special digest

2007 edition

SD 4

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors

U-values and building regulations
sean doran,
bre scotland

this digest is a revision of special digest 4 published in 2003. it explains how the requirements of the building regulations for conservation of fuel and power may be satisfied using aggregate concrete blocks. it gives information on the relevant regulations, showing various approaches to compliance, together with a number of worked examples. it is written for the concrete block industry, for designers, architects and builders who may be considering using masonry, and for enforcers of the regulations who are assessing applications. some of the terms used in this digest are explained in box 1 on page 2.
Revised building regulations for the conservation of fuel and power have applied from 6 April 2006 in England and Wales and from 30 November 2006 in Northern Ireland. Similar revisions have applied from 1 May 2007 in Scotland. These new regulations are markedly different in their approach from the previous regulations in their criteria for compliance, by making a requirement in terms of overall CO2 emissions in addition to performance requirements on individual elements. The regulations implement part of the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), which calls for a calculation methodology for assessing the energy performance of buildings and for regulations to be set based on that methodology. For new buildings, the Elemental Method and the Target U-value Method are no longer applicable and instead compliance is now assessed by using SAP 2005 for dwellings[1] or SBEM[2] for buildings other than dwellings. The compliance calculations take into account a combination of factors, including level of insulation, airtightness, efficiency of the heating system and heating controls. In England and Wales, Conservation of fuel and power is covered by four new Approved Documents, L1A, L1B, L2A and L2B[3], which respectively cover new dwellings,

existing dwellings, new buildings other than dwellings and existing buildings other than dwellings. Section 1 of the documents concerned with new buildings sets out the process for demonstrating compliance in terms of overall energy performance. Section 2 gives guidance on assessing the construction as built and contains provision for post-construction testing, including commissioning and mandatory airtightness testing. New buildings must attain a target CO2 emissions rate where the target rate is determined by the size and shape of the building. The Regulations include guidance on replacement heating systems and replacement windows, doors and rooflights, while recognising that special consideration may be needed for cases such as historic buildings. In Northern Ireland, requirements for the conservation of fuel and power are described in Technical Booklets F1 (Dwellings) and F2 (Buildings other than dwellings)[4]. In Scotland, Energy is covered by Section 6 of the Scottish Building Standards Technical Handbooks[5].

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

The Approved Documents L1A, L1B, L2A and L2B for England and Wales and Technical Booklets F1 and F2 for Northern Ireland are supported by the Governments Accredited Construction Details (ACDs)[6], which cover junctions between elements and detailing around windows and doors. For Scotland, Accredited Construction Details (ACDs) are given on the Scottish Building Standards Agency website[5].
Box 1: Glossary of terms
Accredited Construction Details A list of examples of typical constructions (used in dwellings) in which the thermal bridging effects are limited to a reasonably low level. Air permeability The physical property used to measure airtightness of the building fabric at a pressure difference of 50 Pa. It is expressed in m3/(h.m2). BER The building (CO2) emission rate, equal to the annual rate of emission of CO2 from a building (or building premises) per square metre of floor area. CHP Combined heat and power. DER The dwelling (CO2) emission rate, equal to the annual rate of emission of CO2 from a dwelling per square metre of floor area. Living area fraction The living area, including any room not separated from it by doors, divided by the total floor area of the dwelling. SAP The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure. SBEM Simplified Building Energy Model, used for regulatory purposes as a calculation tool for assessing buildings other than dwellings. SEDBUK The seasonal efficiency of domestic boilers in the UK. Information on SEDBUK is available from www.boilers.org.uk. TER The target (CO2) emission rate against which the DER or BER is compared for the purposes of satisfying building regulations. Thermal bridge A region within a building element where transfer of heat is higher compared with other parts of the same element. Thermal conductivity () The heat flow in watts per square metre of surface area for a temperature difference of 1 K per metre thickness of material. It is expressed in W/m.K. Thermal resistance (R) The ability of an element or layer within an element to impede the passage of heat. It is expressed in m2K/W. U-value (thermal transmittance) The rate of heat transfer in watts through 1 m2 of a structure when the temperatures on each side of the structure differ by 1 C. It is expressed in W/m2K.

the five key criteria for compliance for dwellings (england, wales and northern ireland)
For compliance with the Regulations for England, Wales and Northern Ireland, there are five key criteria which all need to be met.

criterion 1: show that the dwelling (co2) emissions rate (der) does not exceed the corresponding target emissions rate (ter)
To obtain the TER, the CO2 emissions rate for a notional dwelling of the same size, shape and living area fraction as the proposed dwelling is first calculated using SAP 2005[1]. This notional dwelling has a fixed set of criteria for the fabric heat loss, building services and air permeability, as set out in Appendix R of the SAP 2005 document[1]. The principal values are shown in Table 1. The notional dwelling corresponds to a dwelling heated by mains gas which complies with the Part L Elemental standards for 2002[3] as set out in Appendix R of the SAP 2005 document[1]. To obtain the TER, the CO2 emissions rate for the space heating and water heating in the notional dwelling is first adjusted by a fuel factor (see Table 2). The CO2 emissions rate for the notional dwelling is then reduced by 20% (to reflect the new standards to be achieved). The result is the TER (Target Emissions Rate). The emissions calculation is then repeated for the actual dwelling (again using SAP 2005) and if the DER from the proposed dwelling does not exceed the TER then Criterion 1 is satisfied. BRE-approved SAP 2005 software incorporates a function that automatically generates the target CO2 emissions level when the characteristics of the actual dwelling have been defined. The calculations require information about the efficiency and controls of heating systems (see Box 2 for information on secondary heating). To assist in the calculations, a list of SEDBUK boiler efficiencies is available at www.boilers.org.uk. The results of the above calculation should be regarded as the design DER as it is based on some assumptions (such as air permeability performance, adoption of and adherence to Accredited Construction Details[5,6]) which have to be reviewed post-construction. If any of the as built characteristics of the design are worse than initially assumed, the DER calculation must be repeated to ensure that the as built DER remains lower than the TER (see Criterion 4).
Table 1: Specifications for the notional building (for calculating the TER)
U-value of roofs U-value of windows and doors U-value of walls U-value of floors* Efficiency of mains gas boiler Airtightness
*Refers to ground floors and exposed floors.

0.16 W/m2.K 2.0 W/m2.K 0.35 W/m2.K 0.25 W/m2.K 78 % 10 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors

Table 2: Fuel factors (for calculating the TER)
Mains gas LPG Oil Grid electricity (for direct acting, storage and electric heat pumps) Solid mineral fuel Renewable energy, including bio-fuels such as wood pellets Solid multi fuel 1.00 1.10* 1.17* 1.47* 1.28* 1.00 1.00

criterion 3: the design should include provision to prevent high internal temperatures in summer due to excessive solar gains
Appendix P of SAP 2005[1] enables designers to calculate an indicative risk of solar gains resulting in high internal temperatures. The risk can be reduced by changing window size and orientation, or by introducing shading devices, increased ventilation or through the use of thermal mass. Further guidance on avoidance of overheating can be obtained from the Energy Saving Trusts publication CE 129[7].

*In Northern Ireland these figures are multiplied by 1.14. Note: Simply achieving the conditions in Table 1 will not lead to compliance because a further 20% improvement is required and is built into the TER calculation.

criterion 4: the performance of the dwelling, as built, should be consistent with the der
Quality of construction and correct commissioning
The quality of construction and the correct commissioning of building services needs to be demonstrated with reference to the proposed building design. If any assumptions made at the design stage fail to carry through to the final construction, the SAP calculation should be repeated and the as built DER calculated and compared with the TER limit.

Box 2: Secondary heating

Approved Document L1A requires that all dwellings are assumed to have a secondary heating system that supplies 10% of the heating demand. In the calculation of the TER, the secondary heating is assumed to consist of electric room heaters and this assumption must follow through to the DER unless a different secondary heating system, capable of supplying at least 10% of the overall requirement is specified.

building services

criterion 2: design limits should be satisfied

In addition to limits on overall performance as described above, the Approved Documents give limits for various parts of the dwelling (or building). These limits are intended to ensure that each element of the design plays a part in limiting overall CO2 emissions. Maximum permissible U-values are shown in Table 3. They give limits for area-weighted U-values of elements and a limit to the allowable U-value of any part of any element. No part of any element may exceed the design limits shown. The documents also give minimum acceptable criteria for the following: air permeability [which should be no worse than 10 m3/(h.m2)], heating and hot water systems, insulation of pipes, ducts and vessels, mechanical ventilation and cooling, lighting.
Table 3: Maximum permissible U-values (W/mK) (applicable in England, Wales and Northern Ireland)
Element Maximum area-weighted U-value (W/mK) 0.25 2.2 2.2 0.35 0.25 Maximum U-value for any part of any element (W/mK) 0.35 3.3 3.3 0.70 0.70

A notice should be provided by a suitably qualified person declaring that the building and its services have been inspected, tested and commissioned, and that they are in accordance with the proposed building design.

accredited construction details

Site inspection and checking is required to confirm that the insulation has been installed satisfactorily to minimise thermal bridging.

air permeability
Box 3: Air permeability
Air permeability is determined by the air leakage rate (m3/h) per unit envelope area (m2) at a test reference pressure differential across the building envelope of 50 Pa. The envelope area of the building is the total area of all floors, walls and ceilings bordering the internal volume that is subject to the test (including the volume of party walls and floors). Overall internal dimensions are used to calculate this area and no subtractions are made for the area of the junctions of internal walls, floors and ceilings with exterior walls, floors and ceilings.

Roofs Glazed openings Doors Walls Floors

An air permeability test must be carried out to show that the design air permeability standard has been achieved and that the permeability does not exceed the limit of 10 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa. Air pressure testing is required to be carried out to an approved procedure by an ATTMA member or similar accredited tester. The design, construction and operation of dwellings should always recognise the importance of adequate ventilation provision to avert risk of condensation. As a general rule, an increase in controlled ventilation is typically required with increasing airtightness. Guidance is given

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

Table 4: Requirement for air pressure testing

Number of instances of the dwelling type Four or less More than 4 but not more than 40 More than 40 Number of tests to be carried out on each dwelling type One test on each dwelling type Two tests of each dwelling type At least 5% of each dwelling type unless the first five units of the type tested achieve the design air permeability in which case the sampling can be reduced to 2%

compliance in scotland
Section 6 of the Scottish Building Standards Technical Handbooks deals with energy[5]. The basis is similar to that adopted for England & Wales, by setting an overall carbon emissions target, but for dwellings the target is established in a slightly different way. The guidance document gives specifications for notional dwellings (of the same size and shape as the proposed dwelling) that define the target CO2 emissions rate, but without application of improvement factors or fuel factors. Instead of applying fuel factors, as is done in England & Wales, the differences in carbon intensities of different fuels are taken into account by the definition of a notional dwelling for each fuel category (gas, LPG, oil, electricity, solid mineral and biomass). It follows that if the dwelling is constructed to specifications at least as good as the notional dwelling it is not necessary to perform calculations to demonstrate compliance. For buildings other than dwellings, the target emissions level is set in the same way as in England and Wales (the target is slightly lower (ie slightly more demanding) because the notional building is based on the 2002 Elemental U-value standard of 0.30 W/m2K, rather than 0.35 W/m2K, for walls). In addition to the requirement for CO2 emissions, there are requirements for U-values of elements, heating efficiency and controls, insulation of pipes, ducts and vessels, summer overheating, commissioning and provision of information. The maximum permissible Uvalues are shown in Tables 5 and 6. Further information, including guidance on Accredited Construction Details and discrete thermal bridging around openings, can be found on the SBSA website at www.sbsa.gov.uk[5]. In Scotland, the dwelling can comply if its performance is at least as good as the notional dwelling, as defined in Table 6. In Scotland, the notional dwelling would be considered to satisfy the requirements. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the notional dwelling would not satisfy the requirements.
Table 5: Maximum permissible U-values in W\mK (applicable in Scotland)
Element Maximum areaweighted U-value (W/mK) 0.20 2.2 2.2 0.30 0.25 Maximum U-value for any part of any element (W/mK) 0.35 3.3 3.3 0.70 0.70

in Approved Document F[8] for England and Wales or Technical Document K[9] for Northern Ireland. Where Accredited Construction Details are not used, air pressure tests should be carried out on each dwelling type in the development in accordance with Table 4. If the test result is greater than 10 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa, or greater than the value assumed at the design stage to the extent that the dwelling fails to achieve a compliant DER, the required action is set out in the regulations. This includes remedial measures to reduce air leakage, re-testing of the dwelling to show compliance and an additional test of another dwelling of the same type. It is in the builders interests to ensure that the quality of construction, particularly the sealing of air leakage paths, is to an adequately high standard to achieve the limiting value of 10 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa. For developments of no more than two dwellings, the need for air pressure testing can be avoided if a dwelling of the same type has been tested elsewhere in the previous 12 months, or alternatively if an air permeability rate of 15 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa is used in the calculation of the DER. The latter choice would usually mean having to make significant improvements elsewhere in the design to attain the TER.

calculating the as built der

Once all of the above as built data have been determined, the dwelling emissions rate (DER) should be recalculated to reflect any changes between the design assumptions and the actual performance and actual details of the construction as built. The heating and hot water systems should be commissioned and a notice issued by a competent person to the local authority to confirm that commissioning has taken place.

criterion 5: the operation and maintenance information should be provided to the owner to enable the building and its services to be operated in an energy-efficient manner
The owner of the building should be provided with a set of simple operating and maintenance instructions explaining how to use the installed heating and hot water system to achieve economy in use.

Roofs Glazed openings Doors Walls Floors

boiler efficiencies
To assess compliance with Regulations, it is necessary to provide information such as the efficiency of the heating system and the types of controls. SAP 2005 software incorporates a database of boiler efficiencies which is automatically accessed by approved SAP software. To assist in providing this information, a list of seasonal

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

Table 6: Specification for the notional dwelling in Scotland
Element or system Walls Floors Roofs Openings (see Note 2) Mains gas heating U = 0.25 W/m2K U = 0.22 W/m2K U = 0.16 W/m2K U = 1.8 W/m2K Area is 25% of floor area 0.08 total exposed surface area (m2) None Gas boiler room-sealed, fan flued, with 90% efficiency Programmer, room thermostat, TRVs, boiler interlock LPG heating U = 0.25 W/m2K U = 0.22 W/m2K U = 0.16 W/m2K U = 1.8 W/m2K Area is 25% of floor area 0.08 total exposed surface area (m2) One LPG boiler room-sealed, fan flued, with 90% efficiency Programmer, room thermostat, TRVs, boiler interlock Oil heating Electric heating U = 0.25 W/m2K U = 0.22 W/m2K U = 0.16 W/m2K U = 1.8 W/m2K Area is 25% of floor area 0.08 total exposed surface area (m2) None Air to water heat pump Heating by biomass (see Note 1) U = 0.25 W/m2K U = 0.22 W/m2K U = 0.16 W/m2K U = 1.8 W/m2K Area is 25% of floor area 0.08 total exposed surface area (m2) One HETAS-approved wood pellet boiler Solid fuel heating (see Note 1)

U = 0.25 W/m2K U = 0.20 W/m2K U = 0.16 W/m2K U = 1.7 W/m2K Area is 25% of floor area Allowance for 0.08 total thermal bridging exposed surface (see Note 3) area (m2) Open flues One Heating system Oil boiler (pump in room-sealed, heated space) fan flued, with 93% efficiency Heating system Programmer, controls room thermostat, TRVs, boiler interlock, weather compensation Hot water system Stored HW (from Stored HW (from Stored HW (from (not applicable if boiler) with boiler) with boiler) with combination boiler) separate time separate time separate time control for space control for space control for space and water heating and water heating and water heating Secondary space 10% electric 10% closed 10% closed heating wood log-burning wood log-burning room heater room heater (see Note 4) (see Note 4) Solar panels, None None None evacuated tube, collector efficiency = 0.6, a1 = 3 Area of windows, doors and rooflights Orientation Shading from sun Number of sheltered sides Chimneys Ventilation system

U = 0.20 W/m2K U = 0.20 W/m2K U = 0.16 W/m2K U = 1.5 W/m2K Area is 25% of floor area 0.06 total exposed surface area (m2) One HETAS-approved anthracite boiler with autofeed in heated space

Programmer, Programmer, Programmer, room thermostat, room thermostat, room thermostat, TRVs TRVs

Stored HW by electric immersion

10% electric

Stored HW (from boiler) with separate time control for space and water heating 10% electric

Stored HW by dual electric immersion and solar 10% electric

None

None

4 m2 panel between SE and SW, not more than 45 pitch, no overshading

Total of 25% of total floor area All glazing oriented east/west Average overshading 2 None Natural ventilation with intermittent extract fans, 4 for dwellings with floor area more than 80 m2, otherwise 3 10 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa

Air permeability Hot water cylinder (for solar water heating a combined cylinder with solar store 75 litre, no solar-powered pump) Primary water heating losses Low energy light fittings

150 litre cylinder insulated with 50 mm of factory-applied foam (cylinder in heated space) Cylinder temperature controlled by thermostat

Primary pipework insulated 50% of fixed outlets

Notes: 1 The biomass column should be used not only where biomass fuel is used but also for biogas, large scale waste combustion from boilers and waste heat from power stations. It does not, however, include dual or multi-fuel which should be taken under the solid fuel column. 2 U is the average U-value of all openings (windows, doors, rooflights) based on one opaque door 1.85 m2 of U = 1.8 W/m2K, any other doors fully glazed. For windows, doors, etc. a frame factor of 0.7, light transmittance of 0.80 and solar energy transmittance of 0.72 for U 1.7, 0.63 for U < 1.7 are assumed. 3 Construction using Accredited Construction Details (Scotland) is considered to correspond to the default figure of 0.08 for thermal bridging. 4 Under secondary heating, the closed wood log-burning room heater is capable of burning wood only, not multi-fuel. 5 If total exposed faade area is less than 25% of the floor area, the total exposed faade area.

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

Table 7: Default -values for junctions in Accredited Construction Details[]
Junction detail in external wall Steel lintels with perforated steel base plate Other lintels (including other steel lintels) Sill Jamb Ground floor Intermediate floor within a dwelling Intermediate floor between dwellings* Balcony within a dwelling Balcony between dwellings* Eaves: insulation at ceiling level Eaves: insulation at rafter level Gable: insulation at ceiling level Gable: insulation at rafter level Corner (wallwall junction): normal Corner (wallwall junction): inverted Party wall between dwellings* Default linear thermal transmittance (W/m.K) 0.50 0.30 0.04 0.05 0.16 0.07 0.14 0.00 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.24 0.04 0.09 -0.09 0.06

boiler efficiencies (SEDBUK), together with additional information about SEDBUK, is given on the website www.boilers.org.uk.

workmanship
Good workmanship and appropriate site procedures are necessary to achieve the design thermal performance and airtightness. Achieving this in practice is likely to depend on a combination of good site management, training and monitoring. Key points for achieving this are: continuity of the insulation layer, continuity of vapour barriers, sealing of services penetrations. Management of all contractors concerned with constructing the building fabric need to be aware of the requirements to ensure that insulation materials of the correct specification are installed as directed and with the specified degree of continuity. They also need to be aware of ensuring that the fabric is constructed to be airtight. Contractors (such as plumbers and electricians) responsible for installing services which penetrate the building fabric need to be aware of the need to restore or replace any insulation that has been disturbed and to ensure that service penetrations are made airtight.

* Half of the linear thermal transmittance is assigned to each dwelling. This is an externally supported balcony (not a continuation of the floor slab) where the insulation is continuous and is not bridged by the balcony slab.

effective detailing at jUnctions

At junctions between walls, floors, roofs and openings it is important to avoid excessive thermal bridging, which can lead to increased heat loss, unwanted condensation or mould growth. For example, a junction between two adjacent walls and a ground floor can be particularly prone to low surface temperatures, leading to risk of mould at the corner. A series of junction details that are deemed to be of low risk are published in the Accredited Construction Details document[6]. For junctions not covered in Accredited Construction Details, see Box 4. The increased heat loss attributable to a junction (which is not accounted for within the U-values) is indicated by its linear thermal transmittance value, or -value, and this is expressed in watts per metre per degree (W/m.K). A low -value indicates a good detail, while a high -value indicates a poor detail (as far as heat loss is concerned). A -value cannot be evaluated using simplified calculation procedures and has to be calculated using detailed thermal modelling procedures in accordance with BREs report Conventions for calculating temperature factors and linear thermal transmittance[13].
Box 4: Thermal bridging
Discrete thermal bridging that is not covered in Accredited Construction Details[6] needs to be accounted for and this may be done using the method in BREs Information Paper IP 1/06[10]. For additional information about risks associated with thermal bridging, see BRE Report Thermal insulation: avoiding risks[11]. For information about detailing in cladding constructions, reference is made to MCRMA Technical Paper no. 17[12].

Table 7 gives default linear thermal transmittance values for junctions[10]: The reduced surface temperatures caused by thermal bridging at junctions is indicated by an f-factor, where a high f-factor indicates a slight reduction in surface temperature and a low f-factor indicates a severe reduction in surface temperature and an increased risk of mould growth or condensation. An f-factor of 0.75 or above is considered acceptable for dwellings. More information on the definition, calculation and interpretation of f-factors is given in reference [10] as well as an indication of minimum acceptable f-factors. Accredited Construction Details are deemed to have an acceptable f-factor. In cavity walls, particularly at wallfloor junctions where the insulation layer is interrupted, it is important to maintain a sufficient overlap between the floor insulation and the wall insulation and guidance is given in Accredited Construction Details[6] and the SBSA website[5]. For an internally insulated structure, where it abuts other construction details, the insulated layer needs to be kept continuous around the perimeter of the building. At window reveals it is important to maintain an overlap (typically 30 mm) between the frame (including packers) and the wall insulation. A decision not to follow Accredited Construction Details (or details which are certified as being of satisfactory thermal performance) may lead to poorer dwelling performance. If a particular detail is not an Accredited Construction Detail then it should be dealt with by following the guidance in reference [10]. If details other than Accredited Construction Details are used it is necessary to show that the detail will not lead to unacceptably low surface temperature factors, as junctions with low surface temperature factors will

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors have an increased risk of surface mould growth or condensation.

assessing carbon emissions for a bUilding other than a dwelling

For buildings other than dwellings SBEM[2] can be used for calculating the Building Emissions Rating, BER. Additionally, other approved software, as detailed on www.ncm.bre.co.uk, may be used.

For buildings other than dwellings the BER must be shown to be no higher than the Target Emissions Rate (TER) for the building. A preliminary calculation is done as part of the design submission, based on plans/ specifications and must be done using an approved calculation tool (eg SBEM). Once the building has been constructed, a final calculation is carried out incorporating any design changes and including results for actual air permeability, ductwork leakage and fan performance as commissioned.

foUr examples of constrUctions

To illustrate the requirements of the regulations, compliance is assessed for the following four constructions, each of which uses aggregate blocks. All of these four examples pass the requirements.
Box 5: Dwelling data for Example A
Ground floor area Area of windows Glazed door Opaque door Wall area (net) Roof area Fuel type Secondary fuel Boiler type Secondary heating 40.0 m2 16.30 m2 1.85 m2 1.85 m2 70.0 m2 40.0 m2 mains gas electricity combination electric room heaters (10%)

example a: semi-detached (or end-terraced) house

A typical two-storey semi-detached house has blockwork cavity walls, a pitched roof with insulation at ceiling level and is glazed with low-emissivity windows. It has a total area of 80.0 m2, and is to be heated using a gas boiler serving radiators and controlled by a programmer, room thermostat and thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs). The summary specification is given in Box 5.

5.2 m

Door

7.7 m

Ground floor

Door

7.7 m

First floor

calculation of target (co2) emissions rate (ter)

Taking into account the dwelling size and shape, the carbon dioxide emissions for the notional dwelling are calculated using SAP software on the basis of the fixed performance assumptions shown in Table 1 of this Digest. This gives a TER of 23.22 kg/m2.yr.

Figure A1: A floor plan of the dwelling

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4 The total CO2 emissions rate when all of the above energy-saving measures are applied is less than the TER of 23.22 kg/m2.yr and the dwelling therefore complies, subject to subsequent confirmation that the actual dwelling characteristics as constructed are no worse than assumed at the design stage. Since the DER is not more than the TER this improved specification satisfies the requirements. Table 9 shows alternative designs which comply.

calculation of dwelling (co2) emissions rate (der)

2

The DER for the notional dwelling is 29.02 kg/m .yr. Clearly, the notional dwelling design will not satisfy the requirements; to satisfy the requirements various improvements are needed. The schedule given in Table 8 shows a series of improvement measures. These are listed together with their respective CO2 emissions savings (calculated relative to the notional dwelling performance). No specific secondary heating system is provided for the proposed dwelling so the default setting (electric appliance meeting 10% of the space heating demand) is carried through from the TER to the DER calculation.

8% 2%

Table 8: Improvement measures for Example A

Adjustment to DER (kg/m.yr of CO) Unimproved (notional dwelling) with values as in Table 1 Improvement measure (compared with the notional dwelling) 50 mm tank insulation (instead of 38 mm) and primary pipework insulation Use of Accredited Construction Details SEDBUK boiler efficiency of 90% instead of 78% Air permeability of 8.0 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa instead of 10.0 m3/(h.m2) Floor U-value of 0.18 W/m2K Wall U-value of 0.30 W/m2K Window & door U-value of 1.8 W/m2K Total adjustment Improved (proposed dwelling) -0.78 Resulting DER (kg/m.yr of CO) 29.02

45%

28.24

41%

-0.87 -2.8 -0.39 -0.42 -0.52 -0.51 -.9

27.37 24.57 24.18 23.76 23.24 22.73

4% Space heating (main system) Space heating (secondary) Water heating Pumps and fans Lighting

22.73

Figure A2: Pie chart showing typical distribution of fuel use (based on SAP calculations)

Table 9: Variations to the house design for Example A

Examples which comply Boiler efficiency Airtightness Wall U-value Fuel Floor U-value Timetemperature zone control
* As in detailed schedule.

Case 1 * 90% 8 m3/(h.m2) 0.30 W/m2K Mains gas 0.18 W/m2K No

Case  91% 7 m3/(h.m2) 0.35 W/m2K Mains gas 0.18 W/m2K No

Case  90% 10 m3/(h.m2) 0.30 W/m2K Mains gas 0.18 W/m2K Yes

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors

example b: detached house

A two-storey detached house has masonry cavity walls and a pitched roof with insulation at ceiling level. It has a total floor area of 100 m2. The summary specification is given in Box 6.

Box 6: Dwelling data for Example B

Ground floor area Area of windows Glazed door Opaque door Wall area Roof area Fuel type Secondary fuel Boiler type Secondary heating Hot water cylinder 50.0 m2 21.3 m2 1.85 m2 1.85 m2 125 m2 50.0 m2 mains gas electricity regular electric room heaters (10%) 150 litres

calculation of dwelling (co2) emissions rate (der)

6.2 m

The DER for the notional dwelling is 32.12 kg/m2.yr. Clearly, the notional dwelling design will not satisfy the requirements; to satisfy the requirements various improvements are needed. Table 10 gives a schedule that shows a series of improvement measures. These are listed together with their respective CO2 emissions savings (calculated relative to the notional dwelling performance). Examples of changes to the design which would lead to further improved performance are given in Table 11.
Door

8m

Ground floor

Table 10: Improvement measures for Example B

Adjustment to DER (kg/m.yr of CO) Unimproved (notional dwelling) with values as in Table 1 Improvement measure (compared with the notional dwelling) 50 mm tank insulation (instead of 38 mm) and primary pipework insulation Use of Accredited Construction Details SEDBUK boiler efficiency of 90% instead of 78% Air permeability of 8.0 m3/(h.m2) at 50 Pa instead of 10.0 m3/(h.m2) Floor U-value to 0.22 W/m2K Wall U-value of 0.30 W/m2K Window & door U-value of 1.8 or 2.1 W/m2K Total adjustment Improved (proposed dwelling) Resulting DER (kg/m.yr of CO) 32.12

Door

8m

First floor

-0.54

31.58

-2.49 -2.99 -0.43 -0.18 -0.77 -0.48 -.

29.09 26.10 25.67

Figure B1: A floor plan of the dwelling

calculation of target (co2) emissions rate (ter)

Taking into account the dwelling size and shape, the CO2 emissions for the notional dwelling are calculated using SAP software on the basis of the fixed performance assumptions shown in Table 1 of this Digest. This gives a TER of 24.25 kg/m2.yr.

24.90 24.42

24.24

10

masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

7%

2%

52%

34%

5% Space heating (main system) Space heating (secondary) Water heating Pumps and fans Lighting

Figure B2: Pie chart showing typical distribution of fuel use (based on SAP calculations)

Table 11: Variations to the house design for Example B

Change to design Improving air tightness from 8 to 6 m3/(h.m2) and increasing wall U-value from 0.30 to 0.32 W/m2K Use of time/temperature zone control and increasing wall U-value from 0.30 to 0.34 W/m2K Improving airtightness from 8 to 6 m3/(h.m2) and, using temperature/time zone control and increasing wall U-value from 0.30 to 0.35 W/m2K Change in DER (kg/m.yr) -0.04 -0.06 -0.24 Resulting DER (kg/m.yr) 24.20 24.18 24.00 Result Pass Pass Pass

example c: small office (not air-conditioned)

It is proposed to build a small single-storey office near Manchester. The office, which has a total floor area of 250 m2, consists of a reception, an open-plan office, cellular offices, a meeting room and washroom/toilets. The open-plan office is conceptually divided into two zones, an east zone and a west zone, according to the conventions given for SBEM. The summary specification is given in Box 7. The areas and U-values for the construction are given in Table 12. The total CO2 emissions rate (BER) when all of the above specification items are applied is 30.54 kg/m2.yr, which is less than the target emissions (TER) rate of 31.30 kg/m2.yr so the building therefore complies.
Z0/03, Open-plan office, west side, 72 m2 Z0/02, Open-plan office, east side, 36 m2

Z0/04, Cellular offices, 54 m2

Z0/05, Meeting room, 36 m2

Z0/01, Reception, 36 m2

Z0/06, Toilets, 18 m2

Figure C1: A floor plan of the office

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors

Box 7: Building data for Example C
Air permeability U-value of roof Thermal capacity per unit area for roof U-value of wall Cm of wall U-value of floor Cm of floor U-value of window Dead-leg length in toilets Room height Type of boiler Seasonal efficiency of boiler Heating distribution 6 m /(h.m2)
3

11

17%

0.13 W/m2K 8.8 kJ/m2K 0.35 W/m2K 80 kJ/m2K 0.2 W/m K

2

59%

60 kJ/m2.K 1.8 W/m2K 1m 3m LTHW 90% central heating using water to radiators
2% 0% Space heating (main system) Space heating (secondary) Water heating Pumps and fans Lighting 22%

Figure C2: Pie chart showing typical distribution of fuel use (based on SAP calculations)

Table 12: Areas and U-values for Example C construction

External element Ground floor Net surface area (m) 250 U-value (W/mK) 0.22 Details Z0/01 (Reception), 36 m2 Open plan, east side, 36 m2 Open plan, west side, 72 m2 Cellular offices, 54 m2 Meeting room, 36 m2 Toilets, 18 m2

Windows and glazed doors Opaque doors External walls

270

1.8 1.8 0.3

Roof

250

0.16

Z0/01 (Reception), north wall, 9 m2 Z0/01 (Reception), east wall, 18 m2 Z0/02 (Open Plan, east side), east wall, 18 m2 Z0/02 (Open Plan, east side), north wall, 18 m2 Z0/03 (Open Plan, west side), north wall, 36 m2 Z0/03 (Open Plan, west side), west wall, 18 m2 Z0/04 (Cellular offices), south 27 m2, west 18 m2 Z0/05 (Meeting room), south 18 m2 Z0/06 (Toilets), east 9 m2 Z0/06 (Toilets), south 18 m2 Z0/06 (Toilets), west 9 m2 Z0/01 (Reception), 36 m2 Open Plan, east side, 36 m2 Open Plan, west side, 72 m2 Cellular offices, 54 m2 Meeting room, 36 m2 Toilets, 18 m2

Total

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Box 8: Dwelling data for Example D
Ground floor area Area of windows Door area Wall area (net) Type of heating system Main heating fuel Secondary fuel Boiler type Secondary heating Water tank volume 50.0 m2 10.65 m2 1.85 m2 125 m2 gas boiler to radiators mains gas electricity regular electric room heaters (10%) 117 litres

example d: ground floor flat

It is proposed to build a ground floor flat with blockwork cavity walls, low-emissivity windows and a mains gas boiler serving radiators. The summary specification is given in Box 8.

Table 13: Improvement measures for Example D

Adjustment to DER emissions (kg/m/yr) Unimproved (notional dwelling) with values as in Table 1 Improvement measure (compared with the notional dwelling) Use of Accredited Construction Details Boiler efficiency of 90% instead of 78% Air permeability of 8.0 m3/(h.m2) instead of 10.0 m3/(h.m2) Floor U-value of 0.20 W/m2K instead of 0.25 W/m2K Window & door U-value of 1.8 W/m2K instead of 2.0 W/m2K Tank insulation of 50 mm instead of 38 mm Primary pipework insulation Emissions DER (kg/m/yr) 32.25

6.2 m

-0.81 -3.29 -0.40 -0.55 -0.49 -0.23 -0.81

31.44 28.15 27.75 27.20 26.71 26.48 25.67

Door 8m Ground floor

Figure D1: A floor plan of the dwelling

Taking into account the dwelling size and shape, the CO2 emissions were calculated on the basis of the fixed assumptions in Table 1, giving a TER of 26.10 kg/m2.yr

calculation of target (co2) emissions rate (ter)

calculation of dwelling (co2) emissions rate (der)

The DER for the notional dwelling is 32.25 kg/m2.yr. Clearly, the notional dwelling design will not satisfy the requirements; to satisfy the requirements various improvements are needed. Table 13 shows a series of improvement measures. These are listed together with their respective CO2 emissions savings (calculated relative to the notional dwelling performance).

No specific secondary heating system is provided for the proposed dwelling so the default setting (electric appliance meeting 10% of the space heating demand) is carried through from the TER to the DER calculation. The total CO2 emissions rate when all of the above energy-saving measures are applied is less than the target emissions rate of 26 kg/m2/yr and the dwelling therefore complies, subject to subsequent confirmation that the actual dwelling characteristics as constructed are no worse than assumed at the design stage. Since the DER is not more than the TER this improved specification satisfies the requirements. Table 14 shows how the DER is affected by various changes to the design.
Table 14: Changes to the house design for Example D
Case 1* Boiler efficiency Wall U-value Pass or Fail 90% 0.35 Pass Case  86% 0.30 Pass

* As in detailed schedule.

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calcUlating U-valUes
Assessment of compliance with regulations requires U-values to be provided for all the elements and components making up a building, dwelling or premises. U-values of masonry constructions, together with most roofs and floor decks, can be assessed using the method in BS EN ISO 6946[15], also known as the Combined Method. U-values of ground floors can usually be assessed using the method in BS EN ISO 13370[16]. Inexpensive software to calculate U-values according to these standards is available commercially. U-value calculations should take account of the conventions given in BREs Conventions for U-value Calculations[14] (www.bre.co.uk/uvalues). They should include allowances for any repeating thermal bridges, but should not make any allowance for non-repeating thermal bridges, as these are dealt with separately. Tables of U-values are given in this Digest which are based on typical constructions. The underlying assumptions used in the calculations are given below.

is less than 0.1 mK/W the effect of the mortar may be disregarded in the U-value calculation (as has been done in preparing the tables later in this Digest). A conductivity of 17 W/m.K is generally considered appropriate for stainless steel wall ties. Guidance on wall ties for masonry walls is given in BS 5628[19]. The effect of wall ties may be disregarded if the total of the corrections to the U value is less than 3% of the overall U-value of the wall (as permitted in BS EN ISO 6946[15]), and this has been done in the calculations in this Digest.

wall ties
BS 5628[19] requires that the leaves of a cavity wall be tied together by wall ties and gives guidance on the number and type of wall ties which should be provided. The choice of the type of wall tie and spacing depends on the cavity width and the widths of the leaves of the cavity wall. Typical wall tie types and densities are shown in Table 16. Examples of constructions, together with their Uvalues, are given in this Digest. They are based on standard-sized insulation products and they show how suitable U-values may be achieved for a variety of constructions. The construction solutions are based on the rules for declaring thermal conductivity values for insulation products as given in the applicable standards[20] taking account of product variation (90% percentile values) and aged values. Guidance on the conductivities of other materials can be found in references [14, 17, 21]. Guidance on discrete thermal bridging is given in reference [10]. For additional information about risks associated with thermal bridging, refer to BREs Report Thermal insulation: avoiding risks[11]. Resistances of air cavities and other airspaces within cavity walls are calculated according to the method in BS EN ISO 6946[15] and conventions in reference [14], taking account of the dimensions of the airspace, ventilation level and emissivity of bounding surfaces. Table 17 gives resistances of airspaces in walls for some typical dimensions. BS EN ISO 6946[15] also gives guidance for assessing resistances of airspaces in other types of walls, roofs and exposed floors. Guidance on the treatment of airspaces in suspended ground floors is given in BS EN ISO 13370[16]. Further information on airspaces can be found in Section 3.3.8 of CIBSE Guide A[17]. The U-value of a solid or suspended ground floor varies depending on the size and configuration of the floor plan. In the ground floor examples, the U-values

assumptions on mortar fractions

Table 15 indicates appropriate mortar fractions for various options, based on guidelines in reference [14]. Outer leaf concrete blocks with a sandcement render are treated as exposed, and outer leaf mortar is assumed to have a conductivity of 0.94 W/m.K. Blocks with a polymer render and inner leaf blocks are treated as protected and mortar is assumed to have a conductivity of 0.88 W/m.K. Conductivities of exposed and protected concrete blocks are taken from Table 3.1 of CIBSE Guide A (2006 edition)[17]. Typical conductivities of other materials are obtained from CIBSE Guide A and BS EN 12524/(ISO 10456)[18]. If the difference in the thermal resistance of a block and its associated mortar
Table 15: Mortar fractions
Option Standard 440 mm 215 mm concrete blocks with a mortar width of 10 mm Blocks laid flat such that the 100 mm dimension is the height Mortar fraction 0.067 (ie 6.7%)

0.112 (if 10 mm horizontal and vertical mortar joints are used) or 0.131 (if 10 mm vertical mortar joints and 12.5 mm horizontal mortar joints are used)

Table 16: Typical wall tie specifications for cavity walls

Cavity width Minimum thickness of the inner and outer leaves of the cavity wall 90 mm or more 90 mm or more 90 mm or more Tie material Cross-section (mm) 12.5 50 80 Ties per square metre 2.5 2.5 2.5

Up to 100 mm 101 to 150 mm 151 to 300 mm

Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel

These values are based on typical ties compliant with BS 5628[19], taking into consideration conventions in reference [14]. Wall tie types are defined in Annex C of BS 5628-1[19].

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Table 18: Conductivity values for insulation materials
Material Phenolic foam Rigid polyurethane Polyisocyanurate Mineral wool (including batts and blown fibre) Expanded polystyrene (including boards and injected beads) Grey expanded polystyrene Extruded polystyrene Plywood, chipboad or oriented strand board Plasterboard (standard wallboard) Acoustic or fire-resistant plasterboard Outer leaf brick Timber roof or floor joists Timber rafters Dense aggregate concrete block, 1800 kg/m3 (protected) Dense aggregate concrete block, 1800 kg/m3 (exposed) Low density block (protected)* Blocks with furnace bottom ash aggregate (protected)* Blocks with furnace bottom ash aggregate (exposed) Blocks with other lightweight aggregate (protected)* Blocks with other lightweight aggregate (exposed) Cement/sand external render Mortar (exposed) Mortar (protected)* Conductivity (W/m.K) 0.0210.024 0.0220.028 0.0220.028 0.0320.044 0.0300.038 ca 0.032 0.0290.039 0.13 0.21 0.25 0.77 0.13 0.13 1.22 1.31 0.30 0.46 0.49 0.57 0.61 1.00 0.94 0.88

Table 17: Thermal resistances of airspaces in walls

Thickness of airspace (mm) 5 7 10 15 20 or more Resistance for surfaces of normal emissivity 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 Resistance if one surface has an emissivity of 0. or less 0.17 0.22 0.29 0.37 0.44

Note: These figures are based upon standard ambient temperatures where one surface has an emissivity of 0.9 and the other surface has an emissivity of either 0.9 (first column) or 0.2 (second column).

have been calculated for a typical small detached house with a perimeter to area ratio of 0.57 m-1 (ie floor area floor perimeter = 1.75 metres). Large floor areas will generally lead to lower U-values (ie lower heat loss) due to their more favourable perimeter to area ratio. References [14] and [15] give guidance on how to allow for air gaps between and around sections of insulation. In particular, reference [14] gives guidance on the use of appropriate air gap correction levels. For calculating U-values of constructions other than those presented in this Digest, the conductivity values given in Table 18 may be regarded as typical. They take account of insulation ageing and 90% percentile values. Additional information on insulation materials can be obtained from www.timsa.org.uk.

* Protected refers to blocks that are not exposed to wetting, such as inner leaf blocks or blocks that are protected by a polymer render.

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U-valUes for masonry wall constrUctions

The following examples give tabulated U-values (W/mK), for various types of new-build constructions.

example 1: cavity wall fully filled with insulation, having brick outer leaf, blockwork inner leaf and internal plaster finish
Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used.

102 mm external brickwork, = 0.77 W/m.K Cavity insulation bridged by stainless steel wall ties 100 mm concrete blocks bridged by 6.7% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K 13 mm dense plaster, = 0.57 W/m.K

U-values (W/mK) for a range of fully filled cavity wall designs

Block type Cavity width (mm) 75 75 100 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 125 125 150 150 150 150 150 *Af (mm) Conductivity of insulation (W/m.K) 0.032 0.032 0.042 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.032 0.042 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.032 0.042 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.032 Correction level Lowdensity blocks = 0.0 Wm.K 0.336 0.336 0.332 0.313 0.293 0.276 0.266 0.286 0.270 0.253 0.238 0.230 0.246 0.232 0.217 0.204 0.197 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.348 0.348 0.343 0.323 0.302 0.284 0.273 0.295 0.277 0.260 0.243 0.236 0.252 0.237 0.222 0.209 0.201 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.352 0.363 0.348 0.327 0.306 0.287 0.276 0.298 0.280 0.262 0.246 0.238 0.255 0.239 0.224 0.210 0.202 Highdensity blocks = 1. Wm.K 0.363 0.375 0.358 0.336 0.314 0.294 0.283 0.306 0.287 0.269 0.251 0.243 0.260 0.244 0.228 0.214 0.206

12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

A correction level of 0 corresponds to a situation where no air gaps exceeding 5 mm penetrate the insulation layer and is applicable where insulation materials have high dimensional tolerances. A correction level of 1 corresponds to a situation where tolerances can be more than 5 mm but where air is still unable to circulate on both sides of the insulation. * Af is the cross-sectional area of each wall tie (mm2). Factors influencing the U-value are indicated in blue. Values which do not meet the limit in Table 1 are shown in red.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation Lightweight plaster ( = 0.18 W/m.K) instead of dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 15 mm plaster dabs with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 22 mm battens (12%) with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster External render (19 mm thick) Dense blockwork outer leaf No internal plaster finish 0. 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.001 +0.002 +0.001 0. 0.004 0.012 0.018 0.002 +0.005 +0.002 0. 0.008 0.021 0.032 0.003 +0.009 +0.004 0. 0.012 0.032 0.049 0.005 +0.014 +0.006

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masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

example 2: cavity wall partially filled with insulation

Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used.
102 mm external brickwork, = 0.77 W/m.K, over 50 mm clear unventilated wall cavity Insulation bridged by stainless steel wall ties 100 mm concrete blocks bridged by 6.7% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K 13 mm dense plaster, = 0.57 W/m.K

U-values (W/mK) for a range of partially filled cavity wall designs

Block type Total cavity width (mm) 100 110 125 125 150 150 150 150 175 175 175 175 Insulation thickness (mm) 50 60 75 75 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 125 *Af (mm) Conductivity of insulation (W/m.K) 0.023 0.023 0.032 0.023 0.042 0.036 0.032 0.023 0.042 0.036 0.032 0.023 Lowdensity blocks = 0.0 Wm.K 0.308 0.291 0.329 0.249 0.313 0.289 0.265 0.202 0.272 0.242 0.221 0.170 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.318 0.299 0.340 0.255 0.333 0.297 0.272 0.206 0.280 0.248 0.226 0.173 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.322 0.303 0.345 0.258 0.337 0.301 0.275 0.208 0.283 0.251 0.228 0.174 Highdensity blocks = 1. Wm.K 0.331 0.311 0.355 0.264 0.348 0.309 0.281 0.211 0.290 0.256 0.233 0.177

12.5 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

* Af is the cross-sectional area of each wall tie (mm2).

An air gap correction level of 1 and foil facing (emissivity 0.2) are assumed for materials of conductivity less than 0.03 W/m.K.
Note: In some instances in the above Table, the rules in BS EN ISO 6946[15] permitted the effects of wall ties to be ignored. Factors influencing the U-value are indicated in blue. Values which do not meet the limit in Table 1 are shown in red.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation 13 mm lightweight plaster ( = 0.18 W/m.K) instead of 13 mm dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 15 mm plaster dabs with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 22 mm battens (12%) with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster External render (19 mm thick) Dense blockwork outer leaf No internal plaster finish 0. 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.001 +0.002 +0.001 0. 0.004 0.012 0.018 0.002 +0.005 +0.002 0. 0.008 0.021 0.032 0.003 +0.009 +0.004 0. 0.012 0.032 0.049 0.005 +0.014 +0.006

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors

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example 3: cavity wall with clear cavity and external insulation and thin coat polymer render
Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used. The conductivity figure of 1.22 W/m.K for dense outer leaf concrete blocks is based on a 3% moisture content, appropriate for sheltered or protected blocks.
External insulation with 6 mm polymer render 100 mm dense concrete blockwork, = 1.22 W/m.K

50 mm clear unventilated cavity bridged by stainless steel wall ties 100 mm concrete blocks bridged by 6.7% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K 13 mm dense plaster, = 0.57 W/m.K

U-values (W/mK) for a range of external insulation options

Block type Insulation thickness (mm) 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 125 Conductivity of insulation (W/m.K) 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 Lowdensity blocks = 0.0 Wm.K 0.300 0.282 0.257 0.195 0.251 0.236 0.214 0.161 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.309 0.290 0.263 0.199 0.258 0.241 0.218 0.164 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.312 0.293 0.266 0.201 0.260 0.243 0.220 0.165 Highdensity blocks = 1. Wm.K 0.321 0.300 0.272 0.204 0.266 0.249 0.224 0.167

Factors influencing the U-value are indicated in blue.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation Lightweight plaster ( = 0.18 W/m.K) instead of dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 15 mm plaster dabs with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 22 mm battens (12%) with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster No internal plaster finish 0. 0.002 0.005 0.008 +0.001 0. 0.004 0.012 0.018 +0.002 0. 0.008 0.021 0.032 +0.004 0. 0.012 0.032 0.049 +0.006

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masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

example 4: cavity wall with clear cavity and internal insulation

Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used.

102 mm external brickwork

50 mm clear unventilated air cavity with wall ties 100 mm concrete blocks bridged by 6.7% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K 22 mm unventilated airspace, R = 0.18 m2K/W, bridged by 12% timber battens, = 0.13 W/m.K Internal insulation 12.5 mm plasterboard, = 0.21 W/m.K, with vapour control layer

U-values (W/mK) for a range of internal insulation options

Block type Insulation thickness (mm) 50 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 125 Conductivity of insulation (W/m.K) 0.023 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 Lowdensity blocks = 0.0 Wm.K 0.289 0.278 0.263 0.241 0.177 0.236 0.222 0.203 0.149 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.297 0.286 0.270 0.246 0.181 0.242 0.227 0.207 0.151 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.300 0.289 0.272 0.249 0.182 0.244 0.229 0.208 0.152 Highdensity blocks = 1. Wm.K 0.308 0.297 0.279 0.254 0.185 0.249 0.234 0.212 0.154

Foil-facing (emissivity 0.2) is assumed for materials of lower conductivity. Airspaces adjacent to foil-faced insulation boards are assumed to have a thermal resistance of 0.44 m2K/W. Factors influencing the U-value are indicated in blue.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation External render (19 mm thick) Dense blockwork outer leaf 0. 0.001 0.002 0. 0.002 0.005 0. 0.003 0.009 0. 0.005 0.014

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors

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example 5: solid wall with polymer-rendered external insulation

Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used. For the U-value calculations an airspace correction level of 1 is used for the insulation. For guidance on technical risks associated with single-leaf external walls, refer to BREs Thermal insulation: avoiding risks[11]. The conductivity figure of 1.22 W/m.K for dense outer leaf concrete blocks is based on a 3% moisture content, appropriate for sheltered or protected blocks. The 13 mm internal plaster finish is based on relatively tight dimensional tolerances. Where tolerances are such that thicker plaster is necessary to address rough facing, the U-value will be slightly less (ie slightly better) than that given here.
6 mm thin coat polymer render

Insulation

215 mm concrete blocks bridged by 11.1% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K

13 mm dense plaster, = 0.57 W/m.K

U-values (W/mK) for a range of insulation options

Block type Insulation thickness (mm) 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 125 Conductivity of insulation (W/m.K) 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 Lowdensity blocks = 0.0 Wm.K 0.295 0.277 0.253 0.193 0.242 0.228 0.207 0.160 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.312 0.293 0.266 0.201 0.258 0.241 0.218 0.165 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.320 0.299 0.271 0.204 0.264 0.247 0.223 0.167 Highdensity blocks = 1. Wm.K 0.339 0.316 0.285 0.211 0.279 0.260 0.233 0.172

Factors influencing the U-value are indicated in blue.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation 12.5 mm plasterboard on 15 mm plaster dabs with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 22 mm battens (12%) with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 13 mm lightweight plaster instead of 13 mm dense plaster No internal plaster finish 0. 0.005 0.008 0.002 +0.001 0. 0.012 0.018 0.004 +0.002 0. 0.021 0.032 0.008 +0.004 0. 0.032 0.049 0.012 +0.006

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masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

example 6: rendered solid wall with internal insulation

Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used. The conductivity figure of 1.22 W/m.K for dense outer leaf concrete blocks is based on a 3% moisture content, appropriate for sheltered or protected blocks.
6 mm external polymer render

215 mm (exposed) concrete blocks, bridged by 11.1% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K

22 mm unventilated airspace, R = 0.18 m2K/W, bridged by 12% battens

Insulation

12.5 mm internal plasterboard, = 0.21 W/m.K

U-values (W/mK) for a range of insulation options

Block type Insulation thickness (mm) 50 100 100 100 100 125 125 125 125 Conductivity of insulation (W/m.K) 0.023 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 0.039 0.036 0.032 0.023 Lowdensity blocks = 0.0 Wm.K 0.292 0.277 0.262 0.240 0.179 0.235 0.221 0.202 0.150 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.309 0.293 0.275 0.251 0.185 0.246 0.231 0.210 0.154 Mediumdensity blocks = 0. Wm.K 0.316 0.299 0.281 0.256 0.187 0.251 0.235 0.213 0.156 Highdensity blocks = 1. Wm.K 0.335 0.316 0.296 0.268 0.194 0.263 0.245 0.222 0.160

The insulation is assumed to be foil-faced with a foil of emissivity 0.2. Factors influencing the U-value are indicated in blue.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation 2 sheets of 12.5 mm plasterboard instead of 1 sheet Insulation mounted on 15 mm plaster dabs instead of 22 mm timber battens 0. 0.002 +0.003 0. 0.005 +0.007 0. 0.009 +0.013 0. 0.014 +0.021

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example 7: profiled steel sheet (or cladding system) with inner leaf blockwork
Notes Refer to manufacturers test information for further information on conductivities of insulation materials. Final U-values should be rounded to two decimal places. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used.
Cladding panel/system incorporating insulation

Unventilated air cavity (25 mm or more)

140 mm concrete blockwork bridged by 6.7% mortar, = 0.88 W/m.K 13 mm dense plaster, = 0.57 W/m.K

U-values (W/mK) for a range of external panels

Block type R-value of external panel (mK/W) Low-density inner leaf blocks r = 0 kg/m = 0.0 Wm.K 0.303 0.263 0.232 0.208 0.189 0.172 Medium-density inner leaf blocks r = 100 kg/m = 0. Wm.K 0.316 0.273 0.240 0.214 0.194 0.177 Medium-density inner leaf blocks r = 100 kg/m = 0. Wm.K 0.321 0.277 0.243 0.217 0.196 0.178 High-density inner leaf blocks r = 1900 kg/m = 1. Wm.K 0.334 0.287 0.251 0.223 0.200 0.182

2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation No internal plaster finish 13 mm lightweight plaster ( = 0.18 W/m.K) instead of dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 15 mm plaster dabs with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 12.5 mm plasterboard on 22 mm battens (12%) with well sealed joints, instead of 13 mm dense plaster 0. +0.001 0.002 0.005 0.008 0. +0.002 0.004 0.012 0.018 0. +0.004 0.008 0.021 0.032 0. +0.006 0.012 0.032 0.049



masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

U-valUes for beam-and-block floor constrUction example 8: beam-and-block suspended ground floor
The U-values have been calculated on the basis of level access.
Notes Figures assume a perimeter/area ratio of 0.57 and an underfloor ventilation level of 0.0015 m2 per metre perimeter length. Figures assume a beam fraction of 0.14 (ie 14%). In this example, the insulation is continuous (ie not bridged). The U-values are calculated using the method in BS EN ISO 6946[15] and BS EN ISO 13370[16]. To obtain intermediate values, linear interpolation may be used.

18 mm chipboard, = 0.13 W/m.K

Insulation

100 mm concrete block, = 0.46 W/m.K

Underfloor space

Concrete beam, = 1.9 W/m.K (2200 kg/m3)

U-values for a range of insulation thicknesses and a beam conductivity of 1.9 W/m.K
Insulation thickness (mm) 80 100 120 140 160 = 0.0 0.191 0.164 0.144 0.128 0.115 U-value (Wm.K) = 0.00 0.227 0.197 0.174 0.156 0.141 = 0.00 0.267 0.236 0.211 0.191 0.174

Values which do not meet the limit in Table 1 are shown in red.

Table of adjustments to be applied to the U-value for specific design variants

U-value of wall before adjustment (W/mK) Variation Ventilation level of 0.0030 m2 instead of 0.0015 m2 per metre perimeter length Lighter concrete blocks, = 0.30 W/m.K (r = 850 kg/m3) 0.10 +0.002 0.001 0.1 +0.003 0.002 0.0 +0.007 0.003 0. +0.011 0.004 0.0 +0.015 0.006

SD 4 masonry walls and beam-and-block floors



windows, doors and rooflights

U-values of window frame sections and door frame sections may be calculated using BS EN ISO 10077 Parts 1 and 2[22]. Part 1 offers a simpler calculation procedure but leads to more conservative results. Part 2 sets out a more detailed calculation procedure, involving numerical modelling techniques, but usually leads to a lower Uvalue being obtained. BS EN ISO 10077-1[22] and the Glass and Glazing Federation Data Sheet 2.2 (March 2002 edition)[23] give procedures for combining frame section U-values and glazing U-values to obtain indicative U-values for windows and doors of standardised dimensions. Further guidance on the calculation of window and door U-values is given in reference [14].

references and fUrther reading

[1] BRE. SAP 2005. [The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings.] Available as pdf and software. www.bre.co.uk/sap2005 [] BRE. Simplified Building Energy Model (SBEM). [A national calculation method]. Available at www.ncm.bre.co.uk [] Communities and Local Government (CLG). The Building Regulations 2000. Approved Document L: Conservation of fuel and power. L-1A: Work in new dwellings, L-1B: Work in existing dwellings, L-2A: Work in new buildings other than dwellings and L-2B: Work in existing buildings other than dwellings. 2006 editions. Available from www.planningportal.gov.uk [] Northern Ireland Office. Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000. Technical Booklet F: Conservation of fuel and power. F1: Dwellings, F2: Buildings other than dwellings. London, The Stationery Office. Available from www.tsoshop.co.uk [] Scottish Building Standards Agency (SBSA). Technical standards for compliance with the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004. Section 6: Energy. Available from www.sbsa.gov.uk [] Communities and Local Government (CLG). Accredited Construction Details for limiting thermal bridging and air leakage. Available from www.communities.gov.uk [] Energy Saving Trust. Reducing overheating: a designers guide. CE 129. 2005. Available from www.est.org.uk/best practice [] Communities and Local Government (CLG). The Building Regulations 2000. Approved Document F: Ventilation. 2006 edition. Available from www.planningportal.gov.uk [9] Northern Ireland Office. Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000. Technical Booklet K: Ventilation. London, The Stationery Office. Available from www.tsoshop.co.uk [10] Ward TI. Assessing the effects of thermal bridging at junctions and around openings. Information Paper IP 1/06. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2006 [11] BRE. Thermal insulation: avoiding risks. BR 262. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press. 2002 edition [1] Metal Cladding and Roofing Manufacturers Association (MCRMA) & Engineered Panels in Construction Limited (EPIC). New guidance to the Building Regulations: Conservation of energy. Technical Paper 17. Available from www.mcrma.co.uk [1] Ward T & Sanders C. Conventions for calculating linear thermal transmittance and temperature factors. BR 497. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2007 [1] Anderson B. Conventions for U-value calculations. BR 443. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2006 edition [1] British Standards Institution. BS EN ISO 6946:1997: Building components and building elements. Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance. Calculation method [1] British Standards Institution. BS EN ISO 13370:1998: Thermal performance of buildings. Heat transfer via the ground. Calculation methods [1 CIBSE. Environmental design: CIBSE Guide A. 7th edition. ] London, CIBSE Publications, 2006 [1] British Standards Institution. BS EN 12524 (ISO 10456): 2000: Building materials and products. Hygrothermal properties. Tabulated design values [19] British Standards Institution. BS 5628: 2005 Code of practice for the use of masonry. Part 1: Structural use of unreinforced masonry. Part 2: Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry. Part 3: 2005 Materials and components, design and workmanship



masonry walls and beam-and-block floors SD 4

[1] British Standards Institution. BS EN ISO 10456:2000 Building materials and products. Procedures for determining declared and design thermal values [] British Standards Institution. BS EN ISO 10077: Thermal performance of windows, doors and shutters. Part 1:2006: Calculation of thermal transmittance. General. Part 2:2003: Calculation of thermal transmittance. Numerical method for frames [] Glass and Glazing Federation. Data Sheet 2.2 (March 2002 edition)

[0] British Standards Institution. BS EN 13162:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made mineral wool (MW) products. Specification BS EN 13163:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made products of expanded polystyrene. Specification BS EN 13164:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made products of extruded polystyrene foam (XPS). Specification BS EN 13165:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made rigid polyurethane foam (PUR) products. Specification BS EN 13166:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made products of phenolic foam (PF). Specification BS EN 13167:2001 Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made cellular glass (CG) products. Specification BS EN 13168:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made wood wool (WW) products. Specification BS EN 13169:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made products of expanded perlite (EPB). Specification BS EN 13170:2001: Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made products of expanded cork (ICB). Specification BS EN 13171:2001 Thermal insulation products for buildings. Factory made wood fibre (WF) products. Specification

acknowledgement
The author acknowledges the support provided by the Concrete Block Association (CBA) in the preparation of this Digest.

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