with side rooms spread around Aegean cities (Mycenae, Troy, Pylos) o all had fortified citadels, often with most of population living outside of citadel o Mycenae and Troy (see above) o Pylos: palace of Nestor (Mycenean palace), western coast of Greece actually did not have fortification wall, no nearby rivals large central megaron with a low circular hearth and decorated (frescoes) also lots of storerooms and pottery destruction in 1200 BC by unknown peoples the development of writing in southern Mesopotamia occurs ~3300BC o originally used for record keeping o hollow clay balls (bulla/bullae) and tokens: tokens of different shapes placed inside and stamped on outside to indicate amount o becomes cuneiform (wedge shaped) differently sized and shaped wedges indicate different letters o later used to record stories, prayers, myths, lists o seals & sealings cylinder seals to roll across for imprint (4th millen) available to more people whereas writing ability only initially few people (scribes) the importance of pottery for archaeological analysis o found beginning 7000-6800 BC in Near East o fire proof and heavy: first signs of permanent existence (hard to carry with) o doesnt deteriorate easily and is found in large amounts due to frequent use

o food residue within can be found and analyzed, also certain shapes for certain foods can
be indicative of diet

o shape, style, and design gives information regarding trade and styles of diff places
(typology: analyzing shapes and patterns) characteristics and function of Minoan palaces o Minoan times divided by Pre, Proto, Neo, and Postpalatial periods o not necessarily of royalty evidence of rulers uncertain o palaces were large centers of larger towns o served several functions: residential, seat of administration, treasury, product storage, cult center, economic center o no fortification walls: suggests political harmony on Crete o lustral basins could be typically found: bath room or ritual practice? o pier and door partitions trade in metal in the late 2nd and early 1st millennium BC (Ugarit, Uluburun, Phoenicians) o metal highly sought and drove trade due to re-workability, lasting quality o considered a status symbol, precious metals like gold, silver o Near East had limited amounts so went west to search for more (like Iberian peninsula) o bronze = copper (oxhide ingots + tin (stronger and durable) o Uluburun shipwreck had lots of unworked meal o Ugarit= Canaanite trading city on coast (later near region where Phoenicians establish) the transition between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in the Aegaen and Near East o late Bronze Age witnesses series of collapse and abandonments of many sites in Near East and Aegean (Trot, Ugarit, Hattusha, Mycenaeans) o Dark Age = 12th-10th cent BC = limited material remains, possibly due to earthquake storms, piracy from the Sea Peoples, unknown o add the ancient city-state (ex. Troy, Ur, Ugarit) political and social phenomenon o all of degree of autonomy and controlled surrounding territory (possibly including overseas lands) with an urban core o monumental architecture within city, display buildings to show power and strength o initially governed by a king, power later also spreads to aristocratic families, councils, priests o often interacted with nearby city states with frequent competition and warfare peer polity interaction o long distance trade and gift exchange practiced b/w city states Phoenician society between 1000 and 700 BC o located in Levant, limited excavation due to modern cities above o Iron Age succesors of (Ugarites) o limited space for agriculture => prosperity from trade, ships important o exported cedar from mountain forests nearby, murex (shellfish used for expensive purple dye), alphabet was adopted by Greeks o conquered by Assyrians, Babylonians, then Persians but remained mostly autonomous due to importance for trade and maritime skills o organized in independent city states with kings, often located by the coast or w/harbors o Tyre = most important trade and sea-faring city (also: Sidon and Byblos) 2 harbors, originally an island, protective promontories for harbors o expanded west, possibly due to Assyrian push

also needed more resources, overpopulation o colonized for trade posts and routes, which usually stayed along coast for safety included Sicily, Sardinia, Italian mainland, parts of Spain o founded city of Carthage in N. Africa which came into confrontation with Romans in Punic Wars and lost to Romans The development of Athens as a city-state (polis) o progressively began establishing more colonies for resources, which also resulted in more money/income o head of Delian League o Perikles great leader o center of arts and great thinking The problems with estimating ancient population sizes o dependent on authors arbitrary interpretation of population (1/2 a million) o personal bias of authors and numbers o graves not capable of all being found, lower ranks did not receive notable burials o not all of settlement remains as evidence Greek colonization o 750-500 BC, established colonies for trade purposes, with daughter city-states sometimes becoming more powerful in their own right o see emporion, apoikia, cleruchy o founded for trade, food supply, population growth, political dissonance, territory/defense

Essay questions In the exam you will select one of these questions, out of choice of two, and be asked write a 2-3 paragraph response (2 single bluebook pages). Be as specific as possible in your answer. Make sure you can spell all the foreign words correctly! (best to practice a few times). No notes are allowed in the exam. 1) Compare and contrast Phoenician, Greek (Archaic/Classical), and Urukian (i.e., from Uruk) colonization. What are the main points of comparison and differences between the colonies of these three periods? P+G: maintained ties with mother city, expanded for resources and trading reasons, overpopulation, need for raw materials to convert into luxury items Emporia (Greek) were similar to Phoenician colonies in that they were primarily used for trade, whereas apoikia were often more independent and often became city-states in their own right. P+G: both founded colonies that came to be impressive and powerful in their own right P: Carthage in northern Africa, which challenged the Romans in Punic Wars G: Syracuse, which eventually defeats Athens Phoenicians: possibly also needed metals and resources for Assyrians tribute (similar to cleruchy of Athens, which were founded strictly for products and resources to be sent to Athens) Greek: more competitive between city states, having colonies meant having control over more land and having more resources Uruk: Habuba Kabira thought to be a colony due to regular planning and similar to Sumerian cities

2) Give three distinct types of archaeological evidence for social stratification in the periods discussed in class. For each type of evidence, provide a specific example and explain its significance in understanding issues of leadership, inequality, or social complexity in given society. Houses Catalhoyuk: similar sized houses, no social classes evident Gournia average, smaller houses Pylos, palace of King Nestor (elaborately decorated frescoes, pottery found) Ugarit: royal palace with corbelled vaulting, lavish rooms and high quality construction had a upper district located closer to palace as well as average Graves/burials Midas mound 55m high (bronze vessels with decorative inlaid designs, furniture), 16 graves at Ur with horses and servants sacrificed Mycenaean tholos tombs (Agamemnons mask and gold and silver dagger) simple burials under house in Ugarit Personal belongings/diet richer diets => greater skeleton frame pottery with varying levels of decoration metal goods as a status symbol Text seals and sealings vs actual ability to write Stele of Naram-Sin- shows victorious king at a larger size than his soldiers an enemies, all of which lie below him as well, signifying a lower status workers carving names into walls of Midas Mound tomb, leaving their mark pots and pans with names carved into walls and sculptures vs entire sculptures dedicated to one person 3) Discuss the importance of ecology on ancient cities (i.e., how did the natural environment shape development of ancient sites). Give three distinct examples of sites or ecological zones. Mesopotamia settled near river beds and used rivers due to shortage of rain, irrigation affected development of where city was located, short on resources like trees so forced to trade, limited building materials to mud bricks Phoenicians no farmland forces expansion of trade, excellent sea trade due to location on coast also Ugarit located near coast for trade and was intermediary for trade between Near East and Mediterranean Greek city states mountains divided city states and caused more isolation between city states, very coastal which prompted development of trade and navies (Athens had powerful navy), Corinth = trading city