Acta Astronauti~a Vol. 14, pp. 423~138, 1986 Printed in Great Britain.

(}(;~J.~5765'86 $3.(}1)+ 0{I 1986 PclgalTIon ,hluItl:ll~ I l d

HI(~-FRESSURE PROI~riSION - ADVANCED CONCE/rI~ FOR COOLING

Leonard Schoenman Research & Technology Aerojet TechSyste~s Company P.O. Box 13222, Sacramento, CA 95813, USA

ABSTRACT ~ne state-of-the-art liquid propellant cooled oombustion chambers utilized in the space shuttle are third-generation designs which have evolved frc~ a continuing demand for higher operating presm/z~ and aircraft-type reusability. History has shown that major advances in oooling occur in approximately ten-year cycles, with each cycle providing a nominal 400% increase in operating pressure and/or a higher degree of reusability. ~he previous technologies include the first-generation double-wall steel jackets used in the 220 psi V-2 and Aerobee, and the seoond generation wire-wrapped double tapered tubular assemblies typical of the 800 psi Titan I, II, and III, and i000 psi F-I engines. The third-generation designs utilize milled slot, high thermal conductivity liners and electredeposited nickel closures. The space shuttle main engine operating at 3200 psia is adequate for individual flights; however, the desired goal of 55 service-free missions has yet to be realized. Future single-stage-to-orbit propulsion concepts can benefit from a further increase in operating pressures to 6000 to i0,000 psi combined with engine reuse capabilities in exoess of the 55 flight goals of the space shuttle. A fourth-generation approach will be required to attain these more ambitious goals. These new designs will require a combination of cooling processes, including reg~tive and transpiration, ccmlbined with improved high-temperature materials and new fabrication techniques. The limitations of the third-generation designs, the impact of propellant/ooolant selection, and the approaches for the coming fourth-generation cooling technologies are discussed.

]~VFl:~EUC-"U ON

Future exploration and colonization of space will require a more econc~ic space transportation system. Numerous advanced concepts have been suggested. One of these is the single-stage-toorbit dual-fuel concept shown in Fig. i, based on the work of Rehder *[i], Salkeld [2], and Martin [3]. Common key features of most of the approaches are the use of a low-oost, high-density fuel during the initial lift-off and hydrogen fuel later in the mission. ~ne low cost ~ high density of liquid oxygen make this the oxidizer of contain choice for all phases of the launch. %~e economic feasibility of these advanced launch system concepts is keyed to efficient utilization of the propellant and the existence of reusable, lightweight, highly ~ c t propulsion systems. The efficiency of the propellant utilization is, in turn, keyed to the propulsion system operating pressure. This is illustrated in Fig. 2, and indicates continuing benefits in the form of improved specific impulse and reduced size at operating pressures to i0,000 or even 20,000 psi. Deficiencies in eooling technologies have been a primary factor in inhibiting rapid progress toward the irK~rporation of higher operating pressures. New technologies for cooling the turbines required to drive the high-pr~ssure pumps and for cooling of the main oombustion chamber will be required before these advanced concepts can become feasible. Cooling a reusable rocket engine producing 6000R gas at i0,000 to 20,000 psi would, at first, appear to be an in~ossible task. Indeed, it is impossible if we restrict c~r thinking to existing design approaches, materials, and fabrication processes.
BACKGROUND

Rocket engine cooling is not a new problem for the technical cc~uunity. History has repeatedly demonstrated that insurmountable technical problems were eventually overoome with the advent of new designs and fabrication technologies, as outlined in the following examples. In the early 1940's, considerable difficulties, reported by Beichel [4], were encountered in

*[ ] Raferences

423

424

l)cncciulSpliceand (floh~fll'roblcm~ol Ik4ailkincl

r /

II

I ~ \

\b

pYoIo ~B,A L, ~
'
. . . .

__t
i, 42ft . J

"

L.

18o ft

t
Single-~it vehicle ~ploying a dual-fuel, high-presmEepropulsion~.

Fig. i.

Typical

LOX/Hydrocarbon

Propellant

400 -VACUUM OPT. e

PC 20. OCO ~.~ ~00 ~ ' ~ - ~ )000

j~
u

/2~

.-"~\\ \

I 14,.
J
]CO0

f
2~ . . . . . . . . . ;

\\\x
PC 500

'
I ......

........

10 }00 NOZZLEEXPANSION RATIO A(IAT

Fig. 2. ~

of i~reas~ ~ t l n g p r e s s u r ~ .

36th [AF Congress, Stockholm, Swedcn

425

cooling the combustion chamber of the V-2 propulsion system which operated at 220 psia. The double-~all, steel oooling jacket shown in Fig. 3a had to be locally modified by drilling holes in the inner liner to allow the fuel, mostly ethyl alcohol, to supplement the regenerative cooling in order to prevent melting of the chamber wall. As shown in Fig. 4, a slow but continual growth in cooling capabilities and operating pressure evolved as the needs were identified and the required researc~ funding provided.

Date/Technology

1940 - 1950 Double Wall Sleel

,,,o.,,

BookedT u b e l
Alloy Steel Wire

Wrap 9

1955 Double Tapered Bifurcated Tubes VlfJab~e Diameter, Var~lbJe W i l l

1966

0 ThinWall ~ W l r e
Wrap

-8- Thick

Wall

1965 - 1970

Sprayed CeramicLiners on

Fig. 3.

~ o l ~ i o n of rocket engine ccmbustion chamber cooling techniques.

8000

_a

6000

,4
Experimental

Operational Expendable

i/ //

4000
r

n E O
2000 ~ ~

J [

/ Reusable H2/O2 HC Fuels

~ _ _

0 i 1940
Fig. 4.

1950

l 1960
Year

| 1970

u 1980

u 1990

2000

Historical trends in liquid rocket engine operating pressure.

By the 1950's, LE~ique tubular construction and new high-temperature steel alloys replaced the double-wall chamber, and chamber pressures increased by 300 to 400% over the V-2. The initial nozzles utilized constant diameter, uniform wall thickness tubes which underwent the booking-type forming proces__s illustrated in Fig. 3b. This allowed continuous cooling of the larger-diameter chamber and nozzle and the smaller-diameter throat. The numerous tubes required to form the
AA 14-BB

41~,

Peaceful Space and Global Problems of Mankind

chamber were welded and braze assembled, as shown in Fig. 5, and then overwrapped with bands or wires to contain the higher combustion pressures. Chamber cooling, however, continued to be a limiting factor.

Fig. 5.

1965 vintage thrust chamber, using brazed tube tec/%nologies.

In order to further increase operating pressure, it was necessary to utilize higher cooling velocities at the throat. This required small diameter tubes in the throat and, simultaneously, large tube diameters in the chamber and nozzle to cover the additional surface. The ability to fabricate variable-diameter tubes provided only a partial solution. Thin tube walls were required in the high heat flux throat where the tube diameters were the smallest, while thicker walls were required to contain the high-pressure ooolant at other locations where the tubes are larger in diameter. The double tapered tube ~ l o g y (variable diameter and variable wall thickness) allowed operating pressure to be increased to i000 psi in the M-I and F-I propulsion systems. Tube bifurcations and pass-and-a-half cooling configurations, shown in Fig. 3c, allowed a continuous tubular cooling circuit frGm the small throat to very large diameters, thus facilitating higher pressures and higher expansion ratios. Unique designs, such as the Bell-Agena, gun drilled aluminum chamber, allowed similar cooling velocity profiles to be attained without the use of tubular construction. This approach had only limited application because of the low operating temperature limits of aluminum and the difficulty of drilling very high L/D holes in higher ~mmperature materials. In the mid-1960's, the NASA/Lewis Resexlrc~ Center and the Rocket Propulsion laboratory at Edwards Air Force Base, in conjunction with ~ [5] at Camin Laboratories, Inc., conducted experiments in forming combustion chambers for operation at high pressures by milling the oooling channels in forged nickel and copper liners. In contrast to previous wire-wrap methods, a high-pressure structural jacket was formed in place by electroplating a thick layer of nickel directly onto the coolant channel ribs. A low melting temperature filler material, which is later removed, was employed to prevent the milled slots frc~ filling with the plated metal. The plated metal bonded structurally to the ribs, thus allowing the cooling channels to be pressurized to very high levels without collapsing the inner machined liner. This approach provided several major advantages: I) The material for the inner liner and outer pressure shell could be selected to provide different desired physical properties. 2) The difficult and time consuming task of tube assembly, brazing, or welding, and applying a physically separate structural container was eliminated. The milled slot liner and electroformed closure design is presently utilized on the space shuttle orbital maneuvering engine, Fig. 6, and the main engine. Operation of the Space Shuttle Main Engines at 3200 psia in the latter part of the 1970's provided the first application of the combustion chamber cooling technology started i0 years earlier. The full advantage of this fabrication method has yet to be realized. Improved cooling channel forming capabilities will allow more efficient cooling. Tne plating of alloy closures, providing structural properties 3 to 5 times greater than the nickel, will allow significant weight reductions. The successful application of ceramic or graphite cc~posite internal liner alone could allow the operating pressure to increase by 100%. Combinations of the above could provide a cooling capability to 8000 psi. PRESDrf REGENERATIVE OOOLING ~ I O G Y DEFICIENCIES

Cooling limits are imposed by material properties and manufacturing capabilities, and by the t h ~ c properties of the propellants which are conventionally ~mrployed as the coolant,as shown in Fig. 7. The SSME represents a unique cooling opportunity, Fig. 8, in that hydrogen, the ideal ooolant, is available in large quantities. Fig. 9 frcm O'Brien [6] shows that the pressure loss associated with regenerative cooling is lower with H9 oooling than with any other propellant. Furthermore, the high-pressure hydrogen provides an optimum cooling situation because the preferred high thermal conductivity chamber wall material, copper, is chemically ccmpatible

36th Congress, IAF Stockholm, Sweden

427

Electrodeposited NickelShell MilledSlotLiner

Fig. 6.

1975 vintage milled-slot liner and electrodeposited closure ted%nologies.

Surface Condition

Carbon Deposition
-

Roughness

~
~

Heat Flow
I I

Wall MaterlalLImitatlons

/ I I

e HeatTransmlssln'Cnductin~'~"~ ~ I I I I l Low Cycle Fatigue ~ \ ' ' High Temperature Strength -~"~~'~

~r:;ii:ilta;tolinngp~tmaiiilty /

~ fll
I

Coklng or Thermal Decomposition ConvectiveProperties, Pseudo Film Boiling

Fig. 7. Limitations of regene_z~tive cooling at high heat flux.

Parameter

Coolant Hydrogen Hydrocarbons

MMH, UDMH

Oxygen

N204

Pressure Loss Coking/Decomposltlon Oxidation/Ignition Wall Material Compatabllity

Q Q

Fig. 8.

Coolant selection index.

428

Peaceful Space and C;lob~d Problems of Mai~ki.d

No Carbon Deposit Assumed LCH4

5000

30,000 4000

"

Gas Generator Cycles F : 2669 kN (600,000 IbF) /

/
(.e,.ed,p ,) /
RP-IR

/ LC3H8 (T = 111 K: 200 R) tO2 // / Lc3P

LI

3000 I

20,000

- -

RP-1

2000

I 0,000 100Q LH 2

0 0 10,000

I 20,000 kN/m 2

i 30,000

i 40,000

0'

, 20 0

2o00 '

30 20

,00 '0

,ooo '

~000 '

Chamber Pressure - psia

Fig. 9.

Panking of regenerative ooolant capabilities based on cooling pressure loss.

with both the ooolant and the HgO and H~ cQmbustion products. Even with this ideal coolant and material oumbination, a number oZ problems remain to be resolved before the life goal of 55 missions per engine can be ~mncmstrated. The two life-limiting parameters on the SSME combustion chamber are (I) high thermal strain induced low cycle fatigue which produces the classical wall thinning and surface ruughening, and (2) nonuniform ccmbustion gas induced surface oxidation of the copper liner. These effects, disctlssed by Hannum in [7] and Cook in [8], are shown in Figs. i0 and ii.

A. Cu ALLOY LINER B. C O O L I N G C H A N N E L C. ELECTRO-DEPOSITED CLOSURE

C H A N N E L SHAPE BEFORE FIRING

B
C

Fig. 10.

Typical low cycle fatigue failure of a milled-slot copper llner.

The increase in surface r ~ _ _ s with firing time results in higher heat transfer rates which, in turn, makes the wall even hotter, thtzs accelerating the process. The surface r c ~ ~ a more significant heat tz-ar~fer parameter at higher pressures, as shown in Fig. 12.

36th IAF Congress, Stockholm, Sweden

SSME Test Data NASA CR 1 6 8 2 1 5
CHAMBER REGION ROUGHNESS (MICROINCHES) 20 35 TO 45 35 TO 45 35 TO 45 250 TO 350 60

429

NOZZLE (SUPERSONIC) THROAT COMBUSTION ZONE LOCAL HOT SPOTS OVER MID-CHANNEL AND MID-LAND OVER CHANNEL TO LAND CORNERS

Fig. ii.

Chamber surface rouq~m%~ increases with time due to low cycle fatigue and surface uxidation.
3000 PSI

130

2500 PSI
120 110

100
90 80 7C

/,......---2000

PSI

OTV CONDITIONS D " 0.96 IN. T

I
0 IO 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80

I
90 100

SURFACE ROUGHNESS(MICROIN.)

Fig. 12.

Surface ~

effects are more significant at

higher operating pressures.

Progress in operating at higher pressures using hydrocarbon fuels has lagged significantly oumpared to the H~/O 2 propellant system, as indicated in Fig. 4. Tnis is due to a combination of factors, includi~ the poor thermal transfer properties, the d%emical instability of these fuels at high t~peratumes, and undesirable ct~mical reacticms with the c c ~ r and other ~ wall materials. Recent experiments by Roback [9] and Giovanetti [10], characterizing liquid natural gas, propane, and RP-I in contact with candidate cumbustion d%amber materials, i.e., nickel and oupper, have suqgested the cooling channel fouling prablem may be even more serious than previously suspected. ~hese ne~ data, Fig. 13, generated in propellant cooled, electrically heated tubes, show that copper acts as a catalyst to accelerate the carbon deposition when oumpared to nickel tubes. Even the nickel walls develop a layer of carbon, over time, which inh/bits the heat transfer from the wall to the coolant. This added thermal resistance results in wall temperatures whid~ increase with operating time in regeneratively cooled c~ambers. The use of ~ i n i n g fuels as a regenerative coolant for high-pressure, reusable engines remains highly questionable. The use of the oxidizers iO o and N~OA as the drummer coolant is now being given serious consideratiun as a method of avoidihg the ~x31ing limits of fuels, e.g., thenm~ decomposition and channel fouling due to carbon deposition. Cooling experiments ~ith LO, by Spencer [ii] and [12], and Price [13], have provided sufficient data to show cooling with th~ oxidizer can be both safe and practical, The potential problem of oxide scale formations at hig~ heat flux in icrg-term appliceticms must be investigated in detail, especially if oupper is selected as the d-an83er wall ~aterial.

430

Peaceful Space :rod Global Problems ol Mankind

P= 138MPa V = 30 m/s TFUEL = 2r..KJ K

500

--

--

COPPER I U B E S NICKEL TUBES

%
.o

400

3
CO 300 COMMERCIAL~,RAOE PROPANE I ' 200

cD

100

NATURAL GAS

~.
__ ~ ~ _ _ R P I I V = 6 iBmls)

0 200

I 300

400 500 800 INITIAL INNER WALL TEMPERATURE(K)

70O

800

Fig. 13.

Low-cost ~ fuels foul the coolant channel wall; chamber material and tes~erature influence the rate. ~ O N OF CCOIXNG ~ I O G Y will result from the refLneme~qt of new have been evolving in the laboratories technologies can lead to practical H~and oxidizer-cooled hydrocarbon-fuel~d

AN INSIGHT INTO THE ~

The next major jump in flight opel-ati(mlal pressures designs, materials, and manufacturing ~ l o g i e s which over the past i0 years. Near-term application of these cooled engines operating at pressures over 8000 psi, engines operating at pressures in exoess of 4000 psi.

Some of the improvements will came from improved materials having greater strength and improved low cycle fatigue properties. AM~itional improv~nents will be realized throug~ the use of more efficient (more, smaller) cooling channels and thinner walls made possible by new numerically controlled machining capabilities. Advanced surface modification treatments of the cooling channels will inhibit oxidation and allow oxidizer cooling of copper chambers. Methods of inhibiting the cx~d/qg of methane and propane may also be practical. Tne main gain, hc~4ever, will be through the use of higher temperature (2500 to 3500F) chamber liners and turbine blade coatings which will reduce the cooling requirements. Fig. 14 illustrates how a high-temperature liner om/id reduce the cooling requirements of a highpressure ~ engine. Research and progress leading to the fourth generation in rocket cooling technology is d~aracterized by the following efforts and a c o c m p l ~ . Hi!sh-Temperature Liners Starting in the early 1970's, the NASA r~mlewed experimentation with multilayer ci~amber construction utilizing high-temperature cerami~llned ocmbustion chambers. In oc,ntrast to the unsuccessful earlier approach of spraying coatings anto the completed prt~pellant-cooled metallic chamber, the n~wer, more _m2zces___sful designs re~zTa~ by Q u e n ~ [14] are being ~ from the inside cut, as illustrated in Fig. 15. ~ a~;proach provides a ~ smoother inner surface and better ~ bonding of the ceramic and metallic layers which are formed by various deposition processes. The dEmlonstrated life of _these___ designs are considerably greater than the uncoated chambers, as indicated in Fig. 16. Testing to date, Ix~4t~ver, has been limited to moderate heat fluxes and chamber pressures. In 1971, stubbs [15], at Aerojet, under contract to the NASA, designed and fabricated, using the inside-out approach, a m e - - l e d (0F2/CH 4) c(~ustion chamber co~prised of an AC42axb-101

36th IAF Congress, Stockholm, Sweden

43l

<
I t

TW9 6OOF
TW
--

NEAR FUTURE

t, C/

1000

F 1985

TW

39000F~ Surfaces

ZrO 2

(T ~IERATION

Modified

Chamber tion Posi

Fig. 14. Fourth~enerati~technologyoptions in rege_nerat~e

cooling.

8. REMOVEWAX I. S.S.

MANDRE~,/~
"~,~ i\\ ~. ^r Zr_O2

DEPOSIT CLOS

/ z

' I

,~m,I/'-,

Pw~S~;

/%ee
IMILL COOLANT PASSAGES

~.~.-""

",\//

LAYER

II

4. ADDELECIROFORMED COPPER LAYER

Fig. 15.

Technique for inside-out regeneratively cooled chamber fabrication.

carbon-carton c o m ~ i t e liner oontained w~_thln a fuel-oooled electrodeposited nickel jacket, Fig. 17. Flame side-wall ~ t u r e s of 4000 F produoed by the added thermal resistance of the liner reduced the heat load to the coolant by about 50% and allowed the nickel to operate at relatively low temperatures. Feasibility was sucoessfully demonstrated by 22 engine firings on a single assembly, for a total duration of 540 sec, without measurable liner erosion. Considerable improvements have been made in t_he manufacture of c a r b o n ~ omloosites and in the application of oxidation-resistant coatings by the chemical vapor deposition process since Aerojet's w~r~. in 1971. These demonstrated cooling design and fabrication resources have not been utilized.

~3xture regeneratively cooled chambers will employ high-temperature vapor deposited ce_rm~ic and/or co,posite carbon liners, supported by propellant-cooled pressure jackets formed directly onto the high-temperature liner, and will enable cooling at .pressures well above today's operational limits.

432

l'c;icelul Splice :rod (ilobal Problems of ~vlankind

UNCOATED CHAMBER AFTER 210 CYCLES

UNCOATED CHAMBER AFTER 210 CYCLES

CERAMIC COATED CHAMBER AFTER 659 CYCLES

Fig. 16.

Thin ceramic liners increase life; the inside-out fabrication works best.

Fig. 17.

The technology for a carbon composite lined regeneratively cooled chamber has been demonstrated; the capabilities are not being exploited.

36th IAF Congress, Stockholm, Sweden

433

I~0rovedCoolinqchannel Efficiency The ~ of heat flux transformation, i.e., the use of finned surfaces, to improve the rate of heat transfer is not new. The use of more cooling d%annels of a smaller size and also thinner gas-side walls can provide significant improvements in cooling and chamber life. Typical results from recent studies by Sd%oenman, [16] and [17], shown in Fig. 18, were ~ for an IP~ oooled advanced reusable orbit transfer ~n~ine operating at 2400 psi. The study oorEliticr~ provide a throat heat flux of i00 Btu/sec-in F and all dmnnel designs provide the same coolant pressure loss per unit length. The smaller channels have lower coolant velocities to uu~pensate for the higher relative surface roughness and channel length-to-diameter ratio. ~be theoretical benefits of the finer channel structure in the form of lower tamperature and icrcjer life are evident in the figtLre. Aerojet has developed and is presently demonstrating under NASA o~-~tract, [17], the technologies required to validate the analysis. Fig. 19 shows a cross-section of the smallest channel, rib, and wall structure produced to date.

1000

v----Twg

Flux = 100 Btu/In.2-sec

I-. 900
o

c 1.78% = nf = 512

_=
800
Q.

tw = 0.020 In.

E D 1700

c = 1 02%/
,~ 600

t!

c = Max Strain nf = Cycle Life ( n o m i n a l )

SOG
0.01

0.02 0.03 C h a n n e l Width and Land Width, Inch

Fig. 18.

~hinner walls and more, smaller coolir~ channels enhance cooling and life.

A
Fig. 19. Cross~tian of ~ CqV hydrogen-o3oled throat.

4~

Pcacct'ul Space and Global Problems of Mankind

Closure Techniques for Reqeneratively Cooled Chambers A number of advancements in lightweight, cc~pliant closures for the slotted cooling channels have been or are being demonstrated. The con~liant closures allow the thermally heated liner to expand more easily, thus reducing the compressive loads which create low cycle fatigue failures. Three types of advanced closures have been evaluated. One is based on replacing the elecTmodeposited nickel closure with electrodeposited alloy closures having yield strength and elastic strain capabilities 400% greater than those presently used in production. ~he second eImploys a low modulus filament winding to back up a thin electrodeposited closure. The weight saving potential of filament winding is significant when combined with some of the newly available carbon-based fiber materials. The third approach provides a cc~pliant closeout using copper tin powder in a cold isostatic pressing process reported by Niino [18]. The process allows good joining of the copper liner to a high-strength steel pressure case.

qhe previously discussed regenerative cooling methods are limited by the ability of the chamber wall material to [~hysically transfer heat and the coolant's ability to convectively remove the heat withcut exceeding limits imposed by its molecular structure, i.e., ooolant ooking, exothex1~ic decomposition, reaction with the wall material, etc. In contrast, transpiration cooling provides a method of blocking most of the thermal energy before it enters the wall, as illustrated in Fig. 20.

;I]
Heat
Flux

!/Trlmlplrllllon
coo,.d..~,o.

--~......,~~\
\
generltlve

Advantages Lower Pressure Lost L o n g e r Life

Technologies

/----- __/

/ /~

Coolant Flow Distribution

Performance Loss
Internal C o k i n g

Fig. 20.

Transpiration cooling augmentation ccmcepts.

Transpiration cooling has been used sucoessfully in several experimental rocket engine programs. To date, this method is not believed to be ~xx)rporated in any rocket flight systems; ho~zver, similar approaches are in operation in advanced jet engine turbines. The difficulties associated with this cooling method include: Inability to control coolant flc~ distribution in the high-pressure gradient regions. Performance loss due to low-temperature mass injection into the boundary layer. Thermal decomposition of the ooolant within the porous wall and possible chemical reaction with the chamber wall. A demonstrated solution to the first issues now exists. The ability to precisely control the coolant injection and flow distribution in the hlgh-presstLve gradient throat region has been demollstrated at pressures in excess of 3000 p6i. Aerojet's transpire-platelet design approach, reported by La Botz [19], and illustrated in Figs. 21 and 22, provides a practical engineering solution for coolant management in a high heat flux, hi,h-pressure gradient e n v Y . Fig. 23 is a phcfccgraph of the internal surface of an Hg-cooled copper ~ fabricated and tested by Aerojet under a NASA tec/%nology demonstration ccnti~ct. Several new engine cycles which enhance the ~ i r a t i c n cooling option have been proposed. One is the dual-fuel cycle being proposed by Beichel. TLIiscs'cle provides hydrogen, the ideal transpiration coolant, fo~ the full duration of the single-stage-to-orbit trip. Hydrogen is thermally stable to 4000 F, has high heat adsorption capabilities, and is oct,~Jatiblewith many high-temperature materials. With proper design and materials selection, oooling losses can be negligible.

36th IAF Congress, Stockholm, Sweden

Secondary Flow Cc Primary F Control P (thru Etct

435

Flow Dlffu-lon Zon Depth Etche

Distribution Manifold (Depth Etched)

Fig. 2l. T ~ i c ~ p ~ e t
schematic.

n~

m~ri~

a ~ dls~ibution

Appel [20] has reported hydroge/T~zumpatible refractory metal materials with r~%scrzlble engineering properties to 4000VF are now becoming available. Tnis will allow hydrogen to be utilized as a transpiration coolant and to be injected into the flow stream at very high temperatures. ~he t/3unsq01ratlon cooled approach has the theoretical capability of enabling cooling at operational pressures in excess of 10,000 psi. ~ICNS AND ~ C N S

A need for increased performance t ~ higher aperating pressures has been identified. The co61ing technologies presently used in the 3200 psi ~ are now ten to twenty years old. New cooling tedm~ologias and designs, based on advanced materials and fabrication capabilities, have been evaluated in the laboratory and at subscale levels and have been shown to be feasible. Application of these new cooling capabilities can pruvide increased service life for the existing SSME and allow the next 200 to 300% increase in cumbustlcn d%~mber pressures to ~ operational within the next decade. The engineering cummunity, however, ~ be presented with both the challenge and the resources. A systematic and scientific aM6i-oach must be taken in order to avoid the oostly trial and error methods which have been used in the past. Three __-e~-rate and cumPrehensive areas of laboratory investigation are required and should be instituted immediately; two relate to the use of h ~ fuels as propellant. ~ lack of predictability of the gas-side enviL~ment with h ~ fuels has been reported, La Botz [21], S~hoerm~n [22], and iausten [23]. ~ heavy sooting layer utilized as an effective thermal barrier in the past ~ has been observed to disappear as cumbusticn efficiency improves and operating pressures increase. ~ heat transfer rates have been observed in the absence of the protective carbon layer. However, since most data obtained to date have been on cold c~a,e~_r walls, a more detailed ~derstarding of the physical nature of this carbon deposition mechanism and the influence of wallmaterial and surface temperature is required. Tnis requires a theoretical approach supportad by ~ t i c laboratory experiments. Tne recent observation of h ~ fuel reactivity at relatively low temperatures, in the presence of certain preferred materials of o~cz%~cic~, has made ~any of the recent analytical

436

Peaceful Space and Global Problems of Mankind

Deta

Trans-Regen Coolant Diffuser Platelet-OFHC Copper O678SP 125

Fig. 22.

Flow d i s t r ~ i c n platelet for transpiration cooled

chamber.

Fig. 23. Transpiration cooled chamber using platelet technology.

36th IAF Congress, Stockholm, Sweden

437

fuel cooling studies questionable. ~ of inhibiting Icw-tem~mi~ture cok/ng by the use of fuel additives or by modifying the cooling channel surface by physical vapor ~ i t i c n methods should be investigated. This should be paralleled by more extensive ~ 4 n a t i c m of oxidizer cooling using similar techniques in preventing c ~ wall reacticms. Design and fabrication conoepts utilizing a multilayer wall Near-term enphasis should be placed on gas-side qperating surface materials to be evaluated should include oeramics, refractory metals. Vapor deposition fabrication methods eyam~ ned first. approach should be screened _~%h~r_. tempel~tures of 2500 to 3500 F. The cazbcn-based composites, and ck~-Td/e and inside-cut fabrication shoLtld be

~he use of transpiration cooling should be considered in parallel. However, this cooling concept must be reserved for systems where carbon-free fuel o0olants, such as ~ , N2H4, and N ~ , are available.

R~I~NCES
i.

Rehder, J. J., "Effect of Propulsion System fharacteristics on Ascent Performance of DualFueled Single-Stage Earth-to-Orbit Transports," NASA TP-III5, December 1977. Salkeld, R., and BeiQhel, R., 'q%eusableOne-Stage-to-Orbit Shuttles: Astronautics & ~ u t i c s , Vol. II, No. 6, June 1973. Brightening Prospects,"

2. 3. 4. 5.

Martin, J. A., "Optimal Dual-Fuel Propulsion for Minimum Inert Weight or Minimum Fuel Cost," A/AA Paper 73-1246, November 1973. Personal ocmm~nication with Mr. R. Beichel, Consultant, Aerojet T e c h S ~ Oampany.

~ , S., and Cacha, "Development of Advanced Electroforming Techniques for Injector and Ccmpo6ite Thrust Chamber Fabrication," AIAA Paper 69-583, 5th PLu~ulsion Joint Specialist Conf--, June 1969. O'Brien, C. J., and Ewen, R. L., "Advanced H 33452F, April 1981, Cc~Ttract NAS 8-33452. ~ Rocket Engine Study, NASA Report

6. 7. 8. 9. I0. Ii. 12.

Hannum, N. P., and Price, H. G., "Some Effects of Tnermal-Cycle Ir~_w~yl Deformation in Rocket Thrust Chambers," NASA TP-1834, April 1981. Cook, R. T., Fryk, E. E., and Newell, J. F., "SSME Main Cambustion Chamber Life Prediction, NASA CR-168215, May 1983. Rcback, 1981. R., et al, "Deposit Formation in H ~ Rocket Fuels," NASA aR-165405, August

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Peaceful Space and Global Problems of Mankind

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