Is the Gift of Prophecy for Today?

Part 2 (of 4 parts):

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments

F. David Farnell
Chairman, Department of Ministerial Studies Southeastern Bible College, Birmingham, Alabama

Crucial to understanding New Testament prophecy is the direct relationship this gift sustains to Old Testament prophecy.1 New Testament prophecy did not develop in isolation from the phenomenon of Old Testament prophecy. As noted in the previous article in this series, the postapostolic early church affirmed the idea of a fundamental continuity between Old and New Testament prophets. Montanism or the 'New Prophecy" was labeled a heresy because of its departure from standards of prophecy reflected in the Old Testament. The church judged New Testament prophets on the basis of its understanding of Old Testament prophetic phenomena and requirements. Current novel attempts at redefining the nature of New Testament prophecy (dividing it into two contrasting forms) result from an erroneous assumption of a sharp discontinuity between New Testament and Old Testament prophecy. An examination of the relationship between the two is needed to understand properly the nature and function of prophecy in the New Testament church era. That examination finds that the miraculous gift of prophecy operative in the Old Testament economy was the same miraculous gift
A careful analysis of the biblical evidence regarding both Old Testament and N e w Testament prophecy yields the following definition: "speech which is inspired by the Spirit and therefore totally true and authoritative" (Robert L. Saucy, "Prophecy Today? An Initial Response/' Sundoulos [Spring 1990]: 5). This is adopted as a working definition for this series. Gaffin adds an important note. "Prophecy is n o t . . . the interpretation of an already existing inspired text or oral tradition but is itself the inspired, nonderivative word of God" (Richard B. Gaffin, Perspectives on Pentecost [Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1979], 59). Since prophets were in direct contact with God in such an extraordinary way as channels of His Word to His people, the nature of prophecy is that of a miraculous gift. 387

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operative in the New Testament economy.2 Any differences may be measured by the manner of expression in a theocratic community (Old Testament prophecy) versus the manner of expression in the Christian community (New Testament prophecy). However, such differences do not militate in favor of the existence of any qualitative differences between Old and New Testament prophets and prophecy, especially in their accuracy and authority.3 This continuity between Old and New Testament prophecy can be demonstrated in a variety of ways in the New Testament. The following are a few examples. The Promised Revival of the Old Testament Prophetic Gift During the intertestamental period, Israel as a nation longed for the revival of the prophetic voice of Yahweh. Between the time of
1

As Geisler notes, "There is no reason to believe that New Testament prophets exercised their gifts any differently than prophets in the Old Testament" (Norman L. Geisler, Signs and Wonders [Wheaton, IL: Tyndale, 1988], 159).

For example in the Old Testament theocratic economy prophets were a small, exclusive group. Some Old Testament prophets were considered more prestigious and well known than Christian prophets (e.g., Isaiah and Agabus). Some Old Testament prophets formed monastic communities centering around a prominent figure (e.g., Elijah and Elisha, 2 Kings 2:3) or were connected with a particular sanctuary (e.g.. Bethel, 1 Kings 13:11, and Gilgal/Jericho, 2 Kings 2:1,15; 4:38-44). They often functioned as the main spokesmen for Yahweh in announcing His will to the nation. Old Testament prophets pronounced prophecies that were sometimes more enduring (e.g., Isa. 7:14; 11:6-10) in nature than many Christian prophets who may have given temporal or localized prophetic advice to Christian communities. Such issues as these are separate from questions of authority or accuracy and do not in any way lessen the authority or accuracy of Christian prophets and their prophecies. Wien the great prophet Isaiah spoke, he may have been more prestigious (much of such prestige is by hindsight, e.g., Dan. 9:6; Neh. 9:26) than an anonymous Christian prophet, but since both had the source of their prophetic utterance in the Holy Spirit, their prophetic pronouncements were equally authoritative and accurate (if a genuine New Testament prophet was speaking). The authority of the genuine prophet rests in God as the source of the prophecy and not in the prophet himself. In the New Testament the prophetic gift was spread out among a larger group of believers than in the Old Testament. Though some N e w Testament prophets are named, such as Agabus (Acts 11:28) and Judas and Silas (Acts 15:32), most New Testament prophets were anonymous. The apostle functioned as the primary spokesman to the church rather than the New Testament prophet. However, the ranking of New Testament prophets next to apostles indicates that the prophet still had a vital and prestigious role alongside apostles in declaring the will of God (Eph. 2:20; 3:5; 4:11). Apostles were also more prestigious than New Testament prophets, but it must be remembered that apostles enjoyed the benefit of the gift of apostleship (Eph. 4:11), which must be distinguished from the gift of prophecy when questions of authority are considered. The genuine Christian prophet, if not an apostle, could rise to such a level of authority only when his gift was in operation. The Holy Spirit served as the guarantor of prophetic accuracy for both Old Testament and New Testament prophets and also ensured that prophetic pronouncements of genuine New Testament prophets would be in accord with apostolic pronouncements (1 Cor. 14:37; cf. Eph. 3:4-9). Therefore any differences that may be cited between Old Testament and N e w Testament prophets or New Testament prophets and apostles do not in any way impugn or deprecate the authority or accuracy of the Christian prophets' prophetic pronouncements.

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the last canonical prophet, Malachi and the advent of the Messiah, 4 in the period known as the "Four Hundred Silent Years," prophecy ceased in Israel. Though claims to the prophetic gift may be seen in the literature of this time, the Jewish people as a whole never ac 5 cepted them as legitimate. In fact those claims emphasize the ab-

Admittedly in some senses the term "silent" may be a misnomer. Events took place in this period that were formative in Judaism and also helped prepare for the coming of Christ. However, what is meant here by "silence" is that no genuinely inspired prophet or prophetic activity arose. This period lasted essentially from the Persian decline through the Greek, Maccabean, Hasmonean, and Herodian periods to the time of Jesus and the formation of the New Testament canon. Conservative Protestantism has generally recognized that, from the time of Malachi to the writing of the N e w Testament, no new revelatory or prophetic communication took place between Yahweh and Israel. For further information, see Charles F. Pfeiffer, Between the Testaments (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1959), 121-22. Even though various writings, such as the Pseudepigrapha, sometimes claim to be inspired, Judaism did not accept these writings as canonical (especially Palestinian Ju daism). Additional points that argue against the legitimacy of prophecy in this period are these: (1) In the Apocrypha several statements acknowledge that the prophetic gift had ceased (e.g., 1 Mace. 4:45b-46; 9:27; 14:41), and there is a notable absence of claims to inspiration by the Spirit of Yahweh. As Metzger notes, "The attentive reader of the Apocrypha will be struck by the absence of the prophetic element" (Bruce M. Metzger, "Introduction to the Apocrypha," in The Oxford Annotated Apocrypha, ex panded edition, ed. Bruce M. Metzger [New York: Oxford, 1977], xiv). Even some places in the Pseudepigrapha seem to confirm the loss of the prophetic gift and reflect the expectation that it would someday return (e.g.. Sibylline Oracles iii.781; 2 Baruch 85:13). (2) Such apocryphal (with perhaps the exception of Ecclesiasticus) and pseudepigraphical writings (e.g., 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra) were also anonymous, giving the impression that the authors realized that their books would not have gained general acceptance as genuine prophetic utterances on the basis of their own authority. (3) Josephus was careful to restrict the term to canonical prophets (Jewish Wars 3.351-54). Reiling notes, "It is significant that these contemporary seers are never called nor is ever used of an Old Testament prophet" 0 Reiling, "The Usage of in the Septuagint, Philo, and Josephus," Novum Testamentum 13 [April 1971]: 156). In Against Apion 1.41 Josephus seems to have calculated the reign of Artaxerxes I (465-423 B.C.) as the time when prophecy ceased in Israel. (4) Rabbinic litera ture also reflects absence of the prophetic gift (Tosephta Sotah 13.2 says, "When the last of the prophets [i.e., Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi] died, the Holy Spirit ceased in Is rael"). The Mishnah in Aboth i.l names the men of the Great Synagogue (the scribes of Ezra's time) as the successors of the prophets. (Also see Bab. Yoma 9b; Bab. Sotah 48b; Bab. Sanhdrin l i a ; Seder Olam Rabbah 30 [quoting Prov. 22:17]; Jer. Taanith 2.1; Jer. Makkoth 2.4-8; Bab. Yoma 21b; Bab. Baba Bathra 12a-b.) (5) The main characteristic of this period was interpretation of prophecy and revelation that was already given. Under the influence of Ezra and later scribes, Israel concentrated its interpretive focus on the Mosaic Law and the prophets, seeking to apply them to all areas of life. For further information see F. F. Bruce, Israel and the Nations, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 118; R. Laird Harris, "The Extent of the Old Testament Canon," in Inspiration and Canonicity of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1969), 180-95; David G. Dunbar, "The Biblical Canon," in Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon, ed. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 299-315; Norman L. Geisler, "The Extent of the Old Testament Canon," in Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 31-46. Aune and Hill reject the idea that the prophetic voice was silent during this time. They argue that intertestamental literature made frequent assertions that some lesser form of prophecy was active (bat qol"daughter of a voice") (David Aune, Prophecy in

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sence of the Spirit of Yahweh from His people and Israel's longing for the promised return of the prophetic gift when God would once again speak. This desire remained intense through those silent years, until the silence was shattered by the advent of the Messiah. The revival of the prophetic gift was promised in Joel 2:28-32. Earlier in that chapter, desolation in the eschatological "day of the Lord" was promised for the nation because of their failure to repent (vv. 1-11). Yahweh pleaded for His disobedient and idolatrous people to return to Him (vv. 12-14). The prophet cried out for the people to gather in a solemn assembly as an act of repentance, so that Yahweh would spare them (w. 15-17). Pity was promised to the people if they would respond to the Lord's instructions (v. 18). Immediate deliverance was promised in Joel's day (vv. 19-27), and Yahweh also proclaimed that His program for Israel had important eschatological implications and blessings. He had not forever rejected His disobedient people, for He would greatly bless them in the future. In the latter half of Joel (2:28-3:21), two important prophetic features are emphasized: the promise of Yahweh's personal provision in the lives of the people (2:28-32); and the prediction of His final triumph on behalf of Israel at the culmination of human history (3:1-21 ).6 In Joel 2:28-32/ Yahweh promised Israel that in a future time He would pour out His Spirit in abundance on His people. A spiritual abundance is predicted that would be far greater than any mere physical blessings that could be associated with the promised "latter rains" (vv. 22-26). The Holy Spirit would be given in unparalleled power and ways in the land of Israel. This spiritual restoration and outpouring of Yahweh's Spirit on His people is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament.8 The same Spirit who empowered the Old Testament prophets is promised once again to return.

Early Christianity [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983], 104; David Hill, New Testament Prophecy [Atlanta: John Knox, 1979], 25). In reply, however, claims to the prophetic gift must be distinguished from occurrences of genuine prophecy inspired by God's Spirit. These arguments seem sufficient to override the assertions by Aune and Hill. This does not mean, however, that the Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha are without value. They form a bridge between the Testaments, providing valuable information regarding intertestamental history, the development of literary forms and theology within Judaism, and important clues to sociological development. For further information see such works as James H. Charles worth, ed.. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983, 1985); Robert H. Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times, with an Introduction to the Apocrypha (New York: Harp 1949), 233-541; R. K. Harrison, "The Apocryphal Books," in Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 1175-93. " Richard D. Patterson, "Joel," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985), 7:255. 7 In the Masoretic and Sepruagintal texts, this reference corresponds to Joel 3:l-5a. 8 E.g., Numbers 11:29; Isaiah 32:15; 44:3; 59:21; Ezekiel 36:26-27; 39:29; Zechariah 12:10.

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However, in light of Joel 2, the Holy Spirit would not be poured out on a select individual or group, as in the Old Testament prophets, but on all believers regardless of their status. 9 This work of the Spirit would bring about spiritual renewal, with the gift of prophecy receiving special emphasis. 10 Because of this promise, the remnant of Israel eagerly and longingly awaited this renewed sign of Yahweh's presence among His people by the revival of the pro phetic gift. According to Joel, the same prophetic gift that was em powered by Yahweh's Spirit among the prophets would be restored in even greater measure. Joel said that the eventual deliverance of the nation of Israel would occur in the period known as the "day of the Lord."11 The out pouring of the Holy Spirit would accompany this event in "the last days." Later Judaism applied this text to the promise of a renewed heart in the New Covenant (Jer. 31:33) and the dispensing of God's Spirit in future messianic times. 12 Acts 2:17-21, a strategic passage, quotes Joel 2:28-32. Luke wrote that certain manifestations of the Holy Spirit (speaking in tongues and prophesying) were witnessed by Jewish onlookers outside the circle of the 120 Christians who had been gathered for prayer on the day of Pentecost. Some outsiders were amazed, while others mocked and said the disciples were "full of sweet wine" {, i.e., new wine, Acts 2:13). Empowered by the Holy Spirit, Peter stood and of fered an explanation by relating the phenomena being witnessed at Pentecost to the prophecy of Joel 2:28-32.13

Patterson, "Joel/" 7:255-56. Patterson relates that "God's covenant people were primarily in view. Joel went on to point out that what the Lord intended is that his Holy Spirit would be poured out, not on selected individuals for a particular task, but on all believers, young and old, male and female alike, regardless of their status." Also see H. C. O. Lanchester, The Books of Joel and Amos, The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1915), 66.
1 0 Two emphases are given in Joel's prophecy: the fullness of the Spirit 0"|0, "pour out"), and the democratization of the Spirit ( ^ ^ , "all flesh"). See Douglas Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 260. 11 For a thorough discussion of the context of both Joel and Acts, see Darrell L. Bock, Proclamation from Prophecy and Pattern (Sheffield: JSOT, 1987), 166. l ^ For example Midrash Rabbah on Deuteronomy 6:14 (203a); Midrash on Psalms 14 and 6 (57b). For additional references, see Kirsopp Lake and Henry J. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity, vol. 4: The Acts of the Apostles: English Translation and Commen tary, ed. F. J. F. Jackson and Kirsopp Lake (London: Macmillan, 1939; reprint. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979), 22; H. L. Strack and P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch (Munich: Beck, 1926), 2:615-16; The Midrash Rabbah, ed. . Freedman and M. Simon (New York: Soncino, 1977), 3:131; W. G. Braude, The Midrash on Psalms, Yale Judaism Series 13 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1959), 1:186. 1 3 It is beyond the scope of this article to resolve all the interpretive problems involved in these verses. It will suffice to say that there are four views on the fulfillment of this Joel 2 passage in relationship to eschatology. First, the classic dispensational in-

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The phenomena at Pentecost were connected by Peter to the ex pected messianic times in the "latter days" ( , Acts 2:17; cf. Joel 2:28). Emphasis on fulfillment is heightened by his use of "the latter days," which brings out the meaning of "after wards" in the Masoretic and Septuagint texts (", u ra). As Marshall notes, "Peter regards Joel's prophecy as applying to the last days, and claims that his hearers are now living in the 15 last days. God's final act of salvation has begun to take place." This emphasis on fulfillment is also heightened by Peter's par ticular focus on the revival of prophesying, which was promised in the Old Testament. He did this by adding the phrase "and they will prophesy" (teal ) in Acts 2:18 to highlight the 16 restoration of the Old Testament gift of prophecy. Patterson notes, The precise applicability of Joel's prophecy to Pentecost can be gleaned from some of the Petrine interpretive changes and additions to Joel's text. Thus under divine inspiration Peter added to Joel's words relative to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit kai prophteusousin ("and they will prophesy"; cf. Joel 2:29 [3:2 MT] with Acts 2:18). The intent of Joel's prophecy was not only the restoration of prophecy but that such a gift was open to all classes of mankind. The Spirit-empowered words of the apostles on Pentecost were, therefore, evidence of the accuracy of Joel's
terpretation regards these verses as fulfilled in pure analogy in the present age and places actual fulfillment entirely in the future immediately before the return of Christ to establish the millennium. Examples of those who hold this view are Arno C. Gaebelein, The Acts of the Apostles (New York: Our Hope, 1912), 52-53, and Charles C. Ryrie, The Acts of the Apostles (Chicago: Moody, 1961), 20-21. A second interpretation is that of F. F. Bruce and other amillennialists who see Joel 2 as entirely fulfilled in the present. The pouring out of the Spirit is seen as the main prediction (vv. 28-29) with the cosmic signs (vv. 30-32) being fulfilled in the phenomena that accompanied the crucifixion (e.g., darkness, Luke 23:44-49). For an example of this treatment, see F. F. Bruce, Commentary on the Book of the Acts, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954), 67-68. The third and fourth views see the inauguration of the dispensation of the Spirit in Joel 2:28-29 as occurring in the present, but they differ on how the signs and wonders of verses 30-32 are to be viewed. A proponent of the third view is Marshall, who says verses 30-32 are fulfilled during the apostolic age with its accompanying miracles as seen in Acts (e.g.. Acts 3:1-11), while the reference to "darkness" Qoel 2:31; Acts 2:20) is figurative (I. Howard Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, Tyndale N e w Testament Commentary [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980J, 73-7'4). Longenecker maintains a fourth view. He sees the signs and wonders of Joel 2:3032 as being literally fulfilled in the future state (Richard N. Longenecker, "Acts," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary (1981), 9:275-76. This view is best, particularly since Marshall's view tends to downgrade the literal fulfillment of Joel's prophecy. Furthermore the fourth view allows for the already-not yet tension that seems to exist in Luke-Acts concerning the fulfillment of the kingdom (e.g., Luke 10:9; 11:20). The first part of Joel's prophecy seems to have been fulfilled (Acts 2:17-18), whereas the cataclysmic signs await fulfillment in the last days immediately preceding Christ's return (Acts 2:19-21; cf. Rev. 6:12).
14 15 16

Longenecker, "Acts," 9:275; F. F. Bruce, Commentary on the Book of Acts, 68, n. 47. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, 73. Longenecker, "Acts," 9:275.

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prediction (They were also a direct fulfillment of Christ's promise to send the Holy Spirit; see Luke 24:49; John 14:16-18; 15:26-27; 16:7-15; Acts 1:45, 8; 2:33).^ The solemnity and importance of these words regarding the restora tion of the prophetic gift are accentuated by Peter's addition of ("God says") at the beginning of the quotation in Acts 2:17.18 It is highly significant that Peter tied this beginning of New Testa ment prophecy with prophetic phenomena of the Old Testament. 19 The word ("to prophesy"), which Peter used in Acts 2:17, is also used in the Septuagint in Joel 3:1 (2:28, Eng.). By quoting Joel 2:28-32 in Acts 2:17-21, Peter demonstrated that the early church was experiencing an unprecedented outpouring of God's Spirit, which was manifested through the return of the prophetic gift among God's people. This return of prophecy was a di rect result of Jesus' ascension and exaltation to the right hand of God as the promised Messiah (Acts 2:33).20 In light of this, Joel 2 and Acts 2 establish a fundamental conti nuity between Old and New Testament prophecy. "Thus, here we have prophecy of the Old Testament type entering into the New Tes tament era. And this is according to Peter's divinely inspired inter pretation of Joel. . . . This establishes a fundamental continuity link ing Old and New Testament prophecy. . . . This divinely expected prophetic gift appears in numerous places in Acts, 1 Corinthians, and other New Testament books." 21 New Testament prophets and prophecy stood in direct line with their Old Testament counterparts who proclaimed God's message and will to the people of God. There fore New Testament prophecy is fundamentally a development and continuation of Old Testament prophecy.

Prophetic Personages in the New Testament

The direct continuity of Old Testament and New Testament prophets is reinforced through prophetic personages in the New Tes tament. The Old Testament had predicted the coming of Elijah to prepare the people spiritually for the advent of Messiah in the era of the New Covenant (Mai. 3:1; 4:4-6). Jesus related John the Baptist
u 1 8 i y

Patterson, "Joel," 7:259. Longenecker, "Acts," 9:275.

Gaffin adds an important note, "Confining our attention to biblical history, we note that certain gifts . . . are not unique to the new covenant but are also found under the old covenant. Prophecy and healing certainly . . . serve as examples" (Gaffin, Per spectives on Pentecost, 44).
9
z u 2 1

Bock, Proclamation from Pattern and Prophecy, 166. Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr., The Charismatic Gift of Prophecy (Memphis: Footstool, 1989),

8.

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directly to the prophecies about the return of Elijah (Matt. 3:3-17; Mark 1:3-8; Luke 3:4-17; cf. Isa. 40:3; Matt. 11:14; 17:12-13; Mark 9:1114, etc.). Also Jesus declared that John was the greatest of all the prophets, "thus placing him in line with the Old Testament 22 prophets" (cf. Matt. 11:9-11). John served as the prophetic bridge 23 between the periods of the Old and New Testaments (Luke 16:1). In striking similarity with the Old Testament prophets (e.g., Isa. 55:7; Ezek. 33:11-15; Hos. 14:1; Joel 2:12), John the Baptist called

L l 2

Geisler, Signs and Wonders, 159.

3 Luke 16:16 is a crux interpretum regarding John's place in the progression of salvation history: "The Law and the Prophets were proclaimed until John; since then the gospel of the kingdom of God is preached, and everyone is forcing his way into it" (cf. Luke 5:10). Two views of this passage are held, depending on one's understanding of two phrases used by Luke: and . It is disputed as to whether means "up to and including John," or "up to, but not including, John." Is John to be regarded as belonging to the old era of the Law and prophets or to the N e w Testament era, and does the phrase ("since then") exclude John from the New Testament era or does the phrase include him as a part of it as its beginning? The first view is represented by Conzelmann and Fitzmyer. Both see three stages in Luke's view of salvation history: the period of Israel, the period of Jesus' ministry, and the period since the Ascension (church period), with the second and third periods being kept quite distinct by Conzelmann. More particularly, this view argues that means that John is excluded from the new era ("up to and including John in the Old Testament prophetic era"). Those involved in this issue admit that this particular phrase is not conclusive. Conzelmann and Fitzmyer hold that the phrase ("since then") is the more decisive term (cf. Matt. 11:12) and that it excludes John from the new era. Often this same phrase in Luke 16:16 is related to Luke 5:10 with its to contrast one era with another. Thus Jesus, not John, is said to form the bridge between the period of Israel and that of the church. The second view is held by Marshall and Kummel. They hold that in cludes John in the new era with Jesus and that John forms the bridge between the two periods of salvation history, that is, promise (Old Testament) and fulfillment (New Tes tament). Marshall and Kummel admit that both views regarding are linguis tically possible (e.g.. Matt. 4:17; 16:21; 26:16). However, they argue that the decisive factor in determining the sense is the theological portrayal in Luke's Gospel. First, Luke 3:18 presents John as a preacher of good news () cf. 1:77). Second, a sharp division between John and Jesus is not probable, for Luke seems to regard the ministry of John as the heralding of the beginning of the gospel (Acts 1:22). That is, Luke did not sharply divide the purposes of John's and Jesus' ministries (Luke 3:4-16; cf. 7:28), nor do the other Gospels (Matt. 3:1-17; Mark 1:1-11). Third, Conzelmann's in terpretation of the significance of Luke 16:16 contradicts its literal translation, which dates the beginning of the era of salvation from the time of John's manifestation. This latter point is confirmed by the synchronism of dates in Luke 3:1-2 (which makes John the inaugurator of the period) and by Luke 3:3-7,10-14,18; 7:26-28. The second view is preferable. For further information see Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke, trans. Geoffrey Bus well (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1961), 16-20; J. A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel according to Luke, The Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981), 181-87; I. Howard Marshall, Luke, The N e w International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 628; Werner G. Kmmel, "Das Gesetz und die Propheten gehen bis Johannes. Lukas 16:16 im Zusammenhang der heilsgeschichtlichen Theologie der Lukasschriften," in Verborum Veritas: Festschrift fr G. Sthlin, ed. O. Bcher und Klaus Haacker (Wuppertal: Theologischer Verlag, 1970), 89-102; Walter Wink, John the Baptist in the Gospel Tradition, SNTS Monograph Series No. 7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 51-55.

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for repentance on the part of Israel (e.g., Matt. 3:2; Mark 1:4).24 His ascetic dress was similar to that of Elijah (e.g., 2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6), which was the typical garb of Old Testament prophets (Zech. 13:4).25 John also resembled Elijah by his sudden appearance on the scene, his solitary life, and his uncompromising message.26 This continuity between Old Testament and New Testament prophecy is also demonstrated by Agabus. Agabus modeled his pro phetic style directly after the Old Testament prophets. As Bruce notes, "The mode of his prophecy is reminiscent of much Old Testa ment prophecy; it is conveyed in deed as well as in word."27 This can be seen in several ways. He introduced his prophecy with the for mula, "This is what the Holy Spirit says" { /, Acts 21:11), which closely parallels the Old Testament prophetic formula of "thus says the Lord" so frequently proclaimed by Old Testament prophets (e.g., Isa. 7:7; Ezek. 5:5; Amos 1:3, 6, 11, 13; Obad. 1; Mie. 2:3; Nah. 1:12; Zech. l:3-4).28 This same introduc tory phrase introduces the words of the Lord Jesus to the seven churches in the Book of Revelation ( , cf. Rev. 2:1, 8,12,18; 3:1, 7, 14).29 Like many Old Testament prophets, Agabus presented
See S. Lewis Johnson, "The Message of John the Baptist," Bibliotheca Sacra 113 (January 1956): 32; and Alfred Plummer, An Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew (1915; reprint. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982), 22.
2 2 4

David Hill, Matthew, N e w Century Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), 91. Though such dress was not necessarily required for a prophet, it demon strates John's close resemblance to Old Testament prophets.
2

R. T. France, Matthew, Tyndale N e w Testament Commentaries (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 91. The implications of such resemblances are drawn out in such verses as Matthew 11:14 and 17:12-13.
2 7 2

Bruce, Acts, 425.

Marshall notes, "'Thus says the Holy Spirit' corresponds to 'Thus says the Lord' on the lips of Old Testament prophets" (Marshall, Acts, 340). See also William Neal, Acts, New Century Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973), 217; G. H. W. Lampe, "Acts," in Peake's Commentary, ed. Matthew Black (London: Thomas Nelson, 1962), 919. Gaffin notes, "In the plainest possible terms, here the words of Agabus in his identity as a prophet are the words of the Holy Spirit himself, a quote of what the Spirit says. Not only what the prophet receives but what he says and communicates to others is inspired revelation. The correspondence to Old Testament prophecy is conspicuous: the use of the introductory formula with 'Holy Spirit' substituted for 'Lord,' prediction, and an accompanying symbolic act (cf., e.g., Isa. 20:2-6). Just as in the Old Testament, this does not mean that every prophecy conformed to this pattern or involved prediction. But there is no good reason to suppose that this incident is not typical or not indicative of the origin and character of N e w Testament prophecy" (Gaffin, Perspectives on Pentecost, 65). Though the formula "Thus says the Holy Spirit" is not essential for the prophecy to be fully authoritative, since many times Old Testament prophets did not use this expression (e.g., Amos 7:1; 8:1), it does serve to emphasize the close relationship between Old Testament and N e w Testament prophetic expression (Geisler, Signs and Wonders, 159). Robert L. Thomas, "Prophecy Rediscovered? A Review of The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today," Bibliotheca Sacra 149 (January-March 1992): 91.

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his prophecies through symbolic actions (Acts 21:11; cf. 1 Kings 11:29-40; 22:11; Isa. 20:1-6; Jer. 13:1-11; Ezek. 4:1-17; 5:1-17). Like the Old Testament prophets, Agabus was empowered by the Holy Spirit as the prophetic messenger ( , Acts 11:28; cf. Num. 11:25-29; 1 Sam. 10:6,10; 2 Sam. 23:2; Isa. 42:1; 59:21; Zech. 7:12; Neh. 9:30). Like the Old Testament prophets, Agabus's prophecies were accurately fulfilled (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11; cf. 28:17).30 In the Book of Revelation, the angel who functioned as a revealer to the Apostle John placed him in company with the prophetic line from the Old to the New Testament. In Revelation 22:7-9, John is identified among the prophets by the phrase "your brethren the prophets," and his prophetic power is linked to "the Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets," the same Source who empowered the prophets of old (v. 6).31 Though John was an apostle, he is also placed among the line of Old Testament and New Testa ment prophets, since it was most likely through his possessing the prophetic gift that he was the recipient of divine revelation (vv. 910).32 As Thomas notes, "Since John was a member of the body of

3 U

Geisler, Signs and Wonders, 158; Thomas, "Prophecy Rediscovered? A Review of The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today," 90-91; Gentry, The Charismatic Gift of Prophecy, 43. As Thomas concludes, "The prophecy of Agabus (and the Holy Spirit) was absolutely accurate. . . . When God revealed the future to His prophets. He also provided for the accurate reporting of those revelations to the prophets' listeners." Some, like Grudem, assert that Agabus's prophecy was inaccurate (Wayne A. Grudem, The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today [Westchester, IL: Crossway Books, 1988], 96-102). However, Grudem's novel definition of N e w Testament prophecy incorrectly drives him to this conclusion. For further information on Grudem's mishandling of the prophecy of Agabus, see Thomas, "Prophecy Rediscovered? A Review of The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today," and Saucy, "Prophecy Today? An Initial Response," 4-5.
3

* The stress of the passage is on God as the source of all prophetic revelation. He is described as "the God of the spirits of the prophets." The plural word "spirits" most likely refers to the "natural faculties of the prophets, raised and quickened by the Holy Spirit." See H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, n.d.), 303; G. B. Caird, A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 282; and Robert H. Mounce, Revelation, The N e w International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 390. Regarding Revelation 22:6 Mounce says, "It is unnecessary to decide between OT or NT prophets because in either case the same prophetic function is carried out. All true prophecy originates from God and comes through men moved by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet. 1:21)" (Mounce, Revelation, 390). Gaffin adds, "It has been held that Revelation as a prophecy is on a higher level of inspiration and authority than other N e w Testament prophecy. This position depends on the assumption that prophecy elsewhere in the New Testament has a lower authority or that the rest of the N e w Testament makes a distinction between prophecy with and without binding authority . . . an assumption which is without support" (Gaffin, Perspectives on Pentecost, 68). The gifts of apostleship and prophecy should be distinguished. Apostleship dealt primarily with the personal authority of the one commissioned as a representative of Christ (Acts 14:14), whereas a prophet was one who possessed the gift of prophecy, which enabled the person to receive direct, miraculous revelation through the Holy

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 397

Christ and since his prophecy was overwhelmingly similar to the spiritual gift of prophecy . . . John produced this prophecy [the Book 33 of Revelation] through the use of that gift." 34 Like Old Testament prophets, John used the phrase (Rev. 2-3); he reflected a similar vision of the prophetic calling (Rev. 1:9-16; cf. Isa. 6:1-13; Ezek. 1:1-28); he swallowed a small book (Rev. 10:8-11; cf. Ezek. 2:8-3:3); and he measured a temple (Rev. 11:1; cf. Ezek. 40:3-42:20). Geisler aptly summarizes this continuity. The Old Testament predicted the prophet John the Baptist (Malachi 3:5). Jesus declared that John was the greatest of the prophets (Matt. 11:11), thus placing him in line with the Old Testament prophets. John the apostle spoke of "the prophecy of this book [of Revelation]" that he wrote (Revelation 22:7). And the angel from God that spoke to him placed him among "the prophets" such as the other "servants" God used in the Old Testament (22:6). And John said of himself, "I am a fellow servant with ... the prophets" (22:9). So from John the Baptist to John the apostle. New Testament prophets stood in continuity with Old Testament prophets. And their revelations from God were both authoritative and infallible (see Revelation 22:18-19).35 New Testament prophets directly inherited the prophetic vocation of the Old Testament prophets. This strongly suggests that the gift of prophecy in the New Testament was the same as that in the Old Testament.

Spirit (1 Cor. 12:10; 14:26-31). Admittedly some apostles were probably blessed with multiple gifts. For example Paul had the gift of prophecy (1 Cor. 13:9; 14:6); performed special signs like healing (Acts 19:11-12), tongues (1 Cor. 14:18), and miracles (Acts 13:11); and performed the work of an evangelist (Acts 20:17-20). John was an apostle (Acts 1:13), received revelations (Rev. 1:1; 22:10), and was involved with performing miracles (Acts 3:1-11). However, there is no indication in the N e w Testament that an apostle was automatically a prophet or a prophet automatically an apostle. Apostles who had the gift of prophecy most likely received revelations through their possession of the same gift of prophecy that the nonapostolic N e w Testament prophet exhibited. An apostle who had the gift of prophecy had more personal authority in light of being commissioned a representative of Christ, but such authority related to apostleship and not different levels of prophetic authority. However, when a N e w Testament prophet, like Agabus, was empowered by the Holy Spirit to prophesy (Acts 21:11), he had equal prophetic authority with apostles while prophesying. For further information, see Robert L. Thomas, "The Spiritual Gift of Prophecy in Revelation 22:18," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 32 (June 1989): 207.
3 4

John never alluded to his position as an apostle but only to his position as a prophet (e.g.. Rev. 1:3; 22:18-19) in order to claim authority for the Book of Revelation. That is, the divine authority of the book rests on its nature as prophecy, not on John's apostleship. Furthermore the doctrinal and ethical standards presented in the book are also based on the prophetic claims of the work and not on apostolicity. As Guthrie comments, "It was not on the strength of his apostolic commission, but on the strength of his prophetic inspiration that he [John] gave out his revelation" (Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, rev. ed. [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1990], 941). Also see Thomas, "Prophecy Rediscovered? A Review of The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today," 90.
3 5

Geisler, Signs and Wonders, 159.

398 Bibliotheca Sacra/October-December 1992

Similarity of Vocabulary and Phraseology

New Testament terminology is the same when referring to prophets and prophecy, whether from Old or New Testament times. "The early Christian application of the designation to in dividual Christians . . . was originally determined by the prevalent conception of the prophetic role of the Old Testament."36 This correspondence is evident throughout the New Testament. and its cognates are used in fulfillment formulas in New Testament citations of Old Testament prophets. 37 According to the New Testament writers, the Old Testament prophets proclaimed the very words of Yahweh in their prophecies (Rom. 1:2; Matt. 1:22; 2:15; Acts 3:18, 21; Heb. 1:1). Such prophecies were filled with pre dictions about Christ (e.g., Matt. 1:23; 2:5-6; Luke 18:31; 24:25-27). Old Testament prophets were seen as writing the very words of the Lord regarding future happenings. According to Peter, such prophets and prophecies were guarded from error by the guidance and inspira tion of the Holy Spirit (2 Pet. 1:21). and its cognates refer to early Christian prophets as well. The first instances of New Testament prophecy occur in the Lucan birth narratives. 38 Luke prefaced Zacharias's prophetic decla ration with the words, "Zacharias was filled with the Holy Spirit, and prophesied" (Luke 1:67). According to this phrase, the basis for Zacharias's benediction was not personal thanksgiving nor a literary

b 37

Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity, 195.

Two examples are sufficient to illustrate this point: ( ("in order that the Word of the Lord by the prophet should be fulfilled," Matt. 1:22), a reference to Isaiah and ("having been written in the prophets," John 6:45), a reference to the Old Testament prophets as a group.
3

Some interpreters do not consider Zacharias's Benedictus to be the first episode of prophecy in Luke. Elizabeth's statement about Mary and the Christ-child (Luke 1:15, 41-45) is sometimes regarded as prophecy. However, neither the term nor its cognates are applied to an utterance until Zacharias's words (1:67). Friedrich argues that though the account of the meeting between Elizabeth and Mary in Luke 1:39-55 is not directly called a prophecy, the usage of ' in verse 41 and in verse 42 indicates that what was spoken by Elizabeth may be considered prophetic, especially in light of verse 67. His reasoning may be correct, since the Holy Spirit, the prophetic source of both Testaments, inspired Elizabeth at this point (Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, s.v. "," by Gerhard Friedrich, 6:835). Another example is Simeon, who, under the leading of the Holy Spirit, went into the temple to view the Christ-child. Though neither nor its cognates occur with reference to Simeon, the reference to the Holy Spirit resting on him ( ' , Luke 2:25) indicates that the prophetic Spirit rested on him. Also the revelatory nature of his statement indicates that he possessed the prophetic gift (Luke 2:25-35).

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 399

product taken from tradition but a prophecy inspired directly by the Holy Spirit. 39 Anna is called a (Luke 2:3).40 With this appellation she is accorded a rare recognition in Jewish history, for rabbinic ma terial indicates that only "seven prophetesses have prophesied in Israel. . . . Sarah, Miriam, Deborah, Hannah, Abigail, Huldah, and Esther."41 Prophetesses functioned in both the Old and New Testa ments (Exod. 15:20; Judg. 4:4; 2 Kings 22:14; Neh. 6:14; Isa. 8:3; Acts 2:17; 21:9; 1 Cor. 11:5). Anna seems to have been called a prophetess because of her gift of foreseeing future events (Luke 2:38). The Jews and Jesus considered John the Baptist to be a prophet (Matt. 11:9-14; Luke 20:6). The people of Palestine thought Jesus was a prophet (Matt. 16:14; 21:46). Some recognized Him as the fulfill ment of the promised great prophet of Deuteronomy 18:15 (John 6:14; 7:40; cf. Acts 3:19-22). The Jews also believed that the test of a true prophet included the miraculous ability to prophesy accurately and correctly even under difficult circumstances (e.g., Matt. 26:67-68; Luke 7:16, 39; 9:8,19; John 4:19).42 Also and its cognates are used to refer to contemporary New Testament prophets in the church (Acts 11:27-30; 15:32; 21:1011; 1 Cor. 12-14; Eph. 2:20; 3:5-10; 4:11; Rev. 22:6-10). Clearly the New Testament makes no distinctions in vocabulary or phraseology between references to Old and New Testament prophecy or prophets.

The Evaluation of Prophets

In the Old Testament those who claimed to have the prophetic gift were to be evaluated by the people of Israel to determine whether they and their prophecies were legitimate. The Old Tes tament gives important principles for distinguishing between ac ceptable and unacceptable prophets and prophecies.
^ Friedrich, ibid., 835.

Jezebel in Revelation 2:20 is called a , but this is presented in terms of an appellation that is self-styled rather than what she actually was, namely, a false prophetess ( ).
4

* Babylonian Talmud Megillah 14a.

While these verses do not explicitly assert this point, they lend substantiation to the assertion that for a person to be a prophet, he must possess miraculous abilities. While Jesus was blindfolded, the unbelieving Jews taunted Him to identify (lit. "prophesy") who was slapping Him (Matt. 26:67-68). The reasoning seems to have been that if He were a true prophet. His miraculous abilities (Deut. 18:15) would enable Him, though He could not see, to prophesy accurately who was inflicting the pain on Him (cf. Luke 22:64). This is substantiated also in John 4:19, which states that the Samaritan woman perceived that Jesus was a prophet based on the accuracy of His words (cf. Luke 7:39). In Luke 7:16 Jesus' raising of a dead man is identified with His being a prophet (cf. 2 Kings 4:8-37). These verses indicate that Old Testament standards for prophets were most likely still in force in the New Testament era.

4 2

400 Bibliotheca Sacra/October-December 1992

Deuteronomy 13:1-13 and 18:20-22 are major passages dealing with the question of true and false prophets. Any so-called prophet who enticed the nation or individual Israelites to worship a god other than Yahweh was to be removed from the community by the severest penalty, namely, death (13:5). The reaction Israel exhib ited toward false prophets was viewed as a test to determine whether they desired to follow and love Him exclusively (13:3). Any prophet who spoke presumptuously or falsely in Yahweh's name but had not been genuinely called to that office or inspired by His Spirit was to be put to death (Deut. 18:20-22). A sign of a true prophet was that his prophecies actually came true, implying that if Yahweh was behind the prophetic commission, He would not let His words spoken through the prophet fail.43 The Old Testament frequently emphasized the requirement of accuracy for verifying a true prophet. 44 Since a genuine prophet was empowered by Yahweh's Spirit,45 any deviation from truth or accu racy would be a sign of a false prophet. False prophets were to be summarily rejected by the nation. 46 The one who spoke presumptu ously was to be distinguished from the one who spoke through the Spirit of the Lord. And the true prophet was to be distinguished from the false prophet on the basis of whether his proclamations were true or false. Yet even if the prophet's words came true, this did not necessar ily mean he was a genuine prophet (Deut. 13:1-4). False prophets could sometimes feign true prophecies. The source of the prophecy had to be determined. Was it genuinely from God, or from the imagi nation of the false prophet ("spoken presumptuously," Deut. 18:22), or even demonic (1 Kings 22:20-21; 2 Chron. 18:19-22)? Even a true prophet could apostasize and declare something 47 that was not truly from Yahweh's Spirit (1 Kings 13:11-25). There4c

* Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, s.v. "," by Rolf Rendtorff, 6:8078.

4 4

The Old Testament emphasizes that true prophets were completely accurate in all Yahweh commanded them to proclaim. For example Samuel was recognized as a true prophet because his proclamations came to pass exactly as he declared them ("Thus Samuel grew and the Lord was with him and let none of his words fail," 1 Sam. 3:19). Samuel gained a reputation among the people because they observed his prophetic consistency ("Behold now, there is a man of God in this city, and the man is held in honor; all that he says surely comes true," 1 Sam. 9:6). But false prophets were recognized as those who made inaccurate and false predictions or misleading oracles (1 Kings 18:20-40; Jer. 5:30-31; 14:14; 23:32; Urn. 2:14; Ezek. 13:9-10, 23; 21:23,29; 22:28).
4 5

For example. Numbers 11:25-29; 1 Samuel 10:6,10; 2 Samuel 23:2; 2 Chronicles 24:20; Nehemiah 9:30-31; Ezekiel 2:2-10; 3:24-27; 11:5-12; Micah 3:8; Zechariah 7:12.
4 6 4 7

For example, Deuteronomy 18:22; Jeremiah 5:30-31; 14:14-15; 23:33-40.

Here the lying prophet seems to have had true prophetic gifts, but he falsely presented a prophecy as coming from the Lord in order to promote his own selfish aims.

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 401

fore continued vigilance and constant evaluation of every prophet's words were needed. The difference between a genuine and a false prophet could be determined only by careful examination of the prophet's life and message in accord with the written Word of Yahweh (Deut. 13:4, 18). The reputation of the true prophet could be established only over a period of time.48 No tolerance of a false prophet or prophecy was to be allowed, as seen by the severe penalty of death for such an infraction (Deut. 13:5; 18:20). This was so severe because someone who spoke as a prophet in Yahweh's name was claiming the high honor of being Yahweh's spokesman who had direct contact with Him. As such a representative, the prophet could demand obedience from his hearers. False prophets could potentially do much damage to the theocratic community in leading the people astray from Yahweh.49 These rules in Deuteronomy 13:1-13 and 18:20-22 were applicable even to established prophets like Samuel and Isaiah. Even if an Old Testament prophet gained a reputation so that he may not have been formally or constantly evaluated, he was still subject to the background requirements of Deuteronomy 13 and 18. At the very least, the stated requirements served to reinforce the genuineness of the true prophet, because a true prophet must accurately proclaim the truth (e.g., 1 Sam. 3:19).50 Sadly, Old Testament prophets often became revered only by later generations. Frequently Israel failed to expose false prophets while persecuting Yahweh's true prophets (e.g., 1 Kings 19:10; Jer. 37:1-21). Only as later generations realized that their ancestors had been disobedient idolaters who failed to recognize the prophets' advice (cf. Ezra 9:1-15; Neh. 9:30-31; Dan. 9:6) did the prophets ascend to a place of esteem. This latter thought was reinforced by Jesus when He recalled that Israel had consistently despised, rejected, and killed her prophets: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to her" (Matt. 23:37). The apostles, being Jews who were keenly aware of the Old Testament, remembered the admonitions to evaluate those who claimed to have the prophetic gift. The New Testament furnishes no indication that the Jews in that day, particularly those who became apos-

40

Peter C. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), 263.

49

S. R. Driver, Deuteronomy, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1895), 229.
50

The mere fact that the writer of 1 Samuel could assert that Yahweh did not let Samuel's words fail indicates that some form of evaluation by the people went on. This most likely was in hindsight, looking back over Samuel's life.

402 Bibliotheca Sacra/October-December 1992

ties in the early church, considered the requirements for prophets to have been abrogated or substantially modified. Just as evaluation was needed in the Old Testament to determine genuine prophets from false prophets so evaluation was needed in the New Testament. The critical need for evaluating New Testament prophets should also be understood in light of Jesus' warning in Matthew 24:11. "Many false prophets" ( ), He said, would arise and deceive people. In light of the promised return of prophecy, as seen in Joel 2:2832 and Acts 2:17-21, the prophetic Holy Spirit had been poured out on the people of God once again. While not all in the New Testa ment era could claim the prophetic gift (because of God's sovereign distribution of spiritual gifts; 1 Cor. 12:4-31, esp. v. 29), a much larger group of potential prophets became possible because of the special outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost ("I will pour forth of My Spirit upon all mankind; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy," Acts 2:17; cf. Joel 2:28). With a larger number of genuine prophets, the potential for false prophets and prophecies increased. This expanded sphere of prophetic activity increased the need for care in discerning true prophets from false prophets. As noted in the previous article in this series, the early church struggled with a growing wave of false prophecy, especially during the latter half of the first century. "Many false prophets have gone out into the world" (1 John 4:1; cf. 2 Pet. 2:1-3; 2 John 10-11; 3 John 9-10; Jude 8-23). Such false prophesy ing, with its accompanying false profession, would have created con fusion and uncertainty in some areas of the church regarding the truths of Christianity.51 Eventually this wave of false prophecy led in the second century A.D. to the prophetic crisis known as Montanism. The marked increase in the number of prophets caused the early church to exhibit a cautious attitude in accepting the prophecies of those claiming the prophetic gift. Need for caution is especially seen during the period of the formation of the doctrine of the firstcentury church. Such care is also evident by the fact that, along with apostles, New Testament prophets served a vitally important role in the foundation of the early church, according to Ephesians 2:20.52 Through the apostles and New Testament prophets, the firstM Apparently Jude's stern warning in Jude 8-23 was tied to the fact that such false profession may have begun to cause concern among surviving church apostles and leaders. While believers who began to exhibit doubt in their faith were to be shown love and mercy, false prophets and teachers were to be dealt with decisively and vigor ously according to Jude. For additional information see Edwin A. Blum, "Jude," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary (1981), 8:384,391-92. 52

The major interpretive problems regarding Ephesians 2:20 are considered in this article as well as in the third and fourth installments of this series. It is sufficient to

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 403

century church received its revelatory/doctrinal information and guidance (cf. Eph. 3:5-10; 4:7-16) so that the church could reach ma turity and understanding in the faith (4:12-14). Paul's stipulations in 1 Corinthians 12-14 for evaluating prophets and their prophecies were based on Old Testament admoni tions for such evaluation, Jesus' warning about false prophets, and the increased number of potential prophets. Just as the Old Testa ment prophets were to be examined, so too the New Testament prophets were to be evaluated. The increased potential for false prophets created the need Paul attempted to meet in 1 Corinthians 14:29-31. The larger the group of prophets, the more potential there was for the abuse of prophecy by those who were not New Testament prophets. Just as false prophets of old opposed the divinely chosen leaders and spokesmen (proph ets) of Yahweh in ancient Israel, so false prophets and teachers challenged apostolic authority and doctrine (Gal. 2:4-5; 2 Tim. 2:18; Jude 3). Such false prophetic activity in the early church pointed up the need to heed the Old Testament admonition to evaluate proph ets. Just as the Old Testament commanded the theocratic community to evaluate all alleged Old Testament prophets, so Paul gave the Christian community a corresponding admonition to evaluate all socalled New Testament prophets. As Saucy remarks, "Some evalua tion of the content of Old Testament prophecy was required even as Paul instructed in the church. To be sure with the increase of pro phetic activity in the church with the coming of the Spirit under the new covenant, evaluations might be more frequent. But the principle does not appear to be different than that in the Old Testament."53 First Corinthians 12:1-3 sheds additional light on the situation addressed in 1 Corinthians 14:29. Apparently false prophets had preached that Jesus was "accursed" (12:3) even though they pro fessed to be true prophets. The person making such a startling state ment must have been a professed Christian. Otherwise his state ment would not have been tolerated in a Christian assembly and would not have been attributed to the Holy Spirit, as apparently claimed ("No one speaking by the Spirit of God \iv ] says, 'Jesus is accursed,'" v. 3). In the face of such starkly erroneous prophesying, Paul warned the congregation to evaluate each prophecy carefully to ensure that a genuine prophet was speaking. Some recognized voice was needed to declare that the Holy Spirit was not the source of such a statement and that the person voicing it
note for this point that Ephesians 2:20 grammatically indicates that New Testament prophets constituted an important foundational element in the revelatory and doctri nal formation of the first-century church (Eph. 3:5-10).
5 3

Saucy, "Prophecy Today? An Initial Response," 2.

404 Bibliotheca Sacra / October-December 1992

was a false prophet. First Corinthians 14:29 does not necessarily mean that established prophets had to be verified continually. 54 Yet the general rule that any potential prophet needed to be scruti nized by other prophets is stipulated. The evaluative process laid down by Paul emphasizes the need for careful analysis of any prophet who claimed to speak by the Spirit of God. According to 2 Corinthians 11:13-15, even false prophets had potential to feign a true prophecy (cf. Deut. 13:2). So Paul encouraged a continued vigil. The regular ministry of prophets was to ensure the genuineness of prophets and prophecies as a safeguard against doctrinal heresies. Paul also laid down the guideline that genuine prophets and prophecy are to be in agreement with apostolic doctrine. Since apos tolic doctrine and true prophets have their source in God, one evi dence that a prophecy was genuine would be its agreement with apostolic truth (1 Cor. 14:37-38; cf. Gal. 1:8-9). While false prophets challenged apostolic authority, the true prophet would recognize Paul's words and commandments as coming directly from the Lord Je sus Christ. Any alleged prophet opposing apostolic standards and elevating himself to the role of God's only spokesman (1 Cor. 14:36) was to be recognized as false and his authority rejected (v. 38). In summary, the early church, in evaluating prophets, was heeding the warning of both the Old Testament and Jesus.55 Such a careful evaluation also reflected the increased sphere of prophetic activity in the New Testament era.
EMPOWERED BY THE SPIRIT OF GOD

Prophets in both the Old and New Testaments were empowered by the Holy Spirit in the exercise of their gift. An intimate rela tionship existed between the Holy Spirit and the prophet of God. Old Testament prophets prophesied as a direct result of the empow erment and influence of the Spirit of Yahweh (see, e.g., Zech. 7:12). The Spirit of Yahweh is the Spirit of prophecy (see, e.g., Neh. 9:30). According to Peter, the Holy Spirit was the Source of the prophet's inspiration: "No prophecy was ever made by an act of hu man will, but men moved [, "borne along"] by the Holy Spirit spoke from God" (2 Pet. 1:21). As such, the Holy Spirit also guaranteed the accuracy of the prophecies because He was the prime
^ 4 As noted in the previous article in this series, the postapostolic early church did not necessarily evaluate its prophets on a constant basis. Didache 11:11-12 demonstrates that prophets could be certified by the communities which they served, yet the certification process was not formalized but rather "consisted of the reputation which the prophet had built up over an undetermined period of time. Prophets who settled in the community were undoubtedly those who had been certified by the community" (Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity, 226; cf. Didache 13:1).
5 5

Gentry, The Charismatic Gift of Prophecy, 37.

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 405

Motivator of the prophet (2 Pet. 1:19; 2 Tim. 3:16).56 Because the Holy Spirit guided and guarded the men involved in giving prophe cies, these predictions were accurate down to the very words (Matt. 5:18; John 10:35; 2 Tim. 3:16). The Holy Spirit's empowering of prophets continued into the New Testament era.57 The coming of the prophetic gift on the day of Pentecost in Acts 2:17-21 was a direct result of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit of prophecy ("I will pour forth of My Spirit upon all mankind; and your sons and your daughters shall prophecy"). The prophet Agabus predicted a coming famine through the agency of the Holy Spirit ( ) and, as a result, the prophecy was accurately fulfilled (Acts 11:28). Again Agabus, empowered by the Holy Spirit ( ), warned Paul about his fate if he should enter Jerusalem (21:11). His prophecy was accu rately fulfilled (21:27-22:29; 28:17). In addressing the abuse of the spiritual gift of prophecy in 1 Corinthians 12:3, Paul stressed that "no one speaking by the Spirit of God says, 'Jesus is accursed.'" No one who prophesies under the power of the Holy Spirit will issue such erroneous prophecy. The Holy Spirit is the one who guards genuine prophecies. This is in keeping with the Old Testament teaching that a prophet was con sidered false if his prophecies did not come true (Deut. 18:22) or if they led away from worship of the Lord (13:1-2). Paul made known that early church prophets, along with the apostles, received the important revelation of Gentile inclusion in the church (Eph. 3:5-10). This revelation came through the Holy Spirit ( ). In 1 John 4:1-3, Christians are urged to "test" () the source ( , "the spirits") behind the prophet to determine whether the source is from God ( ) or is demonically in fluenced ( , . 3). According to John, the true prophet brings forth genuine prophecy which has its source in God, while the sign of a false prophet is false prophecy. Again the Old Testament admonition to test prophets is reflected. The Holy Spirit maintained an intimate relationship with prophecy in both the Old and New Testament economies. Because the Holy Spirit is the Source behind the prophet of God in both, the

^ Admittedly, the Holy Spirit's method of inspiration in revelation was not dictation. Since the Holy Spirit, however, is the Source of prophetic inspiration. He also serves as Custodian for the prophetic accuracy of the genuine prophet (Charles Ryrie, A Survey of Bible Doctrine [Chicago: Moody, 19721, 38). " The reader is directed to the section on the prophesying of Zacharias, Elizabeth, and Anna for more on of the Spirit's intimate involvement in prophecy in the New Testament era.

406 Bibliotheca Sacra/October-December 1992

Spirit serves as the sovereign Guardian of the accuracy of prophecies from God (cf. Heb. 6:18). Prophetic Voice for the Community Prophets in the Old Testament served as the voice of Yahweh to the theocratic community of Israel. They were recipients of revela tions directly from Yahweh, which revelations they proclaimed to the nation (Isa. 6:8-13; Jer. 1:5-10; Ezek. 2:1-10). Just as the Old Testament prophets served as the prophetic voice of communication and instruction from Yahweh, so New Testa ment prophets functioned in the same capacity. Ephesians 2:20 points out that New Testament prophets too functioned as prophetic voices for the believing community. However, this verse is not with out interpretive problems. In the phrase ("founda tion of the apostles and prophets"), does the word refer to prophets of the Old Testament or the New Testament? Some com mentators say it refers to the Old Testament prophets.58 Two argu ments are usually cited in support of this view. (1) The New Testa ment apostles added their testimonies to that of the Old Testament prophets in the revelation they transmitted concerning Christ. (2) The metaphor of a building foundation suggests that Gentiles are now being added to Old Testament Jews, as part of the same spiritual building. A similar metaphor is seen in Romans ll:17-24.59 Other commentators understand to refer to New Tes tament prophets.60 Certain arguments militate against the former view and support the view of New Testament prophets. (1) The word "apostles" comes before "prophets." If Old Testament prophets were in view, should have preceded , (2) Eph esians 3:5 relates that the mystery of Gentile inclusion was not pre-

^ E.g., R. C H. Lenski, The Interpretation of Galatians, Ephesians, and Philippians (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1937), 452; Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, s.v. ";" by Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, 1:441; and R. J. McKelvey, The New Temple (London: Oxford, 1969), 113-14. ^ McKelvey, The New Temple, 113-14; and Lenski, The Interpretation of Galatians, Ephesians, and Phuippians, 442-43. E.g., Markus Barth, Ephesians, The Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974), 1:268-69; John Eadie, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians (London: Macmillan, 1887), 190-91; . . Abbott, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1887), 69; William Hendriksen, Exposition of Ephesians, N e w Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1961), 142-43; J. Armitage Robinson, St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians (London: Macmillan, 1909), 67-68; R. Skevington Wood, "Ephesians," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary (1978), 12:41-42; John R. W. Stott, God's New Society: The Message of Ephesians (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1979), 106-7.
6 0

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 407

viously made known as it has now been made known " ("to His holy apostles and prophets"). The prophets are clearly perceived as the inspired con temporaries of the apostles, enjoying similar revelations of truth from the same Holy Spirit. This mystery was not revealed to Old Testament prophets,61 for it is only "now" () in the Church Age that this mystery has been revealed (3:10; Col. 1:26). The vvv in Ephesians 3:10 and Colossians 1:26 marks a contrast between the two ages. This mystery was unknown to former generations, but it is now revealed to the apostles and New Testament prophets. (3) The phrase in Ephesians 4:11 that Christ gave ("some apostles and some prophets") also supports the view that New Testament prophets are meant in 2:20 and 3:5. In Ephesians 4:11 the New Testament prophets are seen as a special class who ranked next to the apostles. (4) The context of Ephesians 2:20 also favors the view that New Testament prophets are meant. If Old Testament prophets were meant, it is difficult to account for Christ being the Cornerstone, that is, the first stone laid in the foun dation. Christ, as the New Covenant Mediator, is in view in verses 14-18, and He came in that role long after the Old Testament prophets. The fact that a cornerstone of a building is laid before any other stones suggests the chronological order of first, Jesus, then the apostles, and then New Testament prophets. (5) The "new man," a reference to the uniting of Jew and Gentile into one body, the church, is completely distinct from the old order, which entailed enmity be tween Jews and Gentiles because of the Law (Eph. 2:15). Hence it seems probable that refers to New Testament prophets. They, along with the apostles, received the revelation of the mystery of the church in the present age, which had been hidden in days past (Eph. 3:5; 4:11).62 Another important issue pertaining to Ephesians 2:20 is how the phrase "of the apostles and prophets" modifies "foundation." Is it a subjective genitive, "the foundation which has been laid by the 63 apostles and prophets," or is it an appositional genitive, "the

01

The mystery was not that Gentiles would be blessed, for that was predicted in the Old Testament (Gen. 12:3; Isa. 9:1-7; 11:10; 42:1-6; 49:1-8) but that Gentiles would be equal heirs with Jews in the body of Christ (Eph. 3:6).

- Stott, God's New Society: The Message of Ephesians, 107. Grudem argues that the verse really means "apostles who are also prophets" (i.e., apostle-prophets) and says the revelation regarding Gentile inclusion (Eph. 3:5-11) came only through the apostles (Grudem, The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today, 49-51). His particular assertions regarding Ephesians 2:20; 3:5; and 4:11 will be addressed in the third article in this series.
63

Another view, very close to the first, is that the phrase should be understood as a genitive of source, that is, the "foundation which came from the apostles and New

408 Bibliotheca Sacra / October-December 1992

foundation which consists of the apostles and prophets"? In the first view refers not to the apostles and prophets themselves, but to their preaching and teaching, or their activity of receiving and proclaiming the gospel, or their ruling and guiding activity in the New Testament church. 64 However, the following may be noted in response to the first view. (1) The wording in Ephesians 2:20 requires that the building consists entirely of persons. This can be seen by the fact that the plu ral participle ("having been built upon") most nat urally refers, not to the house which is built, but to "you" as implied by ("you are") in the previous verse (v. 19). Thus the Gentile converts are added to the foundation of the apostles and prophets. 65 This can be further demonstrated by the fact that Christ is best un derstood as the chief "cornerstone," the primary Stone of the founda tion. 66 Therefore the metaphor in Ephesians 2:20 points to compo nents of the dwelling place of God (v. 22): the Gentiles, the Jewish apostles and New Testament prophets, 67 and Christ. All these ele ments are individuals who are joined together in a new house. 68 (2) The metaphor of a living, growing house (v. 21) in which God dwells (v. 22) fits with a picture of a house consisting of persons, but it fits poorly with the picture of a house having components that are impersonal teachings or activities (cf. 1 Pet. 2:4-8). No explicit men tion is made in the context of teaching activity or Christian doctrine or any other impersonal factor.69 (3) Passages cited as parallels to Ephesians 2:20 do not actually support the view that the foundation is laid by the apostles and

Testament prophets." These two interpretations would have a nonpersonal connota tion. The weaknesses of the subjective genitive belong also to this idea of source (Eadie, Ephesians, 197).
6 4

Charles Ellicott, Ephesians (London: Longmans, 1884), 197-98; J. J. Meuzelaar, Der Leib des Messias (Assen: van Gorcum, 1961), 127-30. Ibid. ("chief") is unusual. Paul likely derived it from the SepThe term tuagint of Isaiah 28:16.

6 5 6 6

" ' The apostles and N e w Testament prophets are connected by one article (). While one article is used, it does not necessarily imply that they are one and the same. As Robertson notes, "groups more or less distinct are treated as one for the purposes at hand" (A. T. Robertson, A Grammar of the New Testament in the Light of Historical Research [Nashville: Broadman, 1934], 787). The use of the article demonstrates the close relationship of apostles and prophets in the formation of the church. Further implications of this construction will be discussed in the third article. Abbott, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians, 70; Homer Kent, Ephesians: The Glory of the Church (Chicago: Moody, 1971), 47; McKelvey, The New Temple, 111. " y Abbott, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians and Colossians, 71.

The Gift of Prophecy in the Old and New Testaments 409

prophets (viz., 1 Cor. 3:10-11; Rom. 15:20), for they are not true par allels. In 1 Corinthians 3:10-11, Paul stated directly that he laid the foundation, but in Ephesians 2:20 he did not say this. First Corinthians 3 discusses building works on the foundation (Christ) in light of the Judgment Seat, whereas Ephesians 2 contains no mention of building works on a foundation. The foundation in Romans 15:20 is that of developing new local churches, but in Ephesians 2:20 the uni versal church is in view. The second major view of the genitive phrase in Ephesians 2:20 is that it is appositional, that is, the foundation consists of the apos tles and New Testament prophets. This seems to be the more natural interpretation, for it fits well in the immediate context of 2:19-21. As stated earlier, persons are in view in the formation of the build ing: the Gentiles, the apostles and prophets, and Christ. Here the metaphor expresses the fact that the church's foundation, the apos tles and New Testament prophets, needed to be correctly aligned with Christ, the chief Cornerstone. This view also makes sense in the context of Ephesians 4:11, where the apostles and New Testa ment prophets are seen as gifted men given to the church as its "foundation" (cf. 1 Cor. 12:28)7 Ephesians 2:20, then, points to the strategic, foundational role played by New Testament prophets in the formation of the church.71 The prophets, in association with the apostles, held the important status of helping lay the church's foundation. This would indicate the high degree of prestige enjoyed by New Testament prophets in the Christian community. Their ranking in the list of gifted persons in 1 Corinthians 12:28 places them second only to the apostles in use fulness to the body of Christ. Moreover, Paul urged his readers to de sire prophecy above the other gifts (cf. 1 Cor. 14:1). While several apostles received divine revelation (e.g., Paul, John, and Peter), New Testament prophets also received revelation and gave immediate and temporal advice to local congregations. That is, many New Testament prophets gave oral rather than canon ical revelation.72 Since, however, such canonical books as Luke-Acts, Mark, and Hebrews (Heb. 2:3-4) were written by nonapostles and
/ Harold W. Hoehner, "Ephesians," in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, New Testament, ed. John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1987), 627; Wood, "Ephesians," 42; C. Leslie Mitton, Ephesians, New Century Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973), 111; Francis Foulkes, The Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963), 86; Abbott, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians, 71.

71

' l Most would agree that this verse stresses the New Testament prophets' founda tional role but would disagree as to whether this verse has any implications for a con tinuing role beyond those initial aspects. 72 Didache 11-13.

410 Bibliotheca Sacra /October-December 1992

their books were canonically received, most likely the New Testament prophetic gift was involved in their composition.73 Apostles also probably received their inspired and authoritative revelations through exercising of the same prophetic gift exhibited by New Testament prophets like Agabus.74 Much as Old Testament prophets functioned as the prophetic voice in the theocratic community, receiving direct revelations, so apostles and New Testament prophets were vitally involved in the formative, revelatory period of the early church. Prophets were vehicles for revelation from God and held a high profile among early Christians for this reason. Concluding Observations The fundamental continuity of Old Testament and New Testament prophecy was demonstrated in several ways in the New Testament. As such, it stands in direct contradiction to recent attempts to bifurcate the New Testament prophetic gift into two distinct forms such as authoritative apostolic prophecy and nonauthoritative congregational prophecy. The case for nonauthoritative "congregational" prophecy in 1 Corinthians 12-14 and elsewhere in Scripture incorrectly posits a strong discontinuity between Old Testament and New Testament prophecy. Such a view does injustice to the fact that New Testament prophecy is founded on and has a significant continuity with the Old Testament prophetic phenomena and experience. Such a dichotomy also results in the assertion that New Testament prophecy contained fallible revelation, which in itself is a contradiction in terms.75 In light of this, the third article in this series will deal with the hypothesis of Wayne Grudem, who offers the most current attempt at justifying two forms of New Testament prophecy.

/ See Thomas, "Prophecy Rediscovered? A Review of The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today," 90; Geisler, Signs and Wonders, 160 (contra Grudem, The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today, 51-54).

In 1 Corinthians 12-14, in which Paul discussed the regulation of spiritual gifts, including New Testament prophecy and prophets, he linked his own possession of the spiritual gift of prophecy with that of New Testament prophets (1 Cor. 13:9; 14:6; cf. 12:10; 14:1). According to Paul, it is through the gift of prophecy that revelations come (1 Cor. 14:26-31; cf. Rev 1:1-2). Paul related that New Testament prophets received revelation(s) from God (, 1 Cor. 14:29-30), which is the same word he used for his own revelations from God. Paul received the substance of his gospel through revelation ( , Gal. 1:12; , Gal. 2:2; cf. 2 Cor. 12:2-4). John was also linked with the prophetic line because of his possession of the prophetic gift through which he received the Book of Revelation (, Rev. 1:1; cf. 22:6-10). See also Geisler, Signs and Wonders, 160.
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74

Ibid., 161.

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