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M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI
Voltage sags and interruptions are related power quality problems. Both are usually the result of faults in the power system and switching actions to isolate the faulted sections. They are characterized by rms voltage variations outside the normal operating range of voltages. Sag :If the RMS Voltage is below the nominal voltage by 10% to 90% for 0.5 Cycles to 1 Min.
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Example of fault locations that caused misoperation of sensitive production equipment at an industrial facility (the example system had multiple overhead distribution feeders and an extensive overhead transmission system supplying the substation).
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Characteristic measured at a customer location on an M.SURESH the feeder unfaulted part ofAP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI
shortUtility short-circuit fault event with two fast trip operations of utility line recloser.
Momentary interruption (actually two separate interruptions) observed downline from the fault
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Area of vulnerability
The likelihood of sensitive equipment being subjected to voltage lower than its minimum voltage sag ride-through capability. Voltage sag ride-through capability- Minimum voltage magnitude a piece of equipment can withstand or tolerate without misoperation or failure. (Equipment voltage sag immunity or susceptibility limit.) Area of vulnerability is determined by the total circuit miles of exposure to faults that can cause voltage magnitudes at an end-user facility to drop below the equipment minimum voltage sag ridethrough capability.
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Figure 1. Immunity testing levels from IEC 61000-4-11 and 61000-4-34 compared with immunity requirements in SEMI F47.
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Testing three phase equipment is more complicated. Both IEC 61000-4-11 [3] and IEC 61000-4-34 [4] cover single-phase and three-phase equipment in a similar way, but the former only applies to equipment up to 16A per phase, whereas the latter covers larger equipment.
Figure 2a. Vectors recommended by IEC [3] [4] for phase-toneutral testing of three-phase equipment.
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Figure 2b. Vectors recommended by IEC [3][4] for phase-tophase testing of three-phase equipment. Note that the vectors in method A are preferred, the vectors in method B are acceptable, and the vectors in method C are not acceptable. M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI
During a voltage dip or momentary interruption, the diodes in an ASD rectifier bridge will not conduct if the peak line voltage drops below the dc bus voltage. While the ASD is still controlling the motor and its load, energy is drawn from the dc-bus capacitors, which will cause the dc-bus voltage to decrease. If the dc-bus voltage falls below the ASDs undervoltage trip point before the line voltage returns, then the control circuit will respond according to the drives program, typically shutting down the drive
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Basic diagram of the power section of transistorized adjustable-speed drive, including PWM ac and BLDC.
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ASD
A typical 5 hp (3.5 kW) ASD is used, tests were conducted to determine how the drive would respond to voltage dips that were generated using different test methods. The tests were conducted with the drive loaded to 81 percent of full load, with an input voltage of 400V rms phase-to-phase, 50 Hz. The voltage sag generator used is compatible with SEMI F470200, SEMI F42-0200, and the proposed IEC 61000-4-34 standards.
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Minimum dc bus values during the voltage dip tests (refer to Table 1 for test conditions).
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Results of ASD voltage dip immunity testing with different voltage dip characteristics.
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Sag Characteristics
Duration of Sag Magnitude of Sag Phase Shift Unbalance Missing Voltage Three Phase Voltage Unbalance during Sag The point in which the Sag initiates and terminates
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Equipment sensitive to only the magnitude of a voltage sag Undervoltage relays, process controls, motor drive controls, and many types of automated machines (e.g., semiconductor manufacturing equipment). Devices in this group are sensitive to the minimum (or maximum) voltage magnitude experienced during a sag (or swell). The duration of the disturbance is usually of secondary importance for these devices. Equipment sensitive to both the magnitude and duration of a voltage sag. All equipment that uses electronic power supplies. Such equipment misoperates or fails when the power supply output voltage drops below specified values. Thus, the important characteristic for this type of equipment is the duration that the rms voltage is below a specified M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI 20 threshold at which the equipment trips.
Equipment sensitive to characteristics other than magnitude and duration Some devices are affected by other sag characteristics such as the phase unbalance during the sag event, the point-in-the wave at which the sag is initiated, or any transient oscillations occurring during the disturbance. These characteristics are more subtle than magnitude and duration, and their impacts are much more difficult to generalize.
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Motor Contactor - It trips for the sag below 0.5 p.u that last longer for 1 cycle
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Typical loads will likely trip off M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI when the Voltage is below the CBEMA or ITI Curve
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The fault within the shaded portion will cause the end user voltage to drop below 0.5. i.e., the motor contactors having a minimum voltage sag ride through capability of 0.5 p.u would have tripped out when a fault AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI duration of more than 1 cycle occurs with in the AOV. M.SURESH causing a voltage sag with However faults outside this area will not cause the voltage to drop below 0.5 p.u
Transmission System
If the transmission System supplies sag to the customer, Voltage sag depends upon only the transmission system fault performance
Distribution System
If the Distribution System supplies sag to customer, the voltage sag depends upon fault performance on both transmission & distribution system
Transmission line faults and subsequent opening of protective devices rarely causes any interruptions for any customer because of the interconnected nature of Modern Power System
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Voltage sag types at end-use equipment that result from different types of faults and transformer connections
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Math Bollen developed the concept of voltage sag types to describe the different voltage sag M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI characteristics
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endVoltage sag magnitude at an end-user location as a function of the fault location along a parallel feeder circuit
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Protection of Equipments
Figure illustrates voltage sag solution alternatives and their relative costs. As this chart indicates, it is generally less costly to tackle the problem at its lowest level, close to the load.
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Ferroresonant Transformer
Ferroresonance is a phenomenon associated with the behaviour of iron cores while operating near a point of magnetic saturation (where the core is so strongly magnetized that further increases in winding current results in little or no increase in magnetic flux).
Its iron core is stuffed full of magnetic lines of flux for a large portion of the AC cycle so that variations in supply voltage (primary winding current) have little effect on the core's magnetic flux density, which means the secondary winding outputs a nearly constant voltage despite significant variations in supply (primary winding) voltage. Normally, core saturation in a transformer results in distortion of the sine wave shape, and the ferroresonant transformer is no exception. To combat this side effect, ferroresonant transformers have an auxiliary secondary winding paralleled with one or more capacitors, forming a resonant circuit tuned to the power supply frequency. This tank circuit serves as a filter to reject harmonics created by the core saturation, and provides the added benefit of storing energy in the form of AC oscillations, which is available for sustaining output winding voltage for brief periods of input M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI voltage loss 36
Ferroresonant Transformer
Ferroresonance is a phenomenon associated with the behaviour of iron cores while operating near a point of magnetic saturation (where the core is so strongly magnetized that further increases in winding current results in little or no increase in magnetic flux).
Also called constant-voltage transformers (CVTs), can handle most Power voltage sag conditions ( Conditioning) Attractive for constant, low-power loads Basically 1:1 transformers which are excited high on their saturation curves, thereby providing an output voltage which is not significantly affected by input voltage variations Harmonic Filtering Reserve of energy in its resonant tank circuit.
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Characteristics
The graphic on the left shows a simplified version of a magnetization curve to demonstrate this concept. In the saturation region of the curve (red), a large change in input voltage results in a small change in output voltage. Operation in the saturation region has the disadvantage of very poor electrical efficiency. Standard power transformers are designed to operate in the normal range (blue) where electrical efficiency is much higher.
The graphic at the Left shows a typical range of ferro efficiency versus percent load. It can be seen that at 50% load, the ferro voltage regulator efficiency ranges from 75 to 85%. As a comparison, a typical power transformer would have an efficiency of 90% or more at 50% load.
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Disadvantage
They waste a lot of energy (due to hysteresis losses in the saturated core) Generates significant heat in the process intolerant of frequency variations, which means they don't work very well when powered by small engine-driven generators having poor speed regulation. Voltages produced in the resonant winding/capacitor circuit tend to be very high, necessitating expensive capacitors and presenting the service technician with very dangerous working voltages
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Voltage sag ride-through improvement of a process controller fed from a 120-VAferroresonant transformer 40 M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI
The Process controller can ride through a voltage sag down to 30 percent of nominal, as opposed to 82 percent without one.
At 25 percent of loading, the allowable voltage sag is 30 percent of nominal, which means that the CVT will output over 90 percent normal voltage as long as the input voltage is above 30 percent.
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As the loading is increased, the corresponding ridethrough capability is reduced, and when the ferroresonant transformer is overloaded (e.g., 150 percent loading), the voltage will collapse to zero.
Magnetic synthesizers
Similar to CVT Provide improved voltage sag support and regulation for three-phase loads except they are three phase devices Size : 15 to 200 KVA Used for process loads of larger computer systems where voltage sags or steadystate voltage variations are important issues Magnetic synthesizers were used to protect against oscillatory transients and sags and swells When equipped with a lightning arrestor accessory, they protect against voltage surges. They don't protect a critical load against a complete power outage, but via a limited stored energy capability using capacitors, they can provide ride-through, typically to one cycle. Battery backup capabilities permit additional operating time. These devices use ferromagnetics (pulsed transformers and inductors) and capacitors to synthesize a high-quality 3-phase output, using only the input as a source of energy. The output is fully isolated from imperfections in the input power.
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Characteristics
A magnetic synthesizer typically has the following operating characteristics: It can operate with an input voltage range as low as 40% or more of the nominal voltage. Output power factor remains in the range of 0.96 or higher from half to full load. Because it regenerates an output voltage waveform, output distortion, which is typically less than 4%, is independent of any input voltage distortion, including notching Efficiency at full load is typically in the range of 89% to 93%. Minimum maintenance is required beyond annual replacement of failed capacitors. Redundant capacitors built into the units allow several capacitors to fail between inspections without any noticeable effect to the device's performance. Output voltage varies about 1.2% for every 1% change in supply frequency. For example, a 2-Hz change in generator frequency, which is very large, results in an output voltage change of only 4%, which has little effect for most loads. It accepts 100% single-phase switch-mode power supply loading without any requirement for derating, including all neutral components. Input current distortion remains less than 8% THD even when supplying nonlinear loads with more than 100% current THD.
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Magnetic synthesizers
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Online UPS
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Offline / standby
The Offline / Standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge protection and battery backup. Usually the Standby UPS offers no battery capacity monitoring or self-test capability, making it the least reliable type of UPS since it could fail at any moment without warning. These are also the least expensive. When the incoming utility voltage falls below a predetermined level the UPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery. The SPS then mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switch over time is stated by most manufacturers as being less than 4 milliseconds, but typically can be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the Standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage.
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LineLine-interactive
Line-Interactive UPS. Typical protection time: 5 - 30 minutes. Capacity expansion: Several hours
The Line-Interactive UPS is similar in operation to a Standby UPS, but with the addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of electrical transformer that can add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the magnetic field and the output voltage of the transformer. This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous under voltage brownouts and overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It instead compensates by auto-selecting different power taps on the autotransformer. Changing the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output power disruption, so the UPS may chirp for a moment, as it briefly switches to battery before changing the selected power tap. Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range of varying input voltages, but this also increases the number of taps and the size, weight, complexity, and expense of the UPS. M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI 49 .
Hybrid UPS
It uses Voltage regulator in the standby mode. It provides voltage regulation to the load and momentary ride through when the transfer from normal to UPS supply is made
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MotorMotor-generator sets
A motor powered by the line drives a generator that powers the load. Flywheels on the same shaft provide greater inertia to increase ridethrough time. When the line suffers a disturbance, the inertia of the machines and the flywheels maintains the power supply for several seconds.
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The cost of a power quality disturbance can be captured primarily through three major categories: Product-related losses, such as loss of product and materials, lost production capacity, disposal charges, and increased inventory requirements Labour-related losses, such as idled employees, overtime, cleanup, and repair. Ancillary costs such as damaged equipment, lost opportunity cost, and penalties due to shipping delays.
Appendix A of IEEE 1346-199818 for a more detailed explanation of the factors to be considered in determining the cost of power quality M.SURESH AP/EEE/KEC/PERUNDURAI disturbances.
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The cost is 16.9 times the cost of an interruption. If an interruption costs $40,000, the total costs associated with voltage sags and interruptions would be $676,000 per year
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Comparing solution alternatives with the base case using total annualized costs.
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Interruptions
An interruption is defined as the complete loss of supply voltage or load current. Depending on its duration, an interruption is categorized as instantaneous, momentary, temporary, or sustained. Duration range for interruption types are as follows: Instantaneous - 0.5 to 30 cycles Momentary - 30 cycles to 2 seconds Temporary - 2 seconds to 2 minutes Sustained greater than 2 minutes
Fig Momentary interruption The causes of interruptions can vary, but are usually the result of -some type of electrical supply grid damage, such as lightning strikes, animals, trees, vehicle accidents, destructive weather (high winds, heavy snow or ice on lines, etc.), equipment failure, or a basic circuit breaker tripping. This interruptions can be observed in the above fig.
An interruption, whether it is instantaneous, momentary, temporary, or sustained, can cause disruption, damage, and downtime, from the home user up to the industrial user. A home, or small business computer user, could lose valuable data when information is corrupted from loss of power to their equipment.
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Momentary Interruptions
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Outage
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Planned Interruption
Switch off and unplug sensitive appliances (such as computers, TVs, VCRs, DVDs, fax machines, clock radios, microwave ovens and sound systems) to reduce the risk of damage from power surges or voltage sags that can occur when power is restored. Be sure to disconnect electric heaters from the power supply so they wont present a hazard when power is restored. Turn off all but one light so that you will know when power is restored. Keep fridge doors closed. Food in fridges and freezers will keep for at least 12 hours if seals are in good condition and doors are kept closed. If you have a generator, only use it to provide power directly to appliances. Never connect it to the house switchboard or wiring as your equipment could be damaged when power is restored.
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Planned Interruptions
Only run generators outdoors where the fumes can't cause illness. When power is restored please wait a few minutes before switching on appliances to avoid overloading the local distribution system. Have a 'standard' telephone available that does not require electricity to operate, or a mobile phone, so you can contact emergency services. If you have automatic garage doors, know how to operate the doors manually. Check your meter box to ensure that safety devices, including residual current devices, have not operated.
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Table 1.
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