Evaluatewaysinwhichcontentandprocesstheoriesofmotivationcanhelptoimproveperformanceandjob satisfactioninworkorganisations. PLAN Introducemotivation(define+saywhyitsimportantinorganisationalcontextetc).SaywhatImgoingtosay. Contenttheories:Maslowshierarchyofneeds;AlderfersERGtheory;Ritchie&Martins(1992)12motivational factors.Describe+givepracticalexampleshoweachcanbeappliedtoimproveperformance&satisfaction Processtheories:Equitytheory(Adams1963/55);Goalsettingtheory(Locke1968).Giveexamples+use Ensurelinks:stress&jobdesignparticularly,incl.Otherwaysofimprovingperformance/jobsatisfaction,i.e. appraisalsystems,intrinsic/extrinsicrewards... Conclude:whichtheorydoIprefer&why...JUSTIFY! Itisclearthatmanagementunderstandingofmotivationiscrucialtoorganisationaleffectiveness.InthisessayIwill provideadefinitionofmotivation,examplesofintrinsicandextrinsicmotivationandthenoutlinerelevanttheoriesI deemcrucialincontemporaryorganisations.Inaddition,Iwillprovidepracticalexampleswherepossibleandlink thesewithotherfieldsoforganisationalbehaviour,andthenfinishwithacoherentconclusion.

on. Motivationcanbedefinedastheforcethatinitiates,energisers,drivesanddirectsourbehaviour,forexample towardsanindividualsdesiredoutcomes.Thiscouldbeforexampleapromotion,aformofextrinsicmotivation,or achallengeundertheformofincreasedteamresponsibility,aformofintrinsicmotivationcurrentlypreferredinthe currenteconomicclimateinorganisationssuchasSainsburysandOdeon.HavingbeenasupervisoratSainsburys, oneoftheprincipalwaystorewardstaffwasbyhandingout10voucherstospendinstoreandtheemployeeof themonthaward,Ioftenhadtoparticipateindecidingwhotogiveitto.Inawellrunstorethisalsohelpedcreatea senseofhealthycompetitiondrivingperformancelevelshigherforeveryonesbenefit.Extrinsicandintrinsic motivationthe2methodsusedbyorganisationstorewardtheiremployeesforperformingorexceedingtheirjob demands,theyarearesultofwhatthetheoriesIamabouttodiscussbringabout. Contenttheoriesofmotivationaddressourgoals;whatwewanttoachieve.Thefocusismoreontheindividual,but canbeappliedtoateam.ContenttheoriesincludesMaslowshierarchyofneeds(1960s),AlderfersERGtheory (1972)andRitchie&Martins(1992)12motivationalfactors.Theseareallpopulartheoriesthatarewidelyusedin organisationsallaroundtheworldinsuchdomainsasjobdesignandselectionandobviouslyimprovingperformance andjobsatisfaction.ItcanbearguedthatMaslowshierarchyofneedswasthefirstcontenttheoryofmotivation,it contains9levels.Onemuststartatthebottomofthepyramidandworkhis/herwayupsequentially,nostepcanbe skippedaccordingtothismodel.Thebottomcontainssuchneedsasbiological&safetyneeds,andthehighermore difficulttoachievelevelsincludeesteem&selfactualisationeveryonesultimategoal,thatisunfortunatelyrarely attainedaccordingtoMaslow.Thistheoryisstillwidelyuseddespiteanumberofcriticisms;mostnotablythatit cannotreadilypredictbehaviour. Perhapsamoreusefultheory,whichhasstemmedfromMaslowshierarchyofneeds,isAlderfersERGtheory (1972).ERGherestandsforExistence,RelatednessandGrowthneeds.AccordingtoAlderferthesearethebasic needcategoriesofallhumanbeings,unlikeMaslowsmodeltheseareinterchangeableprogressionaswellas regressioncanoccur.Forexampleifanindividualisgettingfrustratedbyfailingtoachieveagrowthneed,suchasa promotionfrommiddlemanagementtotoplevelmanagement,hecanrelaydowntorelatedness,alevelhe/sheis morefamiliarwithandinteractswellwithmostcolleagues.Inthisparticularcase,jobsatisfactionmaybenegatively affected.ThisiswhyIbelieveAlderferstheoryismorerealistic,asprogressionaswellasregressionoccurs constantly.ERGtheoryismorefocusedhoweveritessentiallyhasthesameimplicationsasMaslowsmodel.Its importanttoaccountforstresspotentiallyarisinghere.

Ritchie&Martinsconsultancyresearch(1992)identified12motivationaldrivers,whichamanagerintheirview mustperceiveinhis/herdepartmentsemployeesinordertobeeffective.Theresearchwascarriedoutusing questionnairesandavariedsamplegocreateamotivationalprofile.Ibelievethisisthebestcontenttheoryasit highlights12specificwaysindividualscanbemotivated.Forexample,interestforanemployeetoenjoyworkitis crucialthattasksundertakenareinteresting.InaretailcontextinorganisationssuchasSainsburysandWHSmith varietyandchangeisalsoacrucialelementtoavoidboredomasdaytodaytasksareessentiallyidentical; interchangebetweenselling,replenishing,stocktakingetccanelevateinterest,thusenhancingefficiency&job satisfactionbyofferingthepossiblyofservingcustomers&thelesssocialjobofstocktakinginbackareas. Processtheoriesofmotivationareconcernedwithourcognitivedecisionmakingprocess,itisbasedonour individualperceptions,thehow.ProcesstheoriesIwilldiscussincludeEquitytheory(Adams1963/5)andGoal settingtheory(Locke1968).Thesetheoriesarecrucialtojobsatisfactionastheyareconcernedwithhowgoals, whethershorttermorlongtermareachieved.EquitytheorywasprincipallydevelopedbyAdams(1963/5)who believedthatindividualsaremotivatedtoactwhentheyperceiveasituationisunfair/unbalanced.Weinstinctly respondwhetherwegetmore,orlessofwhatwebelievewedeservefromanorganisationforexampleintermsof pay,orrespectfromlinemanager.Wearethusmotivatedtobalanceourorganisationallifeandmayusestrategies toreduceinequitysuchasleavingourjobs(unlikelyinthecurrenteconomicclimate),orchangeourbaseof comparisontofeelmoresatisfied.Employersareawarethatemployeescommunicatetheirexperiences&outcomes duetothistheory.Itisthereforewidelyusedtoday,andisareasonwhywagesforlowerlevelworkersareidentical andwhysalariesathigherlevelsarediscussedlesstoavoidleadingtodissatisfaction.Howeveraccordingtorecent researchbyReade(2003)moneycomesthirdtoenjoymentandfriendlycolleagues.FurthermoreEquitytheoryhas beenmetwithcritiquesuchasfailingtoaccountforindividualdifferencesandtolerancelevels.IbelievethatEquity theoryavidlyhighlightsthatMarxistlikeconflictbetweenemployerandemployee. AnotherprocesstheoryisthatofGoalsetting,originallydevelopedbyLocke(1968).Itsproponentsbelieveitismore ofamotivationaltechniquethenatheory;itdoeshoweverhavegoodempiricalvalueanditscontentisalsowidely usedacrossvariousorganisations.Itidentifies4mainprepositions,theneedfor:challenginggoals,specificgoals, participationingoalsetting,andknowledgeofresults.ItisalsobelievedtomarkthebirthoftheSMARTprinciple. The4componentsherearehighlyeffectiveincompletingshorttermgoals.Atypicalexampleinmyolddomain wouldbebeingshortstaffed,havingtosetchallenginggoalsformyteam,democraticallyassigningspecificaislesin theshopneedingtobereplenishedandprovidingconstructivefeedbacktoeveryoneattheendoforontheir followingshift.ThustheoryisverygoodforperformanceappraisalandIknowisadoptedbymanyorganisationsasit isclear,concise,measurableandsupportedbyresearch.Thesomewhatuniquefeatureofthistechniqueisthe clarity,inmostcontextsallowinganindividualorteammembertoseetheendgameandacriterionbywhichto achievethis. Toconclude,itisclearthatmotivationisinnate,otherwisenoonewouldeverdoanything.Itisalsoclearthatitis particularlyimportantintheorganisationalcontextandinunderstandingbehaviour.Organisationschangeinline withdevelopmentsinsociety,technologyandpolitics,thusItendtofavourthemorerecenttheoriesthe12 motivationaldrivers(content)andGoalsettingtheory(process)asIbelievetheyarebestinidentifyinganddriving motivationintherightdirectionthatwhichbenefitsboththeemployerandtheemployee,particularlyintodays economicclimatewhichforcesorganisationstoworkwithminimalhumanresourcestoremainsolvent.

Commentsontheessay
An upper 2.1 . It is readable, and covers lots of ground. Well-structured, demonstrates thinking. This is a good way of showing notes for an essay during the exam write them out, then put a line through them and draw a line below them before starting the essay proper. Areas for improvement to bring it up to a first: Be more critical. Rather than going through each theory and describing each one instead think about them and identify the strengths and weaknesses of each. These strengths and weaknesses may be what others have said about them, or they may be the result of comparing the theories with each other, or against some criteria like whether they are helpful in guiding managers in how they manage / reward / motivate staff. Could give more about performance brief bit about what is meant by performance, i.e. against objectives, against competencies or the job description, according to whom? What counts as evidence of performance?,,, define performance Possibly more on job satisfaction, including a definition. Mentions self-actualisation being what everyone wants could do more here by offering a definition of selfactualisation and then critique Maslows idea does everyone what this? What are the implications if they do? Can everyone within the current world of work expect to achieve self-actualisation? Should it be possible in an ideal world or is it irrelevant? Give a bit more detail, definition and critique of the models covered. Otherwise it sounds a little more like management-speak rather than an academic critique / evaluation the difference being that for the exam you are asked to think about the theories that explain or encourage certain organisational behaviours. So as an academic, what do you think about these theories and their implications?