Objective The objective of this laboratory experiment is to demonstrate the differences between laminar, turbulent, and transitional fluid

flow, and the Reynold's numbers at which each occurs. Theory Fluid flow can be characterized as laminar, turbulent, or transitional. The dimensionless Reynold's number (Re) can be used to determine the fluid flow condition. The Reynold's number is defined as

where r = the fluid density, V = the velocity of the fluid, L = an important length dimension for the flow, m = the dynamic viscosity, and n = the kinematic viscosity where n =m/r. For pipe flow, L is taken as the pipe diameter (D). Re can be interpreted as the ratio of the flow's inertial forces to its viscous forces. For large viscous forces (low Re, normally Re < 2000 for pipe flows), viscous effects are great enough to damp any disturbances or perturbations in the flow and the flow remains laminar. Any combination of low velocity, small diameter, or high kinematic viscosity which results in Re < 2000 for pipe flow will produce laminar flow. The flow is called "laminar" because the flow takes place in layers. The only mixing that occurs is molecular mixing between the layers or between different parts of the flow. For large inertial forces (large Re, normally Re > 4000 for pipe flows), there is not enough viscous damping to remove any disturbances in the flow. Again, any combination of V, D, and n giving Re > 4000 will produce turbulent flow. As Re increases, the viscous damping of flow disturbances or perturbations decreases relative to the inertial effects. Because of a lack of viscous damping, disturbances are amplified until the entire flow breaks down into in irregular motion. There is still a definite flow direction, but there is an

irregular motion superimposed on the average motion. Thus, for turbulent flow in a pipe, the fluid is flowing in the downstream direction, but fluid particles have an irregular motion in addition to the average motion. This effect is illustrated by the pathlines in Fig. 7.1; pathlines give a Lagrangian description of flow. The turbulent fluctuations are inherently unsteady and three dimensional. As a result, particles which pass though a given point in the flow do not follow the same path in turbulent flow even though they all are flowing generally downstream.

Fig. 7.1 - Lagrangian pathlines in turbulent flow Since the velocities of all fluid particles are continually changing, the Eulerian velocities at a point or at several points are also changing. This effect is shown in the next two figures. Fig. 7.2 shows the time averaged velocity distribution across a diameter of a pipe and then illustrates the unsteadiness in the turbulent components of the velocities. Fig. 7.3 shows the time-averaged velocity at a point and the continual variation of instantaneous velocity due to the turbulent fluctuations.

Fig. 7.2 - Eulerian velocity distributions at different times

Fig. 7.3 - Time history of Eulerian velocity at a point The instability or unsteadiness in turbulent flows is sometimes viewed as being due to parcels of fluid that are rotating in an irregular fashion as the fluid flows. These rotating parcels of fluid are sometimes called billows or eddies. Time-lapse pictures of clouds moving across the sky illustrate the billowing or eddy character of turbulent flows. Flows with 2000 < Re < 4000 are called transitional. The flow can be unstable and the flow switch back and forth between turbulent and laminar conditions. This transitional flow was seen in the first lab with water flow from the 1/4 in. copper tube. The pulsating jet of water from the end of the tube was an indication of the transitional flow with the flow switching back and forth between being laminar and turbulent. Laboratory Apparatus Two types of equipment will be used in this laboratory. The first is called the Osborne Reynolds Apparatus (Fig. 7.4). This apparatus has a vertical tube through which water flows. The marbles in the water tank are to calm the inflow so there will be no turbulence in the top tank to get into the flow tube in the tube. As the flow rate in the tube is changed, the Reynold's number changes since Re = VD/n = (Q/A)D/n = 4Q/(pDn). For Re < 2000, laminar flow exists and the streakline is a smooth, straight line. For higher flow rates with Re > 4000, the flow is turbulent. The dye streak then moves around in the tube in response to the unsteady turbulent fluctuations of velocities and the eddies in the turbulence.

a) Photograph b) Dye streaks Fig. 7.4 - Osborne Reynolds Apparatus

The second apparatus is an Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV), shown in Fig. 7.5. The probe on the apparatus has three prongs or fingers. In the main probe shaft, there is a sonic transmitter and three sonic receivers at the ends of the prongs. The receivers are focused on a small sampling or measurement volume 5 cm below the bottom of the prongs and straight down from the shaft of the probe. The emitted sonic pulses are reflected in all directions by very small solid particles in the flow. The frequency of the reflected sound wave depends on the frequency of the emitted wave and the velocity of the particles that reflect the wave. The receivers and the signal analysis hardware and software provide all three Cartesian velocity components at a frequency of 25 Hz, i.e., there are 25 measurements of the three velocity components each second or one measurement every 40 ms. More information on the principles of operation can be obtained fromhttp://www.sontek.com/princop/adv/advpo.htm. The probe is put

into a small channel with water flow. The signal from the ADV for the longitudinal flow direction is similar to Fig. 7.3. The other two components fluctuate about a zero average velocity.

Fig. 7.5 - Sontex Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter Procedures 1. For the Osborne Reynolds Apparatus, the out flow valve can be adjusted so that there are different velocities in the pipe. For a low flow rate, the dye streak will be a straight smooth line. For this condition, there is laminar flow in the tube. The flow rate can be measured and the Reynold's number calculated from Re = 4Q/pDn. to verify that Re < 2000. 2. The second experiment is similar to the first except with a larger flow rate so Re > 4000. For this turbulent flow, the dye streak will be unsteady and move about laterally in the flow. 3. The third experiment uses the ADV. It will be set into a water flow in a small open channel. The display of the instantaneous velocities will show the unsteadiness in the turbulence and the inherent three dimensional nature of turbulence. In addition, moving the probe vertically in the flow will show that the time-averaged velocity is different at different vertical positions and that the turbulent fluctuations of velocity are larger nearer to the boundary even though the time-averaged velocity is smaller. 2. Laminar and turbulent flow

If we were to take a pipe of free flowing water and inject a dye into the middle of the stream, what would we expect to happen? This

this

or this

Actually both would happen - but for different flow rates. The top occurs when the fluid is flowing fast and the lower when it is flowing slowly. The top situation is known as turbulent flow and the lower as laminar flow. In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe walls. But what is fast or slow? And at what speed does the flow pattern change? And why might we want to know this? The phenomenon was first investigated in the 1880s by Osbourne Reynolds in an experiment which has become a classic in fluid mechanics.

He used a tank arranged as above with a pipe taking water from the centre into which he injected a dye through a needle. After many experiments he saw that this expression

where r = density, u = mean velocity, d = diameter and m = viscosity would help predict the change in flow type. If the value is less than about 2000 then flow is laminar, if greater than 4000 then turbulent and in between these then in the transition zone.

This value is known as the Reynolds number, Re:

Laminar flow: Re < 2000 Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000 Turbulent flow: Re > 4000 What are the units of this Reynolds number? We can fill in the equation with SI units:

i.e. it has no units. A quantity that has no units is known as a nondimensional (or dimensionless) quantity. Thus the Reynolds number, Re, is a non-dimensional number. We can go through an example to discover at what velocity the flow in a pipe stops being laminar. If the pipe and the fluid have the following properties: water density r = 1000 kg/m3 pipe diameter d = 0.5m (dynamic) viscosity, m = 0.55x103 Ns/m2 We want to know the maximum velocity when the Re is 2000.

If this were a pipe in a house central heating system, where the pipe diameter is typically 0.015m, the limiting velocity for laminar flow would be, 0.0733 m/s. Both of these are very slow. In practice it very rarely occurs in a piped water system - the velocities of flow are much greater. Laminar flow does occur in situations with fluids of greater viscosity - e.g. in bearing with oil as the lubricant. At small values of Re above 2000 the flow exhibits small instabilities. At values of about 4000 we can say that the flow is truly turbulent. Over the past 100 years since this experiment, numerous more experiments have shown this phenomenon of limits of Re for many different Newtonian fluids - including gasses. What does this abstract number mean? We can say that the number has a physical meaning, by doing so it helps to understand some of the reasons for the changes from laminar to turbulent flow.

It can be interpreted that when the inertial forces dominate over the viscous forces (when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger) then the flow is turbulent. When the viscous forces are dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line, then the flow is laminar.

In summary: Laminar flow

Re < 2000 'low' velocity Dye does not mix with water Fluid particles move in straight lines Simple mathematical analysis possible Rare in practice in water systems.

Transitional flow

2000 > Re < 4000 'medium' velocity Dye stream wavers in water - mixes slightly.

Turbulent flow

Re > 4000 'high' velocity Dye mixes rapidly and completely Particle paths completely irregular Average motion is in the direction of the flow Cannot be seen by the naked eye Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect. Must use laser. Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental measures are used Most common type of flow.

Experiment 2 - Laminar Flow Object To use the laminar flow table to observe and sketch flow patterns in two

dimensional steady laminar flow when various airfoil shapes are introduced into the flow field. Apparatus The following equipment is required for this experiment: a. Laminar flow table b. two litres of dye Theory Perhaps the most easily studied flow phenomenon is lamiar flow. In Laminar flow fluid particles move along smooth paths in layers with one layer gliding over an adjacent one such that shear stresses and losses are small. In turbulent flow, by contrast, fluid particles move in irregular paths generating large shear stresses and high losses. Experimental Procedure The following procedure is to be performed during this experiment: 1. Open valve of water supply line. 2. Add dye form the two litre container into the dye injection system and open the dye injection valves. 3. Lower the upper plate slowly while carefully ensuring that no air

bubbles are left under the glass. 4. For undisturbed flow: a. Adjust the valve on the water supply line to establish parallel lines at a low flow rate. Sketch observations. b. Increase flow and note any variations in the flow pattern. Increase flow to the pointwhere the flow regime changes from laminar flow to turbulent flow. Be careful not to flood the flow table. Observe and sketch results. c. Reduce the flow to the laminar flow regime again. 5. Disturbances due to immersed shapes a. Lift the plate glass top and immerse the disc in the flow field. Put the glass down ensuring that no air bubbles are formed. Observe flow patterns arouind the disc. Sketch and discuss your results. b. Next immerse the airfoil in the flow field at some angle of incidence. Sketch the resulting flow pattern and discuss the associated pressure distribution on the airfoil and the stagnation points. Try various angles of incidence and compare the results. c. Immerse the flat plate with the longest distance parrallel to the flow and note any changes in the flow pattern. Discuss your results.

6. When finished leave the water flowing over the laminar flow table until the dye injection system is emptied of all dye.
1 Introduction
Pipes are all around us. Every time we turn the faucet, we expect water to come out. We expect there to be sufficient pressure to get the job done, be it filling a glass of water in a timely manner or taking a nice shower. A lot of experimentation went behind the selection of pipe sizes used in various applications to ensure that what comes out is acceptable. In the plumbing industry there are rules of thumb for sizing pipes for a given use. This is usually a matter of picking the right pipe diameter for the use. For example, you wouldn't use 2 inch diameter PVC pipe to run water to a bathroom sink. Nor would you use 1/8 inch pipes for a drain for the same sink. The pipe flow experiment provides an experimental backbone or learning how to apply engineering equations to real world situations where fluids flow.

1.1 The apparatus

Experiment 100: Pipe Flow involves an experimental apparatus with:

four pipes of different diameters: 1/8, 1/2, 1 and 2 inches Three water manometers a mercury manometer (soon to be replaced with a digital flow meter) a collection tank for the 1/8 inch pipe a water reservoir 1/25 hp pump pumps water through the smallest, 1/8 inch pipe 1.5 hp pump drives the 1/2, 1 and 2 inch pipes simultaneously

The current configuration allows for:

the flow rate to be determined on the 1/8 inch pipe by timing the accumulation of a fixed volume of water in a collection tank. the flow rate to be determined for the 1/2, 1 and 2 inch pipes by measuring the height drop on a manometer across an orifice plate in the pipes. the pressure drop due to friction to be measured using manometers across the length of the pipe.

velocity profile in the 2 inch pipe to be determined using a pitot tube connected to a water manometer.

1.2 The experimental possibilities

Some things that can be done with this apparatus: 1. Experimentally determine the friction factors for fluid flow through four pipes. 2. Develop correlations between the friction factor and Reynolds number over a wide range of Reynolds numbers, extending from laminar to turbulent regimes. 3. Measure fully-developed steady-state velocity distributions for laminar and turbulent flows as a function of radial position on the 2 inch pipe. 4. Compare the experimentally obtained velocity distributions with literature values. 5. Compare Hagen-Poiseuille relationship for flow through a pipe by analysing the relationship between the average velocity and pressure drop.

1.3 Safety
This experiment is relatively simple. Reguardless of this fact, all the required Personal Protective Equipment should be worn by all team members while in the lab. Two devices used, one manometer and one thermometer, contain mercury. The mercury used in the mercury manometer should be watched carefully to insure that the mercury does not come out of the manometer. When measuring the temperature of the reservoir, the thermometer should be carefully handled to insure that the mercury is not spilled, which would happen if the glass were broken. As with any hazardous material, all team members working on or near this apparatus should be fully aware of what they are near. With this in mind, all team members should read and understand the Materials Safety Data Sheet for mercury before entering the lab. Though water is not a hazardous material, it can cause an accident when it is spilled on the floor. The water should be quickly mopped up with the mop to reduce the chances of an accident. The pressure taps and tubing can cause accidents to occur because of their lengths and bulky masses. Make sure they are properly stored when they are not in use.

2 Theory
The flow of a fluid through a pipe is governed by various equations, representing the array of factors that control flow conditions. Bernoulli's Equation relates the pressure loss in the pipe to a change in the average fluid velocity. That equation is the fundamental equation for understanding general pipe flow. The Reynolds number describes which flow regime is present in piping. It describes the relationship that exists between the fluid's velocity and the density. The Fanning Friction Factor relates the shear stress to the average kinetic energy of the fluid. Pipe diameter and length also are mitigating factors in this equation.

Bernoulli's Equation
The basic approach to all piping systems is to write the Bernoulli equation between two points, connected by a streamline, where the conditions are known.

v2/2 + gz + P/ + Ws + F = 0

Determining the average velocity

The average velocity is the ratio between the volumetric flow rate and the crosssectional area of the pipe.
Vave = Q/A

Determining Frictional Dissipation

The frictional dissipation can be used to describe the friction loss in the pipe. Mathematically, the definition is:

Determining Reynolds number

We calculate the Reynolds number so that we can easily tell if the flow is in the laminar or turbulent regime. Re = (vave* Dpipe)/

Laminar regime 2100 < Re Turbulent regime Re > 4000

4000

Examples
A good example of laminar and turbulent flow is the rising smoke from a cigarette. The smoke initially travels in smooth, straight lines (laminar flow) then starts to randomly mix (turbulent flow). These ranges are discussed above.

Nomenclature
Symbol Re, dimensionless kg/m3 vave, m/s v, m2/s D, m Q, m3/s A, m2 Ws, J ffexp, dimensionless P, kg/(m*s2) g, m/s2 L, m Description Reynolds Number Density Average Velocity Kinematic Viscosity Diameter Volumetric flow rate Cross sectional area Shaft Work Experimental Frictional Dissipation Change in Pressure Gravity Length

3 Investigation
In this experiment, water flowing through varying diameter pipes is observed. The resulting pressure drops from changing the water velocity are used to calculate the Reynolds number, the water velocity, and friction factor.

3.1 Determine the Friction Factors and Compare with Theoretical Results
Several friction factor equations are available for systems of flow depending on the type of flow present (laminar or turbulent) and the interior surfaces through which the flow takes place. Using the equations for friction factor in laminar and/or turbulent flow, the friction factor can be determined. In order to find the friction factor we first have to determine the Reynolds number. This is done for water by obtaining waters density and viscosity at the operating temperatures, the interior diameter of the pipe, and the roughness coefficient of the pipe. An empirical equation is then used to compare the experimental results to theoretical results.

3.2 Correlation Between Friction Factor and Reynolds Number

Using the equations for friction factor in laminar and/or turbulent flow, a correlation between Reynolds number and friction factor can be found. The friction factor in all cases depends upon the Reynolds number. For laminar flow the correlation gives a steeper slope than for turbulent flow. The relationship seen between the friction factor and the Reynolds number for turbulent suggest that at large flow rates the friction factor becomes less dependent on the Reynolds number.

3.3 Measure Velocities for Laminar and/or Turbulent Flows

Using the equation for calculating volumetric flow rate, the mean velocity can be calculated knowing the area of the pipe. The velocity of the smallest pipe can be found by the volumetric flow rate, which is found by measuring the time it takes for the water to fill a container with a known volume. An orifice meter along with the appropriate orifice equation will also be used to determine the volumetric flow rate. That flow rate will then be converted to a velocity.

3.4 Correlation Between r/R and v/vmax

The radius, r, is the radial position from the axis of the pipe and the radius, R, is the radius of the pipe. The velocity, v, is the velocity in the pipe and the velocity, vmax, is the maximum velocity in the pipe. The velocity varies as a function of the radial position in the pipe. At the maximum radius, the velocity will be zero while at the very center of the pipe; the velocity will be at its maximum. The pitot tube will be used to measure how the velocity varies with the radius on the large tube. By adjusting the Pitot tube to cover its full radial range and by using water manometer applications, we can calculate experimental volumetric flow rates. Using the appropriate equations, this flow rate can be manipulated to find the velocity at certain radial positions within the pipe.

3.5 Compare Hagen-Poiseuille Relationship for Laminar Flow and the Average Velocity and Pressure Drop in Turbulent Flow
The velocity and pressure drop in turbulent flow is measured in this experiment. These values will then be compared to the Hagen-Poiseuille relationship for laminar flow. This objective can be better completed outside of the laboratory using library references and sources. Once the comparison between the Hagen-Poiseuille relationship and the turbulent flow regime has been made, it can be applied to our experimental results to check for correlations and/or shortcomings

Turbulent Flow
When the flow is turbulent, the flow contains eddying motions of all sizes, and a large part of the mechanical energy in the flow Turbulent Flow

When the flow is turbulent, the flow contains eddying motions of all sizes, and a large part of the mechanical energy in the flow goes into the formation of these eddies which eventually dissipate their energy as heat. As a result, at a given Reynolds number, the drag of a turbulent flow is higher than the drag of a laminar flow. Also, turbulent flow is affected by surface roughness, so that increasing roughness increases the drag.

Transition to turbulence can occur over a range of Reynolds numbers, depending on many factors, including the level surface roughness, heat transfer, vibration, noise, and other disturbances. To understand why this is so, and to appreciate the role of the Reynolds number in governing the stability of the flow, it is helpful to think in terms of a spring-damper system such as the suspension system of a car. Driving along a bumpy road, the springs act to reduce the movement experienced by the passengers. If there were no shock absorbers, however, there would be no damping of the motion, and the car would continue to oscillate long after the bump has been left behind. So the shock absorbers, through a viscous damping action, dissipate the energy in the oscillations and reduce the amplitude of the oscillations. If the viscous action is strong enough, the oscillations will die out very quickly, and the passengers can proceed smoothly. If the shock absorbers are not in good shape, the oscillations may not die out. The oscillations can actually grow if the excitation frequency is in the right range, and the system can experience resonance. The car becomes unstable, and it is then virtually uncontrollable.

In fluid flow, we often interpret the Reynolds number as the ratio of the inertia force (that is, the force given by mass x acceleration) to the viscous force. At low Reynolds numbers, therefore, the viscous force is large compared to the inertia force, and the flow behaves in some ways like a car with a good suspension system. Small disturbances in the velocity field, created perhaps by small roughness elements on the surface, or pressure perturbations from external sources such as vibrations in the surface or strong sound waves, will be damped out and not allowed to grow. This is the case for pipe flow at Reynolds numbers less than the critical value of 2300 (based on pipe diamter and average velocity), and for boundary layers with a Reynolds number less than about 200,000 (based on distance from the origin of the layer and the freestream velocity). As the Reynolds number increases, however, the viscous damping action becomes comparatively less, and at some point it becomes possible for small perturbations to grow, just as in the case of a car with poor shock absorbers. The flow can become unstable, and it can experience transition to a turbulent state where large variations in the velocity field can be maintained. If the disturbances are very small, as in the case

where the surface is very smooth, or if the wavelength of the disturbance is not near the point of resonance, the transition to turbulence will occur at a higher Reynolds number than the critical value. So the point of transition does not correspond to a single Reynolds number, and it is possible to delay transition to relatively large values by controlling the disturbance environment. At very high Reynolds numbers, however, it is not possible to maintain laminar flow since under these conditions even minute disturbances will be amplified into turbulence.

Turbulent flow is characterized by unsteady eddying motions that are in constant motion with respect to each other. At any point in the flow, the eddies produce fluctuations in the flow velocity and pressure. If we were to measure the streamwise velocity in turbulent pipe flow, we would see a variation in time as shown in figure 14.goes into the formation of these eddies which eventually dissipate their energy as heat. As a result, at a given Reynolds number, the drag of a turbulent flow is higher than the drag of a laminar flow. Also, turbulent flow is affected by surface roughness, so that increasing roughness increases the drag. Transition to turbulence can occur over a range of Reynolds numbers, depending on many factors, including the level surface roughness, heat transfer, vibration, noise, and other disturbances. To understand why this is so, and to appreciate the role of the Reynolds number in governing the stability of the flow, it is helpful to think in terms of a spring-damper system such as the suspension system of a car. Driving along a bumpy road, the springs act to reduce the movement experienced by the passengers. If there were no shock absorbers, however, there would be no damping of the motion, and the car would continue to oscillate long after the bump has been left behind. So the shock absorbers, through a viscous damping action, dissipate the energy in the oscillations and reduce the amplitude of the oscillations. If the viscous action is strong enough, the oscillations will die out very quickly, and the passengers can proceed smoothly. If the shock absorbers are not in good shape, the oscillations may not die out. The oscillations can actually grow if the excitation frequency is in the right range, and the system can experience resonance. The car becomes unstable, and it is then virtually uncontrollable.

In fluid flow, we often interpret the Reynolds number as the ratio of the inertia force (that is, the force given by mass x acceleration) to the viscous force. At low Reynolds numbers, therefore, the viscous force is large compared to the inertia force, and the flow behaves in some ways like a car with a good suspension system. Small disturbances in the velocity field, created perhaps by small roughness elements on the surface, or pressure perturbations from external sources such as vibrations in the surface or strong sound waves, will be damped out and not allowed to grow. This is the case for pipe flow at Reynolds numbers less than the critical value of 2300 (based on pipe diamter and average velocity), and for boundary layers with a Reynolds number less than about 200,000 (based on distance from the origin of the layer and the freestream velocity). As the Reynolds number increases, however, the viscous damping action becomes comparatively less, and at some point it becomes possible for small perturbations to grow, just as in the case of a car with poor shock absorbers. The flow can become unstable, and it can experience transition to a turbulent state where large variations in the velocity field can be maintained. If the disturbances are very small, as in the case where the surface is very smooth, or if the wavelength of the disturbance is not near the point of resonance, the transition to turbulence will occur at a higher Reynolds number than the critical value. So the point of transition does not correspond to a single Reynolds number, and it is possible to delay transition to relatively large values by controlling the disturbance environment. At very high Reynolds numbers, however, it is not possible to maintain laminar flow since under these conditions even minute disturbances will be amplified into turbulence. Turbulent flow is characterized by unsteady eddying motions that are in constant motion with respect to each other. At any point in the flow, the eddies produce fluctuations in the flow velocity and pressure. If we were to measure the streamwise velocity in turbulent pipe flow, we would see a variation in time as shown in figure 14.