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3.7
Steam Turbines
3.8 Introduction
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor-blade assembly. Moving fluid acts on the blades to rotate them and impart energy to the rotor. A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head). A turbine operating in reverse is called a compressor or Turbopump . Types of turbines
Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as plants using coal or fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once used to directly drive mechanical devices such as ship's propellors , but most such applications now use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to generate electricity, which then powers an electric motor connected to the mechanical load. Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle in addition to one or more turbines. Water turbines Francis Turbine, a type of widely used water turbine. Kaplan Turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine. Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without nozzle and interstage guide vanes.
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Steam turbine
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy in pressurized steam into useful mechanical work. The expansion takes place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of fixed blades and moving blades is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure. Figure 3.6 shows a picture of steam turbine moving blades for low pressure stages.
Figure 3.6 Steam turbine rotor with low pressure stages. The steam turbine has a higher thermodynamic efficiency and a lower power-to-weight ratio and the steam turbine is ideal for the very large power configurations used in power stations. The steam turbine derives much of its better thermodynamic efficiency because of the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam.
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This results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process. Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000kW turbines used to generate electricity. Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications for vessel propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines, as developed for aerospace applications, are being used more and more in the field of power generation once dominated by steam turbines. On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number of turbine casing/rotor units are combined to achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a common centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel systems can be used called cross compound systems.
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3. the expansion of the steam occurs only in the stationary nozzles, while the pressure drop in the reaction turbine takes place in the moving. 4. the inlet and outlet cross sectional areas of the impulse blade are of equal size, while the outlet of the reaction turbine blade is smaller than the inlet. 5. impulse turbines have very small axial thrust forces, while the reaction turbine have large thrust forces. 6. ability to have high rotational speed.
(i)
Velocity compounding
Figure 3.7 illustrated the graphs of pressure, velocity and specific volume of this type of turbine. The high velocity steam leaving the nozzles passes on to the first row of moving blades where its velocity is only partially reduced. The steam passes than into a row of fixed blades which are mounted in the turbine casing. The fixed blades are acting to redirect the steam back to the direction of motion such that it is correct for entry into a second row of moving blades. The steam velocity is a gain reduced in the second row of moving blades. This turbine is sometimes called Curtis turbine, and quite common in the high-pressure stage of a large turbine. If necessary, further rows of fixed and moving blades may be added.
(ii)
Pressure compounding
Figure 3.8 illustrated the process of this turbine type. Steam enters a row of nozzles where its pressure is only partially reduced and its velocity is increased. The high velocity steam passes from the
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nozzles on to a row of moving blades where its velocity is reduced. The steam then passes into a second row of nozzles where its pressure is a gain partially reduced and its velocity is a gain increased. This high velocity steam passes on to a second row of moving blades where its velocity is again reduced. The steam then passes into a third row of nozzles and so on. This type of turbine is sometimes called as a Rateau turbine.
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(iii)
This is a turbine using a combination of the methods (i) and (ii). It is illustrated in Figure 3.9 Steam is partially expanded in a row of nozzles where its velocity is increased. The steam then enters a few rows of velocity compounding. From this stage, the steam then enters a second row of nozzles where its velocity is a gain increased. This is followed by another few rows of velocity compounding and so on.
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Figure 3.9 Pressure-velocity compounding (combined impulse turbine) The reaction turbine characterized by the pressure drop which continuously occurs through the turbine. This is unlike the impulse turbine where the pressure drop takes place in the nozzles only and non in the turbine. Changes in pressure and volume through a reaction turbine are illustrated in Figure 3.10. Each section increases in diameter, mainly due to increase in specific volume, as the pressure of the steam decreases. The steam velocity in a reaction turbine is not high and hence the speed of the turbine is relatively low. In a reaction turbine, steam acceleration usually occurs in both fixed and moving blade rows and hence the steam passage between blades, both fixed and moving, are nozzle shaped and, therefore, there is an enthalpy drop in the steam during its passage through the blades which produces the acceleration. The extent to which the enthalpy drop occurs in the moving blades is called the degree of reaction. A common arrangement is to have 50% of the
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enthalpy drop occurring in the moving blades and thus the stage is said to have 50% reaction. If the all enthalpy drop occurred in the moving blades, then the turbine would have 100% reaction.
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Figure 3.10 Three sections of reaction turbine with variation of steam pressures, absolute velocities and specific volumes
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U Vri
Vwi Vfi
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Absolute velocity of steam jet at moving blade outlet, m/sec. Jet outlet angle or inlet angle of fixed blade, degree. Linear velocity of the moving blade, m/sec. Relative velocity of steam at outlet to moving blade, m/sec. Blade outlet angle, degree Velocity of whirl at moving blade outlett (Component of Vo in the direction of rotation (providing useful work), m/sec. Axial velocity of flow of steam at outlet to moving blade, m/sec.
Figure 3.11 Velocity triangles of an impulse turbine blade at inlet and outlet
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The inlet and outlet velocity triangles have a common mean blade velocity, U, and then they can be combined into a single diagram as shown in Figure 3.12. Both velocity triangles have been superimposed on each other in a manner which is considered most appropriate from convenience point of view. If there is no friction in the blade then Vri = Vro .
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Nozzles and Steam Turbines blade = work done on blades /kg energy supplied to blades /kg UV 2U Vw = 2 w = 2 Vai / 2 Vai
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(3.8)
OR
blade = change in kinetic energy/kg energy supplied / kg
(3.9)
(3.10)
Nozzles and Steam Turbines Axial thrust may be evaluated as; Faxial = ms (VfiVfo)N
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(3.11)
If Vfo < Vfi , then the force is negative. This means that the end trust is along the turbine shaft in the direction of the velocity of flow. If Vfo > Vfi , then the end thrust is in the opposite direction to the velocity of flow. For Reaction turbine: As with the impulse turbine, Power developed per stage = ms U change in velocity of whirl = ms U V w (3.12) Energy available to the stage, = H = specific enthalpy drop in stage. Therefore, Stage efficiency, = Work done in stage Enthalpy drop in stage
m s UVw UVw = = ms H H
(3.13)
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projected pitch in the direction of the relative inlet velocity Vri is P sin .
Figure 3.14 Two impulse turbine blades at pitch P a part For a row of an impulse turbine, let, ms = mass flow of steam, kg/sec. = Specific volume of steam, m3/kg. N = number of blades covered by nozzles. P =pitch of blades taken at mean blade height , m Then, from continuity equation, ms = A V = N P sin H Vri But, Vfi = Vai sin = Vri sin Then, ms = N P H Vri sin = N P H Vfi Therefore, (see velocity triangles of impulse turbine)
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If the nozzle coverage of the blades is complete, the steam has full admission, meaning that the steam flow is through the complete blade annulus, then, N P = circumference at the mean blade diameter =d Where d = mean blade diameter, m (b) Blade height for reaction turbine: The reaction turbine has full admission, so, N P = d From equation (3.14),
H=
ms m = s N P Vfi d V fi
(3.15)
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The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected. The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance. Example 3.3 Steam with a velocity of 600 m/sec. enters an impulse turbine row of blades at an angle of 25o to the plane of rotation of the blades. The mean blade speed is 255 m/sec. The exit angle from the blades is 30o. There is a 10% loss in relative velocity due to friction in the blades. Determine: a) b) c) d) Solution Given: = 25o = 30o Vi = 600 m/sec. U = 255 m/sec Vro = 0.9 Vri Construction of velocity diagram 1. Set off U = 255 m/sec to a suitable scale (say 50 m/sec.= 1 cm) The entry angle of the blade; The work done/kg steam/sec; The diagram efficiency; The end thrust/kg steam/sec.
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set off Vi = 600 m/sec to same scale and at angle = 25o draw Vri by connecting Vi with U to complete the inlet velocity triangle measure the value of Vri and find Vro which is 0.9% of Vri. set off Vro wth given angle, = 30o
4. 5. 6.
complete the outlet velocity triangle by connecting U with Vro. The combined velocity triangles of this problem are shown below (not to scale).
Nozzles and Steam Turbines (a) (b) Therefore, The entry angle of the blade, = 41.5o
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From the diagram Vw = Vwi + Vw = 590 m/s work done on the blade/ kg of steam = U (Vwi +Vwo ) = 255 590 = 150450 W/kg steam = 150.45 kW/kg (c) Diagram efficiency, 2UVw 2 255 590 diagram = = Vai 6002 = 0.836 = 83.6 % (d) From the diagram, the change in velocity of flow = (VfiVfo) = - 90 m/s End thrust, Faxial = (VfiVfo) N = - 90 N/kg/s (The negative sign shows that the end thrust is along the haft in the direction of steam Example 3.4 At a particular stage of a reaction turbine, the mean blade speed is 60 m/s and the steam is at a pressure of 3.5 bar with a temperature of 175 oC . Fixed and moving blades at this stage have inlet angles 30o and exit angles 200. Determine: a) The blade height at this stage if the blade height is 1/10 the mean blade ring diameter and the steam flow is 13.5 kg/s. b) The power developed by a pair of fixed and moving blade rings at this stage; c) The specific enthalpy drop in kJ/kg at the stage if the stage efficiency is 85%.
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(a) t 350 kN/m2 and with a temperature of 175 oC , Specific volume, = 0.572 m3/kg . Since, the blade height, H=d/10 or d= 10 H Now, m 13.5 0.572 H= = H = 0.064 m dVfi 10 H 60 = 64 mm (b) Power = ms (Vwi +Vwo) U = 13.5 60 270 = 218 kW U( Vwi + Vwo ) stage = H (c) 60 270 H = = 19100 J/kg = 19.1 kJ/kg 0.85
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QUESTIONS 3
Questions in Nozzles: (1) Derive an expression for mass of steam discharged through a steam nozzle and hence obtain the optimum value of pressure ratio across the nozzle. (2) Air at enters a converging nozzle at a pressure of 1 MPa and 600 oC with negligible velocity. Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for a nozzle throat area of 50 cm 2 when the back pressure is (a) 0.7 MPa and (b) 0.4 MPa. (3) Steam enters a converging-diverging nozzle at 2 MPa and 400 o C with a negligible velocity and a mass flow rate of 2.5 kg/s, and it exits at a pressure of 300 kPa. The flow is isentropic between the nozzle entrance and the throat, and the overall nozzle efficiency is 93 percent. Determine the throat and exit areas. (4) Air enters nozzle with a pressure of 700 kN/m2 and with a temperature of 180 0C. Exit pressure is 100 kN/m2. The law connecting pressure and specific volume during the expansion in the nozzle is PV1.3 = constant. Determine the velocity at exit from the nozzle. Take, Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg K, Cp =0.717 kJ/kg K. [Ans. 575 m/s] (5) Steam enters a group of convergent-divergent nozzles at a pressure of 30 bar and temperature of 300 0C. Equilibrium expansion occurs through the nozzles to an exit pressure of 5 bar . The exit velocity is 1800 m/s. The steam flows at a rate of 14 kg/s. It is assumed that friction loss occurs in the
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divergent portion of the nozzles only. Using the enthalpyentropy chart for steam, determine: i- the efficiency of the expansion in the divergent portion of the nozzle; ii- the total exit area; iii- the throat velocity. [Ans. i- 0.8; ii- 610 mm2 ; iii- 530 m/s] Questions in steam turbine: (6) Explain briefly, the difference in principal of action between impulse and reaction types of steam turbine. (7) A single row, impulse turbine has a mean blade speed of 215 m/s. Nozzle entry angle is at 30o to the plane of rotation of the blades. The velocity due to friction across the blades. The absolute velocity at exit is along the axis of the turbine. The steam flow through the turbine is at the rate of 700 kg/h. Determine: (a) The inlet and exit angles of the blades; (b) The absolute velocity of the steam at exit; (c) The power output of the turbine. [Ans. (a) 46o , 49o ; (b) 243 m/s ; (c) 19.8 kW] (8) A single row, impulse turbine has blades whose inlet angle is 40o and exit angle 37o. The mean blade speed is 230 m/s and the nozzle are inclined at an angle of 27o to the plane of rotation of the blades. There is a 10% loss of relative velocity due to friction in the blades. The turbine uses 550 kg/h of steam. Determine: (a) The nozzle velocity of the steam; (b) The absolute velocity of the steam at exit; (c) The power output of the turbine;
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(d) The end thrust on the turbine; (e) The diagram efficiency. [Ans. (a) 650 m/s ; (b) 268 m/s ; (c) 23.8 kW ; (d) 7.35 N ; (e) 74 %] (9) At a particular stage of a reaction turbine the mean blade speed is 150 m/s. The exit angles of the fixed and moving blades are 20o . The inlet angles of the fixed and moving blades are 300. The stage efficiency is 80%. The pressure at entry to the stage is 15 bar and the temperature is 200 oC. Determine: (a) The specific enthalpy drop across the stage in kJ/kg; (b) The drum diameter and blade height if the blade height is one-tenth of the drum diameter and the steam flow is 100 kg/s; (c) The % increase in relative velocity across the blading as the result of the pressure drop across the blading. [Ans. (a) 127 kJ/kg; (b) 521 mm, 52.1 mm; (c) 46 %] (10) Two wheels of a velocity compounded, impulse turbine have a mean blade speed of 150 m/s. The nozzle angle is 23o and the steam leaves the nozzle with a velocity of 700 m/s. The exit angles of the first moving row, fixed, and second moving row of blades are 25o , 27o , and 30o , respectively. There is a 10% loss of velocity in all blades due to friction. Determine: (a) The inlet angles of the first moving row, fixed, and second moving row of blades; (b) The power output of the two wheels/kg of steam/s; (c) The diagram efficiency. [Ans. (a) 30o , 35o , 47o ; (b) 190.5 kW; (c) 77.7%]