Channel Selection and Effective Communication for Managerial Decision Making

EILEEN M. TRAUTH and STEPHEN K. KWAN Boston University and SUSANNA BARBER Emerson College

New office technologies provide a range of alternatives to traditional channels for corporate communications. This paper exploresthe effectiveness of print, electronic messaging, and videotape along both objective and subjective dimensions. While electronic messaging and videotape were not found to improve significantly over print either the recall of information or the quality of decisions made based on it, some interesting patterns were observed. The use of electronic messaging resulted in improved recall of information. Videotape tended toward the extremes: It was either the most or the least effective in disseminating information for learning. Subjects' attitudes about the influence of each channel on the quality of information were contrasted with the disposition toward use. In general, subjects had positive attitudes toward both electronic messaging and videotape. When asked about the likelihood of choosing a particular channel, given emphasis on certain information attributes, however, subjects consistently .preferred print. These results suggest that both the communication context and user preconceptions must be taken into account when planning for the introduction of new technologies. Categories and Subject Descriptors: H.0 [Information Systems]: General; H.4.1 [Information Systems Applications]: Office Automation; H.4.3 [Information Systems Applications]: Communications Applications.--electronic mail; K.4.3 [Computers and Society]: Organizational Impacts General Terms: Experimentation, Management, Measurement, Performance Additional Key Words and Phrases: Evaluating communication channels, video technology, print, electronic messaging, user study, information attributes

1. INTRODUCTION

Advances in communication technologies have provided a wide range of information delivery options for Management Information Systems (MIS). Traditional channels such as print, telephone, and face-to-face communication are
A previous version of this paper was presented at the Annual Conference of the International Communications Association, May 1983. Authors' addresses: E. M. Trauth, School of Management, Boston University, 704 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215; S. K. Kwan, College of Business Administration, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115; S. Barber, Div. of Mass Communication, Emerson College, 100 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02215. Permission to copy without fee all or part of this material is granted provided that the copies are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage, the ACM copyright notice and the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery. To copy otherwise, or to republish, requires a fee and/or specific permission. 1984 ACM 0734-2047/84/0400-0123 $00.75 ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, Vol. 2, No. 2, April 1984, Pages 123-140.

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being supplemented with electronic messaging systems and video display in the form of videotape, videodisk, cable TV, and teleconferencing systems. Electronic messaging, usually implemented within the context of office automation systems, has been used to provide both informal and formal information. Examples of the former are scheduling and electronic mail applications. This technology is also used to disseminate formal information such as reports or memos. A major reason to employ electronic messaging systems is to increase productivity among knowledge workers by increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of internal communications. While the target for automated office systems was originally considered to be clerical workers, recent studies have suggested that significant productivty gains and time saving would result from managerial and professional use of such systems [29, 33]. The expected contributions include (1) making the administrative function more effective through enhanced communication flow; (2) providing managers with more current and accurate information; and (3) supporting the decision-making process through enhanced accessibility of information. Technological configurations to support such uses include on-line electronic mail systems, menu-based retrieval systems, and videotext services. By providing asynchronous communication in a timely fashion, electronic message systems are replacing print, face-to-face, and telephone channels. A more radical departure from conventional communication channels is video delivery of corporate communications. Management information systems that present large volumes of data may benefit from the filtering and highlighting capabilities of video technology in order to display important information in a meaningful manner [6]. Conceptualized as primarily a mass dissemination channel, corporate video has traditionally been used for employee training, public relations, product sales, and marketing. Now, however, information dissemination via video is being carried out through the use of cable television and videodisk systems. The former has been used both as the basis of broadband local area networks and as a channel for external reporting; for instance, in 1982, the Emhart Corporation cablecast its annual report. Interactive videodisk provides the opportunity for this channel to expand beyond the conventional broadcasting mode by enabling user interaction with the information source. Given the wide range of information delivery systems that are available and the diverse capabilities of these systems, MIS designers are faced with a new challenge: The need to give serious attention to the factors influencing successful incorporation and acceptance of new technologies into the organizational domain. Acceptance of new technology can be objectively measured in terms of the effectiveness of a given channel on productivity. A productivity gain is expected from improved decision-making owing to the way in which information is provided. But there is also a subjective aspect--user attitudes, which are derived from channel stereotypes and past experience, contribute to the perceived usefulness of such channels, and ultimately to the disposition to use them. The results of an exploratory study investigating both the objective benefits and attitudes of users toward alternative delivery systems are reported in this paper.
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Comparative studies of information channels have evolved from a number of research areas. Beginning in the 1960s, studies of the scientific communication process, known as user studies, were directed at understanding the informational needs of scientists and how they would be best satisfied [25]. Allen [1, 2] extended this research by examining the effectiveness of information sources in satisfying the different needs of scientists and engineers. One of his findings was that the channels most effectively employed in arriving at solutions were those used the least. That is, the ratio of use to benefit was high. He also noted that the nature of the information need (in contrasting the work of scientists and engineers) influenced the choice of the channel employed. While this line of investigation did not involve computer-based or video channels, a contribution to later research is the finding that a given channel is not effective unilaterally; rather that effectiveness is a function of context and the characteristics of the user. Other relevant studies can be found on research in organization theory. In one such study, channel selection, given a particular communication goal and the range of formal to informal channels available, was investigated, and contributed to the recognition that channel characteristics should be taken into account in the selection process [24]. The availability of on-line aCcess to information has resulted in a number of investigations into the impact of substituting computer-based systems for print and face-to-face channels. Chapanis [9, 10] conducted a series of laboratory experiments on the interaction of computer-based delivery and natural patterns of communication. In a dyadic problem-solving context, he found that the communication mode influenced the amount of time required, with the channel allowing the easiest exchange of information (i.e., voice-voice) being the most efficient. Several experiments have focused on the role of MIS in contributing to greater productivity through more effective decisions [13]. Kozar and Dickson [19], for example, considered the effect on decision making of presenting information on paper copy versus CRT form, and found that by itself the switch to a C R T - without other changes which would exploit its advantageous characteristics--did not offer significant benefits over paper copy. The studies cited thus far are concerned with print and face-to-face channels or compare them to computer-based systems. There is, however, other relevant research on communication channels. Video technology for purposes other than entertainment was first used for instruction. Nevertheless, extrapolation of findings to managerial decision-making is problematic, since the subjects were usually preschool [5] and school-age children [3, 14]. Even when adult subjects were tested, the context was learning course-related information rather than information acquisition for purposes of decision making (e.g., [7]). Still, the use of computer-based and video delivery of information, as substitutes for print, established a precedent for future comparative studies. Some tentative work in this area has already been done, in which video and teletext channels for electronic publishing have been compared to print and computer-based delivery systems [37, 38].
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Given the range of channels available and their respective strengths and weaknesses, the questions for researchers are (1) when is a given channel appropriate? and (2) what criteria should be used in making such an assessment? As noted in the studies cited, objective criteria were used to evaluate the amount of information received and recalled (i.e., learned) and the efficiency and effec: tiveness of decision making. Subjective criteria are associated with user attitudes about the channel in question and about its effect on information. The notion of channel disposition [35] has been proposed to capture the role of the user's attitudes in accounting for actual use of an information system. This disposition represents an assessment of the impact of the channel on both the quality of the information and the quality of access. User attitudes in this regard can be further divided according to the intended outcomes of the communication event. Picot [28] found that there are both cognitive and affective determinants of channel selection. Zmud's review [41] of individual differences and MIS success also notes that preconceived attitudes towards MIS are positively associated with usage (see also, [18, 21-23, 30, 31]). A consistent theme in studies of user attitudes towards MIS, applicable to studies of channel disposition, is the perceived influence of the system on the quality of information. In one study [40], four overall dimensions of information are derived: quality of information (applicable, useful); relevancy components (accurate, complete, timely); quality of format (arrangement, readableness); and quality of meaning (logical, sensible). Another investigation derived two dimensions of perceived usefulness of information [20]. The perceived importance dimension is related to whether the information is relevant, informative, meaningful, important, helpful, or significant. The other dimension, perceived usableness, is related to whether the information format is unambiguous, clear, and readable. The notion of user information satisfaction has also been developed as a subjective measure of system success [12, 16]. Such a measure can either serve as a substitute for objective determinants of information system effectiveness or as a complementary measure of decision-making value. UIS includes factors associated with the information services function, the information system product, vendor support, and knowledge or involvement in the design of the information system [16]. This study attempts to extend the conceptual base of channel selection research in light of new technologies available for information dissemination. Likewise, the measures developed for general MIS evaluation were extended and applied in assessing the benefits of communication channels. They were based on both objective (e.g., increase in decision-making quality) and subjective criteria (e.g., user attitudes about the influence of a channel on information quality and disposition toward use).
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 3.1 Overview

The study was conducted with three information delivery channels--print, video, and electronic messaging. Both objective and subjective measures were obtained. The objective measures of channel effectiveness include the amount of informaACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, Vol. 2, No. 2, April 1984.

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tion learned and the quality of the decisions made on the basis of that information. Subjective measures include users' attitudes about the influence of each channel on the quality of information and the individual's disposition to use each channel. A laboratory setting was designed to simulate a managerial decision-making situation; subjects were asked to play the role of a sales account manager for a large computer manufacturer. Three channels were used to provide the information necessary to make decisions as to how and under what circumstances an export license for computer products sold abroad would be needed. Such decisions require knowledge of federal export controls and an understanding of the role of the corporation's export services department. This case was chosen because it is currently being disseminated via videotape to employees in a U.S. corporation. The authenticity of the information and its self-contained nature makes the comparison with print and electronic messaging convincing.
3.2 Subjects

The subjects for the study were 104 MBA students enrolled in an introductory MIS course; they were assigned to a treatment based upon the section of the course in which they were enrolled. Students who had been or were currently employed by the corporation which prepared the tape or who had been employed in computer sales for any company were excluded. In order to assure that the response was a function of channel rather than of heterogeneous aptitude and achievement levels, the subjects' scores on the Graudate Management Admissions Test (GMAT) were examined; the mean score for each group was computed and no significant effect was found. The applicability of laboratory experiments such as this to real-world situations has been questioned [27]. It has been suggested that laboratory subjects strive more for task completion than task success [32] and that the methods used to present variables are sometimes artificial and unrealistic [8]. Conversely, field test results have also been criticized for not providing sufficient experimental evidence to support improvement of MIS design [13]. Given these conflicting views, the choice of subjects was based upon the following rationale. Since the decisions to be made did not require contextual knowledge beyond that provided in the experiment, MBA students as "surrogate managers" were considered suitable subjects. Furthermore, since the subjects were currently, or would eventually be, involved in managerial decision making, their attitudes were seen as representative. Finally, the need to provide different treatments to subjects required a controlled environment.
3.2 Procedure

Each of the three groups listened to the same audio-taped case material, which presented facts about the sale of computers to a foreign country. The material raised questions about the transaction which required the account manager to make export licensing decisions. Next, each group of subjects was presented with the same information through different channels, concerning export controls, the role of the corporation's export services department, and the procedures involved in obtaining an export license. One group was shown a videotape produced by the corporation's media department. The second group was given a printed
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document, whose test was developed from a transcript of the videotape. Each subject in the third group interacted with a menu-driven electronic messaging system (E.M.S.), which used the same wording as the printed document. The videotape was nine minutes in length and was shown twice. The other two groups were given approximately the same amount of time to view the respective messages--note-taking was not allowed. A questionnaire was then administered to all subjects. The first part of the questionnaire was directed at an objective assessment of channel effectiveness based upon the amount of information acquired and the quality of decision making. Some questions required the recall of information while others required the use of the information in order to make a decision. Questions were written such that scores could be recorded as either right or wrong. A control group was used to find out whether the subjects' scores on the objective part were a possible result of common-sense guessing and/or of random choice. The control group was given the questionnaire following exposure to the taped case material, without being exposed to any further information, and scored significantly lower than the other three groups, indicating that the disseminated information was instrumental (see Section 5 for a report of results). The second part of the questionnaire addressed subjective measures of channel effectiveness: attitudes about the quality of information and channel disposition. Measures of user attitudes about information systems have, in the past, been centered around quality of the information, quality of access, and method of presentation. Out of the plethora of measures, tor example [6, 16, 20, 27, 28, 34, 35, 40, 41], six information attributes were chosen as representative and reasonable for evaluating the three channels: timeliness, accuracy, completeness, relevance, recall (accessibility), and form (method of presentation). These measures were used to determine attitudes about the impact of a channel on the information product in the following manner. A seven-point Likert-type scale of agreement/ disagreement was used. Subjects were asked to respond to statements about the use of a channel as it pertains to each of the six attributes. A sample question which concerns the timeliness attribute and electronic messaging is the following: 1 "An advantage of electronic mail is that people can get access to certain information quickly." In addition, the following statements, eliciting response on the overall disposition toward each of the channels, were included:
"I t h i n k p e o p l e are t i r e d of r e c e i v i n g all t h e i r m e s s a g e s t h r o u g h p r i n t e d m e m o s . "

"I don't think people would use videotape in a business setting." "A lot of people would not use electronic mail because they would not like working with a computer terminal." In order to contrast attitudes about general channel disposition with the likelihood of actual use, subjects were asked to choose a particular channel in light of each of the six attributes. A sample question is the following: "When it is most important that the people receiving my message perceive it as relevant, I would use (a) electronic messaging, (b) print, (c) videotape."
Copies of the questionnaire are available from the authors upon request. ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, Vol. 2, No. 2, April 1984.

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A pilot study was conducted with a different group of subjects to refine the questionnaire and the experimental procedures.
4. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The dependability of the study results is contingent on the reliability (lack of measurement error) of the measuring instrument and its stability over a variety of conditions. The reliability of the objective part of the questionnaire was determined by applying the odd-even split-half technique to the dichotomous response (score 1 for correct and 0 for incorrect answers) from the three channel groups. Reliability was calculated to be 0.73, which is below the 0.80 level normal in basic research, but adequate for this exploratory study. Intraclass correlation [17, pp. 446-449] was used to determine the reliability of the subjective part of the questionnaire. Reliability for mean response from the channel groups was calculated for each of the six attributes, and was very high, ranging from 0.93 to 0.99 with an average of 0.96. An average reliability of 0.98 was also obtained for mean response for each group across all six attributes. These results show that this part of the questionnaire is stable over a variety of conditions, and the measurement errors are very small. The validity of the questionnaire was also investigated to determine whether it measured what was intended. The subjective part was constructed with six reasonable and representative information attributes culled from the literature. This, and the fact that a pilot study was conducted to help in refining the statements, provided supporting evidence indicating content validity (i.e., sampling adequacy) for this part of the questionnaire. Answers to questions in the objective part required information provided through the experiment only. A factor analysis (cf. [17]) was used to examine the underlying structure of the subjective part in order to determine its construct validity. The analysis was performed on the subjects' eighteen responses (three channel by six information attributes). The eighteen responses loaded into six factors, all with levels greater than the absolute value of 0.50. The varimax rotated factors and their loadings are shown in Table I. Factors 2 and 4 were each loaded with four attributes of the same channel, indicating that the subjects' attitudes toward the two channels (electronic messaging and videotape) were drawn consistently by the statements in the questionnaire. Factors 5 and 6 were both loaded by a single attribute of "print." Since print is the most familiar channel, it is plausible to expect that the subjects had coherent enough attitudes about its timeliness and relevance attributes to warrant independent loadings. Factor 1 was loaded with the accuracy attribute of all three channels and the completeness attribute of print and electronic messaging. Two observations about this loading can be made. The close association between the completeness attributes of print and electronic messaging systems probably derives from the fact that both channels employ text for data representation. This contrasts to the use of videotape, where messages are presented as a combination of voice and images. The factor loadings here suggest that subjects based their perceptions of the completeness of information, in part, upon the presence or absence of textual data. The subjects' strong association between accuracy and completeness is perhaps due to the fact that accuracy (being the more concrete of the two) is often equated with completeness.
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Table I. Results of Factor Analysis

Varimax Rotated Factor Loadings

Channel Attribute V E P P E E E E E P P V V V V V P P - - Accuracy - - Accuracy - - Accuracy - - Completeness - - Completeness - - Timeliness - - Recall - - Relevance - - Form - - Recall -- Form -- Timeliness -- Completeness -- Relevance -- Recall -- Form -- Timeliness -- Relevance 1 0.742 0.696 0.666 0.663 0.621 0.759 0.654 0.584 0.544 0.800 0.658 0.576 0.721 0.635 0.597 0.551 0.799 0.709 2 3 4 5 6

a v -- Videotape; E = Electronic messaging system; P -- Print. The loading of the videotape's accuracy attribute on factor 1 and the negative loading of the videotape's timeliness attribute with print's recall and form attributes on factor 3 are the only perplexing observations in the analysis. The results of the factor analysis show that two out of eighteen responses (the accuracy and timeliness attributes associated with videotape) did not load into expected factors. The other responses loaded into factors, indicating consistency and structure. Thus, only a moderate, and not a strong, claim to construct validity of the subjective part of the questionnaire can be made.

5. RESULTS
5.1 Recall M e a s u r e s

T h e null hypothesis for the objective part of the questionnaire is:

Hypothesis I. There is no difference in information value if the same information is received through different channels.
T h e variable, value of information, was operationalized as (1) a m o u n t of information acquired, and (2) correctness in decision making. Subject response was arranged into groups according to the experimental treatment received. A n analysis of variance was performed on channel group m e a n scores for questions about decision making and recall of information. Scores were analyzed in three ways: (1) by overall group scores, (2) by decision-making and recall scores, and (3) b y s c o r e s o n i n d i v i d u a l q u e s t i o n s . N o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w a s f o u n d for e i t h e r t h e o v e r a l l g r o u p s c o r e s o r t h e s c o r e s for d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d r e c a l l q u e s t i o n s (see T a b l e II). T h e s e r e s u l t s l e d t o a c c e p t a n c e o f H y p o t h e s i s I. ACM Transactions on OfficeInformationSystems,Vol. 2, No. 2, April 1984.

Channel Selection for Managerial Decision Making

Table II. Objective Scores Overall, By Decision Making and Recall Overall
Groups Electronic Messaging System Print Videotape F-ratio (3 Groups) Control F-ratio (4 Groups) Total Possible p -< 0.05; **p - 0.01. N 24 33 30 (2, 84) 17 (3, 100) Mean 45.17 44.55 45.30 0.41 36.65 25.49** 53 a 3.50 4.01 2.90 4.06 -

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Decision Making
Mean 11.42 11.03 11.17 0.57 8.18 17.33"* 13 a 1.28 1.31 1.46 2.46 -

Recall
Mean 33.75 33.52 34.13 0.38 28.47 17.29"* 40 a 2.57 3.33 2.32 2.81 -

Table III.

Mean Scores of Recall Questions T h a t Are Significantly Different Among Groups

Recall Questions
Groups Electronic Messaging Systems Print Videotape F-ratio (3 Groups) Question 16 22 23 32 36 38 *p _< 0.05. 16 0.917 0.818 1.000 3.25* 22 0.583 0.606 0.267 4.60* 23 0.667 0.758 0.933 3.22* 32 0.792 0.939 0.633 4.83* 36 0.917 0.818 1.000 3.25* 38 0.958 0.909 0.700 4.51"

Content Sales condition which requires an export license. Individual who has responsibility for applying for a license. Length of time needed for getting a license. Factors influencing the sale of technology abroad. Type of technology requiring a license. Type of technology requiring a license.

Table II also shows the analysis of variance results, including the control group. As mentioned before, the control group scored significantly lower than the other three groups across all measures. Further examination of the individual recall items that showed significant differences among channel groups Show some interesting patterns (Table III). The response of the videotape group tended toward two extremes: the mean scores were either the highest or the lowest. In contrast, mean scores for the print group were evenly distributed and the means of the electronic messaging group tended to rank second. These patterns support findings in the literature that specific types of information lend themselves differently to various channels [2, 10, 28]. In the present study, print was found to function as a satisfactory option, one that is consistent yet not extraordinary. The use of electronic messaging seemed to yield a slightly better performance. Videotape, however, appeared to be either exceptionally good or exceptionally bad at disseminating information for learning. When mean scores for all the recall and decisionmaking items were examined this pattern was repeated: the videotape group ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, Vol. 2, No. 2, April 1984.

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ranked the highest, followed by electronic messaging and then print (see Table II).
5.2 Attitudinal Measures

The second part of the questionnaire was used to assess the attitudes toward the channels and the relationship of these attitudes to the subjects' dispositions to use the channels. The null hypothesis for the subjective part of the questionnaire is:

Hypothesis II. There is no difference between attitudes about the influence of the channel on the information attributes and the disposition to use that channel.
Cha~nel disposition was operationalized as (1) the degree of agreement/disagreement about the usefulness of each of the three channels, and (2) the indicated likelihood of choice of a channel. Attitudes about the influence of the channel on the information attributes was operationalized as degree of agreement/disagreement with statements about the interaction of the channel and the information attributes. An analysis of attribute variance was performed on disposition and attitude mean scores. Subjects' mean scores on disposition were found to be significantly different from those on attitude response for the information attribute items. That is, a favorable attitude about a channel's influence on the information attributes did not imply a strong disposition to use that channel, and vice versa (Table IV). A pair-wise analysis of the mean score disposition and attitudes toward individual attributes within each channel was also performed. An analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences between the means, and a correlation analysis was used to test for significant relationships. The results are shown in Table V. In almost all of the results, the means wele significantly different from each other and no significant correlations were found. There are four combinations which were positively and significantly correlated, but significant differences were found between their means, they are videotape's disposition versus recall, completeness, and form; and print's disposition versus relevance. Only videotape's disposition versus relevance and print's disposition versus form satisfied both the conditions. These results, then, do not provide sufficient evidence to accept Hypothesis II. This apparent discrepancy between attitudes and channel dispositions is shown in Figures 1-3. In Figure 1, the overall disposition to use electronic messaging systems is slightly negative (below the unstandardized neutral score of 4). In fact, this disposition is the lowest of the three. One might attribute this to the level of understanding about this channel; subjects may have never used such a system before. These results might also suggest that the subjects were reluctant to use a new channel that could be perceived as having greater complexity. It is noteworthy, however, that while subjects were not inclined to use electronic messaging, they gave it positive ratings on some information attributes. As Figure 2 shows, there was a more favorable disposition toward print than toward electronic messaging. Of the three channels, attitudes towards print and the disposition to use it were the most consistent.
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Channel Selection for Managerial Decision Making

Table IV. Channel Dispositions and Information Attribute Attitudes Electronic Messaging System Information Attribute Attitudes Relevance Completeness Recall Accuracy Timeliness Form Disposition F-ratio (6, 598} p -< 0.05; **p _< 0.01. Mean 5.44 3.26 5.78 3.00 5.89 5.22 3.71 78.31"* a 1.06 1.50 1.02 1.54 0.85 1.57 1.41 Print Mean 3.41 3.41 4.77 3.07 2.68 3.98 3.89 18.66"* a 1.44 1.38 1.46 1.73 1.39 1.51 1.38 -

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Videotape Mean 5.77 4.17 4.16 1.86 3.76 4.82 5.39 75.95** a 1.43 1.48 1.30 1.10 1.49 1.33 1.43 -

Table V. Disposition Electronic Messaging System F-ratio (1, 171) Videotape F-ratio (1, 171) Print Foratio (1, 171) *p - 0.05; **p _< 0.01.

Results of Correlation and Analysis of Variance Relevance -0.055 82.82** 0.385** 3.07 0.364** 4.98* Completeness 0.118 4.15" 0.215" 30.59** 0.170 5.19" Recall -0.45 122.82"* 0.304** 34.73* 0.157 16.93"* Accuracy 0.027 9.89** 0.094 332.71"* -0.017 11.80"* Timeliness Form

-0.077 -0.010 150.53"* 44.25** 0.107 0.593** 54.66** 7.59** 0.154 0.210" 33.24** 0.18

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In comparison with the other two channels, the subjects displayed the greatest disposition toward videotape (see Figure 3). Despite this apparent preference, attitudes about the contribution of this channel to information quality were much less positive. The fact that the subjects registered a low attitude toward videotape, as it relates to the accuracy of information, suggests a bias owing t o
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Channel Selection for Managerial Decision Making

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Fig. 4. Meanattribute rating by channel. past experience with this channel--subjects may be skeptical about a perceived entertainment medium being used in business. The discrepancies suggest that while subjects were positively inclined toward use of this channel, they were not as sure about why. This supposition is consistent with the observation that the attributes ranking the highest are probably the least objectively measurable, namely relevance and form (see Table V). Subjects' mean scores on attitudes are compared in Figure 4. Electronic messaging systems were ranked the highest with respect to timeliness, recall, and form; videotape ranked the highest with respect to relevance, and higher than print on timeliness, completeness, and form. The strength of print appears to lie with recall, yet it is ranked considerably lower than electronic messaging systems in that regard. The fact that print is the more traditional medium can be inferred from these data. There is less variation in the mean levels, which may be because print is more familiar to the subjects, and may also reflect an underlying bias for it (cf. [36]). It could likewise be interpreted that, since electronic messaging systems and videotape are new, the subjects have a less consistent understanding of them, and so must rely on stereotypes. Thus there would be a wide fluctuation in the subjects' attitudes toward the attributes for the electronic messaging systems and videotape channels. An alternative interpretation is that the above two channels actually are different from print, in that they do not provide the same benefits across all six attributes. This interpretation is reinforced in the mean of the recall items: the ranking for print was evenly distributed while videotape either ranked highest or lowest (see Table III). Further similarities and differences in the subjects' attitudes were examined by comparing the mean score dispositions and attitudes toward the same information attributes by channel (Table VI). The results show that attitudes were significantly different across channels.
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Table VI. Resultsof Analysis of Variance Across Channels

Information Attributes Relevance Completeness Recall Accuracy Timeliness Form Disposition *p _< 0.05; **p _< 0.01. F-ratio (2, 256) 80.88** 9.85** 35.56** 18.12"* 143.04"* 16.14"* 37.55**

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~ " ~,O,j,?L -~'Fig. 5. Choice of channel by attribute.

To examine disposition, defined as the likelihood that a channel will be chosen, the subjects were asked to choose only one channel, given each of the six information attributes as the most important consideration. A frequency count of channel choices was presented to give a rough idea of overall preference, and the frequency counts were summed across attributes. This ranking in a constrained setting is noticeably different from the unconstrained ranking derived from degree of preference toward the three channels {Table IV), suggesting a discrepancy between general attitudes about the channels and the disposition towards using them. Table IV reflects "bundled" attitudes (e.g., whether "print is an appropriate channel when timeliness is a consideration"), which do not preclude similar attitudes toward all three channels. Table VII, on the other hand, shows the results when the subjects are forced to choose only one channel in the context of
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Table VII. Attributes Timeliness Completeness Accuracy Form Recall Relevance Total Frequency Count of Channel Choice By Attribute Electronic Messaging Systems 81 12 21 9 6 31 160 Print 5 62 54 55 40 33 249 Videotape 1 12 6 19 40 20 98

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each attribute. The discrepancy is noteworthy. The subjects were much more traditional in terms of projected choice than in attitude. This is exemplified in the case of relevance with videotape. As noted in Figure 3, this attribute had the closest relationship with disposition to use the channel. Yet, Table VII shows that when relevance is the most important consideration, videotape is the least preferred.
6. DISCUSSION

The new technologies for presenting information did not significantly influence the value of the transmitted information by any objective measure. This is consistent with the general difficulty that empirical studies have had in demonstrating concrete benefits. This has been the case for studies involving both decision making [15, 19] and recall [39]. Thus the present study suggests that although there is some implication of benefits in certain dimensions, there is no overall effect. Although the findings of this study are negative, it is possible other techniques would show a positive effect. Some possibilities for future research are the following: Improvements in research design are needed. Decision-making effectiveness is a complex of many different factors of which information is but one. Also, rather than laboratory studies of discrete decision-making and recall behavior, perhaps longitudinal studies of managers' decision-making effectiveness over time, involving alternative channels, should be conducted. Another avenue of research is related to the characteristics of given channels. It has been suggested that the communication context be taken into account in channel selection [26]. Further, research has suggested that the type of information (i.e., cognitive versus affective) lends itself differently to available channels [11, 28]. Thus, comparative studies in valuing alternative channels should take into account the communication context and goals, as well as the special characteristics, of the channels. Empirical studies should combine existing knowledge of channel attributes with facts about the information attributes for a given context. In sum, direct substitution of technologies, whether in the laboratory or on the job, is naive and may even be counterproductive. In light of the lack of empirical support of objective measures associated with channel selection, greater attention should be given to subjective measures. Existing research has shown that user attitudes about the manner of presentation may be critical to their perceptions about the quality of the information provided
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[27, 40]. This finding has led to the development of the channel disposition concept [35]; results of the present study lend support to that approach. The research described here has explored three dimensions of user attitudes: (1) user perception about the benefits of a channel for a given information context, (2) user inclination toward use of a given channel, and (3) user intention to use a given channel. A discrepancy was found between the latter two dimensions, which is consistent with previous findings [28, 35]. The results, with respect to user perceptions about the influence of a channel on the information attributes in a given context, may provide an additional dimension to the evolving theory of user satisfaction [16]. Along with increased corporate development of systems to support electronic and video dissemination of information, the results of this study can provide some useful insights into the channel-selection process. In order to ensure that users perceive these new channels to be as valuable as designers intend them to be, and to increase the likelihood that they will be used, the subjective dimension~ of channel effectiveness should be considered in the design of MIS. Future research by the authors in the area of channel selection and channel effectiveness will involve improvement of the questionnaire's reliability and validity, and its use in a wider range of settings. This instrument can be improved by further refining the objective measures so as to increase the likelihood that results are a function of channel effects rather than questionnaire design. In addition to making improvements in the experimental design for a laboratory setting, field research should also be conducted, which may eliminate some of the limitations found in the present study. Research into the subjective dimension could be extended by bringing the communication context under experimental control. A better understanding of the information attributes most appropriate to a given communication setting would allow a more robust examination of the influence of the channel on the quality of the information. This would then enable the development of intervention strategies for overcoming perceptions associated with the use of new communication channels. As noted previously, videotape is only one of several technologies available for use in corporate communication. Interactive videodisk applications are also on the horizon. Of course, the methodology employed in this study could be adapted for use in this new hybrid channel which incorporates both video and electronic messaging principles.
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Received September 1983; revised March 1984; accepted April 1984

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