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50cdf08e3cff0 182.183.196.233 Pakistan

PREFACE

THE
as

teaching of English has experiencedalmost a revolution in in recent years : new methods are as essential this
English Classics are
now

subject

in French and German.

published

reasonable prices as to be well within the reach of book dealing everyone. There seems, however, a need for some in a practicalway with Modern English, and offering varied
at such

exercises, without which the study of English Classicswillbe of little value to the average pupil. The present volume isdesigned
such requirements. It treats English,not as a foreign tongue, but as a livinglanguage ever present with us, reflecting idiom our nationalcharacteristics modes of thought. in its and
to meet

novel type have been introduced; and, t where possible,hese,as well as the examples in the text, have in been drawn from standard literature, order that the student Many exercises of
a

the outset, be familiarwith the very best English. to" Formal grammar has been re'dticed a- minimum ; considerable of attention has, however, been given to the discussion difficulties
may,
at

in grammar and construction. Primarily,hisbook has been writtenwith a view to preparation t forthe London Matriculation and similar examinations. It should, in consequence, be a suitablebook for the Upper Forms of
Secondary Schools ; taken in with conjunction some English i Classics,tshould form a satisfactory basisfor a two-years'course

in such

school. I am indebted to the Senate of the Universityof London for kind permission to use the questionsset in the years 1909-15 at the
vii

viii

HIGHER

ENGLISH
many of

Matriculation Examination;

these

are

included

as

exercises and are there marked with an (M). I also desire to thank H.M. Controller Stationeryfor permission to reproduce of 369 and Exercise v. of Chapter xxix.; and the editors of the Daily Telegraphand Daily Mail for

the correspondence of

"

permission. similar The thanks of the author and publishersare due to the Joint MatriculationBoard and the Union of Educational Institutes for

permission to include in this edition their English papers lastyear and this year respectively.
F.
October 1922

set

J.R.

CONTENTS
CHAPTBJI

""3"

I. THE

ENGLISH

LANGUAGE

Origin. Influences on. II. GRAMMAR

AND
:

Periods. The
.

Alphabet.
.

THE Methods
:

SENTENCE

10

Grammar
Simple

Sentence

and Divisions. Parts of Sentence. Logical Analysis into Subjectnd a

Predicate.
(II. THE

PARTS

OF

SPEECH
and

15

Fundamental

Convenient Parts.

Discrimination

of the various Parts : Elementary Parsing.

IV. ANALYSIS

OF

THE

SIMPLE

SENTENCE

21

Predicate : Finite and Infinite Complement, Verbs. Completion of Predicate: Object, Extension. Tabular Analysis.

Analysis.

Subject

V. NOUNS

....
...

28

Gender, Number, and Case. Classification. VI. VERBS

Kinds.
. .

43

Voice, Mood,

and Person. Defective,Anomalous,

VII. PRONOUNS
.....

Tense, and theirUses. Number : Principal Parts. Concord. Conjugation and AuxiliaryVerbs.

-70

Classification. Uses.

VIII.

ADJECTIVES
Uses.

"

79

Comparison. Classification.

Conrord.

HIGHER
CHAM-IT*

ENGLISH
PACK

IX. ADVERBS

...

Uses.

Comparison. Classification.

Position.

X. PREPOSITIONS

...

93
of the

Government.

Equivalents.

Use and Meaning

Chief Prepositions. XI.

CONJUNCTIONS
Position. Correlatives.

100

XII.

INTERJECTIONS
Phrases. Interjectional

104

XIII. ANALYSIS
I.

OF
The

SENTENCES
Sentence
:

Simple

Further

.105 Subdivisions;

Difficulties.
II.

Compound

Test of a Relations. Elliptical Sentences. XIV.

Sentences : Definitions. and Complex Clause. Principal. Subordinate : Kinds and

Complete Analysis.
128

PARSING

Complete Parsing of each Part of Speech.

XV.

ERRORS

IN

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR

.136

Rules and Examples.

XVI.

ORDER

OF

WORDS

EMPHASIS
of of

AND

ELLIPSIS

144

Natural Emphasis.

Order. Other

Change
Methods

Positions of Emphasis. producing

Order.

Ellipsis: Legitimate and XVII.

Illegitimate.

PUNCTUATION

....."'

.156

The various Stops and their Uses. XVIII.

Capitals.

ENGLISH

IDIOM

...

.166

General Idiom:

OriginallyFigurative,Semi

Special Idiom: Grammatically

-Proverbial. Irregular, Illogical, Elliptical.

Foreign and Obsolete Idiom.

CONTENTS
CMArTEM

xi
PACK

XIX.

THE

USES

OF

WORDS
Words

177

Slang, of similar Form. Provincialisms. Obsolete, Coined, and Colloquialisms, Pleonasm. Brevity and Verbosity. Foreign Words.
Appropriate Words.

Simplicityand Affectation.
XX.

THE

MEANING

AND

STRUCTURE

OF

WORDS Change

187

Synonyms, Antonyms,
in Meaning.

Doublets, Homonyms.

Structure. Prefixesand Suffixes. SPEECH

.
.

XXI.

INDIRECT

197

Rules for Conversion from Direct to Indirect,and the Reverse, with Examples. XXII.

COMPOSITION

THE

SENTENCE

AND

PARAGRAPH

203

Variation Sentence and Paragraph : Length, Qualities. of Types of Sentence. Reconstruction,Condensation, and Synthesis. XXIII.

REPRODUCTION

AND

EXPANSION

219

Reproduction from Prose and Poetry. Outlines.

XXIV.

Expansion

of

PREPARATIONS

FOR

COMPOSITION
of Rules.
.

228

Summary Subject-Matter. XXV.

COMPOSITION
Preparation.

...

Outline.

The

Actual

.235 Composition.

Various Kinds XXVI.

THE

with Outlines.
.

ESSAY

249

Classification.Scope. and Outlines.

XXVII.
THE

Method

of Treatment.

divisions Sub-

LETTER Kinds, Qualities,

....

263

Methods

XXVIII.

INDEXING

AND

PRECIS-

WRITING
Kinds.

271

Index, Precis,Summary.

Essential Qualities

HIGHER
C"*rTU

ENGLISH

XXIX.

ADVANCED

PRECIS

291

Aims and Methods.

Specimen Index and Precis.

.

XXX.

FIGURES

OF

SPEECH

3*4

Definition.

Classification. Discussion of the various

Figures.

XXXI.

PARAPHRASING
Meaning.

...

326

Aim.

Methods.

XXXII.

PROSE
I.
II.

AND

POETRY

335

Prose: Classification.
Poetry
:

Form

and Diction ; Prosody ; Classification. LITERATURE

.
.

APPENDIX

ON

ENGLISH

.353

APPENDIX London from

Matriculation Examination
to

Papers in English,
.

January 1909

June 1915

...

371
422

Matriculation Board Joint

Papers, 1921

Union of Educational InstitutesPapers, 1922 INDEX

.

424

.429

HIGHER

ENGLISH
CHAPTER
I

THE
i. T

ENGLISH

LANGUAGE

is the expression of thought ; hence a study ANGUAGE I ^/ of English will enable us to understand, more fully the thoughts of the best writers than would otherwise be possible, of our language both in the past and in the present. Further,
such

sion study willhelp us to appreciate the beauty of the expresthat of those thoughts. When we reflect
a

We

speak the tongue which Shakspeare

spoke,

literature which, in extent and continuity as well as in excellence,is second to none, we to the conclusion that, if only for this reason, ought to come the English language is worthy of carefulinvestigation.
when
we

remember

that

we

have

Yet this is not the only purpose of a study of this or indeed any language. There is that special kind of trainingwhich is r acquired by a scientificesearch into the principlesunderlying

the language ; and there is the invaluableexperience to be gained in by constant practice the employment of language in composition

exercises. and similar

2. HISTORY
"

One of the most important parts of our work of the vocabulary and conwill therefore be an investigation structio language as itat present exists. In order to be of our
at able to comprehend thispart of our subject all adequately, it be necessary to inquirebrieflyntothe historyof our language i will itsoriginand subsequent modifications, it and the relationship bears to other languages.
"

merely cursory study of

our

words shows

us

that most

of

2
them

HIGHER
resemble words
that many

ENGLISH
we

instance,

very similar to, words languages ; and were

recognise, for as, or of them are either exactly the same in French, German, and other European

in other languages;

we

to

pursue
to a
two

should find resemblances even Now there may have been

the question further, we few Asiatic languages.

tended to produce such a borrowed these words from the other languages; or, all those languages as well as English may have derived theirfundamental original. words from a common We find that both these processes have operated with regard to English.
3. ARYAN
m

processes which, in the past, result Either English may have

FAMILY

OF

LANGUAGES"

Was

there then,

Philologists fact,a parent of all these languages? teach us that there undoubtedly was such a parent language although itis in existence ; itis designated Indo-European or Aryan. not now
From

it various groups of languages have sprung, the chief of Hindu and Persian (forming the East Aryan subwhich are: divisi : and Keltic, Romanic, Hellenic, Slavonic, and Teutonic the (forming West
Aryan

subdivision).

from Romanic, Welsh, Irish,and Manx; Latin and the Romance languages (French, Spanish, Italian, ; etc.) from Hellenic, Greek ; and from Slavonic, Russian and Polish.

From

Keltic

come

4. THE

TEUTONIC
three main

There

are
:"

furtheranalysis. requiresa little classes of languages belonging to this

GROUP

group

(1) Scandinavian,

from

which

sprang

Danish,

Norwegian,

Swedish, and Icelandic ; (2) High German, of which German ;

the modern
are

representative is

(3)Low
Frisian.

German,

from which

derived English, Dutch, and

that English is a member of the Low German classof languages and therefore bears the closest relation to the other members that class" Frisian and Dutch ; of
"

5. ENGLISH

Thus

we

see

THE
"

ENGLISH

LANGUAGE
"

the that this class,in turn, is part of a larger class or group Teutonic and therefore fallsinto line with German and the Scandinavian languages ; and that,finally, thisgroup is one of the

members of a great family of languages which includes the Latin few Asiatictongues. languages, Greek, Russian, Keltic, and some
6. These thus :
"

results may

be neatly exhibited in Tabular Form,

INDO-EUROPEAN

West

Aryan

East Aryan

Greek Russian Polish

1111
French Italian Spanish
Portuguese

r~
Low German

~T~
High German

~i
Scandinavian

II

I
German

I.
Danish

I
Norwegian

I
Swedish

I
Icelandic

h
English Dutch
Frisian

The

the direct descent of English from the to master this common original. The student is recommended table as it exhibits the relationshipof English to the various in a clear and striking manner languages ancient and modern

double lines mark

"

"

coming from the arrived in this country in the north of Germany and Denmark fifthcentury, they naturally brought with them their language; and and as they gradually extended their conquests and more
7. EARLY

ENGLISH

"

When

our

ancestors

4
more

HIGHER
our

ENGLISH
became

of their kindred settled here, their language

the

language of

land,and ithas, with modifications, occupied that

positionever since. It may be remarked that our forefatherswere not all of one language, tribe and consequently did not speak exactly the same still remain in the dialects of our and traces of the differences For example, the English of Yorkshire or present tongue. Somerset or Norfolk differs considerably from true English the
"

of standard of which must naturally be that of the best literature modern times. To this the English spoken by the educated of citizen London and Dublin most nearly corresponds.

English is derived from the name to the Angles who seem of one of the tribesof our ancestors have been the most powerful during the early years of the
8. DIALECTS"

The

term

"

"

name of Old English is given to the conquest. The collective : were three main dialects our forefathers. These dialects of West Saxon the language of the South of England. This (1) l was the literaryanguage ; in itmost of the extant monuments of were our early prose literature written.
"
"

the language of the North of England and South of Scotland,in which most of the poetry of Early English
Northumbrian (2)
"

was

the Midland dialect Curiouslyenough, itis from Mercian mainly and not, as might have been expected, from West Saxon, that English has been due to three derived. This is no doubt in great measure
"

written. (3)Mercian

or

causes

:
"

became of greater and the surrounding districts and greaterimportance from the tenth century onwards, and the Mercian dialectwas dominant there, (2)The grammar of Mercian became simplifiedto a greater degree than that of the other dialects, and ithad also appropriated

(1)London

considerable number of useful foreign words. So that ithad doubtless become the easiest and most useful dialect for conversati hence finally formed the basis of the written it and
a

language also.

THE

ENGLISH

LANGUAGE

5
in this else to

"the well of English undefiled,"wrote dialectin its later form, and helped more than anyone fixitas the standard written English.

(3)Chaucer

Fundamentally, then, our language 9. MODERN ENGLISH" is the lineal descendant of the Old English of, we will say, the of King Alfred; but in realitywe find that our present .time tongue shows on the face of it a great divergence from the language of that period, both in actual vocabulary and in the form of itswords. An examination of the words of our language as found in a dictionary reveals the fact that less than half of our words can be traced to Old English sources, although in the language of everyday life more the words used are of such than three-quarters of find that the Grammar particularlythe origin. Further, we
"

inflection of the various parts of speech has been vastly s simplifiedince the days of King Alfred. We must now inquire i briefly nto the cause ; of these discrepancies and we shall find that it lies in the second process of development mentioned in "2.
"

A casual examination 10. INFLUENCES ON ENGLISH" of the words in a dictionaryshows us not merely that there are less distant resemblances to words of other or certain more languages for thismight be accounted for by the common origin
"

of all the languages but that certain words are obviouslycoined from Greek and Latin, whilst others appear to be eitherFrench words or undoubtedly taken from French words. Modern English is in fact a composite language, and contains many elements
"

besidesthose of native origin. Various influences were at various brought to bear upon English,and all lefta greateror less periods
trace upon

or

it; of these the chief is Latin. During no less than four periods the Latin language directly indirectlymodified the English language to a considerable

extent

11. EARLY (i)When added many

LATIN
the Romans words

INFLUENCES"
were

in possession of Britain they to the British language (now Welsh), some

HIGHER

ENGLISH

few of which found theirway into the language of our victorious Some Latin terms had also been borrowed by our ancestors. dwelling on the Continent. Latin forefatherswhen they were influenceof this period survives mainly in the names of places, in a few more or e.g.Chester,Gloucester, Winchester, and also less militarywords, e.g.colony, port, street, mile. Owing to the Eeintroduction of Christianity into this (2) part connected country by Augustine, many words, for the most
of foreign with the Church, but also educative words and names things,were gradually added to the language. Some of these from Greek. originally words came
Examples : altar, candle, creed, priest, clerk, school ; oyster, pear, elephant, inch, purple, crown.

12. INDIRECT

LATIN

INFLUENCE

THROUGH

MAN-FRENC NOR-

the two centuries succeeding the Norman Conquest, the English language had a hard struggle for existence; it was indeed a question whether it could survive the stern opposition

(3)During

That itdid survive, offeredto it by the Norman-French. and to as great an extent as it did, is remarkable, and the fact can only

be regarded as one more instanceof the dogged perseverance of the English character. But the language that emanated from the struggleand at last received authority from King and Court as English was much changed, mainly, it must be confessed,to its in advantage, and thischiefly two ways :"

(a)English

had

been

highly

language, inflected

i.e.it had

endings for gender, number, case, voice,mood, tense, and person, as just German has to this day ; most of these, we find,dropped out during thisperiod.
large number of Norman-French words enriched the language. These dealt chieflywith war and the Feudal System, hunting, law, and home-life.
courage, honour, noble, squire, homage, battle, chivalry, forest, course, venison ; case, counsel, damages, judge, defendant; language, feast, spouse, cousin, mutton justice, affection,
arms

A (")

Examples:
; chase,

pork.

THE
13. LATER

ENGLISH
LATIN

LANGUAGE

INFLUENCE"

(4)The
movement

great impetus given to learning by the Renaissance of the fifteenthand sixteenth centuriescaused a considerab Latin as well as Greek to be drafted number of words
"
"

into our
It may words
from

language, words chieflyrelatingto culture and science. be here remarked that this tendency has operated indefini operating: new since that period and indeed is still

are

formed

as

required for
sources.

new

inventions, etc., chiefly

than
2000

Latin and Greek

More

words

have

been added to the language in this manner. 14. OTHER INFLUENCES" (a)Keltic As might be expected, some Welsh words were added to the language of the conquerors; they were, however, Some were are: also borrowed later. Examples very few.
"

knoll, lad, lass, wed, pool. Scandinavian The partial conquest of England by the Danes (b) added a few words ; but as the Danish tongue was already closely
"

table, 6),he resultwas, in the main, rather " t relatedto our own (see in the form of the words than the introductionof enan alteration tirely Examples of new words are : they, are, skill. new words. Allusion has alreadybeen made to the influenceof Greek (c) Greek during the Renaissance and since (" ; and many Greek
"

13)

words French.
from

were

introduced even
We

indirectly hrough Latin and t earlier

(d)Miscellaneous
many Words

have words in our language derived have almost every existing language; in particular,we words from Modern French, German, Italian, and Spanish.
"

borrowed in recent times frequently remain unchanged form, e.g.French tete-a-tete, menu, etc.
15. PERIODS English Language

in

OF
may

ENGLISH
be

thfe History of the conveniently divided into three

"

Thus

periods :
"

period, up to about noo, when the free from foreign elements, language was comparatively pure, i.e. and when the grammar was that of a highly inflectedlanguage like German or Latin.

(1)The

Old

English

(2)The

Middle

English period, from

noo

to

1500, when

8
the language
was

HIGHER

ENGLISH

the grammar gradually freed from inflections, tended simplified,and the vocabulary considerably modified and exinfluence. by Norman-French

English period, from 1500, during which the unaltered though it has been grammar has remained practically definitely fixedand established and the vocabulary much more

(3)The

Modern

"

"

has

been gradually enriched by borrowings from

very varied

sources.

from day to day added to ENGLISH. Words MODERN are : our language; they are obtained chiefly in the following manner directly : e.g.Umlaut Foreign words borrowed ; trek (German) (i) ; (Boer) brochure, ennui (French). (a)Words coined from Greek or Latin to express new ideas in science terms for inventions : e.g. inertia, motor or new ; graph, (Latin) teleion, allotropy, isomerism ; (Greek) bicycle, automobile Latin, partly Greek). (partly ventors (3)Words from names of men, especially great discoverers or inNOTE
ON
"

"

: e.g. galvanism, boycott, quixotic. from (4)Words compounded

voltaic, ohm,

marconigraph,

tram,
a

specialised meaning

other English words often with blackleg, football, toad-in-the-hole. e.g.

few remarks about the English Alphabet may not be out of place here. The 26 letters which Alphabet are divided into Vowels and Consonants. compose the A vowel is a sound that can be uttered by itself.The vowels
A
are

16. THE

ALPHABET"

a, e,

i, o,

u.

A consonant

with a vowel. the alphabet with the exception of w and y, which are called they semi-vowels (i.e. can be used either as consonants or Of the letters present forming our alphabet, 22 were at vowels). in existence in Old English,and in addition there were two letters
lor

isa sound that can only be uttered in conjunction The consonants include the remaining letters of

the sound th.

Q and
z were

J and v, consonantal forms of i and u respectively, introduced later; and k was also rare in Old

English. It may be remarked that our alphabet is extremely imperfect. (i)It is Redundant. The letterc is useless,as itssound may be represented by k and 8 ; similarly kw, ks or gs or z. q and x (a)It is Defective. There are 43 sounds in English, each of which should properly have a separate letter to denote it. As
=

THE

ENGLISH

LANGUAGE

"

letters have to do duty for several sounds. there are but 26, some There are, for instance,no single letters for the simple sound ch

in cheek,nor for that of zh as in1 pleasure (there represented falsely by lettera, again, does duty for several sounds, as ; the
as

s)

in fate,father,fat,fall, farther.

(3)It is Inconsistent.
:

The

same

in e.g. the words *ve, rec"ve, To remedy these imperfections, phonetic orthography, i.e. spellingaccording to sound, has been proposed; but without

sound is differently represented belzVve, kave, meet.

discussingthe merits of such systems, it may be remarked that besides concealing,in most cases, all traces of the historyof the language, any new signs would be extremely inconvenient,seeing
that not only the literature England but practically that of all of Europe is written in accordance with the present system.

OF OUR LANGUAGE We may claim for English that it possesses one in qualitypre-eminently, which it excels all other languages, viz. the extent and varietyof itsvocabulary. No language has appropriated
"

17. THE

MERITS

AND

DEFECTS

Hence varied sources. the language is extremely rich,and therefore very well adapted for the expression of thought of every description. Then, too, its is comparatively easy; the modes of marking gender, grammar later, extremely simple, number, case, etc., are, as will be seen
so

to itsuse

many

words from

so

owing to the almost entireabsence of inflections the construction ; in English is, in French, straightforward as of sentences and terse p and yet capable of artisticerfection. Having said this, we back must confess that there is one great drawits spelling. It follows from what to the English language
"

has been said in " 16 that this isin no small measure due to the imperfections of our alphabet; and, besides,certain words are e.g.phthisis, psalm, plough. This makes spelt quite irregularly,
l difficultanguage to the foreigner; although in other respects itisdecidedly easierto learn than most languages.

English

CHAPTER

II
SENTENCE
ex-

GRAMMAR
18.

AND

THE

f^ RAM MAR consists of a logical statement and VJT planation of the rules and principleswhich govern
we

our

should probably begin important words. with the creation of certain fundamental and late But before we had proceeded far,itwould be necessary to formucertain rules which should govern both the construction of the language and the formation of secondary or derived words. It would be
our

language at the present time. If we were to invent a new language

aim to make

these rules

general application as possible; and we proceeded further in the development

simple and of as should take care as we of the language that all

as

conformed thereto. words and constructions strictly But in the case of a language already in existence like English, Grammar comes not before the language, but after it. Such creationof Grammar as that described above is impossible; we have to take the language as we find it, and our grammatical rules must be drawn up in accordance with the employment of language by the best modern writers. the

19. METHOD
is necessarily an

OF

GRAMMAR"

Thus

English Grammar

The material on which the has to work is the language as spoken and student of Grammar ; written his task is to examine as many and as varied specimens as possible, and from these to try and discover the general laws underlying the language.

Inductive Science.

And when such laws of the constituting the Grammar Language definitely are formulated, they serve at least two
" "

useful purposes: (i)They teach

"

us

what is correct

and what

is incorrectin the

GRAMMAR
language, and

AND
hence help
us

THE
to

SENTENCE

11

speak and write correctly and

without ambiguity. They aid in the preservationof the language in its present (2) settledform and check any influenceswhich may tend to degrade it, such as slang or Americanisms.
20. DIVISIONS
treatment
:
"

OF

GRAMMAR"

Grammar

includesin its

Accidence, (1)
an

of which deals with the classification words and examination of theirforms and the changes in those forms for

various purposes. Syntax, which consists of a methodical summation of the (2) rules and principlesgoverning the construction and arrangement of of words in sentences, and an enquiry into the relationship the

words in such sentences. (3)Orthography and Orthoepy, which deal with the correct spellingand pronunciation of words. On this part of the subject we shallonly be able to touch incidentally. It is difficult and not always desirableto draw a hard and fast line between these divisionsof Grammar t particularly he first for both syntax and accidence of a part of speech may often two be best treated together. The use of words in composition, in fact, helps to illustrate their form and to explain their classification
"

"

; and frequentlyitalso explains theirspelling.

It is one of the prerogativesof the SENTENCE" human race that individuals can utter their ideas to others bythey means of speech. By a further development of civilisation, are enabled to explain their thoughts intelligibly not only in this 21. THE
manner

are

but also by a system of written signs,provided such signs understood by allto whom they are presented.
we

write our thoughts are expressed by means of sentences rather than by separatewords. In dealing then, our first aim must be to understand clearly with Grammar thought the sentence reallyis. what this instrument of human A Sentence may be defined as the expressionof a single thought.
speak
or

When

when

we

"

"

22. PARTS
main

OF

SENTENCE"
a

We
"
"

find that there are

two

elements present in

sentence

12

HIGHER
denoting what
we

ENGLISH
are

(1)Words
Subject.

talkingor writing about" the

(2)Words
"

cussion denoting what we say about the thing under disthe Predicate. Logically, ponents then, every sentence fallsnaturally into itstwo comthe Subject and the Predicate ; and for the present we
"

shallkeep to these two main divisions.

23. THE

SIMPLE

SENTENCE"

only

one

calleda It may be the expression of : : (1)An assertion (a)Man walks. (b)They have not gone. (2)A question : (a)Has he spoken ?
"

simple statement, Simple Sentence.

contains remarks, it is without any subsidiary

sentence

When

(3)A

command
exclamation :

(4)An
If
we

(b)Have they not replied? (a)Go ! (b)Do not obey ! (a)Long livethe king ! (b)May those men never want

bread !

examine these sentences we shalleasilybe able to perceive the two logicalelements mentioned in the lastparagraph.
are
we

The making? is that some answer person or thing walks. The word walks is Further we ask : About therefore the Predicate of the sentence. is that or what is this statement The answer whom made?
it
is
man

Take the first sentence : Man walks. We ask ourselves: What statement

who

walks.

Man

is therefore the
:

of Subject
want

the

sentence.

Again in the last sentence

May

those men
"

never

bread 1

ifwe ask the same questions we see : That we are talkingabout those men (Subject). (i) (a)That we are wishing that they may never want

bread

(Predicate).
24. LOGICAL
sentences

ANALYSIS"
on

TABULAR

FORM"

The other
:
"

may

the

same

principlebe subdivided thus

GRAMMAR

AND

THE

SENTENCE

13

25.

NOTES

ON

THE

ABOVE

ANALYSIS"

(i) With

30: and 3^ expressing command^ it will reference to sentences be noticed that the Subjectolumn is left blank. The words c thou or you are, of course, understood in such sentences and may be suppliedwithin brackets by the student.

and 2b denoting a question, we see that the : as if the sentence were affirmative analysisis exactly the same 1 as thus Has he spoken is analysed just He has spoken.
In (2)
sentences
20,

it will be observed that the Subject precedes the Predicate ; this is usually the case in English. There are, however, exceptions,one of which is exemplified in In (3)
most sentences

sentence

40, Long livethe King! ; whilstin

two

2a

and 2b

we

find the

between Subject
26. FURTHER

parts of the Predicate. EXAMPLES"

We

give two rather In these, more of complicated illustrations the simple sentence. and several the Predicate ; the rule severalwords form the Subject to be observed is that in analysing them allwords connected with or the main idea of the Subject of the Predicate must be placed
shallnow w respectivelyith each. in The soldiers the town were unable to obtain the necessary (a) in provisions time. Using the tests of " 23 we see that : in We (1) are talkingabout the soldiers the town. We (2) are saying concerning them that they were unable to in provisions time. obtain the necessary
"
" "

(b)This

man,

admired by the whole nation^ eventually died

"

martyr to his cause.

we On reflection shallperceive: is That whilstthe main subject this man, the words admired (i) by the whole nation are closelybound up with this man ;

14

HIGHER
consequently the

ENGLISH
is: subject This
man

admired

by tht

whole nation. (2)In a similarmanner, eventuallydied a

the Predicate consistsof the words martyr to his cause.

"

proceed any further it will be necessary to of with the subject analysis of sentences, investigate the classification words into Parts of Speech, as of We shall then be in a position to judgeof they are called.
27. PARTS

OF

SPEECH

Before

we

and Predicate consist,and to what kind of words the Subject accordingly, subdivide them grammatically. This classification, forms the of subject our next chapter. The student should note that the elementary analysis of a
which has at present been given is logical rather than logical,grammatical grammatical ; although as grammar is itself follow the of analysis, which we shallshortlytreat, will essentially laid down up to the present,and will seek to amplify principles
sentence

and extend them.

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

II.

? Explain its chief subdivisions. What is meant by Grammar 2. In what of of a modern way should the subject the Grammar language be approached ? 3. What is meant by a sentence ? What different forms of thought may a simple sentence express ? 4. Analyse logically into Subject and Predicate : The men laughing. 1 were 2\ We are seven. 3) Do not go yet. 4) May I be there to see 1 (5) Give me that money. Have they asked him that question ? (7)They all decided to leave the country. (8)A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. (9)A penny saved is a penny gained. Most of our friends agree with us. An honest tale speeds best. 12) A thing of beauty is a joy for eve*.
"

(6)

nj Iio)

CHAPTER
THE 28.
PARTS

III

OF

SPEECH

T)ARTS
are

There

are classes into which words are OF SPEECH divided according to their use in speech or writing. tive, eight Parts of Speech : Noun, Verb, Pronoun, Adjec-

Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and

29. THE

Interjection.

have already referred (" 22) to the fact that when man speaks he says something concerning some to the person or thing. His natural desire is to give Names mate he sees around him, whether they be animate or inani-

NOUN"

We

objects
;

remains applicableonly to one he or particular object to others like it. One object calls tree, another river,a third John. Words like these which are names, we call Nouns. [Lat. and
once

fixed, each

name

The term Objects,for the present, used to include Persons, i NOTE. In Things, and Qualities. later chapters, the same is term Places, of employed in a differentsense for the object a Verb ; but no ambiguity is likely to result from its present application.
"

uses again, man words for what he : he fall. says concerning objects says that they walk, move, shine, for thispurpose are generally the most important Words employed [Lat. words in the sentence : hence they are called Verbs.

30. THE

VERB

"

Then,

verbum

word.]
PARTS

With these two kinds of words we could express our ideas,though it is true indeed ; that with these alone conversation would be very difficult we should be obliged to repeat ourselves over and over again, our then failto make meaning clear. It will be and even other explained presently how, in order to avoid these difficulties, Parts of Speech are employed ; the point here to be emphasised
31. FUNDAMENTAL

OF

SPEECH"

16
isthat man

HIGHER

ENGLISH

absolutely be merely convenient. A combination of these

did manage with these in could manage, and probably times. The Noun and the Verb are thereforedesignated primitive Parts of Speech. It is an open the Essential or Fundamental in first primitivetimes; question as to which of the two originated both seem to be according to our mode of thought, at all events, to necessaryto any language, whilst other parts seem
two

Parts of Speech

constitutes the

flow trees ; e.g.John walks ; rivers simplest form of a sentence: Here the logicalSubject and Predicate are represented in fall. theirsimplestforms as Noun and Verb respectively.
32. THE

the

same

To avoid the constant repetition PRONOUN" of in ordinary conversation, small words are emnames ployed have once been instead of those names when they
or are

understood by those concerned without being mentioned. Such words stand in the place of Nouns, and are thereforecalledPronouns. [Lat. pro in the place mentioned,
=

of.]

Consider thissentence : 11 Mrs Jones met the gentleman who dined with her yesterday; and as soon as she recognised him, she spoke to him. She did
"

thison the impulse of the moment." Pronouns Here the words in italics are Without these we should be obliged to say :
"

of various kinds.

the gentleman dined with Mrs the gentleman man, recognised the gentle/onesesterday and as soon as Mrs Jones y Mrs Jones Mrs Jones spoke to the gentleman. spoketo the gentleman on the impulse of the moment."
"

Mrs

met Jones
"

"

simplicity and economy with the second are obvious.

The

sentence of the first

as

compared

The most are those commonly used Pronouns Personal, viz. : I, thou, he, she, it,we, you, they.

which

are

called

("121.)

33. THE
class of

A ADJECTIVE the objects, members

"

( certain characteristicse.g. man),

being assigned to a certain of which resemble each other in it becomes necessary to add
name

one individual the class from another, or words to distinguish of to describea particularspecimen more fully. Thus men may be

THE
divided into tall men men men ; into stupid
or

PARTS
and short

OF
men

SPEECH
; into

17
and dark

fairmen

Words added to to discriminate the

=

and clevermen ; and so forth. Nouns for thispurpose, viz.to describefurther

named objects
are

termed Adjectives.

[Lat added to.] adjectivum

It should be noted that in thus adding meaning in two ways :
"

we Adjectives affectthe

We (1)

describe the

more object

fully or increase the intension

implies a being having certainwell-known charac The word man are describing we ; teristicsbut when we speak of a short dark man fullyby adding two more our qualities. much more

object

At (2) the same time we extension. The word man beings denoted by that name

limit its application or applies to the enormous

decrease the

number of
man

; whereas the words short dark

apply to

comparatively small number ADVERB" As the

so we

of those beings.

34. THE
a

is Adjectivethus used

need words to " The man Speech, particularlythe Verb. Thus when we say : walks," the verb walks applies to a certain well-known action If,however, we want to express something performed by man. we may say that he walks about the walking of a particular man
or

Noun

Pronoun,

qualify qualifyother Parts oj

to

or quicklyor slowly ; or he walks often here. Words thus added to to Verbs (and other Parts of Speech) extend their meaning are The remarks made with reference to increase termed Adverbs.

of intensionand decrease of extension by equally applicableto Adverbs.

35. THE
between
two

(" Adjectives 33)are

PREPOSITION"

which objects

are

indicate the relationship way, we use connected in some

To

yet another Part of Speech. For instance,we see before us a to express some book and a table, and we want connection We say accordingly : the book is on the table, between them. the table. the book is under the table, or the book is near

Words

thus placed before a Noun to indicatethe relationship are other object, termed n which the objectamed bears to some Prepositions. [Lat. praepositum placed in front
=

of.]
we

36. THE
"

CONJUNCTION"

In the

same

way

employ

18

HIGHER

ENGLISH

class of words to indicate the relationshipbetween two thoughts, the expression of those and hence to connect two sentences thoughts with each other. Thus we say : He arrived but was too late; he went out and soon returned.
"

"

Words

tions. sentences together are termed Conjuncjoin a [Lat. together.] conjunct" joining
which thus
=
"

It must be observed that Conjunctions also connect word* came ; his house well as sentences, e.g. the man and the woman between the church and the school. stands
as

NOTE.

Lastly, there are certain exclamato in our language such as : alas ! oh! ah! which words are called Interjections. Lat. thrown intcrjectum [ among.] Strictly speaking, these words are not Parts of Speechat all, for they are only a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal ;

37. THE

INTERJECTION"

"

they do not, in fact, represent any thought at all,as do other Parts of Speech, but are rather the expression of feeling or They have been called " the miserable refuge of the emotion.

speechless." Yet, down as part of our

Part of Speech. 38. TABULAR

as

they are actually words and are written language, it seems best to class them as a

FORM

OF
Noun

THE

PARTS

OF
"

SPEECH"

The Parts of Speech may be roughly tabulated thus :

Essential
: I.
2.
, r

Verb

I
Convenient Emotional
: :

L_

~~i i Pronoun Preposition Adjective Interjection.

r
Adverb

"i
Conjunction

form roughly indicates the development of the Parts of Speech from the two fundamental parts. It must be remembered, however (as be further illustrated later that a will on), Preposition now not joins only Nouns but also other Parts of

Such

Speech

together, and that an Adverb modifies other Parts of Speech than Verbs, though these are theirmain functions.

"

PARTS OF SPEECH OF THE It is frequently impossibleto determine what Part of Speech a word is,when itis isolated. As has been previously mentioned, it is the sentence which is the expression of 'human thought, and

39. DISCRIMINATION

THE

PARTS

OF

SPEECH

19

itis from thisthat we must work. This is especially necessary in the discrimination the Parts of Speech, for in English more of than in any other language the same word may represent different For instance, Parts of Speech, according to its use in the sentence.
we

may have the sentences : (1)Black is a colour. A (2) black man was present.
"

my boots at once ! instance, black is the name In the first of something, and is thereforea Noun ; in the second, itdescribesman, and is thus an it Adjective in the third, gives a command, and is therefore a ;

(3)Black

Verb. 40. ELEMENTARY

PARSING"

The

various words statingthe Part of Speech of each, is

Parsing.

to their classes, i.e. picking out

an

process of assigning the words and elementary form of

In learning to do this,the student should ask himself the

questions : Which words in the given sentences say something about an (1) These will be Verbs; they generally denote an action
"

object?

or

state of existence.

These will be Nouns. It may words are names? be noted that the Adjectives the can generally be mentally a or supplied before Nouns, ifnot already present.
Which (2)

These willbe words stand in theplace a Nounl of Pronouns ; they are usually very short words. Which words are used with a Noun to describe in some it (4) way ? These willbe Adjectives. its worlk are used with a Verb to modify meaning? These will be Adverbs ; they tellus when, why, where, or how concerning the Verb. Which words join a Noun to some other word ? These will (6)
Which (5)

Which (3)

; generallybe Prepositions they usually precede the Noun. Sentences'! These willbe Conjunctions. (7)Which words join

words appear to express no thought but rather a These will be Interjections are usually followed ; they feelingl by an exclamation mark (!).

Which (8)

20
41. EXAMPLE
sentence
:

HIGHER
OF
The head

ENGLISH

of

Take the PARSING" the firm immediately asked the poor man

ELEMENTARY

the whether he would accept small salary. The words asked, would accept make

statements

they

are

Verbs. Nouns. : they are man, Heady firm, of objects salary are names He stands forpoor man, and is thus a Pronoun. : The poor and small describe man and salary respectively
they are Adjectives. Immediately tellsus something about the asking, viz.when done : itis therefore an Adverb. was it
he

Whether
.

t joinshe
"

sentences
a

"

The

head

man

"

and

"

salary

itis thus

Conjunction.
a

Of connects

thefirmwith the head, and is thus

EXERCISES ON

Preposition.

CHAPTER

IIL

Explain Parts of Speech? Which are are 1. What essential? briefly their origin. 2. Discuss the advantages of the Pronoun gained by the employment in a language. and the Adjective ? tions Prepositions and Conjunctions Explain what funcare 3. What they perform in the language. 4. Write sentences containing the following words, and state what in your sentences : in, pen, long, stand, Parts of Speech they are
good,
now, as 5. Form sentences showing each of the words light and fast three iron doubt, fleet, different parts of speech ; and each of the words hope, different parts. as two 6. Name the Parts of Speech of each word in the following sentences

if, ship.

:
"

(2)'Tis better

Our ji)

pleasant Willy ah ! is dead of late. to have loved and lost than

never

to have loved

at all. They soon agreed to the conditions he proposed. Fine feathers make fine birds. (4) (5)I hope that you understand the meaning of this chapter. Name the Parts of Speech of each word in Question of Chapter ii. 7. 4 8. Classify the words in the following passage according to the parts of speech they are used for in it : Lo I here the gentle lark, weary of rest, From his moist cabinet mounts up on high, And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast The sun ariseth in his majesty. Show that the words be used for printed in italics in these lines can other Parts ol Speech besides those they represent here.

(3)

"

CHAPTER
ANALYSIS
42. A

IV SENTENCE

OF

THE

SIMPLE

i.e. their subdivision NALYSIS OF SENTENCES, in*0 various parts, forms an important part of our jf~\. For, in the first so. place, it is an study of English, and rightly a excellentexercisefor the mind ; it teaches us to be criticalnd logical, and compels us to use our reasoning facultiesat every

nected, point. Further,Analysis, likeParsing,with which itiscloselyconis the handmaid of Grammar we proper. By its means may discover for ourselves the mutual relationsof the various
elements of sentences, and thisshould lead to a clear conception of the importance and correctness of every word we speak or write. With such a knowledge of English we are largelyconcerned.
43. Before passing on to a more detailedexamination of each Part of Speech, we shallthereforedeal with thisimportant
"

subject

tence of Analysis. It has already been shown that the Simple Senis capable of Logical Analysis into two parts Subject and Predicate. inquire of what each of these divisionsmay consist,and shall then proceed to develop our Analysis one stage further*,
We shall now
44. THE

SUBJECT

consists of
runs.

Noun

or

its Equivalent.

The latter may be :" A (1) Pronoun : e.g.He

An (2) Adjective a Noun : e.g.The wise man acts thus. and o (3)An Infinitiver Gerund : e.g.To obey isbetterthan sacrifice. " : (4)A Phrase (see 48) e.g.Early to bed is a good maxim. 45. THE

PREDICATE

is the part of

sentence

which is

absolutelyessential. A sentence may occur without a Subject, isin e.g.Go away t or L?.thim ,-ome to me / although the Subject

22
such
cases

HIGHER
always implied
or

ENGLISH

understood. There are instances in but in such which a sentence exists without a Predicate ("190); itcan always be readilysupplied. The main part of the cases No other Parts of Predicate must always be a Finite Verb.

Speech

can

take its place. Concerning this term

few words

of explanation are necessary.

limited at The word Finite means VERB" 46. THE FINITE bounded as contrasted with Infinite unlimited,unbounded. A Finite Verb is one which makes a definitestatement which ExclamaCommand, or tion. an Assertion,Question, " may be (see
"

23)

It is called Finite because it is limited with regard to personand number; thus, the FiniteVerb wishes can only refer to he or she (the 3rd person, singularnumber). An Infinite Verb, on the other hand, refers to no definite at Subject all and consequently has no number or person. It

includesthree parts of the Verb : The Infinitive Mood : e.g.to err, to have decided, to be (1) forgiven. It can in most cases be recognised by being preceded by the Prepositionto. Present and Past : e.g. admiring, forgiven. The Participles, (2)
"

These usually end in -ingand -d or -n respectively. (3)The Gerund : e.g.reading. It always ends in -ing. important for the student to grasp the fact that by none of the infinite partsof the Verb are sufficient themselves to form the Predicate of a Sentence because they do not make a statement, " Admiring us anything. E.g. or, in other words, do not tell 47. It is most
us tells nothing by itselfwe naturallyexpect some ; "... statement to follow such as: shows good taste." This additioncontains a Finite Verb : shows.

pictures

."

A group of words which does not PHRASE contain a Finite Verb, and which therefore does not form a Phrases may be classified sentence, is called a Phrase. according as they are equivalent to : (1)A Noun : e.g. What to do next was the question. : (2)An Adjectivee{. A bird in the hand is worth two in tht 48. THE
" "

teft,

ANALYSIS
An (3)

OF
:

SIMPLE

SENTENCE

23

Adverb

e.g.His businessbeing done, he returned.

A PREDICATE" simple Verb may, however, sentence containsonly one FiniteVerb ; this of consist several words, e.g.We were being entertained. Besides Verb, the Predicate may contain other words requisiteto the These may be : complete the meaning of the sentence.

49. COMPLETION

OF

THE

"

A (i)An Object (2) ;

Complement;
If
someone

An (3) says :
"

Extension.
He

50. THE
"

OBJECT"
.

had

..."

or

naturallywait for a conclusion to the sentence; he had something (e.g. : money, a book) he hit somebody or something Verbs which thus require a the (e.g. boy or the table). Noun or its equivalent to complete their sense are called
.

He hit

."

we

Transitive, because the action implied by the Verb passes over to following [Lat. the person or thing denoted by the Noun transitum passed and the latter is called the Object
="

over];

to the

Verb. " When, however, someone He laughed" or " He slept," says : do not wait for any conclusion, we because none is necessary : the statements made are complete in themselves. Verbs which thus
are Object

requireno
51. THE

termed Intransitive.
There
an

COMPLEMENT"
or
:

are

although they do not require

as Object

also Verbs which, above defined,yet do

some

requiresome word Thus if we say

phrase to complete theirsense. " "He He seems was or ."

.
.

..."

other words are evidentlynecessary to make sense ; thus we might " " " he was king" or " he seems say : He was happy or unhappy." The words which are added to such a Verb are called the Complement of the Verb. It should be noticed that there is a fundamental differencebetween an Object and a Complement.
In the sentence:
He

hit the boy, the words the boy (object) necessarilyrefer to a different person from the word he (subject) ; whereas in the sentence : He was king, the words he and king refer to the same person. There are one or two exceptions to thisstatement, e.g."He hithimself (object) " I am glad that and I am but the explanation of such not you" (complement); is obvious. exceptions

24
52. THE

HIGHER

ENGLISH

OF THE PREDICATE EXTENSION consistsoi Adverb or Adverbial Phrase which modifies the meaning of an " Thus we say : " He laughs and then proceed to the Verb. fully; thus we may mention how, describe this laughter more when, where, or why he laughs, e.g.
He He laughs loudly (manner).

laughs all day (time). He laughs in school (place).

He
53. ANALYSIS
"

laughs at thejoke (reason).

Our primary logical division of a sentence into Subject be further developed ; we and Predicate may now shall henceforth analyse a Simple Sentence into:
"

1.

2.

3.
For brevitywe

Subject. Verb (and Complement, if Object, any.

if

any).

4. Extension of the Predicate, ifany.

shall name Object,nd Extension. a 54. EXAMPLES

P these divisionsSubject,redicate,

OF
saw
our

ANALYSIS"
dearly. friends
to

(a)The
We
must
we

men

Next,

first find the Verb. This is easily seen saw. ask who saw ? Answer : the men

be

: saw. men

The

is

therefore the Subject. Then we put the further question : whom or what was it that Answer : the men saw our friendsObject). the men saw? ( Lastly,what does the word clearlytell us ? It evidently says
something concerning the Verb friends. Clearly is therefore an During (b)
saw^

viz. how the men Extension of Manner.

was

saw

oui

thisperiodthe beloved king

insane.

Using the same tests we as the Verb, and the pick out was beloved king as the Subjectf the Sentence. o
part of the Sentence is the word insane? It is not the because itrefersto the same Object, person as king ; itcompletes the sense of was (part the verb to be)and is therefore the of Complement. Lastly,the words during this periodtell us when the king was insane,and therefore form an Extension of Time.
What

ANALYSIS
55. We

OF

SIMPLE

SENTENCE

25

append a few Specimens of Analysis in Tabular Form. For the sake of clearness,the Tabular form is recommended at thiselementary stage of Analysis.
Sentences
:

A.

B. C. D. E. F.

I pause for a reply. Send him away at once ! A new broom sweeps clean. The young man showed great abilityin his work. is a king. Among the blind the one-eyed man Antony praised Brutus, the noblest of them all.

have preferred to postpone the consideration of certain in difficulties the Analysis of a Simple Sentence to a laterchapter
56. We
on

because at the present stage they would Analysis (Chap,iii.), x only perplex the beginner. Their solution will be much more easily understood aftera study of the interveningchapters. The examples for Analysis given at the end of thischapter are therefore for the most part of an elementary character.
EXERCISES ON
CHAPTER

IV.

manner 1. In what may the Predicate of a sentence be completed ? Give examples. form the Subject or 2. What Object of a sentence ? Give may instances. 3. Explain the difference between a Finite and an Infinite Verb. Pick out all the Infinite Verbs hi this set of questions. Give examples of various 4. Distinguish a Phrase from a Sentence. kinds of Phrases. 5. Analyse : (1)His name was handed down to posterity. (2)We have seen his star in the east. having no hope of victory, surrendered. (3^The armv
"

26

HIGHER

ENGLISH

The enthusiastic audience cheered him. No man two masters. can serve The Yorkist leader plucked a white rose from the tree. Why did not the famous general lead his army to victory ? Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. The lion, king of the beasts, was very ill. Are they expecting their old friend to-day ? Close on the hounds the hunter came To cheer them on the vanished game. England, with all thy faults I love thee still. We buried him darkly at dead of night. Once more he stepped into the street. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The Duke of York so dread The eager vaward led. Yet one man for one moment Stood out before the crowd. The fisherleft his skiffto rock on Tamar's glitteringwaves. The dog and man friends. at firstwere Be a hero in the strife1 The leaf has perished in the green. The sports of children satisfy the child. Praise undeserved is scandal in disguise. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. (25) How charming is divine philosophy ! (26)Our acts our angels are, or good or ill. (27)Things ill-gothad ever bad success. To (28) him the mighty mother did unveil Her awful face. The lady strange made answer (29) meet. (30)At the firstplunge the horse sank low. (31)The burning stars of the abyss were hurled Into the depths of heaven. Before their eyes the wizard lay. On thee too fondly did my memory hang. 33) Sadness on the soul of Ida fell. 34) (35)I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers From the seas and the streams.

!32^

6. Analyse, and

of the words king, noble Our lives and safeties all I So work the honey-bees. The unwearied sun from day to day Does his Creator's power display. Thy citiesshall with commerce shine. In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes. A (6) barking sound the shepherd hears. (7)Out of the sea came he 1 The ship is sinking beneath the tide. (9)The spiritsf your fathers o Shall start from every wave I (10)And must thy lyre, so long divine, Degenerate into hands like mine ?

state the Parts of Speech

our

in

italics:"

(i)God prosperlong

J8)

ANALYSIS
(n)

OF

SIMPLE

SENTENCE

27

Fear no more the heat of the sun Nor the winter's furious rages. dazzles in vain. 12} An exile from home splendour The sea, the blue lone sea hath one. 13) (14)Seek'st thou the plashy brink Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide ? by night and day (15)There she weaves A magic web with colours gay.
for practice will be found
at the end

Further examples

of Chapter

xiii.

CHAPTER

NOUNS 5T. A
isthe Name of any NOUN Nouns are the names of
"

of object our

thoughts. Thus

"\,

Smith. (1)Persons: e.g.John, (2)Sets of people : e.g.crowd, jury. (3)Places : e.g.London, England. (4)Things : e.g.book, stone, town. (5)Materials: e.g.gold, leather,oxygen.
: e.g. Qualities beauty,mercy, colour. (6) Actions : e.g. (7) expansion. walking, riding,

(8)States of existence:
58. CLASSIFICATION" for clearness and divisions :
ways;
"

e.g. sickness,health.

in may be classified various consistency we prefer the following

Nouns

I. Concrete
Common. [.2. II. Abstract. of some w objecthich has an John, actual existence whether we are thinking about itor not : e.g. Sets 1-5 of the Nouns in " 57 are all tree, air, crowd. man, Concrete Nouns.
A Concrete Noun is the
name

of something which has no but is only a conception of the mind : actual existence of itself e.g. beauty, holiness,hardness, health. Thus we know that a
An
name

Abstract Noun

is the

flower,a landscape, a face,a pictureare all beautifuldifferent in ways, and hence we form a conception some of qualityunderlying allthese concrete examples ; to this qualitywe give the name of beauty. Sets 6-8 of the Nouns in I 57 arc Abstract Nouns.

NOUNS
59. PROPER

29
to
name

individualobjects
The objects.
"

We NOUNS give names as distinguishedfrom the

"

particular
of
a

or

classof
=

Noun
"

itsown

name

of an object employed as the special name iscalleda Proper Noun. [Lat. proprium own,
Nouns
almost always refer to Persons or by an initial to distinguishthem
Nile, Italy.

belonging

to.]Such
:

Places, and it is customary Capital Letter.

Examples
"

; John,Smith, Jupiter London,

here that although John,for instance, It may be remarked NOTE. individuals, yet when we think or speak of John it is the name of many but of one particular is not in connection with all who bear that name, does not include the general characterindividual : i.e.the name istics John John,but solely those of the man of whom of a set of men named we are thinking. John is therefore a ProperNoun.

Similarly names NOUNS" are 60. COMMON given, as has been said, to classes of and objects, these serve to denote the general characteristicsf the various members o of those classes. individual, Thus the word man denotes not one particular but commonly any specimen of the beings who have the qualities Since a Noun employed for this purpose is to attributed man. it Noun. general in itsapplication, is calleda Common
Examples
:

boat,

man,

school, word, town, foot.

61. There

are

three Special Kinds of Common

:
" "

Nouns

of which

mention must be made CollectiveNouns (1)

names

considered flock,crew.

as

whole. say
:
"

when given to a group of objects Examples : crowd, jury, committee,

" The crowd was noisy," The committee has passed the resolution," the singularVerbs showing that we regard the crowd, the committee,as one object. Nouns of Multitude the same words used distributively. (2)

We

"

concentrated not on the whole but on " The crowd the separate parts of the object Thus we say : " were theiropinions freely," The jurydo not all agree expressing
In thiscase
our

minds

are

with the judge." Nouns of Material (3)

matter

"

names

expressing the substance

or

of which

an

is object made.
:

Examples

cloth, gold, leather, air.

80
62. PROPER

HIGHER
NOUNS

ENGLISH

USED AS COMMON, and vice versa" has When an we (a) times object some specialcharacteristic, someis its name to other apply the Proper Noun which objects It then becomes practically Common Noun. a similarnature. a of
might call a great discoverer "the Columbus 'of " " as a the twentieth century ; or we might speak of someone Venus," if they possessed Samson," or "a Solomon," or "a great wisdom, strength, or beauty. This usage is frequently
Thus
we

found in poetry, e.g.

Here
was a Cessar ; when comes such another ? A Daniel come to judgment1 The Black Prince, that young Mars of men.

Proper Noun Ceesar became Emperors the titleof the Roman hence passed into a Common Noun ; whence the words Czar and and Note that the initialCapital Letter is retained in such cases. Kaiser.
The

specimen of a class becomes extremely important to our minds, the common name at of the class comes length to signify that specimen only, and itconsequently becomes a Proper Noun.
Examples
to (referring
:
a

(")Conversely, ifone

The

Tower

certain A child uses Father with reference to his cases the Noun takes an initialCapital.

(meaning the Tower of London ; The City part of London); The Lord (speaking God). of
own

father.

Note

that in such

63. ABSTRACT

NOUNS
an

USED

AS

CONCRETE

(Proper

and

Common) (a)Sometimes
"

Abstract

then becomes a Proper Noun, Honour; also in:

"

i Qualitys personified: its name the King, His e.g. His Majesty

She sat like Patience on a monument. Wisdom is justifiedher children. of

Peace hath her victories.

Abstract Quality may be applied to then becomes which itespecially suits; itsname a having the qualitiesof e.g. youth ( a man
an
=

Or (")

a
a

classof objects Common Noun,

justice the (of

The
reverse

a ; youth)similarly, the peace), nobility( nobles).

=

process

"

Concrete Noun

becoming

Abstract
"

is

NOUNS
owing to the ease with which be formed from a Concrete,e.g. manliness darkness from dark ; slavery from slave.
very
rare,
"

31
an

Abstract Noun
manhood
from

may
man

or

It is sometimes difficultto decide whether a Noun is Abstract NOTE. In addition to what has been said above, a useful test is : or Concrete. in which it is used be pluralised ? If so, it can the Noun in the sense have no plural Nouns Noun : for Abstract Common has become a = E-g- Tne beauties ( the beautiful things) Nature, our sins of ("73)Nouns. ; both these are Common (= acts of sinful

nature)

and Pronouns are changed eitherin form in to indicatedifferences Gender, Number, and Case.
64. Nouns

or

in

use

grammatical distinctionor In the o classificationf Nouns and Pronouns. Feminine, and languages the Gender (Masculine,
65. GENDER
a
"

is

method

of

o majorityf

is Neuter)

: it quite artificial is based on the form of the words particularly Thus theirendings rather than on their meaning. spoon^fork, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter in are and knife, respectively
"

Neuter in Latin ; German ; year Masculine, table Feminine, war But in English,the book Masculine, pen Feminine in French.
rule, corresponds with the sex of the denoting Males are of the Masculine names object Gender, and those denoting Females of the Feminine Gender , are whilstthose denoting inanimate objects of the Neuter Gender. The Neuter Gender is,strictlypeaking, not a Gender at all in s

Gender

of a word, as denoted. Thus

English, since it merely includes words which fallunder neither the Masculine nor the Feminine Classes, and thus reallycomprises

neuter** words which possess no Gender at all. [Lat. neither. is generally mentioned as existing in English. A fourth Gender Gender, which is applicableto Nouns which This is Common may denote eithermale or female beings, and which may, therefore,

be either Masculine
Examples
:

or
:
: :

Feminine, according to the circumstances,

boy,
actor, gander, king. actress, goose, queen. infant, person, student, sheep, rabbit. book, fire,table, hat.
man,

Masculine Feminine Common Neuter :

girl,woman,

66. REMARKS

ON

the above English Nouns have no

(i)From

GENDER" it will be

that, strictly speaking, Gender at all. The so-called Genders

seen

32
are

HIGHER
not

ENGLISH
as

mere

qualities of the words, sex-names referring to the

objects

in other languages, but represented. The

fore, theremust, word Gender in reference to English Nouns Of the be understood as referring to these sex-names. i o 67),nly the first sgrammatical; modes of marking the Feminine (" of females corresponding to the others merely show the names conception is personified, frequently assumes its name the Masculine or Feminine Gender, in especially poetry. Thus the Sun, Time, the Winds callto mind the idea of strength,and hence are usually accounted Masculine
or object a

those of the males. (2)When an inanimate

Purity, Nature carry with them in English ; the Moon, Justice, f ideas of gentleness or fruitulness, and therefore are frequently a general regarded as Feminine. This, however, is by no means a rule; for instance, ship is spoken of as she, and yet a certain kind of ship is called a

man-of-war.

(3)On the other hand, the Neuter Gender is often assigned to denoting a livingbeing, when no stress is laid on its a Noun Thus we say : actual sex. Where is the baby ? Is it out ? How is your dog ? // is dead.
"

THE MARKING MASCULINE AND In English, there are three general modes of FEMININE marking these Genders: (i)By varying the terminationof a word. Feminines are formed from Masculines in thismanner :
"

67. MODES

OF

"

"

(a)By

addition of Masculine. This is by far the most

:

-ess

with

or

without

change

of

the

common

of the Feminine endings.

Examples

Masculin* host

Feminine
hostess

poet lion
god
actor duko

poetess lioness
goddess
actress

duchess

(d doubled) (o omitted)
(ch for k)

NOUNS
By addition of -ine,and other endings, with -ix,
or

33
without

change.
Examples
:

Masculine
testator executor

Feminine
testatrix executrix

hero
czar

heroine czarina

employing differentwords for Masculine and Feminine. A list the most important may be useful. of

(2)By

By (3)

employing compound

words,

one

of which has gender

Masculine grandfather he-goat

Feminine

grandmother
she:goat

peacock
"

peahen

Some of the above Masculines and Feminines are applied NOTES. (i) indiscriminately to animals where the sex is of no importance. Thus the Masculines dog, horse, stag, and the Feminines duck, cow, bee, are used with reference to the animal generally.

34
(a) There
are a

HIGHER

ENGLISH
a

few Feminine ^ouns without dowager, siren ; and : e.g. jenny-wren, Feminine : jackdaw.

line corresponding MascuMasculine without

one

68. NUMBER
a Noun objects,

"

or

assumed by the word There are two Numbers

between one objectnd many To distinguish a Pronoun ischanged in certain ways. The form Number. to denote thisqualityis termed its
one

in English : Singular, referringto one. to and object, Plural, referring more than ox, crisis. Examples : Singular dog, man,
"

Plural
"

dogs, men,

oxen,

crises.
"

There are THE PLURAL FORMING by which the Plurals of Nouns are four general methods formed : By (1) adding -B to the Singular; this is by far the most Examples : dog, dogs ; boy, boys ; custom, customs. common.
69. MODES

OF

"

R Exceptionalules.

(a)If

the Noun ends in Singular. Examples

hissing

sound

-es

is added
ashes ;

gas, gases ;

ash,

to the church

(b)If

ends in -y preceded by a consonant, -y is first to then -es added. Examples : fly, flies changed ; -i and lady, ladies. But if the is preceded by a vowel, the word follows the -y Examples : monkey, general rule. monkeys ; toy, toys. the plurals soliloquiesand colloquies ; u is here a [Note

churches. the Noun

consonant.] the (c)If the Noun ends hi -f (or-fe), -f is sometimes changed to -v Examples : thief, thieves ; loaf, and then -es (or added. -s) loaves ; knife, knives.
But the -f often remains : e.g. serfs, roofs, chiefs, cliffs, gulfs. (d)If the Noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, -es is sometimes Examples : echo, echoes ; potato, potatoes ; added. hero, heroes. But if the -o is preceded by a vowel, and frequently when amples preceded by a consonant, the general rule is followed. Ex: portfolios, cuckoos ; also grottos, pianos. [We have calicos and calicoes, and a few others similarly.]

By (2) foot,feet;

Umlaut
mouse,

(change vowel). Examples of

"

man,

men

mice ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. Without change the same (3) word being used for Singula* and Plural. Examples : sheep, deer, grouse, swine.

(4)Foreign

Words

frequently retain theirplurals. Examples

NOUNS
phenomenon,

35

phenomena

; ; ; crisis, crises radius, radii datum,

data ; monsieur, messieursj madame,

NOTE.
"

mesdames.
"

may also notice that a fifthmethod of forming the Plural, by adding -en to the Singular has which used to be very common disappeared. Examples still now existingare : ox, oxen ; cow, almost kine (umlaut as well). The Plurals of letters of the Alphabet and of figures are formed by 's ; e.g. Dot your i's; mind your p's and q's ; there are three adding in that question. 5's

We

"

Several Nouns form two 70. TWO PLURALS" of which is usually according to Rule i. These are
Singular. brother cherub cloth die
fish formula

Plurals, one
:
"

genius
index

Plural. brothers and brethren " cherubim cherubs " cloths clothes dice dies " fishes fish " formulas formulae geniuses genii indices indexes " peas pease " pennies pence " seraphs seraphim
" " "

staffs

"

staves

meaning of the two forms of the Plural is,however, in we when we speak of sixpennies general different.For instance, plies are thinkingof six individual coins ; whereas sixpence simply imit may be one sixpenceor two threethat sum penny of money or pieces, sixpennies. Similarly with the rest.
The
"

71. Compound
element
Examples
:

Nouns

their most usually pluralise

important

Singular : commander-in -chief,son-in-law, man-of-war. Plural : commanders-in-chief, sons-in-law, men-of-war. few pluralise both elements : e.g. manservant, But some servants ; knight-templar, knights-templars.

men-

72. Some Nouns have

one

meaning in the Singularand another

= forces ( army) coppers (= bronze coins)

in the Plural.
Examples:

(=power) copper ( metal)

=

force

36
Some
have
a

HIGHER
double meaning

ENGLISH
in the Singular.
abuses

Examples:

abuse wood

(=misuse) (=bad language) (= timber) (=forest)

have
a

(
=

wrong

uses)

woods

( forests)

Similarly, some
Examples:

double meaning in the Plural.

pain

(=suffering)

effect (= resulti

( sufferings) (=trouble) effects (= results) ( goods)

pains
= =

73. NO

PLURAL have

"

Certain Nouns
Plural.

no

These

cumstan under ordinary cirinclude:

"

can,

viduals, Nouns, since they are the names of certain indiand thereforecannot be applied to more than one. i (2)Abstract Nouns. Thus happinesss a conception of the mind; and though there may be various kinds or degrees of happiness,those cannot properly be spoken of as happinesses.

(1)Proper

of a substance ; of Material. Thus gold is the name however much of itthere was, itwould be impossibleto speak of

(3)Nouns

golds. It must

be carefullynoted, however, that when such Proper, Abstract,or Material Nouns are used as Common Nouns they Thus we may may be pluralised in the ordinary manner. Ccesars(
"

say:" Many

men

of that name) ruled the empire.

=

Our sins ( acts of sinful are nature) forgiven. I do not likeany of these cloths ( kinds of
=

cloth).

Similarly, certain Nouns have no SINGULAR These include Nouns of Multitude, which are by Singular. : tongs, nature Plural, and such as the following amends, archives, thanks. Thus we say : precincts, entrails, My thanks are due to you. few Nouns, whilstPlural in form are yet Singular in But some 74. NO
"

"

meaning

and

use.

Such
Thus This
we

are

alms,
"

eaves,

news, tidings,

mathematics,

measles.

news

say : is good.

Mathematics is a useful study

NOUNS
75. CASE

37

of the Noun or Pronoun which shows itsrelationto some other word of the sentence. In most languages Case is shown by Inflection or change of
or

is that form

use

ending of the Noun or Pronoun ; in English thisis true only to a limitedextent, for Case is also indicatedin other ways. There are three Cases in English: the Nominative, the Ob
\ective,and the Possessive.

76. NOMINATIVE

AND

OBJECTIVE"

The

o Subjectf

ferb

sentence

The boy laughed, the word boy is the Subject laughed of is in the Nominative Case. and is said to be in the Objective The Object a Verb (" of
:

("45)is said

to be in the Nominative

Case. E.g. in the

50)

E.g. in the sentence : They hit the boy, the word boy is Case. the Object hit and isin the Objective of It should be noted that the word bay remains of exactlythe same

Case.

form, whether

Case. There itis in the Nominative or Objective i isfor instancethe greatest possibledifference n the meaning of: The man kicked the horse, The horse kicked the man. and, Yet the words are exactly the same ; itis only the positionof the
"

or Nouns which is different, use is different.

"

to put it into other words

"

their

Nominative and Objective all Nouns are of form ; those of certain Pronouns, however, show
The

identical in a difference

("119, etc.).
OF THE Besides NOMINATIVE being the subject the Verb, the Nominative isalso employed : of (1)In addressing a person or a thing personified. It is then The usage isknown in many called the Nominative of Address. languages as the VocativeCase. here. Examples : James, come Fate, thou hast played me a sorry trick.
" "

77. OTHER

USES

O Cassius, you

are

yoked with

lamb.

(2)As

Complement
Examples
:

Verb. This is the heir.

to a

He

v?as

elected

38
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Case, to be in the Objective It is possiblefor the Complement NOTE. to be king, where king is an Objective : I know him as in the sentence because it refers to him which is Objective. complement,

Pronoun a Noun or constructions. When forms an Adverbial Phrase independent of used with a Participle tive the rest of the sentence, the Noun or Pronoun is in the Nomina-

(3)In

Absolute

is Case, and the construction calledthe Nominative

Examples
:

Absolute.

The rain having ceased, you may go out The Gauls having been subdued^ Caesar returned to Rome.

in Latin the Ablative Absolute, in This construction was NOTE. Greek the Genitive Absolute, and hi Old English the Dative Absolute. That the Case in Modern English is Nominative, and not Objective is substituted for the Noun ; thus or Dative, is evident if a Pronoun They (nom.) having been subdued," and not : 2 would be : example having been subdued." or dat.) "Them (obj.
"

"

follows its Apposition. When a Noun (or equivalent) another to explain it further afterthe manner of an Adjective itissaid to be in Apposition to the first oun, and its N Case is the same ; e.g.Boadicea, Queen the Iceni^ poisoned herself. of

(4)In

"

"

OF THE OBJECTIVE" Besides being the object of of ( various kinds, see " 88) a Verb, the Objective Case is also employed :" USES

78. OTHER

(1)After a
the

Preposition,which is said to govern the Noun He spoke to the man. The book is on the table.

in

Case. Objective
Examples
:

Complement [see 77 (2), (2)As Objective " note]. In Apposition. Example: They saw George, King (3) ofGreece. As a (4) Adverbial Objective" Noun used as an Adverb.
Examples
:

He

went

home.

They stayed three weeks.

POSSESSIVE CASE" This is the only case of a Noun formed by Inflection. A Noun in the PossessiveCase usually denotes the possessor of something mentioned later. Thus in the

79. THE

NOUNS
sentence
:

39

hat John's

follows y

so

is here, John is the possessor of hat which with the men's books the animal? houses. "

80. MODE OF FORMING THE CASE" POSSESSIVE General Rule The Possessive is formed from the Nominative
"

by adding 's. Examples : The

man's

book, the

kingscrown,

the

men's

hats,

the children's oys. t The NOTES. (i) apostrophe shows the omission of an in the singulars,he early forms of which were mannes^ t
"

original hinges ;

etc.

The Plural Possessivesare formed by analogy with the Singular. Compound Nouns take the 'j at the end of the lastelement, (2) the son-in-law's e.g. property.
Exceptional Rule
"

omission

of

-B.

(1)If the Plural ends in is added, the second

Examples spoils. But
:

-s -s

an (asit usually does) apostrophe only being omitted for the sake of euphony

(i.e. pleasant sound).

the boys' hats, the dogs' tails,the warriors' note that plurals ending otherwise follow the

(2)If

general rule : e.g.men's, children's. the Nominative Singular ends in -s or in the sound of -s, than one syllable,the second -s is frequently and is of more reason. omitted for the same Examples : Moses' laws, for conscience'sake. Monosyllables usually take the -s as well as the apostrophe ; church ; and many words of e.g.an ass's burden, S. James's more than one syllableoften do likewise, e.g.Thomas's money. A certain amount of license is permitted in such cases ; the be guided by the sound of the combination. student must

POSSESSIVE Besides denoting the possessor of something, the Possessive Case is also
"

81. OTHER
:
"

USES

OF

THE

employed

the phrase "The general's departure," the general does not own the departure. The relationof the "general" to a Predicate words is similarto that of a Subject Use of the "departed." Hence this is called the Subjective

In Subjectively. (1)

Possessive. Other examples Poles'rebellion. murderers

have

are

The Minister's resignation, the

(2)Objectively. Similarly,in
been

duke's "The the sentence: bears an "duke" caught," the word

40
is rather uncommon.

HIGHER

ENGLISH
This
use

Objective relationto "murderers."

All Adjectivally. (3)

of the Possessive

PossessiveCases are of the nature of an for Adjective, they furtherdescribe a Noun ; but more especially is is this the fact when a Noun denoting an inanimate object put "is equivalent to in the Possessive. Thus, "England's soldiers " " " lunar rays." no idea of English soldiers," the moon's rays," to being possible. possession by an inanimate

object

It is only in certain phrases that such a Possessive Case can NOTE. be used : e.g. a day's march, the world's glory, a month's journey, duty's call,virtue's reward.
"

Except in POSSESSIVE" it certain phrases ["81 (3)] is incorrect to use the Possessive Thus we should not Case with reference to inanimate 82. SUBSTITUTE

FOR

THE

objects.

doors. pages or the shop's say : The book's For the Possessive,of with the ObjectiveCase must be substituted book, the doors : e.g. the pages of the shop. This of the may also be used when the possessor is animate: substitution The murderers e.g. of the duke, the departure of the general, the laws Moses.

of

dant city of Bath," the preposition of is redunimplies apposition.The phrase is equivalent to the and simply Bath " ; just we say " the river Thames." as city, " sive. (2)In A friend ofJohn's we have an example of Double Posses'The phrase may be considered as equivalent to A friend of " John'sfriends or " One of JoLa'sfriends." (3)But this explanation will not hold good for " That face of my T father's."his cannot be paraphrased as " One of my father's faces ; but simply means father's face." The 's is here redundant, my like the " of in (i). The same may explanation possibly apply to a friend of John's." (4)Note the difference in meaning between " A picture of King Edward (=a portrait of ) and a A picture of King Edward's (= a picture belonging to ).

NOTES.

"

(i)In "The

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

POSSESSIVE IN When two APPOSITION" Possessives are in apposition,the firstdrops the sign of the " The words possessive: e.g. our friendthe doctors house." "our friend the doctor" are, in fact,treated just likea Compound
Noun

83. THE

("80, note 2).

NOLWS
84. IS THERE
most

41

to

or

?" In CASE IN ENGLISH languages there isa Case of the Noun or Pronoun signifying for the We certainly Nouns and Pronouns in use
A

DATIVE

object.

thisway, e.g.-.
"

" " " to him." John where These words are calledIndirectObjectssee 88), might well but ( " be considered as Dative Cases. The Dative is always (both in

I gave Johna book. Will you send him a present ? " " " to John and " him means means

Nouns and
however,
no

of Pronouns) the
reason

the Objective ; that is, for its exclusion,for, as has been seen, the
same
as

form

Nominative and Objective Nouns are of the same form. of The Dative is often replaced by to with the Objective,.g. I e gave the book to John willyou send a present to Aim?
"

NOTE.
This
use

"

We is even

have also the use of the Dative signifying for: e.g. Fetch me that book at once ! in poetry e.g.: common more Heat me these irons hot. Challenge me the count's youth,
" "

"

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

V.

and explain your classification. What is meant by Gender ? State the chief rules for forming the Feminine hi English, with examples. into concrete, 3. Give instances of the conversion of abstract nouns into common, into proper, and try to explain why common proper each of these conversions should occur. of: lord, hunter, hero, prior, king, patron, 4. Give the Feminine horse, wolf. 5. What is meant by the Case of a Noun ? What cases are there in English, and how would you distinguish them ? 6. Write down the Possessive Case, both Singular and Plural, of : boy, James,child, lane, lady. the various ways of forming the Plurals of Nouns are in 7. What English ? Write down the plural of : maidservant, woman-servant, looker-on, lock-out, knight-errant, Miss Smith, cast-away, camel driver, passer-by. 8. Pick out the Nouns in the following passages, and state the class to which they belong : his friends on their journey (a)Frank did not accompany through Italy. (b)Men's thoughts at that time were turned to frerxiom and liberty.
2.
"

Classify Nouns,

42

HIGHER
(c)The girlswish to stay at (d)These two Romans were
(e)Speech

ENGLISH
their friend'shouse the whole day. created Consuls by the wish of the

people. is silver ; silence is gold. State the Number, Gender, and Case of the Nouns in question 8. 9. three examples of each of the following : 10. Mention i. Nouns forming their Plural by vowel-change. Nouns inflecting both parts in the Plural, ii.Compound Nouns iii. which though really Plural are used as Singulars. form for both Singular and iv. Nouns which have the same Plural. in the Singular and Nouns which have different meanings v. Plural. Nouns which have two forms for the Plural with different vi. t (Statehe forms and their meanings.) meanings. belle (ii) the the Masculine of nun, ; 11. Give goose, witch, madam, (i) Mr, series,Lord Justice (iii) Possessive Case the Plural of scarf, ; piano, horses,Messrs Norman, Slade "" Pooley, the Speaker of we, brother-in-law, Commons. House of ofthe Parts of Speech can stand in apposition, and to what pafrts 12. What What words are in apposition they so stand ? Explain this term. can Name Case of each, and say how it is the in the following sentences ? In what way is the instance in (iii) determined. exceptional ? " (i) But why before us Protestants produce " An Indian mystic or a French recluse ?
"

(ii) The
"

"

daughter of a hundred Earls, You are not one to be desired."

Alfred's name, the father of his age, And the Sixth Edward's grace the historic page." Write in the Possessive (not in the Genitive expressed by of) 13. adding an appropriate Noun hi each instance : horses,which, son-in-law, both, somebody else,some we ofthem, a quarter of an hour or ten minutes, Esau', and in the Plural, motto, Mr Bates, a man, passer-by, Jacoband

(iii)While

"

cloth. soliloquy, illustrate the terms : Apposition, 14. Explain and Possessive, Umlaut, Dative. Absolute, Subjective

Nominative

CHAPTER
VERBS

VI

word which says something concerning a " " /JL person or thing. This saying may be in the form An Assertion,(2) Question, A Command, (4) Wish, A A of (i) (3)
a

85.

VERB

is

concerning the person

or

thing ("

23).

86. CLASSIFICATION"

Verbs may be divided :" According to their Use, into what are generally called (1) Kinds. According (2)
to Changes

of Form

for their PrincipalParts

into Conjugations " (

"

no).

87. KINDS In accordance with "" 49-51,we shalldistinguish three kinds of Verbs : Intransitive: those which are complete in themselves, e.g. (1)
"

he smiled. Transitive: those which require an (2) he theirsense, e.g. hit the man. Incomplete : those which requiresome (3)
to complete theirsense,

to Object

complete

word not an Object e.g.he became king, he will go.

88. VERBS

AND

THEIR

OBJECTS"

Verb may

have

: variouskinds of Objects The ordinary or Direct Object e.g.He saw the man. : Of (1) They washed : the same nature also is the Reflexive Object e.g. themselves. The Double Object. Some Verbs take two (2) ; these

objects

may consistof : A (a) Direct and

"

an

Indirect Object.

Examples
We

gave the man (indirect) (direct). money The master taught him (indirect) (direct). Latin She wrought her people lasting (indirect) good (direct)

44

HIGHER

ENGLISH

It should be observed that the IndirectObject always precedes

the Direct Object.

The so-called Indirect Object is, as we have seen, really i. NOTE the Dative Case ("84). When NOTE 2. such sentences are rendered in the Passive Voice It is then called the frequently remains. the objects one (" of
"
"

Object. Examples : He was taught Latin (direct). They were asked questions (direct). Money was given the man (indirect). The Retained Indirect Objectis however and should be awkward, Case ; it would by the use of a Preposition with the Objective avoided be better thus to say : Money was given to th? man.
Retained

92)

Two (b)

Direct

Objects.
:

Examples

They created the man I dub thee knight.

consul.

Since the

of majority Verbs
are

of making, they
=

taking this constructionare Verbs often called Factitive Verbs, and the Object

[Lat. which belongs to the sense of the Verb the Factitive Object Thus in the above examples consul,knight facere\"" make]. Objects. may be called Factitive
NOTE. When such sentences are rendered in the Passive Voice, the Factitive Objectbecomes a Complement a (not Retained Object) and is in the Nominative Case, e.g. The man was created consul (Nona.).
"

The (3)

Cognate

Object CertainVerbs which

"

Intransitive, having may take an object with their own meaning. Such Cognate Object[Lat. cognatus related
=

an

ordinarily meaning closelyconnected is termed a Object

are

to].

Examples

He

ran

race.

(4)The

Thy old men shalldream dreams. Pompey's statue, which allthe while ran blood. Adverbial Object Many IntransitiveVerbs
"

are

followed by words which, at first sight,appear to be denoting time, space, weight, eta Examples : They walked three miles (distance).

an

object

The meat weighs ten pounds (weight). He has livedmany years (time).

Strictly speaking,these words are simply Adverbial Phrases and not Objects at all; and in Analysis they should accordingly be
as classified Expansions

of the Predicate

VERBS
"

45

The Factitive, Indirect, Cognate and Adverbial Objects NOTE. may be regarded as forming a seriesof links between the ordinary Object and the ordinary Extension of the Predicate. The Factitive Object from the ordinary Object, differslittle and the Adverbial Objectlittle from the ordinary Extension.

INTRANSITIVELY and Since the classification Verbs depends upon their of viceversa be impossible to classify Verb as Transitive, Intransia use, itwill tive Incomplete, unless the sentence in which it occurs is or Many Verbs which are ordinarilyTransitive are used known. Intransitively ; and conversely. Frequently thischange in use is accompanied by some change in meaning.
VERBS

89. TRANSITIVE
"

USED

(1)Transitive used Intransitively This occurs: When the verb isused in a General sense. (a)
"

Examples
He

Transitive.
He

teaches the boys Latin. He hears your words.

Intransitive. for a living. teaches

He hears well.

The exhibition He did not pay his debts. did not pay. When the Verb is used in a Reflexive sense. (b) Transitive. Intransitive. Examples : We
move

the box.

The earth moves

( itself).

moves

They passed on. the examination. They passed We keepthe meat in a safe. The meat keeps well. When Intransitive used Transitively this occurs (2)
"

Transitiveacquires a Causative causing something to happen.

Examples
:

sense,

the /."?., contains the idea of

Intransitive. the bridge.

He stood on

The water boils. The boilerburst.

NOTE.
"

Transitive. He stood the bottleon the table ( caused the bottleto stand). He boilsthe water. They burst theirbonds.
=

Causative Verb exists which is different in Sometimes a form from the Intransitive ; the difference usually consists in a change

of vowel.

Examples

He set the chair down. He sat down. They are felling trees. The trees are falling. the He raises his hat. He rises early.

90. INCOMPLETE classes of Verbs may

Under VERBS be included:

"

this heading

three

"

46

HIGHER

ENGLISH
a

Examples : The boy was happy. He became a doctor. They seem pleased the result at Auxiliary,which help to form the Voices,Moods, and (2) or Tenses of other Verbs,at the same time losing modifyingtheir do, may. will, meaning. They are sixin number : fathave,shall, All these Verbs are capable of being used otherwise than as
; and as they are very common very and therefore auxiliaries in important, shall, " 117,exemplify we uses. their various Semi-Auxiliary, in (3) which closelyresemble auxiliaries the method of theiruse with other Verbs,but which do not actually help to form Voices, Moods, or Tenses. They are: must, dare,need. The use of these Verbs, too, willbe discan, ought, cussed

Copulative, which serve as (1) and Complement (" 51).

ject connectionbetween the Sub-

later.

91. CONJUGATION" Verbs are changed in form or use to in mark differences Voice,Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. The statement of these various parts of a Verb is termed its B i Conjugation.efore proceedingfurther, twillbe convenient to Verb, so that, what follows in t of a exhibit he Conjugation typical to the student may refer itwhen necessary.

Conjugation "Drive of
I. ACTIVE VOICE
Indicative Mood (i)

VERBS
Mood Imperative (2)

47

Mood (3) Subjunctive

Mood (4)Infinitive
drive, be driving, (continuous] have driven, Perfect. have been driving, (continuous) driving, Present Part. Perfect Part. hayingdriven, Gerund. driving.
Present. to to to to

II. PASSIVE VOICE

[No continuous forms except where mentioned] IndicativeMood (i) driven, etc. (continuations Present. am of am Active). (continuous) am being driven,etc.
driven, etc. being driven,etc. 'etc. Future. shallbe driven, have been driven,etc. Perfect. had been driven, etc. Pluperfect. Future Perfect, shallhave been driven, etc.
Past
was

as

in

(continuous]

was

Mood Imperative (2) Present.

be driven. Mood Subjunctive (3) be driven. driven,etc. (continuous) being driven, were were
have been driven, had been driven.

Present. Past. Perfect. Pluperfect.

48

HIGHER
Present. Perfect. Pres. Part Past Part. Perfect Part.
"

ENGLISH

Moo" (4)Infinitive
to be driven. to have been driven,

being driven.
driven. having been driven.

In order not to complicate the above scheme unduly, the NOTE. forms for the Mixed Subjunctivewith ( may, might, should, and would) have been omitted.

is that form of the verb which shows whether the does or the person or thing denoted by the Subject suffers action. In the former case the Voice of the Verb is said to be Actiye ; in
92. VOICE Passive. the latter man "The For example, in the sentence: struck the table" the (Active),man is represented as doing something \ but in : " he He is struck" (Passive), something.

suffers

by the addition of the Past, to be. to Participle (" 102) various parts of the Auxiliary 93. Only Transitive Verbs can, as a rule, have a Passive
The
Passive Voice

is formed

It would be impossible, for example, to say " I am " " he is smiled" or the Verbs walk, smile, being walked V Intransitiveerbs. In fact,it will be found that when any Active Construction isrendered in the Passive,the Object the Active Verb becomes of

Voice.

"

the Subject the Passive Verb. of " is equivalent to The boy hit the dog " (Act.), Thus : The dog was hit by the boy (Pass.).

but Nevertheless,certainVerbs which are really Intransitive, which can have an Objectof any sort, such as a Cognate or Adverbial Object 88 (3), may be in the Passive Voice : [" (4)]
The e.g.(i)
a armies fought battle(ActIntrans.with Cognate b Obj.) ^4 battlewas foughty the armies (Passive). A (a)He walked the whole distance (withdverbial Obj). The whole distancewas walked by him (Passive).
= =
"

NOTE. A curious point arises in connection with an Intransitive Verb followed by a Preposition + a Noun in the Objective, e.g. I laughed at the man ; they spoketo the boy. Such constructions can sometimes be rendered in the Passive ; as : The man laughed at by me ; the boy was spoken to by them. was These Passive constructions are very owing to the clashing awkward,
"

"

VERBS
oi

49
; they should

the words

"

at, by

"

"

and

to, by

"

be avoided whenever

possible.
The question, however, arises in such cases, what Parts of Speech are the words at, to ? In the Active constructions they are undoubtedly Prepositions ; but in the Passive the Noun previously governed has become the Subject, and they stand alone. They may be regarded either
:
"

For a similar transformation Adverbs of of Manner. Preposition to Adverb, see " 157. as (2)As belonging to the Verb itself, though joinedto it by a hyphen : He was laughed-at by me ridiculed). (laughed-at= It should be further remarked that most Intransitive Verbs, even when thus followed, cannot be so rendered in the Passive, e.g.to transpose "The book lies on the table" to "The table is lain on by the book" be absurd. would

(1)As

is that form of the Verb which shows the mode or 94. MOOD in which a thought is expressed. Mood will therefore manner
serve

between an assertion, wish, or a command. distinguish a It does not, however, distinguisha question; that is done by
to

changing the order of the words. In English, there are three Moods of the Finite Verb and one : of the Infinite the Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive,nd a Infinitive.
95. THE

INDICATIVE

expresses

about something. Its name question, to make a definite use statement.

"

assertion, denial, or is derived from its main

an
=

indicare [Lat.

\.Q

declare

or

state.]
Examples
:

I likedhim very much He is not coming with Will he go to London IMPERATIVE

(assertion). us (denial). ? (question).

prohibition,
"

96. THE entreaty, or

expresses command,
to

imperare advice. [Lat.

:

command.]

Examples

Go and do likewise. Fail me not ! (prohibition). Lead us not into temptation (entreaty). Beware of the dog (advice).

NOTE. As the Imperative Mood implies a command kind, of some it can, strictly speaking, be used only in the Second Person Singular or Plural, i.e. thou or you implied. A substitute obtained is with the Subjects for the First and Third Persons when required :
"

"

50
(1)By

HIGHER
using the Verb : e.g.

ENGLISH
of let with
to
me.

Imperative
Let him
com*

the

Infinitive of

the

(2)By
97. THE
a

using the

Subjunctive e.g.
:

Thy

kingdom

come.

SUBJUNCTIVE
a

MOOD

expresses doubt of any

a

sort; this doubt may

or supposition,

take the form of

condition,a purpose,

wish.

Examples

ifhe command me (condition). I willcome Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he

fall

(purpose).
Were he here, he would say the same (supposition). God save King Harry ! unkinged Richard says (wish). The above are examples of the originalor Pure Subjunctive ; of these the last used often to be called the Optative Mood.

[Lat. optare \.Q wish.]

=

Besides such forms, however, the Auxiliaries may, might, should of and would, added to the Infinitive a Verb, are usuallyconsidered These we shallterm Mixed Subjunctives. as Subjunctives.
Examples
:

If I should see him, I willtellhim (condition). I give you thisadvice thatyou may not do wrong (purpose). He came that they might have life(purpose). May
NOTE.
"

he be happy ! (wish).
no a Future as with would and should serve tense in the Pure Subjunctive. such

The forms there being

Subjunctive

USE ENGLISH"
98.
sentences

IN MODERN THE OF SUBJUNCTIVE The question is often asked: when is the Subjuncti to be used? Which, for instance,of the following is correct?
"

(1)If he (2)If he
The
answer

there,I shallspeak to him (Indicative). be there, I shall speak to him (Subjunctive). is that both are correct, but that there is (or should
""

difference meaning. in In the first sentence there is, slight no strictly, doubt implied as to whether he is there or not ; the meaning is: Assuming that he is there

be)a

doubt is implied ; the meaning he happensto be there (andhe may or may not be therei
sentence,
.

In the second

is:
.

IJ

VERBS
"

51

NOTE. The tendency of Modern English is to level such uses under the Indicative, and to employ the Mixed Subjunctiven cases i where the Indicative is not equivalent. Time alone must decide whether the Pure Subjunctive shall be entirely lost to English ; until the best to use it,we cannot regard it as archaic. authors of the language cease Custom S at present upholds the Pure Subjunctiveingular were ; thus " " ifit were not true "(Subj.) we ifit was not true ..." than say rather

(Indie.).
99. THE INFINITIVE

MOOD

expresses

an

indefinitely without reference to any subject. form the Predicate of a Sentence, and has no person or number (" 46). It includes" The Infinitive (1) proper : to love,to have loved.
The (2) The (3)
100. USES
: Participles loving loved. Gerund and Verbal Noun : loving.

action or state It cannot alone

OF

THE
"

INFINITIVE

PROPER

"

The

In

finitive may be used : As or (1) a Noun ; as subject, object complement : Examples : To err is human ; toforgive^ divine.
"

with love and shed Approved is above ;

serve

To

one's

blood.

But here below examples show 'Tis fatalto be good.

(2)As

an

Adjective: e.g.
He

is a

This

to be admired house is to let to be

man

( admirable). (or, let}.

=

(3)As

an

Adverb

e.g. He would
came

do anything to

save

his friend

(reason).
He
to see you

(reason).
"

(4)Absolutely
"

as

exclamation or a parenthesis : To supposethat I could commit such a crime! The enemy in fact to cut the matter short
" "

an

was

routed.

NOTE. A similar absolute use for a parenthesis is found in the Imperative : e.g. A body of men an if you like call them army on the scene. arrived He was a man. take him for all in all. I shall not look upon his like again
"
"

52
101. THE

HIGHER
INFINITIVE

ENGLISH
WITH

TO" AND WITHOUT Originally, above had the Preposition to and (3) only uses (2) followingbeing in the Dative Case and the the prefixed, Infinitive construction being known as the Gerundial Infinitive.
can take the Preposition. In of the Infinitive however, the to is omitted : cases, the following : After most Auxiliaries and Semi-Auxiliaries e.g.we shall (1)

Now

most

uses

"

go, you must come. (2)After had rather, had

better,etc. : e.g. You

had better

work.

Verbs denoting sensations,such as hear, see, : observe; also aftermake and let e.g. I saw him arrive,I heard him say so, I made him work. (4)After but : e.g.he does nothing but talk.

(3)After

many

On the Divided Infinitive. A habit has recently arisen of NOTE. dividing the Infinitive from its Preposition to by an Adverb or Adverbial Phrase, e.g. I hope to shortly see hope to at least pass the you, we is considered, however, by the best authorities to This examination. be incorrect, because the Preposition and Verb are regarded as an inseparab to : thus even when the Infinitive is a Subject a compound Verb [| 100 (i)] stillretains the Preposition. it Though the above is growing, it should not be imitated. practice
"

used :" With certain Auxiliaries form various tenses to (1) He has gone to London (Pastart.). P
He
As (2)
was

102. THE

PARTICIPLES

are

e.g.

killedin battle (Pastart.). P

partly Adjective, partly Verb : e.g. The children, seeingthe crowd, were

terrified.

Here seeingqualifieshildren(Adj.orce) governs c f and the crowd (Verbal force).

: entirely (3)As Adjectives

e.g. The admiring crowd welcomed him. The vanquished enemy retired.

are NOUN now b form as the Present Participle,ut of a totally of the same different origin and use; they should therefore be carefully distinguishedfrom it. Justas the Present Participle partakes

103. THE

GERUND

AND

THE

VERBAL

VERBS
of the
nature

53

so and Adjective, the Gerund and the Verbal Noun are partlyVerb, partly Noun. The distinction between a Gerund and a Verbal Noun is that the Gerund retainsthe power of a Verb to govern an object ; whereas the Verbal Noun has lost this power, and is only verbal at allby virtueof itsorigin. The Verbal Noun is in fact used as an ordinary Abstract Noun.

of Verb

Examples

small print is bad for the eyes (Gerund). Here reading governs small printand (withits forms the to subject it. object) He likes eating apples (Gerund). (2) to Here eating governs and isitself

(i)Reading

likes. N (3)The reading of small print is bad (Verbal oun). like Here reading does not govern ; a noun " might be substituted for it. perusal (4)Walking is good exercise (Verbal oun). N The NOTE. (i) " Present Participleand the Gerund are often confused. Do you to Thus if we say : object John leaving early ? the word leaving is a Participle agreeing with John. The should meaning But this to therefore be : Do you object John, who is leaving early ? is not what is really meant : it is the leaving which may be objected " Do to. Hence we ought to use a Gerund or Verbal Noun, and say : " to John'sleaving early ? Noun, equivalent to (Verbal you object departure "). In NOTE. (2) the continuous forms of the tenses I am driving, I was driving, etc.,the Verb in -ing is the Gerund and not, as might be supposed from its modern use, the Present Participle. This is shown by the old form : he is on (or in)driving,which survives in the dialectical "he is a driving." NOTE. A too, in the use of both Participles"and error, (3) common Gerunds, is that of the Unrelated Thus Participle and Gerund. the " Having is incorrect, the dog, it slunk away sentence : whipped because having whipped relates to no subject. We must use either : The Nominative Absolute (" : (i) 77) He having whipped the dog, The Passive Voice : The dog, having been it ; or (2) whipped, slunk away.
"
"

apples

object

"

"

"

"

"

104. TENSE

the action or completeness the action or state at that time. of There are three possible divisionsof time: the Present, the Past, and the Future, for each of which there is a corresponding
Tense of the Verb. Examples : He

is that form of the Verb which marks the time of state expressed by the Verb, and the

walks now Yesterday he walked To-morrow he will walk

.

Present.
Past.

54

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Each of these tenses also has a corresponding Complete tense givingthe idea of completeness at the present,past,or future. Examples : He has walked a mile by Perfect. now
....

He

had

walked (already)
.

a
,

mile yesterday He willhave walked by to-morrow

Thus
we

Pluperfect. Future Perfect.

a
.

mile
.

have six tenses, three simple and three complete. Further, each of these tenses has a Continuous form, by use of which the action is regarded as continuing over the time or as

only

f at justinished
Examples
:

the time.
Present Continuous.

w stillalking was stillalking when he came w be still alking when you arrive w shall have been walking up to now had been walking up to then I shall have been walking for six days
....
. .

am

Past Future Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect

"
"

" "
"

NOTE.

"

tenses ; the
"

(i)Only the Indicative Mood (Active) possesses all these have no Future tenses, Subjunctive Infinitive (Active) and

and the Imperative has no Past or Future. NOTE. (2)Of the above tenses, only the Present and Past show a difference of endings ; the rest are formed by the aid of Auxiliaries. is formed by shall (istPerson) The future and will (2nd and 3rd) tenses by the addition of the to the Infinitive; the Complete added corresponding simple tenses of have to the Past Participle; and the by the addition of the corresponding tenses of be Continuous Forms to the Gerund. added [SeeConjugation Verb, " of

91].

OF CERTAIN 105. USES The Present is used : (i) To (a) show what rains,he runs.
"

TENSES"
occurs

at the present time

e.g. it

To (6)

express
a

state or

habit: e.g.fire burns, they go

to school.

As (c)

Past for the sake of vividness. This use is known as the Historic Present : e.g. " Suddenly the hectic passion of Richard flares he sna/chet ;

VERBS
an axe

55

and deals about his deadly blows. In another moment he is extinct the ; has ceased." (DOWDEN.) futile graceful, existence As ("f) a Future for vividness: e.g.he leaves London next week ; are you going to see him off? (2)The Past and Perfect must be carefullydistinguished. The Perfect is used :
from
a

servant

"

When (a) have When, (b)

the event

described has
letter to

justrittena w

finished:e.g. I just James.

although the event has been completed some itsconsequences or some time previously, stances circumitare stillresent. closely connected with p

Examples

I have taken off my coat (and itis still off). I have gained a scholarship I am still holding). (which King George has reigned several years (and still is

In accordance with the above, whenever a past date is specifically is obviouslyregarded in our or the occurrence mentioned, minds as unconnected with the Present, the Past must be used

reigning).

insteadof the Perfect. itis now on Examples : I took offmy coat (but again). His appointment terminated yesterday. I gained a scholarship, which I gave up lastyear. is Victoria reigned 63 years (but now dead).
NOTE on The Perfect Infinitive. Care should be exercised in the use also of the Perfect Infinitive. It is correct after Verbs like seem, appear, to have been to after ought, must ("117), show past time : e.g.He seems also find the popular. After Verbs of hoping,wishing, intending we Perfect Infinitive in the best writers of our language, especially when the idea of non-fulfilment of the wish is present : e.g. I hoped to have come yesterday but was prevented. He intended to have written, but was too busy. hoped or Strictly,the Present would be better here, since what was has sanctioned to write ; but custom in the Past was to come, intended On the other hand such a sentence as : I am this usage. pleased^o have met you, is undoubtedly wrong.
"

One of the commonest faults in English composition arisesfrom the carelesschange of in a singlesentence ; during the narrative, (b) or tenses (a) even or, in other words, from a violation of the Sequence of Tenses.
106.

SEQUENCE

OF

TENSES

"

56
Thus (a)

HIGHER
in
a

ENGLISH

s narrative,uch examples as the following occur " He met the Scottishchieftain : frequently and challengedhim to and combat. TheyJlgAt, aftera while the Scotchman falls. single On seeing this,the armies at once came into conflict,nd the a

have used the Past tenses met and challenged; this should have been continued in the second and third. Instead of this,we have suddenly changed to the Present in the second sentenceand back again to the Past in the third,
we

began in earnest." battle In the first sentence

although in each instance the events described are past. Of course there are occasions when we can quite suitably change the tense ; for instance,after employing past tenses in allthe above
sentences,

in the Dependent Clause must correspond with that in the Principal Clause. Thus itis incorrect say : He said that he will come to Two to-morrow. general rules govern the Sequence of Tenses in thiscase : I. A Present or Future may be followed by any tense of the the 177) Verb
"

might follow up with thousand perished that day." In (t") a Complex Sentence ("
we

"

History says that

over

Indicative :
"

f.g. I hopethat he has arrived. I know that he had come when I left. I fear that he will be late. But
or : (Pure Mixed)
"

either is followed by the Present tense only of the Subjuncti

e.g. He works that he may succeedin life. I will come ifhe command me.

II. A Past is followed by a Past : c" He hopedthat itwas true. They worked that they might succeed.
"

NOTES. (i)When the dependent clause indicates Comparison, either " of these rules may be broken : e.g. He knew that poem better than " he knows this one," He knows this poem better than he knew that
"

one."

When (2)
may

the dependent clause contains a general truth, the present follow the past : e.g. " He that the earth is round." explained

107. NUMBER

is that form of the Verb which shows whether

VERBS
it refers to
one
or

57

persons or things. Each tense has two Numbers, Singularand Plural. drives (Sing.) men drive (Plur.). Thus we say : The man ; the The boy was the speaking (Sing.); boys were
more

speaking (Plur.). is that form of the Verb which shows whether it PERSON refersto the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. There are three persons,Singularand Plural,
to every tense
:
" "

The First Person the speaker: I drive (Sing.) drive ; we (1) (Plur.). The Second Person the person addressed: thou drivest (2) ; you (Sing.) drive (Plur.). The Third Person the person or thing spoken of: he (3) drives,she loves,it rains,the child walks (Sing.) the ; they drive, childrenwalk (Plur.). The Infinitive has no Person or Number (" ; and the 46)
" "

Subjunctive and Imperative

unchanged for either. In the Indicative,Number and Person are marked : for (a)In the Singular,by Inflection: -est (-st) the 2nd Person Present or Past ; -g for the 3rd Person Present
are
"

only. (b)In the Plural by

"

an

absence of inflection.

NOTE. is The 2nd Singular thou (lovest, drivest, etc.) now obsolete ; its place is filled by the 2nd Plural you, which, however, when so used, form retains the Plural (uninflected) of the Verb. Other words referring to you are in these circumstances kept Singular : thus we say you are The use of the Plural Pronoun a man. and Verb is often called the Plural. Complimentary

OF VERB AND SUBJECT" A Verb is in said to agree with its Subject Number and Person, because itvariesin those respects as its Subject varies. Thus we cannot because the Subjectnd Verb do not say : / drives or he love, a
108. CONCORD
correspond in Number and Person. NOTE. It should be observed that a Noun is generallyof the 3rd Person Singular or Plural, because the speaker or person There is an exceptional instance in addressed is rarely named.
"

58

HIGHER

ENGLISH
or

which a Noun may be considered as ist itis in appositionto a Pronoun :

"

w 2nd Person, viz.,hen

a saw (ist erson). P e.g. I, John, vision You, my friend, so (2nd Person). said

For specialrules concerning the agreement of Verb and Subject,

see

" 203.

The English Verb has three PARTS" 109. PRINCIPAL PrincipalParts from which allVoices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, or and Persons may be derived,either by inflection by the aid of

Auxiliaries.These
The (1) (2)The (3)The
From

are

:
"

1st Person Singular Pros. Indie. : 1st Person Singular Past Indie. : Past Participle: loved, driven.

love, (I) drive. (I) drove. loved,(I) (I)

are obtained : (i) (a)The rest of the Pres. Indie, by inflections. Infinitive (and The Present Subjunctive, Imperative and (b) the Future Indie.) change. without consequently The Gerund (andconsequently the Continuous Tenses) and the (c)

From

Present Participle,by adding -ing. are without change, and the (2) obtained the Past Subjunctive the Past Indicative by inflections. rest of From (3) are obtained : All the Complete tenses by aid of Auxiliary have. (a) (b)All the Passive voice by aid of be.

classes or Principal Conjugations, of according to the variation inform their Parts.

are
into

110.

CONJUGATION"Verbs

divided

and Strong. Weak Verbs are such as form both theirPast Tense and Past Participleby the addition of the ending or -t to the -ed, -d, Present, with or without any other change.
There
are

two

Weak Conjugations,

Examples

laugh love feel

laughed loved felt

laughed

loved
felt

ticiple such as form their Past Tense and Past Parby change of the main vowel. Formerly all Strong Verbs have now also added -en for the Past Participle but many ; dropped this inflection.
are

Strong Verbs

VERBS
Examples
:

59
driven sung
seen

drive

drove

sing
see

sang
saw

111. REMARKS

ON

THE
"

CONJUGATIONS"

The follow

ing classesof Verbs are Weak : Those which both change theirvowel and add : (a) -ed (-d, -t)
e.g.

tell seek

told sought

told
sought

which, ending in -d or -t in their Present (i) make no change at all, or (ii) merely shorten the sound of the vowel. The of a majority such Verbs originally dded -ed,but this has been dropped for the sake of euphony.

Those (b)

Examples:

(i) hit
spread lead (ii)

hit spread led fed a Verb

hit

spread led fed feed bind, bound, bound, which NOTES. Of course as such (i) entirely changes its vowel sound, must be classed as Strong. as (2)All new Verbs formed in the language are conjugated Weak Verbs : e.g.
"

electrolysed electrolysed electrolyse bicycled bicycle bicycled (3)Some Verbs, originally Strong, have become Weak, but retain the -en in the Past Participle. These are usually said to be of Mixed Conjugation. Such are : shew shewed shewn saw sawn sawed
"

112. LIST
are

OF

STRONG

VERBS"

The

forms in brackets

weak.

Past Participle Past Present drank drunk drink (1) So also : begin, ring, sing, sink, spring,tink,swim, run. s Exceptional :

(2)
So also

sit spit dig

:

sat

sat

spat dug

(spat)
dug

(3)

(4)
So also
:

sling, slink,spin, sting, strike,string, stick, cling,fling, swing, wring. bound bound bind So also : fight, find,rind, wind. g drove driven drive arise, ride, shrive, smite, stride,strive,write ; thrive (also
weak

(5)

break So also
:

: thrived, broke

thrived).
broken
wear,
wt"v*.

speak,

steal,swear,

tear,

60

HIGHER

ENGLISH

VERBS

"

(i)There

are

many

words, originally parts of Strong

\HERBS
or

61
not

Mixed Verbs, which have included in the above list

Examples
are

now

become obsolete : these are

Past tenses : bare, clomb, drave, spake, trode. Past Participles lien,proven, writ, washen. :

there are (2)Similarly,

many

Past Participles which

are

now

used

as

Adjectives only.
are

Examples

bounden, drunken,

gotten, graven, shorn, shrunken,

swollen.

lie, : ; student should distinguish (a) lay, lain (strong) is sitive The first Intranlied(weak)lay, laid,laid (weak). lie, lied, ; lay down this morning ; the second is Intransitive, : e.g.He "to tellan untruth"; the third is Transitive: and means He laid the book on the table. e.g. hanged and hung. The former is applied to persons only : (b)

(3)The

the murderer e.g.

115. WEAK

was

hanged to-day.

The general rule is for Weak Verbs to form their Past Tense and Past Participle by adding to the -ed Present. This rule is modified as follows: VERBS"
"

ending in -e add -d only : love, loved ; share, shared. ending in a Consonant double that Consonant before adding it it and only if, (a) is single, (b) is preceded by a single vowel, -ed, if, it (c) is in the accented syllable of the word. Thus sap, sapped ; drug, drugged ; regret, regrdtted. But, according to (a)we have condemn, condemned (undoubled) " " " (b) repeated repeat, " sever, " " (c) " severed " NOTE. Final doubles, despite (c) unravel, unravelled ; imperil, : -1 imperilled. (3)Some Verbs in -1,-n, add -t instead of -ed, although the form in is often found as well : e.g.learn, learned and learnt. The chief -ed of these are : burn, dwell, learn, smell, spell,spill, spoil. (4)The following shorten the vowel or the sound of the vowel and
"

(1)Verbs (2)Verbs

add

-t

thus feel,kneel, keep, sleep,sweep, weep. deHl, dealt ; thus dream, lean, mean. Slightly irregular are : hear, helird ; leave, left; lose, lost ; flee, fled. (5)The following ending in -t or -d only shorten the vowel or vowel : sound (" i lib) bleed, bled ; breed, feed, meet, speed, lead. Read has past r"d (soundedshort).
"

:" ("1 116) ; creep, crept

62
(6)The
',

HIGHER

ENGLISH

following ending in, -Id -nd (and change -d to -t only :" -rd) bend, bent build, gild, blend, lend, rend, send, spend, gird (but:mended, ended, defended and others). (7)The following make no change at all ("1 1 ib): bet, burst, cast, cost, cut, hit,hurt, let,put, rid, set, shed, shut, slit,split,spread, thrust. Quitand knit have quit and quitted ; knit and knitted. (8)The following entirely change the vowel and add -t or -d ; some also : show a slight irregularity buy, bought ; bring, brought ; seek, sought ; beseech, besought ; teach, taught ; catch, caught ; think, thought ; work, (andworked); sell,sold ; tell,told. wrought it is the vowel of the Present which has been changed in In reality, these verbs : the Past retains the original vowel. (9)The following are contracted : say, said ; pay, paid ; lay, laid ; light, lighted and lit; make, made ; clothe, clothed and clad ; have, had.
"

"

"

116. DEFECTIVE, There are VERBS

"

they

can

AND ANOMALOUS, certain Verbs which are hardly be classed as altogetherWeak

"

so or

AUXILIARY irregular that Strong. Such

verbs are : Defective,i.e.hey have one or more parts wanting: e.g. t shall, (i) Impersonal Verbs such as it rains,it snows. ; and should Anomalous, i.e.they are made up from two or more or (2) distinct verbs : e.g.be, was, been ; go, went, gone.
or

may As the Auxiliaries and Semi- Auxiliaries are for the most part of this nature, itwillbe convenient to treat Anomalous, Defective,

Irregular in some other (3) isnot (he) mays, but may.

respect: e.g.the 3rd Sing, of

and Auxiliary Verbs together. The student should, however, clearly understand that the connection between Auxiliary and these other Verbs is an accidentalone ; the Auxiliariesmerely happen to be, for the most part, Defective and Anomalous ; on the other hand, there are several defectiveand Anomalous Verbs

(or which are not Auxiliaries Semi-Auxiliaries). 117. We shall deal with each of the Auxiliariesand SemiAuxiliaries separately, giving their various forms and uses.
I. Be.
Present : am, art, is : are Past : was, : were wast, was Present : be, beest or be, be Subjunctive. Past : were, : were wert, were Imperative : be Infinitive: to be. Participial : b"ing. been. Complete Tenses regular.

Indicative.

"

b*

VERBS
This Verb is: Anomalous, (i)

63

because it is made up of three Verbs, forms of which appear in am, be, was. Defective,because it has no continuous forms of tenses. (2) : e.g. As an Intrans.Verb ( to rest, to USES : (i) stand) He is in the house. The tablewas near the door.
=

As (2)

: V Intransitiveerb meaning to exist(rare) e.g.Before Abraham was, I am. Enoch walked with God and was not. he As (3) a CopulativeVerb : e.g. is a doctor,they were happy. As with the Gerund for the continuous (4) an Auxiliary: (a)
an
"

he is coming. forms of tenses : e.g. for the Passive Voice With the Past Participle (b) struck. from The transition
meant

he is e.g.

and where (i) (2), is simple.

"

to the Auxiliary use

be impliesstate or existence, " He is struck originally

(having een] "he is in the state of b struck" comparable with

am

"he is happy. e.g. I with the idea of necessity: (5)Idiomatically, with him.
II. Have.
have, hast, has : have had, hadst, had : had Other tenses regular ; no Passive Voice. Indicative.
Present Past :
:

to go

USES : book.
As (2)

As (i)
an

: TransitiveVerb meaning to possess e.g.I have

for Auxiliarywith the Past Participle the Complete Tenses : e.g.I have bought the book. have was thus used only with TransitiveVerbs, and Originally

contained the idea of possession,so that "I have bought the book " meant " I possess the book (which bought." But, by is) Verbs, as in " I have analogy, itsuse was extended to Intransitive walked," when the originalmeaning disappeared. a (3)Idiomatically,s be,with the idea of necessity: e.g.I have to do my work (see also "

248).

in. DO.
Present : do, doest do. doth); Other tenses regular.

Indicative.

or

dost, does (doeth and

64
USES.
As (1)
a

HIGHER
Transitive Verb

ENGLISH
e meaning to perform-,.g. he does

his duty.

(2)As

an

: Auxiliary For (a) Emphasis, e.g.I do like those people ; do let me go ! With a Negative : I do not like thee, Doctor Fell. (b)

For (c) As (3)

a

: Question Do

you

see

that man

SubstituteVerb, to avoid repetition e.g. I like : English better than he does ( likesEnglish).
=

(4)Idiomatically: (a)Meaning Meaning (b)

Shall. Indicative.

Will thisdo ? to suit: e.g. do you do ? to feel e.g.How :

IV. and V. Shall and Will.

Present : shall, shalt, shall ; shall. Past : should, shouldst, should ; should.

Witt.

No other parts. Indicative. Present

Past
:

will,wilt, will ; will would, wouldst, would ; would.

No other parts.

USES. (1) Will is used rarely as a Transitive Verb meaning to I what isthat to thee ? wish : e.g.If I will that he tarry till come, Would that he were here !

(2)As

Auxiliaries : with the Infinitive (a)For the Future Tense shallfor ist person, will for
"

2nd and 3rd : e.g. We shallgo to London You will see him soon.

to-morrow.

They will be sorry for it. The probable reason for the use of will in the 2nd and 3rd is persons affirmative that shall implies compulsion, and would
thereforeshow impoliteness if used to or with regard to another person than oneself. For the Mixed Subjunctive, (b) should for all persons, would for 2nd him

and
so

3rd : e.g. If I saw him, I ; he would do itifhe dared.

VERBS

65

(3)As

: Semi-Auxiliaries
"

(a) Will

with the meaning of insistence or resolve, for the ist Person : e.g.I will do it especially despite your advice.
or permission with the meaning of command for the 2nd and 3rd Persons : e.g. (Command) He shall obey whether he likes it or not ; thou

(b)Shall

shalt not steal.

You (Permission}
a

wish it; they shall have

shall go ifyou have holiday, if they be-

well.

(f)Would. With (i)

the

would

meaning of insistence: e.g. he do it,though I warned him of the

come

consequences. Also (ii) with the idea of habit : he would and see me every day.

(d)Should

with the meaning should do his duty.

: of obligation e.g. he

NOTE on the use of Shall and Will.-Great care must be exercised in the use of Shall and Will for the Future, as the meaning of a sentence is often reversed by a wfong The employment of these verbs. to a foreigner well illustrates this : " I will be sentence attributed me." drowned In Interrogative Sentences, as and no one shall save is of necessity absent, it is possible the idea of insistence or command
to
use

shall for 2nd

even

Person,

statements,

more

}vou ^-{willg" We licence is permissible.

to

see

hi" ? say

Iu Indirect
:
"

may

You He

say that you says that hebe

11

be there.
there.

VI. May.
Indicative. No Present Past : other forms.
:

may, mayst, may ; may. might, mightest or mightst, might ; might.

Auxiliary with the Infinitive to form the Mixed : e.g. Subjunctive Give me the book that I may burn it. May they be happy.
an

USES. As (i)

66

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

(2)As

Semi-Auxiliary: (a)With the idea of permission : e.g. May

a

I do it?

You

may

go

now.

With (b)

: the idea of possibilitye.g.The not be true.

news

may

VII. Must.
Indicative. No
Present
:

must
a

this [originally (all persons) past tense].

was

other parts.

express necessity:You must go. As there is no Past Tense, its place is supplied by the Perfect of the following : Infinitive e.g. He must have gone.

USE.

"

To

VIIL

Onght.
Indicative. Present No other parts.
:

ought,

oughtest, ought ; ought.

the originally Past Tense of owe, and had the implies obligation e.g. I : meaning of being in debt. It now in ought to go. Like must it takes the Perfect Infinitive place of

USE.

"

Ought

was

"

I ought to have gone. " is the only Verb of its class which takes the NOTE. Ought " before the Infinitive. Shakespeare has : You ought not to
Past Tense
"

walk.
IX. Can.
Indicative. Present
Past
: :

can,

canst,

can

can.

could, couldst, could ; could.

No

other parts.

USE.
means

knowledge; now it generally Can originally signified I ability any sort to do a thing : e.g. can dance ; can you of
"

come

to see

me

to-morrow

The combination of can with the Infinitiveas w the PotentialMood of a Verb. X. Dare.
Indicative. Present Past :
:

sometimes called

dare, darest, dares and dare ; dare. dared, daredst, dared ; dared [anddurst
: (throughout) obsolete].

VERBS
USES.
As (1)
a

67

" Transitive Verb meaning " to challenge : e.g.I dared him to do it. As (2) a Semi-Auxiliaryindicatingpossibility. In thiscase " " the 3rd Sing, isdare and the to is omitted beforethe following I Infinitive e.g. dare say ; he dare not do it. :

XI. Need is regular except in the 3rd Singular, when it is used : as a Semi-Auxiliary e.g.He need not do itunless he likes. If He used as a Transitive Verb, the 3rd Person takes the -s : e.g. needs good food.

118. OBSOLETE
are
now

VERBS"

The

following Defective Verbs

=

obsolete in most parts. a Wit Originally Transitive Verb ( know) e.g.Wist ye : (i) Both these not that I, etc. Past Tense wot : e.g. God wot.
"

partsare now obsolete. t Now used only in the Infinitiveo wit ( (2) namely). Quoth is used in poetry only in the ist and 3rd Persons Past Tense and with Inversion : e.g. Quoththe raven : " Nevermore." As for myself, quoth he.
=

is used only in the Past Participle, meaning accustomed-, e.g.He was wont to stay there. " It is now obsoleteand to become." Worth originally meant Wont

preserved only in the 3rd Singular Woe worth the day ! Hight is now obsoleteand is found in poetry only in the 3rd " is named " : e.g. Singular, meaning
"

He

hight Alisaundre.

Methinks
also we

impersonal originally find the now obsolete forms

was
"

it seems

meseems,

me). So melisteth( it
to
=

pleases me).
if you please" was originally impersonal (=if Now please practicallyregarded as 2nd Person Plural. it please is you). " Thank you " is not analogous : it is elliptical " I thank for you."
NOTE.
"

The

"

phrase

68

HIGHER

ENGLISH

EXERCISES

ON

CHAPTER

VI.

Write eight sentences giving four examples of the use of the Verb transitivelyand intransitively. Rewrite the four sentences same of voice from Active to containing Transitive Verbs with change Passive. (M) Explain the is meant by tense and mood of Verbs. 2. Explain what English. in modern Mood the Subjunctive uses (M) of 3. Explain the different uses of the Verbal form which terminates in -ing, giving examples of each. stantives sometimes treated as Sub4. Why are Verbs in the Infinitive Mood Infinitives which ought not ? Can you give any examples of to be so designated ? Explain your reasons. changing, I have changed, 5. Show that the forms, I change, I am Give to present time, but in different ways. are all used with regard the corresponding forms for the Present Passive, and for the Past and Future Tenses, Active, hi the Indicative Mood. 6. Explain exactly the use of the various Tenses of the Active Voice the simple Tenses and those formed with the auxiliaries in English (both " Spain has founded a mighty have, be). Is it correct to say : ? (M) empire Verbs that have vowelhalf a dozen Weak 7. Make a listof some change in the Past Tense ; also half a dozen that have no change there ; also half a dozen that do change but not in the way of addition. (M) 8. Explain the terms Strong and Weak as applied to Verbs ; also To do the term conjugation. which conjugation you assign teach, fight, do, fly,low, lee, till,oll, ? (M) tell, t f f and why work, 9. State dearly the rules for the use of shalland will. 10. Give a concise account of the Auxiliary Verbs in English. 11. Explain the terms Anomalous and Defective. Name all the Verbs this nature and write notes on their peculiarities. of from stillfamiliar forms that melt, show, shave, swell,grave 12. Show were once ciples ; of the Strong conjugation and write down the Past Partiof shoe, light, work, knit, speed. (M) C ing 13. Examine carefully the uses of the Objectivease in the follow1.
"

:"

did me great service. I was promised a book. They ran all the way. (c) Did you tell him the news ? Id) They wept bitter tears. (e) It (/) measured three feet by six. Give in columns the Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person of 14. the Verbs in the following sentences : He says that his friends will come (a) this evening. If you had been there, you would have acted as I did. Go away and do not let me see you again 1 Whilst he was writing, a shot struck him. ")I was told that, ifI did not improve, I should be sent away.

He (a)

J6J

"

VERBS
"

69

in 15. Write notes on the use or meaning of the words italicised the : following sentences I did go to London after all.

ei

You do not work as I do. He was talked about for this. (d)Crossing the road, he was knocked down by a passing cab. Travelling is a pleasant mode tion. educaof improvingone's (e) Please give him my kind regards. (/) Explain and illustrate the terms : Causative Verbs, Mixed Verbs, Historic Present, Divided Infinitive. Gerund, Complement, Write sentences illustratingthe different uses of : 17. I am I ({} come coming, I have come, I (ii) came Will (iii) he come ? Shall he come ? Explain fully,in the case of each pah", why the forms cannot be used Why is it incorrect to say : Mr Gladstone has interchangeably. been Prune Minister," but correct to say : " Lord has Rosebery ? (M) been Prime Minister 1 8. Give the 3rd Person Singular Preterite Indicative of swim, (i) become, deal, read, stride; (ii) Past Participle of bear (to the put, carry), lend, thrust ; (iii) the 2nd Person Singular Present Indicative show, of shall,have, may, ought, must ; (iv) the different forms hi use of all the Verb do. 19. Write out : The 3rd Plural Past Indicative of catch. (i) The ist Plural Perfect Indicative of meet. The 2nd Singular Future Perfect Indicative of make. The 3rd Singular Future Indicative of send. The 3rd Singular Present Indicative Passive of slay. The 2nd Plural Past Indicative Passive of bring. Interrogatively, the 3rd Plural Future Indicative Active of
1 6.
"
"
" "

"

"

"

accept,

(8)Negatively,
select.

the ist Plural Present

Indicative Passive of

(9)The
The

Imperative Active of choose. Infinitive Mood Active of

CHAPTER
PRONOUNS

VII

Beis a word used instead of a Noun. Noun previously mentioned sides referringto some Pronouns may also be used : and thus avoiding itsrepetition, is Instead of a Noun-Equivalent: e.g.Playing with fire (1) has dangerous ; it ( playing with fire) caused many deaths. (2)In the place of a Noun inferred from a previous sentence :
119.

PRONOUN

/\.

"

Prime Minister; that ( to become Prime had Minister) always been his ambition. but (3)To avoid not only the repetition, even the mention of a Noun, when the person or thing referredto is obvious : e.g. 1
e.g. He

became

sleeping,but you were awake. Pronouns, likeNouns, have Case, and frequently, unlike Nouns, Case. They also have they have a specialform for the Objective
was

and Gender, though these are not formed in the same An additional way as the Number and Gender of a Noun. Pronouns is their Person (" feature of some 107).
Number
NOTE.
we

The same word is often used as both Pronoun have occasion to refer to such words in the course shall
"

; and Adjective this chapter. of

120. CLASSIFICATION"

Pronouns

may be divided into the

"

followingclasses, according to theirvarioususes : Personal (including Reflexive and Possessive forms)e.g. : (1) I, he, him (Personal) ; yours (Possessive) ; myself (Reflexive).
Demonstrative : this (Plural, that (2) these), (Plural, those). Relative : who, which, what (andtheircompounds, who(3) ever, that, etc.), as. Interrogative: who? which? what? (4) (5)Indefinite: any, each, everyone, another, etc.

121. PERSONAL

PRONOUNS

are

so

called because they

PRONOUNS

71

refer to the three Persons: ist, the person speaking; 2nd, the person spoken to; $rd, the person or thing spoken of ("107). They have Gender, Number, and Case.

Gender is distinguished only in the 3rd Person Singular: he (Masc.), (Fern.), it (Neut). The rest are of she Gender. Common (2)The Number is indicated by the use of totallydifferent
The (1)

words :
"

Sing.: I, thou, he
Plur. :
we,

(she, it).

you, they.

Case is formed by inflection there is a specialform ; for the Objective he (Norn.), (Obj.). him : e.g. The following Scheme shows the Personal Pronouns, with all Persons, Genders, Numbers, and Cases.
The (3)

Singular, thou, thee, thine has almost So also ye, 2nd you, you, yours being substituted. Plural (originally Nominative, you being Objective), the is now obsolete. (2)The ist Plural is occasionally used for the ist Singular : e.g. We, Edward, by the grace of God, etc." An editor generally uses we for / to his own when giving expression opinions. (3)The 3rd Person Singular Neuter it is often used indefinitely without reference to any particular thing and even without any e.g. special meaning: William I. who conquered England It was (Introductory). Who is it,making such a noise ? (referring vaguely to a number of persons). I think it my duty to inform you (referring to what follows : to
"

NOTES. (i)The dropped out of use,

2nd

Person

"

inform you}.
forms my, thy, her, our, your, their placed withinbrackets in the above table present a slight difficulty. Are they Adjectives Pronouns ? Originally these words or all
122. POSSESSIVES"

The

were

Pronouns likemine, thine,etc. In the sentence, " This book is yours" there is no doubt that

72
yours

HIGHER
is
a

ENGLISH

it stands not with but in place But in the belonging to you. of a Noun-phrase the book " This is"'0wrbook," the word your stands with a Noun, sentence, to be an and describes and limitsits meaning ; hence it seems
Pronoun,
"

because

Adjective rather than

Pronoun.

words in French, German, and allrespecte with the Noun following. It is urged in support of its pronominal
for Smith's or
man's,

Moreover, the corresponding Latin are Adjectives, agreeing in

use

and that as these are But, as has been already the your fulfils definition a Pronoun. of remarked, the words Smith's,man's, etc. the PossessiveCases of in use, though not actually Nouns" are themselves
etc. ;
"

that your stands Nouns the word

adjectival

The Adjectives.
Pronoun
:

form

his does duty for both

e.g.This is his book

Adjective and This book is his (Pron.). (Adj.).

FORMS" EMPHATIC by ing These are formed mainly from the Possessive Adjectives addan This the word self(selves). word was originally Adjective
123. THE REFLEXIVE AND

and then have we

Thus (Shakspeare). herself, ourselves, and thyself, myself, yourself, yourselves. It should be noticed that himself, themselves are formed, itself, but Case not from the Possessive Adjectives,from the Objective of two instances, because hisself, the Pronoun, probably, in the first
a as

Noun,

" in " theirproper selves

to itsselfnot

This explanation does sound pleasant to the ear. for themselves,which may have been not, however, account formed by analogy with the others.
The
same

form

is used for both Nominative

and

Objective

Cases.
Such Pronouns have two
uses
:
"

(1)For

Emphasis, in Apposition to a Noun We ourselveswillspeak to them.

or

Pronoun

e.g.

These

men
"

saw

it themselves (in apposition to

men}.

(2)As

Reflexives

: e.g. when theirCase is Objective They hurt themselvesat cricket

124. DEMONSTRATIVE
cause

PRONOUNS
or

are

so

called be-

they demomtrate

point out

particular object

PRONOUNS
Examples
:

73

This is my hat. Whose hat is that ? He

took a complete rest; and thissaved his life. can Both the Demonstratives this^ that (withheir Plurals) be t Compare the sentences : used as Pronouns or Adjectives. These are his books (Pronoun).
"

These books

are

his (Adjective).

The Demonstratives this, that are occasionally used in the sense in of the latter, the former(probably imitation of the Latin into two parts divided the army hie : ille) e.g. He
"

Europeans

and natives ; thesehe

they
are

sent

to

the

rear,

those he led

to the attack.
some : e.g. used in the sense of some The boys did what they pleased ; theseplayed, thoseworked.

Sometimes

Pronoun Such is usually considered a Demonstrative (and though its vague meaning also gives it a claim to be classified Adjective), ("129). Example of use as a Pronoun : with the Indefinite Pronouns to come Suffer little unto me and forbid them not, for of children is the kingdom of such .heaven. in It is an Adjective : Such men never as he are at heart's ease. NOTE 2. The word so is an Adverb used as a Demonstrative Pronoun = in such phrases as : he said so ( this) I told you so. ;

NOTE

i.

"

"

"

"

125. RELATIVE

PRONOUNS

have two functions:"

relate or refer to some word or phrase previously mentioned. This word or phrase isknown as the Antecedent. Like Conjunctions, serve to joinsentences. For this they (2) Pronouns. reason they are often aptly termed Conjunctive
Examples
:

They (1)

He

saw

the

men

who

were

here yesterday.

(Antecedent)(Relative)
He said that the earth was
round,

|(Relative) (Antecedent)

\which

was

perfectly true.

The bars indicate the division It should be of the sentences. in noted that the Relative forms part of the second sentence from a Conjunction, each case ; in this respect itdiffers which,

strictly speaking, belongs to neither sentence I hoped |that | you would

126. WHO whose. These

e.g.

come.

has

an

Case Objective
are

words

whom and a Possessive used for Singular and Plural alike.

74
They
or

HIGHER

ENGLISH
are

refer to Persons only, and Feminine Gender.

:

therefore of the Masculine

Examples

The

man

who whom

was

here has gone away.

saw

(Norn.)
The
men

have been arrested.

(Obj.)
The boy, whose books I have brought, is not here.

(Poss.)
is used in the Norn, and Obj. Cases for animals and inanimate ; itsGender is thereforeNeuter.
Which

objects
:

Examples

This is the book of which I

was

speaking. black.

(Obj.)
He
saw

many

dogs which

were

(Norn.)
Which has
no

Possessive Case,

being of with the Objective

used, as in the firstexample above; but whose is sometimes in used for the Possessive, especially reference to animals : e.g.

This isthe bird whose plumage

"

I admire.

NOTES. (i)The distinctionbetween who (M.and F.)and which is of modern origin ; thus we find in Shakspeare : The firstof gold, who this inscriptionbears ; The second, silver, which this promise carries. and The mistress which I serve. Which is also used as an Adjective : e.g.I know (2) which books
"

(N.)

you

want.

is used indiscriminately with reference to persons or S things; the same form serves for Nom. and Obj.,ing, and Plur. Examples : Give me the man that is not passion'sslave.
That

(Nom.)
You have the book that I
was

speaking of.

(Obj.)
NOTES. that. Who
"

uses of who, which, and which have two uses : cedent (a)Restrictive, when the clause introduced describes the Antelike an Adjective" : ( 188) e.g. This is the man whom you saw. the the clause introduced continues (b)Continuative, when information already given : e.g. I saw my father who was in London. be applied only in the firstof these cases That can (Restrictively) " This is the man Thus we can say : ing that you saw," thereby distinguishfrom others ; but not " I saw man father some my particular

(i)There
and

isa distinctionbetween the

"

PRONOUNS
(hat mine
was

75

" father of for this would mean that particular in London," is absurd. This discrimination of was who which origin. who and that is of modern an jectiv (2)The word that is also a Demonstrative Pronoun (" 124), Ad-

in London,"

("124), and
What

Conjunction "163). (

is sometimes a Compound Relative because (according it to modern usage) stands for the Demonstrative that and the It is Relative which ; consequently it requires no antecedent
always of the Neuter Gender. Example : You know

what I

mean.

What is also used As : He (1) an Adjective saw what books I had. As (2) an Exclamation : What ! did Caesar swoon ? What ( with partly) this and what with that I don't know where to turn. Pronoun (see elow). (4)As an Interrogative b Indefinitely I'lltellyou what ( : (5) we'll something), go once. there at Who has a similaruse to (5) older writers,.g. in He did nothing e " but frown as who ( should say, If you willnot have
: Adverbially (3)
=

anyone)

me,

choose."
"

Compounds whoever, whichever, whatever, whosoever, is also used similarly to the simple Relatives. Whomsoever found ; but not whomever.
NOTE.
etc.,
are

The

As, generallyan Adverb, is used as a Relative Pronoun after the Antecedents such, same : e.g. Your friends are such as I admire. has But, originally Conjunction, the force of a Negative+ a a
Relative Pronoun, There is no 127.
man

as just

the Latin quin, in such sentences as : but loves him ( who does not love him).
=

THE CONCORD RELATIVE OF AND THE Since the Relative refers to the person or ANTECEDENT" thing denoted by the Antecedent, it necessarily agrees with it in Gender, Number, and Person. But the Relative does not agree with its Antecedent in Case, the Case of each being determined by the clause in which itstands: e.g.

76

HIGHER

ENGLISH

The books which you desireare here,

(Obj.) (Norn.)
Give
me

the book which is on the table,

(Norn.) (Obj.)
The Relative isfrequentlyomitted ifin the That is the man A I mean.
But it must
not

Case Objective

e.g.

be to modern (according usage)

:
"

the Nominative. Shakspeare wrote us A have seen strange sights." 128. INTERROGATIVE

omitted ifin There's two or three of

used in asking questions. They are the same words as the Relative who, which, that,as, but, nor the what, and theircompounds with -ever (not

PRONOUNS

are

compounds ending in -soever). Examples : What do you say ? two Whatever (generally you do it?
Which of
one
or

words, what

made ever)

Whose is thisbook ? is used interrogativelyor the purpose of discrimination f or more persons things from a number : e.g. Which of the two do you prefer? Which of you broke the window ?

Both which and what are also used as Adjectives: e.g. Which book willyou have ? What 129. INDEFINITE
money

have you ?
are

PRONOUNS

such

in a general way. They do not point out a the Demonstratives,nor do they even referto used. The following belong to this class
"

indicatethings thing as do particular

as
a

Noun
one,

previously any (andits

compounds

some body, anything), (andsomeone, somenone other something), (andnobody, nothing), (andanother),

anybody, anyone,

each,else, few,many, several,everyone, both. either, all, neither, Examples of use : Many are called, few are chosen.

What elseisthere ? Either of you willdo.

On* is inclinedto think so. Some were bom great.

PRONOUNS
Most of these words are also Adjectives : e.g. All men are mortal.

77

Some people
130. INDEFINITE

are

always grumbling.
"

DISTRIBUTIVES

Four

of these

IndefinitePronouns, viz. each, either, everyone, are used neither, distributively, i.e. with reference to a number of things one at a time. All succeeding words in the sentence connected with them must be singular: e.g. has her book. Each of the girls
Neither of them knows his (or her) work. in the last sentence, the persons A slightdifficulty arisesif,as sexes; grammar strictlyequires the referredto are of different r

words his or her before work, but custom only.

NOTE
on
"

allows the

use

of his

like either and each other,one another. The words each other, axe used in reference to two persons only, one another in reference neither, to two or more : e.g. hitting one another. The schoolboys were Charles were hitting each other (or one John and another). In these sentences Nominative Case, other and one are and each " for The schoolboys another are Objective, the original meaning was : hitting one was hitting another," etc. were But in the sentence : " They were playing with each other," the original Case construction has been lost, and both must be taken as Objective by the Preposition with. governed
"

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

VII.

Write sentences illustrating Classify Pronouns, giving examples. Pronoun of each class. one of 2. Show, by means of sentences, that the same word is often used both as Pronoun and as Adjective. cedent 3. What is meant by an Antecedent ? In what way does the Anteits Relative ? Give two examples. agree with 4. Write sentences showing the various meanings and uses of the words one, which, each, that, with explanations in each instance. ing 5. Explain the exact meaning and use_of the word what in the follow-

the

use

sentences

:
"

(a)I will tell you what. (b)He was somewhat weary. (c)What o'clock is it ? (d)What man is this ? (e)What with the wind, and (M) easy to get on.

what with

the

rain, it

was

not

78

HIGHER

ENGLISH

6. Explain the uses of the Relatives who, which, and that,and compare them with one another. 7. In what grammatical characteristics do Nouns and Pronouns resemble each other, and hi what do they differfrom each other ? 8. Assign to their various classes the Pronouns in the following
notes of explanation where necessary : Many of these apples are bad : I will have none of them. do, keep the affair to yourself. Whatever you Those are the men that I was talking about. All who are such as I have described, will be invited. The boys like each other : that is a fortunate thing. (5) (6)We ourselves said so, and everyone agreed. the 9. Give (hi columns) Number, Gender, and Case of the Pronouns in the last question. 10. State (with w reasons)hich of the words italicisedare Adjectives Pronouns in the following : are and which (1)This is my hat ; where is yours ? (2)Men at some time are masters of their fates. (3)Such men as he be never at heart's ease. do you mean ? Any of those will do. (4)Which man The towns large ; but these are that you mentioned are (5) small. (6)Dp you want any books ? Yes, I will have that one. 11. Explain the Demonstrative Pronouns hi : (1)The busy sylphs surround their darling care ; These set the head, and those divide the hah-. (2)Two principles in human nature reign : Self-love to urge, and Reason to restrain ; Nor this a good, nor that a bad we call, Each works its end to move or govern all. (M) sentences, adding
" " "

CHAPTER VII!

ADJECTIVES
word used to describe a Noun Pronoun, and at the same time to limit its or /X are application.Adjectives used in two ways : Attributively, when they stand with the Noun they (1)
131.

ADJECTIVE

is

"

: qualify eg.

They

saw

mad dog.

A great crowd collected. Which books do you want ? Predicatively,when (2)

and the Noun

or

Verb stands between the Pronoun itqualifies e.g. : The dog was mad. The crowd isgreat.
a

Adjective

They
NOTE.
"

seem

tired.

A few Adjectives, desirous, conversant, awake, afraid, e.g. be used Attributively; and a few others, e.g. every, any, and cannot the Possessive Adjectives cannot be used Predicatively.

132. CLASSIFICATION

"

may Adjectives
or

be classified as
is, object

follows:
"

of what nature good, happy, hard, blue, English. e.g. Possessive : my, thy, his,etc. (2)

Qualitative, showing (1)

qualityan

Demonstrative : this, that,the, an (a), such. (3) Relative and Interrogative : which, what, and (4) one, two, second, single. Numeral : e.g. (5) Indefinite: e.g.some, any, much, few, every. (6)

compounds.

Since many serve both as

are

words, as has been pointed out in the lastchapter, and Adjectives Pronouns, many of the above classes identical with those of the Pronouns, and thereforeneed no
n

80

HIGHER

ENGLISH

isthe furtherexplanation. The first class (Qualitative) one that is especially and proper to Adjectives, it is to thisclass that the
belong. of majority Adjectives words a, an, the are generally called the Articles, and are sometimes classed as a separate Part of Speech. But as they correspond very closelyin originand use this, with the Demonstrative Adjectives that, they are placed with
those words. The is called the Definite Article,because likethis and that it
one or pointsout definitely particular object class. is A (an) similarly Article, because itpoints calledthe Indefinite but not any particularspecimen. Logically,we out one

133. THE

ARTICLES"

The

object

Class, but ought perhaps to place thisword under the Indefinite itis convenient to treat ithere with the word the.

and an. An is used before the vowel-sounds,before silent and before h, unemphatic h (i.e. where the accent of the word is not on the first
use

The

of

syllable).
before aspirated and emphatic h, and before vowels which sound like consonants.
Examples
:

A is used before consonants,

fan ape,
an
" an

{a
134. NUMERAL

image, an untruth (vowel an sound), honourable man, hotel (silent an h). (anhabitual drunkard, an hospitable man (unemphatic). h book, a dog, a feature (consonant), a hope, a happy man, a habit (aspirated and emphatic h). a occurrence, lamb, a one-sided affair a ewe usual (vowels sounded like consonants y,

w).

ADJECTIVES
"

include :"

Cardinals (1) Ordinals (2)

"

the ordinary numbers one, two, three, etc. : showing the order or rank of an objectfirst,
"

third,etc. second, Multiplicatives (3)

in which the number of times is indicated, double,twofold, treble, e.g.single, etc. threefold,

135. Sufficient explanationof the other classes of

Adjectives

ADJECTIVES
has been given under the corresponding Pronouns A few examples may be added : His (Poss.) hands are dirty (Qual.).
"

81

(Chapter vii.).

Some

men things at (Indef.) try to do two (Num.) time. (Indef.) men Which (Interrog.)are guilty? (Qual.). Into whatsoever (Rel.) ye enter, etc. city Those (Dem.) friends. people are my (Poss.)

the

same

136.

ADJECTIVES
"

USED

AS

OTHER

PARTS
:
"

OF
word

SPEECH
as

In addition to the employment of the same are Adjective Pronoun, Adjectives frequently used and Nouns
:

do lives afterthem, e.g.The evilthat men The good is oft interredwith theirbones. As (2) Adverbs : e.g.They worked hard.
As (1)

shines bright. l Only a few Adjectives as the above and fast,oud can be such thus employed ; the student should therefore beware of such he writes incorrect as : he spoke quick, sentences funny, where the Adverbs quickly,funnily should be used.
moon

The

may here note that after Verbs of Incomplete Predication, is the Adjective correctly used and is not to be considered He is happy. Adverbial: e.g. We

(3)As

Prepositions :

looks sad. They sat near e.g. He

He

me.

is very much likeyou. This is worth a shilling.

137. COMPARISON

changed or compared, as to of the object named relatively one or more other objects. " is tallerthan the woman," The man Thus we may say : where we compare the height of the man with that of the woman ; or This book is the most beautiful of all," where inferred. book with allothers named or There are three degrees of Comparison :
"

OF ADJECTIVES" Adjectives be can itis termed, in order to show the state

"

we

compare

this

itself no relative idea is ; which is the Adjective indicated, There is a happyland. e.g.

(a)Positive
"

82

HIGHER
"

ENGLISH object

Comparative (3)
or

tion which indicates a higher degree of comple; it is only used other perfection relativeto some
than that one. e.g. objects This boy is happier which indicates the highest degree attainable is the happiestoy in b nature : e.g.He of the same
:
"

in comparing two Superlative (f)

of all objects the class.

NOTE.
"

The Comparative and Superlative Degrees are often used being stated ; in such cases absolutely : i.e. without any comparison however the comparison is easily inferred : e.g. healthier the healthier for his visit to the country (i.e. He was than he was previously). happiest of all They are happiest they are at school (i.e. when

times).
" 1 50. OF ADJECTIVES OF 138. MODES COMPARISON There are three modes in which the Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives formed. are By (i) inflection: to the Positive,-er is added to form the Comparative, and -est to form the Superlative: e.g.
For the
use see
"

of the with the Comparative,

R Exceptionalules. When the Adjectivends in (a) e

and -st only are added : safe safer safest large largest larger (6)When the Adjective ends in -y preceded by a consonant, -y is changed to are added : -i-and then -er, -est happy happier happiest lovely lovelier loveliest Except: shy shyer shyest Adjectives one syllable ending in a consonant with a (c) of flectio before inshort vowel preceding, double that consonant
-e, -r
"

"

:
"

sad fit

sadder fitter

saddest fittest

than two syllables,and most words of two of more Comparative and Superlativeby prefixing also,form their syllables
more

Words (2)

and most (these words being themselves the Comparative : and Superlativeof the Adverb much) more most magnificent magnificent magnificent
"

jovial
unsafe'

more
more

jovial
unsafe

most

jovial
unsafe

most

ADJECTIVES
Irregular Comparison. (3) have (a)A few Adjectives

83

different parative Comwords for Positive, and Superlative. They are :

"

good

better
worse

best
worst most least

manyj

much\
a

more

little

less

($)A

few others have irregular :

"

twofold Comparison, regular and

late nigh
near

old

(c)A

have no few Comparative and SuperlativeAdjectives Positive Adjective, being derived from an Adverb they
"

: originally

COMPARISONS" IRREGULAR ON THE There is a differencein use between later and latterand (1) " between latest referto time : e.g. He was and last. Later, latest " later than you ; (in point of time) latter,last refer to order : " is Also latter e.g. The latter had the finer voice of the two."
139. NOTES
never

used before than. There is also a difference another kind between older% of (2) Elder, eldestare used of persons only, : (a) oldestand elder,eldest
" : older,oldest of persons and things e.g. This

man

isthe oldest

84
but (or eldesf)?
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

in There This horse isthe oldest the stable." (") between older,oldest and elder, is a further distinction eldestas applied to persons. For example, Prince Henry was the eldest son of Henry II.,though he died young ; but he could not be

because the others attaineda greater age. describedas the oldest, Further, elderis not used before than. (f) (3)Near is the originalComparative of nigh : it has now become a Positive and iscompared regularly. The PositiveAdverbs given in brackets in " 138 (c)ave h (4) force in the compound an Adjectival words outhouse, in-licence, F found in the now foreshore.orth is similarly archaic upland^
word

forthright^far survivesas and

"a

an

in Adjective

the expression

far country."

140. A DOUBLE
were
once
was

AND SUPERLATIVE COMPARATIVE admissiblein English. Thus Shakspeare has :

"

the most unkindest cut of all (double Sup.). Prospero (double Nor that I am more better than Comp.). lands (a Against the envy of lesshappier curiousdouble Comp.). The only instancesof such in modern English are the words
nearer

This

(" and 139)

lesser: e.g. The lesser lightto rule the night

CANNOT It is impossible to assign any degree Relative,Interrogative, Numeral,

141. SOME

ADJECTIVES

(except much
more or

Thus an and little). object less third than another, or more or

COMPAREDto Possessive, Demonstrative, or Indefinite Adjectives cannot possibly be

less
some

BE

than

another. Only Qualitative then, admit of Comparison, and Adjectives, have no even of these,some, owing to theirnature, can ordinarily degree. Such are silver perfect English. It should be \ circular, ; sometimes used with more and most with a slightdifference of meaning: e.g. "This figure is " more itis Strictly, circularthan that (i.e. more nearly a circle). if a thing is circular, is circular,nd can be neither more it nor a
less so,

noticed that such

are Adjectives

142. CONCORD

OF

ADJECTIVES"

An

originAdjective

ADJECTIVES
"
"

85

or allyagreed with the Noun it qualified whether attributively show no predicatively in allrespects. Now, however, Adjectives

variationfor Gender, Number, or Case, with the exception of the Demonstratives this and that^which have Plurals theseand those. But Adjectives as Nouns may take a Plural form : e.g. used i Russians, Christians,nteriors, neutrals. aliens, valuables, usually used attributively Adjectives qualify. Some

exceptionsare
EXERCISES

precede the Noun noted in " 215.

CHAPTER
VIII.

they

ON

Classify Adjectives, giving examples of each class. What is meant by the Attributive and Predicative Uses of Adjectives ? Write sentences illustratingyour answer. 3. What forms of the Indefinite Article do you use before the words ? Give reasons ever history, historical, European, usual, humble, for your answers. (M) cannot be compared ? Give examples to illustrate 4. What Adjectives answer. your are 5. What Adjectives irregular in their comparison ? Write notes
1.
2.
on

utter, last, first,furthest, near. 6. Give the degrees of comparison of the following where such exist ; if any do not admit of comparison, state why : free, dry, red, principal, gay, silly,unfortunate, square, extravagant, unique. 7. Write four sentences containing Nouns used as Adjectives, and four containing Adjectives used as Nouns. 8. Write sentences containing the following words as Adjectives and belongs : few, whole, good, which, state to what class each Adjective tall,French, such, hopeful. 9. Write four sentences containing Phrases used as Adjectives. to the various Classes the Adjectives the following in 10. Assign or thek degree their use sentences, and state (Attributive and
:
: Predicative) (1)Various nations have customs (2)Every dog has his day.
"

peculiar to themselves.

'3 Several people begged him to give way, but he stood firm. A country mouse invited a town mouse to a modest supper. Those men were not satisfied,despite all thek honours. An honest man's the noblest work of God. But redder yet that light shall glow On Linden's hill of stained snow. (8)And the pale augurs, muttering low, Gaze on that blasted head. 11. Mention three Adjectiveshich (i) cannot be compared; w (ii) kregularly are three which three are compared ; (iii) which Demonstrative be used before Noun ; a ; (iv)three which cannot from a Noun three which are in the Singular (v) usually separated by the Indefinite Article ; and (vi)three which can be separated from a Noun they qualify by the Definite Article. What will cause inversion of the Indefinite Article with any Adjective ? of Quality

CHAPTER
ADVERBS

IX

word used to modify or describe fully any Part of Speech except a Noun or jfjL more Pronoun. to It is the function of an Adjective modify Nouns
143.

ADVERB

is

we and Pronouns ; nevertheless, king ; the above statement ; a

find such phrases

as :

The then

far country.
"

Two

explanations
we
an

may be given of such instances : That the Adverb is there used as an Adjective, as just (1) have seen (" is 136)that an Adjective sometimes used for

Adverb.
the Adverb modifies some Adjective understood, the above phrases being equivalentto "the then reigning king," etc. Of these two explanationsthe former is the more logical, since Part of Speech is frequently used for another in English,and one

(2)That

since,moreover,
"

there is no ground for supposing that words like ever employed in those phrases. etc., were reigning," It is betterto avoid using any except such familiar expressions

; altogether otherwise we shallbe tempted to say with Shakspeare " here approach," and such phrases. our A An Adverb, then, may modify Verbs, Adjectives,dverbs, Conjunctions and Prepositions, though its main function is to

modify Verbs. We append a few examples : He came gladly (with erb). V They were very happy (withdjective). A You speak too quickly (with dverb). A
"

They

justbecause Conjunction).
came

they had nothing else to do

crane

(with

He stood almost under the

144. USES

(withreposition). P

OF ADVERBS"

Adverbs, likeAdjectives, be may

used:

ADVERBS
Attributively, (1) with the word
use.

87

modified; thisis theirordinary

to
a

Predicatively, as (2)
common.

complement
:

Verb

thisuse isnot

so

He looks well,he is here. Adverbs are also much used in two other ways : i.e. Interrogatively, for the purpose of asking a question: e.g. (3) Where have you been ? Examples
"

did you arrive ? (4)Absolutely,when they modify the whole sentence Fortunately,I had enough money with me. Positively, do not know where I leftit. I
When 145. CLASSIFICATION"

e.g.

theirmeaning, according as Time : e.g. then, now, to-day,early,soon, twice,never. (1) Place : e.g.here, there,far,outside, away. (2) briefly. Manner : e.g. thus, quickly, (3) well,
"

Adverbs are classified accordingto : they indicate

Degree (4) Reason (5)

Many

e.g.quite,too, so, very, yes, no, not. : e.g. therefore, consequently, then. Adverbs have more than one signification, and
:

may

: be therefore placed in more than one of the above classes e.g. Then we spoke (Time).

? (Reason). then,what I mean So also some Adverbs do not exactly fitinto a particular class, In such Manner. conveys the idea of Time and e.g. repeatedly cases the Adverb must be placed where itis most appropriate.
see,

You

?" The words when, why, where, how, while, whence, whether, because, since, etc.,
146. ADVERBS

OR

CONJUNCTIONS

require consideration. In the sentences : " He came here when you arrived,"are the
same

while I was speaking," He was to class while, when as Conwe junctio in exactly They certainly or Adverbs ? sentences join manner as but, and, that, and therefore appear to be
the
same

"

At Conjunctions.

time itmay be noted that the words reference to Time ; though they do not when, while have some a modify the meaning of was speaking,rrived. Indeed it is the when you arrived,which whole sentences, while I was speaking, he was here. us when he came, tell when

88

HIGHER

ENGLISH

t Such words, therefore,fulfilhe functions of both Adverb and but ; Conjunction, mainly the latter hence they are best described
as

Adverbial Conjunctions.
NOTE.
"

Many

in that

case,

; words are used Interrogatively (" 144) of the same they do not join sentences, they are Adverbs. since

147. FORMATION

(1)Many

Adverbs

are

of the termination -ly : brightly.

OF ADVERBS" by formed from Adjectives the addition ; e.g.safe, safely quick, quickly; bright,
to
:

(a)When

-i eg. gay, gaily,happy, happily ; pretty, prettily. Exceptions :

the

Adjective ends in -y, this is changed

shyly, coyly. When the Adjective thisis dropped : e.g. affable, ends in -le, (b) affably; suitable, suitably. in (c) Adjectives -ly seldom form Adverbs as above, though It do find holily, friendlily, we sillily. is best to avoid such " awkward formations by using a phrase : e.g. in a holy
manner."

(d)A

few Adverbs

fast,much, (2)Some Adverbs

form of the same better, late,little.

are
are

as

: e.g. Adjectives

needs, yesterday ; also "home" ("78). Some Prepositions are (3)

on

also formed from Nouns, e.g. besides, as the Adverbial Objectives such

walked tn" So also some Adverbs are obtained by compounding Prepositions besides. with other Parts of Speech, e.g.hereby, therein,
;

as

in :

"

They

used as Adverbs, e.g.in, out, after, " He went out."

148. COMPARISON

OF ADVERBS"

Adverbs

in the
which

same

and most.
are

by way as Adjectives adding -er, As there are few Adverbs admitting of Comparison

compared by more -est,and is not

common;

are

of
are
:

one

syllable,the firstmethod

examples

Positive
soon

Comparative
sooner

Superlative
soonest fastest

fast

faster

early

earlier
as

earliest

We

rarely find such forms

gladtier.

ADVERBS
A few have
Irregular Comparison;

89
the

Comparative and form as Superlative of the of majority these is of the same the Adjective 138). ("

rathe

rather (obsolete)

It may be taken as a ADVERBS" general rule that Adverbs should be placed as close as possible to the word they modify. The following special cases should be noted : in Adverbs used Interrogatively (1) stand/"j/ the sentence : e.g. Where shall I go ?
149. POSITION
"

OF

Adverbs (2)
sentence:

used Absolutely are

generally placed

i firstn the

e.g. Naturally^ he did not pass the examination. if Note that the meaning is quite different the order is altered to : "He did not pass the examination naturally" Adverbs are placed before Adjective, Adverb, tion, Preposithe (3)

they modify : e.g. He seemed strangelyexcited. He ran right round the course. (4)With Verbs)variouspositions are taken : If t (a) the Verb is Intransitive,he Adverb generally follows it: e.g. They walk quickly. If (b) the Verb is Transitive,the Adverb never separates Verb
or
"

Conjunction which

b and Object,ut either precedes the former, : the latter e.g. They gladly welcomed theirfriends ;
or,

or

follows

They

welcomed

theirfriends gladly.

90
If (c)

HIGHER

ENGLISH

or the Verb is made up of an Auxiliary + an Infinitive between the two : e.g. Participle, Adverb often comes the They were easilybeaten.

He

finished. had/**,?/
a

(d)Adverbs
even

of Time, and a few others,often precede ifIntransitive e.g. :

Verb,

go often to his house. laugh at his quaint manner. They frequently

We

(5)These positions are sometimes varied for the in poetry: e.g. Chap, and emphasis (see xvi.), also
Hardly had I spoken when you arrived. There stood the man.

sake of

ADVERBS" ON CERTAIN A As may be: (i) Relative Pronoun (see " 126). (2)An Adverbial Conjunction. (a)With the meaning because: e.g. I forgive you as you have confessed your fault With the meaning in the manner that : e.g. (b)
150. REMARKS

is not cheerful as you are. (3)An Adverb of Degree, with the meaning to that extent You are not as tall you look. as
He

e.g.

The second " as " is an Adverbial Conjunction. The use of as as a Preposition: e.g. " He is as tallas doubtful English, and is best avoided (see "

me,"

is

167).

So indicates manner,

degree, or

reason

He spoke so politely that I was It so fallsout that what we have

e.g. deceived (Degree).

we

prize not

to the full

(Manner).
He NOTE. the
sense
"

worked hard so that he might succeed So (i) as an Adverb of Degree must

of very.
error.
"

(Reason).
not

was

so

pleased to

be used in receiveyour letter" is a

common

(2)So isalso used

Quiteis an

Demonstrative Pronoun (" 124, Note Adverb of Degree, meaning perfectly : e.g.
as a

2).

He spoke quitenaturally. It should not be used with the meaning very or rather,as in the sentence : We have had quitea nice journey.

ADVERBS
Nor must

91
:
"

itbe used
There

as was

an

as in Adjective, the sentence

quitea crowd there. The, placed before a Comparative,is an Adverb of Degree : e.g. The sooner the better; the more the merrier. " The latter means to the extent that (there : phrase literally

are)

(weshall be) merrier." This word the has no connection in origin or use with the Definite Article;it was originally he Instrumental Case of the t Demonstrative that. There is used not only as an Adverb of Place, but also as an IntroductoryAdverb with indefinite meaning : e.g.
more,

to that extent

There

was

once

a man

who

The

: of now is similar e.g. Now ithappened that he was ignorant of the fact. With these may be compared the introductory uses of //("

use

Some authorities assign allthese words to no and and ("167). Part of Speech, but group them under the vague term Particles. Very is used with Adjectivesform a weak Superlative e.g. to :
He
was

121)

very happy.

It must not be used with Past Participles, unless these have " " become thorough Adjectives he was : thus is very admired incorrect.

Similarly, rather is used

He Yes
was

to

form

weak Comparative

e.g.

rather surprised.

These words are usually classed as Adverbs and No. because of their analogy to not. They really take the place

of

whole sentence
Were

e.g.
=

Yes ( I was you there ? there). Did you speak ? No ( I did not
=

speak).

They have, therefore,been aptly termed Pro-Sentences or Substitute Adverbs. It should be observed that no is also an Adverb of Degree : e.g. He is no longer with us.
NOTE. Negatives in Modern Two English form an Affirmative. Thus, " he is not unknown to us," is a variation of " he is known to us,"
"

92
with
a

HIGHER
shade

ENGLISH
a

Older writers used of difference in meaning. Thus Shakspeare has to strengthen the Negation. Negative look upon his face again. Nor never Nor to no Roman else. Such a use is accounted a vulgarity in Modern English.

Double

:"

151. ADVERBIAL

PHRASES

(see" 48)"These

may

be

as Adverbs: e.g. in manner classified the same He stood on the bridge (place) at midnight (time). to in haste (manner) our house (place). He came

the general retreated. The enemy having been (reason), reinforced

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

IX.

and state how Adverbs may be classified. in a is the general rule as to the position of an Adverb 2. What Verb is modified. its application when a sentence ? Examine Explain the various ways in which Adverbs are used. 3. 4. Write notes on the use of the words : yes, no, quite, when, there. 5. Write six sentences in which an Adverb modifies something else than a Verb. 6. In what ways may Adverbs be compared ? Give the comparison six Adverbs which of hastily, far, loud, much, sadly, well. Mention reasons. do not admit of Comparison, giving use of the words in italics 7. Discuss the meaning and grammatical in the following sentences : As (1) it is fine,I shall go for a walk. (2)He looked 50 unhappy that I thought there was something wrong. (3)Drive somewhat faster when you are in the main road. (4)I said so merely because I wished to please him. (5)Certainly I will come as soon as I am ready. 8. Assign to their classes the Adverbs and Adverbial phrases in the following sentences, and state what words or phrases they modify : too late. they rushed to his house, but it was Quickly |i) Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 2) 3) Seeing no one, I marched boldly on. 4) O'er Nelson's tomb, with silent grief oppressed Britannia mourns her hero now at rest. Unfortunately, he went away so early that I did not see (5) him. You have never him, and therefore you ought not to seen (6) him. criticise He has been very ill, but has now completely recovered. We shall pay you a visit sooner or later.

Define

an

Adverb

"

"

CHAPTER X
PREPOSITIONS is a word used to join Noun or a itsequivalent to some other word in the sentence, in between the named. orderto show the relationship xisting e objects " " When we the book is on the table we are not merely say
A

152.

PREPOSITION

"\,

grammaticallyconnecting the words book and tablej we are also book and expressing the connection existingbetween the object the object table, A Preposition usually precedes the Noun or equivalentwhich itjoins the rest of the sentence. to It may join : Nouns and Pronouns : e.g. (1) That boy is in the street (joiningand street). boy They are in the house (joining and house). they A Verb (2) Noun to an Adjective, or Adverb : He is happy in his choice (joining happy and choice). They work with zest (joining and work zest). FortunatelyforEngland, he recovered (JQmmg innately for
" "

and
""""

England).
some

A (3) Noun-equivalent to

other word, phrase, or sentence

To die in defending one's

to die country is heroic (joining

one's and defending country). This is quite different from what we

expected

(joining

different and

what

we

expected).

153. CLASSIFICATION" Prepositions as might be classified, Adverbs are, according to theirmeaning ; but as the meaning of Prepositions is such a classification of little value. variesso greatly,
"3

94

HIGHER
"

ENGLISH

is A betterdivision Prepositions according to theirformation of into: Simple : e.g.of, to, by, with, from, at. (1)
Compound (2)

other word

simple Preposition and into,within,besides,underneath, towards. e.g.

a

; formed

from

some

154. PREPOSITIONAL Two (1)

EQUIVALENTS"

Prepositions e.g. : He walked down by the river. They came from behind the rock.
.
.

When Verb

that which drew

:"

fromout

the boundless deep.

A (2) A (a)

Present Participle e.g. : There are many opinions concerningthisquestion. You can continuependingtheir decision. Past Participle e.g. : It ispastmidnight He
is very much
was

A (a)

: e.g. (3)An Adjective

likeyou.
a

This

worth

penny.

(4)A

Phrase

eg.
went
on

board the ship. lifewe are in death. In the midst

He

of
A

155. GOVERNMENT"

Noun

or

Preposition is said to govern the equivalent itprecedes. Thus in the sentences

He

laidthe book on the table. He laidthe burden on him. him. Such governed on the Preposition is said to govern table, Case. words are always in the Objective
as

Formerly Prepositions governed the Possessive and Dative Some grammarians still regard words governed well as the Objective. " He by certain Prepositions as in the Dative Case : e.g.in the sentence is very much like you," you is said to be Dative. To avoid confusion, it is best to consider allsuch governed words as levelled down to the Objective, reserving the Dative Case for the Indirect Object Verbs ("84). of
"

NOTE.

156. POSITION"

itsgoverned word. word is a Relative Pronoun, and always isgoverned : e.g.

The Prepositionisoccasionallyplaced after This isfrequentlythe case when the governed

when

the Relative thai

PREPOSITIONS

95
. .

{I
Under

know the men speaking about whom you were the men or, I know speaking. about whom you were I have read the books that you were speaking about. [Butwe cannot say : I have read the books about that you
.

were

speaking.]
circumstances the governed Pronoun in conversation: e.g. I know the omitted, especially were speaking about.
such 157. PREPOSITIONS used

is often
men

you

AND

ADVERBS"

Many

words

are

They must be Prepositions and as Adverbs. If they distinguishedaccording to their use in the sentence. and cannot be removed from the govern a Noun or itsequivalent, sentence without destroyingitsmeaning, they are Prepositions.

both

as

Examples

/The boy sat on the fence (Prep.). \He walked on briskly (Adv.). /The horses are outside the house (Prep.). \He is waiting outside (Adv.).

158. PREPOSITIONS

the treatment of i will be convenient here to illustraten

CONJUNCTIONS" belongs to the next Conjunctions

a

AND

Although

chapter, it the similar manner

b distinctionetween certainwords which are used as Prepositions The test of " 157 will usually indicate the and Conjunctions. Prepositional use. Examples : fl will answererhim (Prep.). \Icame at once forI thought you calledme (Conj.). fThe concert does not begin till six o'clock(Prep.).

\Donot
There
as are a

return

cases Certain difficult

I till send for you (Conj.). occur which will be discussed in " 159.
as

few words such

came

before, since, after, which

are

used

: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions e.g. and

{He
ON But is (i) Sometimes
159. REMARKS
a

supper (Prep.). after We look before (Adverbs). and after I have finishedthisletter I shallgo out (Conj.). after

All

our

CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS" Preposition, meaning except: e.g. friendscame but him.

In the well-known line " Whence but is all but he had fled," Prepositionand he should thereforebe him.

96

HIGHER
frequentlya
He
came
:

ENGLISH
soon

(2)Most
(3)Also

: Conjunctione.g.

but

went

away
=

again.

a Adverb ( only) child. (4)Equivalent to a Relative+ a Negative ("126). is a tion a Except, originally Past Participle ( excepted), Preposihim. : e.g.Everyone voted except an
"=

e.g. He

is but

It cannot
was

now

be used

as

though Conjunction,

formerly this

: the watchman Except the Lord keep the city, possible e.g. waketh but in vain. Modern English uses unless. to The same remark appliesto without. It isincorrect say : I shallnot go without I have his permission. is also as Like, an Adjective, in the phrase "in like manner,"

used

as :

A (1)

Preposition: e.g. He
Noun
:

is likethem.

e.g. We shall not look upon his likeagain. It to a Conjunction. is incorrect, But like is never therefore, say : He dressesKke they-do. As must be substituted.
Save, originally Verb, is used as a Preposition e.g. a : All save him had perished. It is incorrect to follow save with a Nominative, although

(2)Rarely, a

formerly this was

perhaps this was

160. USE

2 alone ; save permissible: e.g. Let none depart regarded as equivalent to / saved or excepted

(Nominative Absolute).
AND The MEANING

OF THE COMMON PREPOSITIONS greatest divergence is found both in the have meaning and use of the Prepositions. English Prepositions to do duty not only for the ordinary relationships between objects, to all languages, but also for the various Cases, the common inflections which are for the most part lost in our language. of
They

fundamental meanings from or more generally have one o times which other figurativer idiomatic meanings have arisen. Someitis difficult show that they have any particularsignificato tion to be used one for the other at all and sometimes they seem ; We append examples of the various uses of quiteindiscriminately.

Prepositions: the commonest t with theseas a basis,he student should be able to discussany particular instancethat may present itself.

PREPOSITIONS
At denotes

97

Place : Time : Manner Value : Cause :

closeness or actual contact at the house.

:

:
"

at six o'clock, at present. at rest, at a glance. at this rent. at my command, at will.

"

Beside, besides, denotes

Place

by position the side of: beside the sea ( at the side of). = beside the question ( outside, not to do
=

with).

this
Between, among,

in reference to two in reference to more (indiscriminately) and amongst among objects, han two : e.g. War between England and France. Among is king. the blind, the one-eyed man By denotes nearness : Place : Sit by me (= near). = Time : by by six o'clock ( not after), daylight (= during). Manner : held by the collar (= by means of). killed by a soldier. Agency : Instrument: driven by machinery. Measure : butter sold by the yard. by Jove 1 Adjuration: = Reference : he did his duty by his friends ( towards). For originally denoted in front Its present uses are various : of. Place : he left forLondon. Time : he stayed there forsix weeks. Cause : punished forlaziness. Value : a penny foryour thoughts ( in exchange for). Opposition: forall that, I shall do as I like (= despite). Favour : he died for his country (=on behalf of). Fiom denotes motion or rest away from : hence : Place : he came from London. Time : from to-day. your wages will commence Cause : heart. a weak suffering from Separation : free from sorrow. descended from the Conqueror. Origin : in, into. In mainly denotes rest at, into denotes motion towards. The former is more general in its application than at and contains the notions of : Place : he lives in the country. Time : in an hour. Manner in sympathy, in tears. : Reference : in my opinion, happy in his marriage (= in respect of). Of mainly denotes (i)possession, the various functions of from : (2) Possession: the love Poss.). ofa mother for her child (= Subj. : for the love ofhis country ( Obj.Poss.). = : the pages ofthe book ( pertaining to). = Apposition : the city ofLondon ( the city, London). family ( from). he came Origin : a good of Reference : tired life; we spoke of ofyou (= concerning). Cause : he died ofconsumption (= from). Mr Smith ( Separation : bought of
amongst.
"

60SSs}al1

in addition
Between

t0)is used

"

"

"

"

"

,,

=from).

98

HIGHER

ENGLISH

or less This Preposition has also many other shades of meaning more to the above. r closelyelated On indicates proximity and position above or outside : he sat on the fence. Place : on that occasion. Time : Reference : my opinion on such matters as these. his honour, on your recommendation. on Condition : To originallydenoted motion towards : ! Place : go to your room Tune : the train was in to the minute. duty to our country (= with regard to, towards). Reference : Comparison : similar to that. to succeed, you must work hard. Purpose : With has the meaning of Association and Opposition : : Come Accompaniment with me. Manner : with pleasure. Instrument : he hit the man with a stone. Opposition : they fought with the enemy (= against). : ( with all thy faults I love thee still = despite).
"
"

"

"

"

Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs 161. Certain words and Only a dictionary require particular Prepositions afterthem.
"

experience in English idiom following are a few examples :

or
"

can

guide

us

in this matter.

The

in Nouns : an exception to the rule,instruction Latin, notice of a lecture, our surprise at theirbehaviour. Verbs : he was seized with remorse, they laughed at him, they partedfrom us, they hoped forbetter things. : different Adjectives from that, similar to that,dependent on his father,independent ^everyone. dressed suitablyto his rank, simultaneouslywith the fortunately forus. explosion,

Adverbs

NOTE.

"

It may

be noted that the

use

of Prepositions has varied in the

Thus we say : "He lives on bread and various periods of our language. " " water ; Shakspeare has : "I live with bread like you ; the Bible : " Man shall not live by bread alone." Shakspeare has also the following: = A pension paid from ( by) the Sophy. The lady Beatrice hath a quarrel to (=with) you. Art thou a messenger or come pleasure ? of (= for) How say you by (= the concerning) French lord ?
"

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

X.

position sentences showing the same word used in one as a Preand in the other as a Conjunctionalso two sentences showing ; the same word as Preposition and Adverb. (M) 2. Explain the term Preposition. How does a Preposition differ from

Write two

PREPOSITIONS
"

99
become

? Conjunction (M)

Mention

some

Prepositions that have

Conjunctio

different uses as you can 3. Write down with examples as many the Prepositions by, to, at. (M) of remember position 4. Mention Adjectives which are followed, respectively,by the Preto, arranging your examples, as far as possible, in of and
classes.

(M)
:
"

h 5. Discuss the use of the Prepositions italicisedi the following He did his duty by him. Under these circumstances
Ten to one itis not Add ten to one.
so.

Keep up for my sake. He went pastthe house. The island ofGreat Britain. Do your duty by the University. (M) 6. Explain the use of a afternd out hi the following Afterhim then and bring him back. (i) he After came, all went wrong. You go firstand I will come after. that, I will say no more. After Out, brief candle 1

:
"

He was quite out of it. Out upon it I He was beaten out and out. (g)He proved an out and out deceiver. (M) Explain the meaning and syntax of but in the following 7.

:
"

here but hates me. 1} There is none And was not this the earl ? 'Twas none but he. 2) He would have died but for me. 3) 4) He is all but perfect. (5)There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st But in his motion like an angel sings. (6)He is but a madman. (M) 8. Write sentences to show the uses of the following words as Preposition : between, among, during, but, since. notwithstanding, English Prepositions and show in what way 9. Take six of our common has been taken to represent different relations of time, place, and each causality. (M) 10. D'iscuss the sense and syntax of the Prepositions of hi the following The city ofRome. love for me was wonderful, passing the love His ofwomen. All a sudden. of 4) What a day we had ofit 1 5) He died ofa fever. 6) What ofthat? (7)It was very good ofyou. (8)Upwards offive hundred pounds. (M) State what Prepositions are used with the following words, and 1 1 : adapted, conformable, give sentences to illustrate your answer provide reserve, composed, connect, consequent, expert, compare, absolve.
.

CHAPTER

XI

CONJUNCTIONS
sentences which joins and sometimes words. It has been urged that a sentences Conjunction and not words. Thus the always joins " be expanded can His father and his mother came," sentence :

162.

CONJUNCTION

is

word

"\

into: "His father came and be seen that such sentences

But it will his mother came." be thus as the following cannot four.

expanded

:
"

Two

and two make

costs seven

a shillingsnd sixpence. In these sentences and is not a Preposition, for it is incorrect it must be to say: "You and me will go together." Hence (especially do sometimes join admitted that Conjunctions

This

and)

words and phrases as well as sentences. t joinedhey are always of the same Case.
163. CLASSIFICATION"

When

words

are

thus

are Conjunctions
:
"

usually divided

into two main classesaccording to theiruse Co-ordinate, joining two sentences (1)

or
. . .

words
or,

of

equal
.
.
.

importance. Such
nor.

are

and, but, either

came

neittier

Examples

of

use

He

but

soon

Neither this man

Subordinate, joining a (2)
sentence

returned. nor thiswoman

are :

is guilty.

to another expressing a

thought of greater importance.

Such

that,as,

before, after,

etc. when, where, unless,if, since, Examples of use : He said that he was satisfied. I willdo it //youlike. Further remarks on these classesof Conjunctions be found will in Chapter xiii.

CONJUNCTIONS
"

101

OF 164. POSITION Conjunctions CONJUNCTIONS connected, usually stand between the two words or sentences are generally belonging to neither sentence, and though strictly

considered for convenience to form part of the sentence which followsthem. it Sometimes a Subordinate Conjunction and the sentence junctio introduces precedes the principalsentence, and thus the Condoes not stand between the two sentences which it
grammatically connects : e.g. Because I live, shalllivealso. ye I After have finished, willtalk to you. you CertainConjunctions Adverbs) 165. CORRELATIVES (and Correlatives. are used in pairs; they are termed
"

Examples

Both Henry and I are sure of it. or thiswoman Either thisman must leave. Neither you nor he has heard of it.
. . .

by NOTE. After words joined both and, or simply by and, a plural or, neither nor, the Verb must Verb is required ; but after either : the nearest subject e.g. agree with Either you or I am right. Neither you nor he is wrong. it is better to alter the But since such constructions sound awkward, Either you are right, or I am. to : sentences You are not right, nor is he.
"

166.
seen

CONJUNCTION

that the same and Adverb (" 158). There are, however, a certain class of words, such as then, ', so, still, yet, hence,consequently also,which often stand therefore, between two sentences, marians gramand which, accordingly, some the sentences: You know your duty ; hence you have no excuse. A is B, thereforeC is D.
term
"

have already ?" We OR ADVERB tion, Preposiword is often used for Conjunction,

Consider Conjunctions.

In each of these instances there

not

are

two

independent sentences

grammatically connected; if any grammatical connection were made, the word and would have to be inserted before hence, The therefore. two latterwords are simply equivalent
to

for that reason

Hence

Adverbial Phrase of Reason ("" 145, 151). nature are best describedas Adverbs allwords of this
"

an

102
167. REMARKS

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Either, Neither.

CERTAIN ON These words

CONJUNCTIONS"
are

also IndefinitePronouns

(" and Adjectives 129). ", : is used as a Correlative Or with either and also by itself e.g. It was you or he who said so.
If has two meanings : that (a)Supposing : If he isthere, I shalltellhim. (b)Whether: I do not know //this is true or not. two co-ordinate sentences, has an And, besides joining ductory
use,

intro

: now to (" similar that of there^ 150) e.g. And why should Caesar be a tyrant, then ? And, pray, why should I not do so ? as As well as. The first is an Adverb, the second a Conjunction The Verb forms a Conjunctional phrase. ; ("150) the whole

following agrees with

with the nearer : e.g. He, as well as they, was there. Since this sounds awkward, it is betterto say, " he was there as well as they." Than and as, being (generally) Conjunctions, requirethe same Thus we say : " He is more case after them as before them.
not \hzfirst subject,

fortunate than /

"

"

nominative to

and Verb

He

is

as

fortunate may

as

/," where / is

am

which

be mentally supplied.
of

("190).
usage is, on the whole, against the employment than and as as Prepositions. Thus the sentences : He is more fortunate than me\ fare consideredincorrect He is as fortunateas me J

Modern

"

Yet older writers ally, sometimes, and good modern authors occasionuse these words as prepositions e.g. : Is she as tallas me ? (SHAKSPEARE.) A
or " mightier than thyselfme. Satan than whom none higher sat. (MILTON.) The nationsnot so blestas thee. (THOMSON.)

man

no

There are certain sentences in which a Verb cannot easily be "applied after the nominative following than ; for instance : They asked more than a sovereign for the book, He walked less than a mile. Some But Conjunctions call tk"n a Preposition in such examples.

NOTE.

"

"

CONJUNCTIONS
join words
expand
as

103

well as sentences and, as shown in " 162, it is impossible to some exsentences containing the Conjunctionnd ; the same a planati apply to than. may fitly

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

XI.

can show how Conjunctions be classified. of examples how the following words can be sometimes as Conjunctions for, : used as Prepositions and sometimes before, but, since. Can like,than, be for your except thus used ? Give reasons

2.

Define a Show by

Conjunction, and
means

answer.

three 3. Write three sentences containing Co-ordinate Conjunctions, containing Subordinate Conjunctions, three containing Correlative and

Conjunctions.
into three conjunctional 4. Mention phrases, and introduce them sentences. in 5. Point out the Conjunctions the following sentences, state their : class, and what they connect 1) I shall not leave here until you allow me to do so. 2) As you say that it is true, I must believe it. 3) You and I will ask whether he is at home. 4) They would not go lest they might miss their friends. 5) After you have spoken to him send him on to me. his disobedience, but he refused to say 6) He acknowledged he had been. where (7)Although he said so, I cannot believe him, for he does not always speak the truth. If I am not much mistaken, neither you nor he knows any(8) thing
"

about it.

CHAPTER

XII

INTERJECTIONS
168. A

N
an

INTERJECTION

/X

of a thought. They may express :

"

word used to express emotion rather than to aid in the expression are Strictly speaking, Interjectionsonly sounds.
a

is

Joy:

hurrah ! bravo !
:

alack ! alas ! Surprise: ah ! oh ! O ! hallo! Contempt : pooh I bah ! fie! Sorrow

and various other phases of feeling.
169.
no

INTERJECTIONAL

PHRASES"
are

form Interjections

part of a sentence ; in analysiswe words by themselves, and treat them Nominatives of Address ("

obliged to take such in a similar manner to

77).

Various Parts of Speech and whole phrases often play the part treated; they are often and of Interjections,must be similarly considerablyabbreviated. Examples : Marry ! ( by the Virgin
=

farewell! ( may you you), Gingoulph), adieu! ( 1 commend ( French oyez hear). be with
= = =
=

Mary),ood-bye ! ( g fare by ! well), Jingo (

=

God by St
!

you

to

God's
me

oyes care),

So also : hear, hear ! hail! welcome ! oh dear for shame !

EXERCISES
1.

! shocking !

ON

CHAPTER

XII.

What is an ? Interjection Mention six Interjections state and they express. what 2. Show that the various Parts of Speech may be used as Interjections. Mention six interjectional 3. phrases and show, as far as you can, in they have been abbreviated, if at all. what way

CHAPTER
ANALYSIS
I. THE
170. T

XIII

OF
SIMPLE

SENTENCES
SENTENCE

T TE

VV

have already defined a sentence, and have dealt with the main elements of a Simple Sentence
more

iv.). (Chapter
Before passing on to shall treat in somewhat

complicated types of sentences, we minuter detailthe analysisof the simple sentence, and shall endeavour to clear up certain difficulties. A complete understanding of the process of analysis of a simple sentence, and constant practice therein,are necessary
to preliminaries
more

advanced work. SUBDIVISIONS"

"

171. FURTHER
main

In Chapter iv.the four

Predicate, the Subject, elements of the simple sentence Object, Extension of the Predicate were set forth. and We must now may frequently a add that the Subjectnd Object be further subdivided into the main Subject and Object which
"

"

a shallhereaftersimply callthe Subjectnd Object and their Enlargements or Adjuncts. Consider the sentence :
we
"

"

A humble peasant visited the powerful king. \s "" of main subject the Verb visited peasant the words a describing peasant^ and are therefore and humble are Adjectives Enlargements of the Subject.
The is the Verb visited king ; the words tht are and powerful Enlargements of this Object. We have already indicated that the Predicate may sometimes

Similarly, he t

of object

be subdivided into Verb and Complement

(" 51).
-,

106
172. THE

HIGHER
ENLARGEMENT

ENGLISH
OF
A

SUBJECT

OR

OBJECT

may consistof:" : as (1)An Adjective in the example given. Phrase : e.g. (2)An Adjectival

is man ( Phrase) (Adj.) looking at thesepictures Adj. a (Adj.) artist. well-known (Adj.) in studying English (Adj. His sole (Adjs.) ambition was Phrase) to pass the examination.
The

(3)A

Noun The

in Apposition or in the Possessive e.g. : Normandy defeated Harold the king. William duke

of

man's

hat fell off.

A

173. PARTS
now

OF
fi.

SIMPLE

SENTENCE"
into :
"

Thus

we

may

analyse

simple sentence

Subject.
of

\2.Enlargement
Predicate. |3.
.

ifany. Subject,

Complement \4.

of Predicate,ifany.

Object.

if of Object, any. 7. Extension of the Predicate. We 174. EXAMPLES append a few examples analysis. Some prefer the Line-by-linemethod, and
6. Enlargement
"

some

of such the

Tabular method.
The Tabular Method

quently has its disadvantages, since it is freimpossibleto fit words into the columns provided, certain

necessarily appear blank for some and certain columns must It has the advantage, however, of being clear,and sentences. thus the correctness or incorrectness the analysisis seen at a of
glance. The Line-by-lineMethod possesses the advantage that a note may or any difficulty peculiarity. It sometimes happens

be added

on

that there are two possible ways of considering a word or phrase ; in such instances our opinion and its reason should be stated. We give illustrations both methods. of
A. The sly slow hours shall not determinate The dateless limit of thy dear exile. : Subject hours. Enlargement : the sly slovr.

ANALYSIS
Predicate
:

OF

SENTENCES

107

: shall determinate. limit. Object Enlargements : (i)the dateless. (2)of thy dear exile. Extension : not (Degree). B. These words hereafter tormentors le / thy

words. Enlargement : these Predicate : be. Complement : thy tormentors. Extension : hereafter (Time). C. Why doth it not, then, our eye-lids sink f : Subject it. Predicate : doth sink.
: Object

: Subject

eyelids. Enlargement : our. Extensions : (i)why

not

(Interrog.Reason). of (Degree). .(2) (3)then (Reason).

D. The duke by law foundhis deserts. living ? E. Are yet two such Romans Herein all breathlesslies F. The mightiest ofthy greatest enemies, Richard ofBordeaux, by me hither brought. G. Some men are never at heart'sease.

108

HIGHER

ENGLISH
ANALYSIS"
some

IN 175. DIFFICULTIES trate methods of dealing with

analysisof
a

We

shall now
occur

illus

difficulties which

in the

sentence.

Ccp.sar,hou t (a)O Julius

art mighty yet !

C The words O Juliusasar form a Nominative of Address (" 77). Strictly they stand apart from the rest of the sentence, speaking, and therefore should find no place in a Tabular Analysis j but as
they than with anything closely connected with the subject else they may be placed, for convenience, under that heading " Nom. of Address " appended in brackets. the
are
more

or Exclamatory Phrase may be similarly treated. Interjection He (b) gave me a book. The word book is the objectme is indirectobjector ; ( dative), indirect column with the word and may be placed in the object (" w appended in brackets. Other objects 88),ith the exception t may of the Adverbial Objective, be similarly reated. He (c) gave a book to those men.
"
"

with An

words

be treated similarly me in to ? able (b) When a phrase with a Prepositionoccurs thus, it is preferit in the Extension column, since it forms an to place Adverbial Phrase similar to such a phrase as "at that time," Time. It is which would obviously be an Extension indicating as unnecessary in this, in many other cases, to specifythe kind of

Ought the words

to those men

to

be assigned. extension when such kind cannot easily in The b ("/) soldiers the town foughtravely.
The phrase in the town is not an Extension of the Predicate, fought ; itis connected us since itdoes not tell where the soldiers

a entirelywith the soldiers^nd is therefore an Enlargement of the If the sentence were " The soldiersfought bravely in Subject
the town,"
to

the same words would, of course, form an Extension the Predicate fought. The boy" having learnt his lessons thoroughly received (e) full t
as

marks. Participial hrases, such P

having learnt his lessonsthoroughly,

may often be considered either as Enlargements of the Subject or (or Object) as Extensions of the Predicate. The student must decide in any particular instancewhether such a phrase is more

ANALYSIS

OF

SENTENCES

109

or closelyrelated to the Subject to the Predicate. In the above sentence, having learnt his lessonsmight be regarded as the reason why he reeeivedfull marks, and might therefore be termed an

having learnt Extension of the Predicate; but as, grammatically, isa Participle the qualifying toy,it seems preferableto classify phrase as an Enlargement of the Subject. His concluded,he returned home. (/) businessbeing speedily The

or

native concluded forms a Nomiphrase his businessbeing speedily Absolute ("77). It is an Adverbial phrase tellingus when why he returned, and therefore forms an Extension of the
came

Predicate.

(g)He
us

to

see

you.

t The Infinitiveo see is here used Adverbially (" and 100), tells he came ; itis thereforean Extension. why
', is In the sentence : They decidedtofight the Infinitive used Noun, and is the Object ("

as

100).

French a year. that time I shallhave been learningto speak The words shall have been learning together form one Finite Verb, and should be placed in the Predicate column ; to
By (K)

speak

be t should, however (withhe word French}, placed in the

column. (i)Your
are friends

Object

in the garden. Should the phrase in the garden be taken as Complement or Extension ? We prefer to consider the Verb are as here a complete "rest" Intransitive Verb with the meaning ("117, I.) and ;

the phrase in the garden is therefore an Extension of Place. In cases like this, doubt as to whether a where there is some word or phrase is Complement or Extension, the best test is:
us phrase tell when, where, how, etc.? If so itis is Adverbial, and thereforean Extension. If ittellsus what (and itis not an Object), a Complement ; e.g.He grows tall(Comp.).

does the word

or

II. COMPOUND
176. Few

AND

COMPLEX
are

SENTENCES
one

thought has generally some connection with another, and if the connection is sufficiently close the sentences expressing these thoughts are grammatically connected. Thus suppose the two thoughts occur
of
our

thoughts

isolated:

110
to me
:

HIGHER

ENGLISH

(i)He

is a tall boy;
"

(2)He

eats

great deal.

I may

combine these by saying : He isa tallboy because he eats a great deal ; is a tallboy and therefore he eats a great deal ; or, He or, As he is a tallboy, he naturally eats a great deal,
according to the connection between the two thoughts. But suppose the two thoughts are (i) He is a tallboy, (2) He has no brother. These ideas seem to have no connection with therefore be easily Combined. Thus I each other, and cannot
cannot

say

is a tall boy but has no brother, or any other such sentence, because the thoughts are too isolated for combination.
He

Besides the simple sentence, expressing a single thought, we therefore have more complicated sentences expressing two or more thoughts. Such sentences may be Compound or Complex. 177. A
or
as

more
a

COMPOUND SENTENCE equally important thoughts.

is the expression two of It may thus be regarded

combination of two or more simple sentences, and these are usuallyconnected by Co-ordinate Conjunctions (" 163).The separate sentences are said to be of equal rank or Co-ordinate. Examples : He came to our house and stayed a short time.
but did not stop. Either you are mistaken or / am. is Sometimes the Conjunctionomitted : e.g.
They
saw
me

I 178. A

came

saw,

I conquered.

is the expression of two or SENTENCE is more important than the rest, more thoughts, of which one being dependent on the more important one. The these latter sentence expressing the main thought is termed the Principal
Sentence
on

COMPLEX

itare

Clause, and those expressing the thoughts dependent termed Subordinate Sentences or Clauses.
or

Subordinate Clauses are joined the Principal Clause by to Subordinate Conjunctionsby Relative Pronouns. or
Examples
:

7 said that 7 was going away. They brought the book \which you wanted. We came when you called us.

ANALYSIS
In these sentences,
the main

OF

SENTENCES

111

others are Sometimes

are / said, they brought the book, we came, statements, and therefore the Principal Clauses ; the the Subordinate Clauses.

the connecting word is omitted : e.g. He said A he would come presently.

179. THE comprises two

ANALYSIS

of Compound and Complex Sentences operations. First of all we have to analyse the

Sentence into its Clauses,and to show the relation of these clauses to each other ; and then we have to divide each clause into itselements.

Compound

or

Complex

clause of a sentence is a practically simple sentence ; it must thereforecontain one Finite Verb and one only. In order, then, to discover which are the 180. TEST

OF

CLAUSE.

Each

clauses of a sentence, FiniteVerbs.

the first thing to do is to pick out the

By this means and we have

many
cases

the number of clausesin the sentence, idea of what those clauses are, though in some additional methods must be adopted to determine
we

know

them

to underline at first exactly. The student is recommended the Finite Verbs in the given sentence : aftersome practice he will be abie to perform this operation mentally,

Sentences, when 181. In the case of Compound Verbs are known, the clauses are easilydetermined.

the Finite

Consider the
A. He

sentences to

:
"

came

dinner and stayed till n

are

The
two

Finite Verbs

(i)came,

o'clock. (2)stayed. There

:
"

are

fore there-

clauses,and obviously they are He (1) came to dinner.

u stayed till (2)And (he) man

B. He, There

o'clock. in the street, to seeing the stopped speak to him and gave him money. to here four Verbs, seeing, stopped, speak, are gave ; but
"

gave are finite. There are of these only (i) stoppedand (2) therefore two clauses which are easilyseen to be : (1)He, seeing the man in the street, stopped to speak to him.

gave (2)And (he)

him money.

112

HIGHER

ENGLISH
Sentences
are

All clauses of Compound

main

or

Principal

Clauses.
connecting word, though frequently, as above, not really part of either clause, is usually included in the one it introduces.
NOTE.
"

The

Sentences, itis often possibleto manner. determine the separate clauses in the same
182. In the
case

of Complex
:

Consider the sentences A, They* asked me The FiniteVerbs are

clauses are
:
"

what I meant.
meant, (i) asked, and (2)

and hence the

They (1) (2)What B. These

are

asked me. I meant.

The
are:
"

the pens which I intend to use. intend: and hence the clauses are, (2) FiniteVerbs are (i)

(1)These (2)Which

are

the pens. I intend to use.

But it is not always possible thus easily to determine the clauses of a Complex Sentence. Consider the sentence : 0. The men whom we saw are at your house.
"

and consequently to be : At first two clauses. sightthese might appear (1)The men whom we saw.
we
"

Here

have two FiniteVerbs

saw, (2) are, (i)

(2)Are

at your house.

A little will show us, however, that this is not a correct reflection division. The words the men evidently belong to the Verb are : form the to in fact, -they subject that Verb. Hence the clauses The men are at your house. are: (i) (2)Whom we saw.
"

of a type of frequent one of the clauses is broken up into two which we have to collect together. example
183. PRINCIPAL

This is an

occurrence or

in which three fragments

The

AND

SUBORDINATE

"

to ask: having been determined, we have now PrincipalClause? It is that which gives us the main statement. i A good test by which the PrincipalClause can be identified s that itmakes sense by itself in almost all cases (but see " 187, note

clauses Which is the

i)

ANALYSIS
Thus

OF

SENTENCES

113

are at your say: "The men is complete in itself, house," the sense without the other part of This clause then is independent the rest of the the sentence. of it sentence, i.e. is the Principal Clause. is not saw," we But if we say, " Whom evidently the sense

in

sentence

C,

" 182, if we

other complete. A person hearing us say thiswillwait for some first. words ; in this instance the omitted words would have come on some This clause then is evidentlydependent words which it have preceded or which follow,i.e. is the Subordinate Clause.
184. COMPOUND
sentence

AND

COMPLEX

COMBINED

"

is frequently more complicated than the examples at contain both Compound and present considered ; it may Complex elements. Examples : I. The men came to us when they had finished their on you. work and insisted seeing
Here
we

have two Co-ordinate Sentences :

"

A. The

men

came

to

us

when

they had

finished their

work. B. And insisted on seeing you. Of these the first may be again analysed into two clauses: The men to us. came (a)
"

Hence

they had finished their work. the whole sentence may be analysed into clauses thus : The men to us (Principal). came
When (b)
" -

II. When

When they had finished their work (b) (Subordinate). And insisted on ^B. seeing you (Principal). Casar had taken the town and had leftgarrison a
we

{(a)
departed.

there he departed. , to the test of " 182, According

have here

one

Principal

Clause :"
A. He There
are

other clauses similar to each other, and these They are are connected together by a Co-ordinate Conjunction. consequently co-ordinatewith one another, and subordinate to A.
two

Hence

the whole sentence may be analysed into clauses thus : A. He departed (Principal).
"

114
_

HIGHER
When f(a)

ENGLISH
"

Caesarhad taken the town

had lefta

And \(")

(Subord.)l J garrison (Subord.)

,.

involved sentences isdeferred until The consideration of more Subordinate Clauses have been further examined.
185. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES may be dependent PrincipalClause in three ways, according as they bear to in the Principal Clause the relation : of A (1) Noun or Pronoun,
"

on
a

the

word

(2)An Adjective. An (3) Adverb.

Adjectival accordingly classifiedas Noun, and Adverbial Clauses. It is frequentlypossibleactuallyto substitute or a Noun, Adjective,Adverb for the entire Subordinate Clause its without materiallyaltering meaning ; and where this cannot be done it is always possible to see that a Noun, Adjective, or if Adverb could be so substituted an appropriateone existed.
They
are

Examples:

+ (i)Principal

Noun

Clause :
"

He asked what I wanted. Clause: + (2)Principal Adjectival This is the boy who isclever.
"

+ (3)Principal

Adverbial Clause :
"

had set. The Clause what I wanted may be replaced by my wants. The Clause who isclevermay be replaced by cleverbefore boy.
came

He

when the sun

Clause when the sun had set may be replaced by at sunset the sense. without materiallyaltering
The 186. THE
a

NOUN

CLAUSE
a

with regard to thereforebe :

"

Noun

represent any function of word in the Principal Clause and may

may

to (1)The Subject

Clause : e.g. the Verb in the Principal That the earth is round is now an undisputed fact
When

he will come seems quite uncertain. (2)The Objectto the Verb : e.g. I know where I will wear thisdagger.

decided that the army should be disbanded* The Complement to the Verb : e.g. (3) That is what I say. They are what we thought thim to be.
He

ANALYSIS

OF
a

SENTENCES
or

115
should fear

(4)In

Apposition to It He
seems

Noun
most

Pronoun

:
"

to

me

strange that
was
a

men

to (Appos. it).

mentioned the fact that he

doctor (Appos. to

fact}.
Governed (5)
: Preposition f This is different rom what I expected. He worked for whatever he could get.

by

"

PrinIn the last two examples it is possible to consider the cipal ordinates Clauses as : This is different He worked ; in that case the Suband from what I expected and for whatever he could get will be Adverbial Clauses of Manner " respectively (see 189). It and Reason than one way, according to the is often possible to take a Clause in more When in which it is regarded. there is any doubt, the reasons manner for taking a certain point of view should always be carefully stated.

NOTE.

"

In determining CLAUSES" Clause the student whether any particular clause is a Noun should ask himself: Does this Clause play the part of Subject, or Object, Complement to the Verb in the Principal Clause? Or is itin Apposition to a Noun or Pronoun in that Clause, or ? governed by a Preposition If so, itis a Noun Clause ; reasons, i.e. of relation the Clause to the word or words in the Principal
187. ANALYSIS

OF

NOUN

Clause,should always be stated.

Examples
:

A. What isbred in the bone will come out in theflesh : Will come out in the flesh(Principal). (1)
"

What (2)

is bred in the bone to Subject will come in

(NounClause, i).
:
"

B. He thought that hisfriends desertedhim had (1)He thought (Principal).

(2)That his friendshad deserted him (Noun to Object thought in i).

(i)In Complex Sentences containing a Noun Clause as the Principal Sentence does not quite make by itself, sense Subject, is because, of course, Clause (see 187, A the subject the Noun " i). A littlereflection will, however, show us which is the Principal Clause. (2)A Noun Clause is frequently introduced by that or what.
NOTES.
"

188. THE
or

CLAUSE Pronoun in the PrincipalClause : eg.

ADJECTIVAL

qualifiessome

Noun

116

HIGHER

ENGLISH

A. The evilthat men do lives afterthem. B. The house in which we liveis lofty.
C. He
was

D. We

general whom all men admired* love the place, O Lord, wherein thine honour dwells.
a
"

These sentences should be thus analysed : A. i) The evil lives after them (Principal). in do (Adjectival, That men qualifying 2]The house is lofty (Principal). evil i). qualifying house in i). 2) In which we live (Adjectival, C. (i)He was a general (Principal). (2)Whom all men qualifying general in i). admired (Adjectival, D. (i)We love the place [O Lord] (Principal). qualifying place (2)Wherein thine honour dwells (Adjectival, in

ij

i).

Clause. the Adjectival quently separation of this clause from the rest of the sentence freIn sentences A and B, for instance, some thought. requires have to pick our words from different parts of the sentence to form we the Principal Clause. introducing Adjectivallauses are C (2)The words most commonly that. These are sometimes the Relative Pronouns who, which, what, case: you mean. e.g. I know the man* omitted when in the NOTES (1)The
on

objective

189. THE

ADVERBIAL

CLAUSE
a

Adverb, and may therefore modify in the PrincipalClause.

Examples
:

does the work of an Verb, Adjective,Adverb or

A. He B. He 0. I D.

came was

came

when I asked him. him. standing where I left because my horse would come.
move me.

IfI

E. He F. He

couldpray to move, prayers would is as happy as he deservesto be.

so

speaks French understand him.

quickly that I cannot

These sentences may be analysed into clauses thus : A. He came (Principal). (2)When I asked him (Adverbialf Time, modifying came o hi i). He (i) was standing (Principal). Where I lefthim (Adv. Place, mod. was standing in of i).

(ij

I came Because
tatnt

(Principal).
my

horse would

come

(Adv.of

Reason,

mod.

in

i).

ANALYSIS
D.

OF

SENTENCES

117

E.
F.

NOTES.
sentence

"

me (Principal). (i)Prayers would move If I could pray to move (2) (Adv.of Condition, mod. would in move i). He is as happy (Principal). (i) of 2) As he deserves to be (Adv. Degree, mod. happy in i). He speaks French so quickly (Principal). i) 2) That I cannot understand him (Adv.of Degree, mod. quickly hi i). (i)Be careful to keep the word modified hi the Principal as

e.g. hi F, do not separate the Subordinate Sentence that I cannot understand him. quickly (2)The words most commonly introducing Adverbial Clauses Adverbial Conjunctions.
:

so

are

the

with in which there are several clauses,parts of which are sentences or omitted. These are calledelliptical contracted sentences. Examples : A. He neither can/\nor willyycome (come and he

190. ELLIPTICAL

SENTENCES"

We

frequentlymeet

omitted).
B. He

is taller than

tall I/\(am omitted).

"

Such sentences

should generally be analysed into clauseswith the omitted words suppliedin brackets,thus : A. (i) He neither can [come~h ' co-ordinateclauses. Nor will [he] come (2) He is taller B. (i) (Principal).

)PrinclPal

in taller i). When sentences are extremely elliptical, there is often a doubt as to what should be supplied, or indeed whether anything at all need be supplied. Than (2)
I

(Adv. [amtall] of Comparison, mod.

Consider the sentence : 0. He writes quickly but accurately. Here the words he writesneed not be suppliedbeforeaccurately : It is only in cases the whole may be taken as a simple sentence. where words in the sentence would find no grammatical place in i tence the analysis that any additionmay be made. For instance, n senB the Pronoun /is evidentlya
to Subject
some

Verb which

does not appear, and which should therefore be supplied. It is a safe rule that a Predicate should be seldom supplied, a and both Subjectnd Predicate very rarelyindeed. 191. ANALYSIS of a complicated passage into CLAUSES" " Caesar saw that the hill on which the enemy were When en

campedwas

be taken by storm well fortified could not easily and he decidedto starve them into submission.1*

118

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Firstof all, pick out the FiniteVerbs. They are : saw, were we was fore fortified, be taken, decided. There will therecould encamped,

\"zfive clauses.
Next, we separate out these five clauses, and find which of them is the PrincipalClause. If we read the passage carefully, we shallfind one clause only which makes a main statement and It is: could stand alone.
"

A. He decided to starve them into submission (Principal). The rest of the sentence, containing the other four clauses,tells us the the time at which, or (taking when since) reason why, Caesardecidedthus. Hence we have :
=
"

by storm (Adv.of Time Reason, mod. decided in A). This sentence may be again subdivided into three, since have two sentences describingwhat Caesarsaw :
B. When

Caesar

saw

...

or

we

"

When (i) That r(2)

imate

Caesarsaw.
the hill
saw
...

was

(Noun well fortified

be easily taken
a

to Object

in B
not

i).
i).

j I
"

And (3)

[that could it]

saw

(Noun

to Object

in B

Lastly (2) again subdivisible ince we is s kill-.

have

ing clause describ-

That the hill was (a) well fortified. On (b) which the enemy were encamped (Adj.ualifying q hillin a).
" ing above method of analysisshows the process of dissect" the sentence piece by piece in an admirable manner ; but as it israther complicated both to the analyser and also to the corrector of the analysis, the followingbriefer and clearer method is recommended :
"

The

He decided to starve them into submission (Principal). When Caesar saw (Adv.of Time or Reason, mod. decided in i). That the hill was well fortified(Noun Objectto saw in (3) 2). (4)And could not easily be taken by storm (Noun Objectto saw in 2, co-ord. with 3). On which the enemy were (5) (Adj. qual. hillin 3). encamped

!i) 2)

Analysis of each clause must be performed exactly like the analysis of a simple sentence. We luggest a combina-

192. The

ANALYSIS
tion

OF

SENTENCES

119

of the line-by-line and the tabular methods for the entire analysisof a passage : the analysis into clauses to be done first in the preceding paragraphs, and then the analysis of each as
clause in tabularform.

shall need an extra column for the in connecting words or Links when these do not otherwise(as find the case of Relative Pronouns) a place in the sentence.
We 193. EXAMPLES
I.
"

OF

COMPLETE

ANALYSES"

Since you are tongue-tied and so loath to speak, In dumb significants proclaim your thoughts: Let him that is a true-born gentleman And stands upon the honour, of his birth, If he suppose that I have pleaded truth, From off this brier pluck a white rose with me.*

A.

B.

In dumb significantsproclaim your thoughts (Principal;. Since you are tongue-tied and so loath to speak (Adv.of Reason, mod. proclaimin A). him from off this brier pluck
a

C. Let
D. That E. And

white

rose

with

me

(Principal).
is a true-born gentleman qual. him in C). (Adj. the honour of his birth (Adj. (that)tands upon s qual. him in C, co-ord. with D). If he suppose (Adv.of Condition, mod. let pluck in C). That I have pleaded truth (Noun to object supposein F).

F.

G.

120
II.

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

Such a sleep I think that we I loved. They sleep" the men more Shall never at any future time, Delight our souls with talk of knightly deeds, halls Walking about the gardens and the Of Camelot as in the days that were."

A. B.

C.
D.

E.

Such a sleep they" the men" sleep (Principal). in A). I loved (Adj. qual. men I think (Principal). That we shall never more at any future time delight our souls with talk of knightly deeds, walking about the gardens to and the halls of Camelot as in the days (Noun Obj. think in C). That were qual. days in D). (Adj.

III. " He was awake long after his Arab host had performed his usual devotions, and betaken himself to his repose, nor had sleep visited him took place among the a at the hour of midnight, when movement domestics, which, though attended with no speech and very little noise, him aware loading the camels and preparing for that they were made

departure."
A. B.

C.
D.

He was awake (Principal). Long after his Arab host had performed his usual devotions (Adv. of Time, mod. was awake in A). And [had] betaken himself to his repose (Adv. Time, mod. of was in A, co-ord. with B). awake Nor had sleep visited him at the hour of midnight (Principal,

co-ord. with

A).
took place among visited in D and was the domestics awake in A).

E.

When

movement

(Adv.of

Time,

mod

ANALYSIS
F. Which,

OF

SENTENCES

121

noise, though attended with no speech and very little in E). him aware (Adj. qual. movement made in F). G. They were loading the camels (Noun Obj.to made aware to H. And [were] preparing for departure (NounObj. made aware in F, co-ord. with G). In sentences C and H the words had and were NOTE. o (partsf the be supplied ; if omitted C and H form parts of B need predicates) not and G respectively. The only reason why these various words are supplied in the above is that the Clauses are thereby better balanced. analysis
"

EXERCISES
I.

ON

CHAPTER

XIII.
"

Analyse fully the following Simple Sentences : i 1 ) A victory over the defenceless is neither great nor memorable. (2)Desperate diseases are by desperate remedies cured. (3)Much learning hath made thee mad. (4)Fight the good fight with all thy might. (5)Above all things to thine own self be true. (6)He doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus. Most musical of mourners, (7) weep anew.

122

HIGHER

ENGLISH

2.

Now must your conscience my acquittance seal. Golden boys and girls all must, to dust. Like chimney sweepers, come follow him to Rome What tributaries (10) To grace with captive bonds his chariot wheels ? I would by contraries (n) In the commonwealth Execute all things. Him the Almighty Power (12) Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky. (13)Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys, and destiny obscure. Unwillingly himself he addressed (14) To do his master's high behest. Thee, Father, first they sang, Omnipotent. (15) day All she spun in her poor dwelling. (16) Three poets, in three distant ages bom, (17) Greece, Italy, and England did adorn. (18)The old order changeth, yielding place to new. (19)Her smile, her speech, with winning way Wiled the old harper's mood away. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, (20) bear. The dark unfathomed caves of ocean Outside her kennel the mastiff old (21) Lay fast asleep, in moonshine cold. did or mean, He nothing common (22) Upon that memorable scene. for a flint,I found Searching the window (23) This paper thus sealed up. (24)I heard a stock-dove sing or say . His homely tale this very day. (25)The Muses, stillwith freedom found Shall to thy happy coast repair. Define, giving examples, a simple sentence, a complex sentence,

sentence. (M) and a compound Define a sentence, a phrase, and a clause, and give examples oi 3. (M) each. is the use of Analysis of sentences ? What 4. What shapes may the in what ways may it be enlarged ? (M) assume, and subject 5. Pick out the Principal and Noun clauses in the following sentences, and state their relationship as in " 187 : (i)He did not hear what I said. Whether it or not is uncertain. you saw They hope you will visit them shortly. That was how he understood it. He has nothing but what his father left him. I allowed him to do whatever he liked. What he means by such conduct, I cannot imagine. The proverb " Honesty is the best policy has often been (8)
"

"

verified. 6. Substitute Noun Clauses for the Nouns or Noun-equivalents italicisedin the following : He has written to tell us the time of his arrival. Your friend has given us an account of your deeds in India. \)
"

[ij fi!

ANALYSIS

OF

SENTENCES

123

on (3)His opinion the matter is very vague. This is your error. (4) cieariy. (5)He saw the meaning ofthe passage Clauses in the Pick out the Principal and Adjectival 7. their relationship as in " 188 : sentences and state lent me. 1) I have mislaid the book you The place whereon thou standest is holy ground. 2) honest. are
"

following

friends only with such as is a general. 4) The soldier whom you saw 5) Six o'clock is the time when the train arrives. 6) He takes all he can get. or Clauses for the Adjectives Adjectival 8. Substitute Adjectival italicisedin the following : equivalents (1)There is a coal mine near here. (2)This is a memorable occasion. under Ctssar took the town. (3)The soldiers fighting The citizens that town refused to surrender. (4) of the Principal and Adverbial Clauses in the following 9. Pick out sentences and state their relationship, as in " 189 : I arrived at the station, the train was When juststarting. (i) I left early because I had finished my work. If you tell him the truth, he will forgive you. I will go wherever you wish. He has done his work as well as could be expected. was. a greater orator than Brutus Antony was Since you know what is the use of my saying everything,
"
"

3) Make

? more Adverbial or Clauses for the Adverbs Substitute Adverbial 10. italicisedin the following : equivalents Having made up his mind, he went to London. They arrived on the scene at sunset. He walked as quickly as possible. he School being finished, returned home. Analyse into Clauses stating their relationships to one another : n. (1)He determined that he would pass the examination. (2)They were so tired that they went straight to bed.
"

"

know the man you are talking about. leave. now Those who wish to play cricket may by any other name, The rose, if it were would smell called 5) as sweet. (6)What you say is perfectly true. He looked scornfully at me and walked away. \/ Wherever you are, do not forget to act like a gentleman. He understands how to do his work, but is too lazy to do it well. (10)The house in which I live is very small. (n) I dp not suppose that they will come until they receive an invitation. I have obtained the book that he wants and shall send it to (12) him to-day. Unless you hear from me, take it for granted that I shall be (13) at home. know how have None but those who (14) studied the subject difficult it i*.

(3)I

!4)
g

124
He (15)

HIGHER
tried for
a

ENGLISH
long time before he succeeded
in giving

satisfaction.
were some standing there who insisted that he was traitor. Tyrrell shot Rufus, by additions (i) the to 12. Enlarge the sentence, Clause ; (2) o Subject,f (a)a Participial Phrase, and (b)an Adjectival to the Predicate, of (a) an an adverbial sentence of time, and (b) adverbial to the Object,f a Noun in apposition. ; and (3) o phrase of place Distinguish each adjunctby its appropriate term, or by the marks

There (16)
a

i e (a), (b),tc.

(M)

tween a 13. Distingush between a phrase, clause, and a sentence also beGive examples. co-ordinate clauses and subordinate clauses. Enlarge and complete the unfinished sentence, The sailor told me, so that it may become a complex sentence containing (i) Noun in apposia tion to the Clause, (iii) a Substantival Clause, (ii) subject, an Adjectival an an (iv) Adverbial Clause of Time, (v) Adverbial Clause of Purpose. 14. Show by examples that the sentence, Where he is living now, be used as a subordinate substantival, can or adjectival, adverbial
',

clause.

An adverbial clause 15. Construct a complex sentence containing : (i) An infinitive, an A of time, (2) (3) adjectival phrase, (4) and objective an a cognate nominative absolute, (5) complement, (6) object. objective Point out which each is. (M) 1 6. Write a sentence containing three extensions of the predicate, one them a clause, and let this clause contain a of with two subject enlargements. (M) 17. Make up a Complex Sentence containing Clauses hi the following order: (i)an Adverbial of Time, (2)a Principal, (3)an Adjectival. 1 8. Make up a Complex Sentence containing Clauses in the following a Principal, (2)a Noun, order: (i) (3)an Adjectival. 19. Analyse fully the following passages : (1)As my eldest son was bred a scholar, I determined to send him to town, where his abilitiesmight contribute to his
"

(2)The

him fiercely, and Robin found that he had many little tricks at fencing. (3)She loved me for the dangers I had passed, And I loved her for she did pity me. (4)The dog and man at firstwere friends, But when a pique began The dog, to gain some private ends, Went mad and bit the man. (5)In the midst of their conference, they were interrupted by a movement among the people, and soon afterwards five men entered the great square or market-place where they were standing. (6)He who fights and runs away, May live to fight another day. (7)Know, if you killed me for my fault, I should Have died had I not made it. (8)I shall begin with that which, though the least in conse quence, makes perhaps the most impression on our senses, because it meets our eyes in our daily walks.

support and our own. page thereupon engaged

ANALYSIS
(9)There
is
no

OF
branch

SENTENCES

125

20.

laws constant of human work whose those which have govern every not close analogy with of man's other mode exertion. (10)History, in the true sense, he does not and cannot write, as a herd without for he looks on mankind volition and force ; but such vivid pictures of events, without moral else such living conceptions of character, we find nowhere in prose. fairest flowers With Jli) lasts and I live here, Fidele, While summer 9 I'llsweeten thy sad grave. (12)Men whisper that our arm is weak ; Men say our blood runs cold. (13)There's a divinity that shapes our ends, them how we Rough-hew may. By this time the gates were (14) open, but before the victors broke in, the Gauls fled from the city in all directions. " (15) What need is there," said he, "to fight, when the matter be settled by arbitration." can (16)Even now methinks, as pondering here I stand. I see the rural virtues leave the land, (17)She has heard a whisper say, is on her if she stay A curse To look down Camelot. on (18)Then send for unrelenting Mortimer, And Isabel, whose eyes, being turned to steel, Will sooner sparkle fire than shed a tear. Analyse: he (1)Whether (says Plutarch) was the particular care of some his valour that day with an extrarewarded ordinary god, who or that his enemies, struck with the protection, his dress and beauty of his shape, supposed unusualness of him something more I shall not determine. than man, He was careful not to betray to his host the fact that he was (2) bored, but as he strode along, his heavy boots clogged with mud, he was thinking deeply of a curious incident that had lunching up occurred half an hour before, while they were the farm. at (3)The warriors arose from their place of brief rest and simple refreshment, and coiirteously aided each other while they the harness, from which carefully replaced and adjusted they had relieved for the time their trusty steeds. (4)When Henry the Eighth attempted to raise a forced loan of by proceedings of unusual vigour, the amount unusual
"

he encountered was such as appalled opposition which his stubborn and imperious spirit. even it rightly, he that doth so is (5)Certainly, if a man weigh liberal of another man's than of his own. rather

(6)That

Milton chose well, no the events of the

thirty years which in the English annals. (7)A step was taken this session which

doubt who can fairly compares Protectorate those of the with graceful succeeded it,the darkest and most disman

was

important

in

as

far

126
as

HIGHER

ENGLISH

it tended to separate the idea of death-punishment from no longer capital. (M) crimes which were two princes, whose rival The world beheld with astonishment (8) for so many years distracted Europe with pretensions had divisions and deluged it with blood, now suddenly bound together by the closest ties of alliance. (M) (9)In the olden days, hi which distance could not be vanquished rewarded, there were without toil,but in which toil was fondly few moments more the recollection was of which by the traveller than that which brought him cherished within sight of Venice.
21.

Analyse : Let's dry our eyes ; and thus far hear me, Cromwell (1) And when I am forgotten, as I shall be, And sleep hi dull cold marble, where no mention Of me more must be heard of, say, I taught thee. Say Wolsey that once trod the ways of glory And sounded all the depths and shoals of honour Found thee a way out of his wreck to rise in.
"

(2)

be as true and just And if King Edward As I am subtle, false,and treacherous This day should Clarence closely be mewed About a prophecy which says that G heirs the murderer shall be. Of Edward's
If all was good and fair we met This earth had been the Paradise It never looked to human eyes lefthis garden yet. Since Adam

up,

(M)

(3)

(M)

(4)

But where the path we walked began To slant the fifthautumnal slope As we descended following Hope There sat the shadow feared of man. 'Tis a common proof That lowliness is young

(M)

(5)

ambition's ladder,

Whereto the climber-upward turns his face ; But when he once attains the utmost round, He then unto the ladder turns his back, Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees By which he did ascend. (M)

(6)

As waggish boys in games themselves forswear, So the boy love is e perjuredverywhere : For ere Demetrius looked on Hermia's eyne, He hailed down oaths that he was only mine.

(M)

(7)

And Lap

ever mo

against eating in soft Lydian

caret

ANALYSIS

OF

SENTENCES

127

Such as the meeting soul may pierce In notes with many a winding-bout Of linked sweetness long drawn out.

(M)

(8)

It little profitsthat an idleking Matched with an aged wife, I mete and dole Unequal laws unto a savage race That house, and sleep, and feed, and know not
What thou art we know not ; What is most like thee ? From rainbow clouds there flow not Drops so bright to see As from thy presence showers a rain of melody.
firstdisobedience and the fruit Of man's Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our

me.

(M)

(9)

(M)

(10)

woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissfulseat Sing, Heavenly Muse. (M) Of what two parts does every clause consist ? How 22. does a sentence differ from a clause ? Supply what is needed to complete each imperfectly expressed sentence or clause hi the foUowing expressions : Thank you. P Good-day I (iv) At (ii)lease come at once, (i) (iii) Sir I (v)Woe He was as as a lark, unto you 1 (vi) your service, gay Who ishere so vile that will not love his country ? None, Brutus. (vii)
"

CHAPTER
PARSING

XIV

of which we make J7 a kind of synopsis of the grammar of any word in its relationto the rest of the sentence ; it thus has to do both with Accidence and with Syntax.

194.

T)ARSING

is

an

exercise by

means

Parsing is closely bound up with Analysis, which deals with haps the elements of a sentence and their mutual relationship. Perthe differencebetween the two processes may be illustrated by an analogy from Chemistry. Analysis of sentences corresponds

into

to the process of the analysisof a chemical compound its elements : parsing to the description of the properties

and reactions of each of those elements when

separated.

195. Since part of the work of parsing is the establishment of the various words of a sentence, it must of the relationship be preceded by analysis at least by the analysisof the simple
"

Indeed, it is necessary to analyse the given sentence, at all events mentally, before attempting to parse a word in it. Parsing must also, naturally,be preceded by a knowledge of
sentence.

Accidence and Syntax.

elementary form of parsing consistsin naming The the Parts of Speech of the various words given (Chap. ii.). i whole sentence in which the word existsmust be known before even this part of parsing can be accomplished, for,as has been 196. The
most

frequently indicated in the preceding chapters,a word may be two or more parts of speech according to itsuse.

often
a

illustrate further, we this important point still instances :

To
"

give

few

Ml

PARSING
After.

129

Afterhim, Jack1 (Prep, used as a Verb). I had left (Conj.). He came after

Bat.

He will speak me after (Prep.). We look before and after (Adverb). They talked of the life(Adj.). after None but the brave deserves the fair (Prep.). They ran but lost the train (Conj.). He is but a little child (Adv.). There is none but loves him (Conj. equivalent to Relative
+

Negative).

All men are mortal (Adj.). A IIwere present to hear him (Pron.). He lost his all (Noun). Light. The lightburns dimly (Noun). Light those candles (Verb). is light (Adj.). This room No. has seen him (Adj.). No man He is no better (Adv. Degree). of Did you speak ? No. (Substitute Adverb). That is my book (Demons. That. Pron.). That dog is mine (Demons. Adj.). The book that you want is here (Rel. ron.). P I thought that you had gone (Conj.).
All.

We shall now consider the various PARSE Parts statements that have to be made concerning the different of Speech. They are such as have been treated in the foregoing 197. HOW

TO

"

chapters. The followingexhibitsthe general scheme of Parsing : Nouns (see Chap.

"

v.).

(1)Kind:

Proper, Common

Multitude, Material), (Collective,

Neuter.

Abstract (Verbal). (2)Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Common, Number: Singular,Plural. (3)

Possessive. Nominative, Objective (Dative), Nom. : Subject, Complement, Apposition, Ad ,if dress'Absolute(5)Rtason if : Obj. Object, by Prep.,Complement, Ap gov. forCase :* Adverbial, position, ifPoss. : qualifying what Noun.
Example
are John's parents in the garden." Noun, Proper, Masc., Sing., Possess, qual. parents. John's Parents : Noun, Common, Com. Gender, Plur., Nom., to subject Garden : Noun, Common, Neut., Sing., Obj., by in. gov.
.*

(4)Case:

"

are.

130
Verbs

HIGHER
C (seehap. vi.).

ENGLISH

I Semi (1)Kind: Transitive,Intransitive,ncomplete (Auxiliary, Auxiliary, Copulative). : Strong, Weak. (2)Conjugation (3)Voice: Active, Passive. Mood: Indicative, Imperative,Subjunctive, Infinitive. (4) (5)Tense: Present, Past, Future, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future

Perfect. Simple

Continuous form. Number: Plural. Singular, (6) Person : First, Second, Third. (7) (8)Agreement: With Subject.
or

Example

heard what was said and then went away." Heard: Verb, Trans., Weak, Act.. Indie., Past, 3rd Plur., agreeing they. with Subj. Was said: Verb, Trans., Weak, Passive, Indie., Past, 3rd Sing.,
:

"

They

agreeing with Subj. what. Went: Verb Intrans., Anomalous, Act. Indie., Past, they (understood). agreeing with Subj.
,

3rd Plur.,

Pronouns

Chap. (see vii.). Kind: Personal (Reflexive), Demonstrative, (1)

Relative,

Interrogative, Indefinite.

(2)Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Common, Neuter. Person : First,Second, Third. (3) Number: Singular,Plural. (4) Possessive. (5)Case : Nominative, Objective (Dative), for (6)Reason for Case (as Nouns).
Example Those Whom
Those whom he addressed said that the fault was theirs." Pronoun, Dem., Common, to 3rd Plur., Nom., Subject said. : Pronoun, Rel., Common, 3rd Plural, Obj.,ov. by addressed, g antecedent those. He : Pronoun, Personal, Masc., 3rd Sing., Nom., Subj. addressed. to Theirs : Pronoun, Personal, Common, 3rd Plur., Possess., complement
: :
"

to

was.

Chap. Adjectives (see viii.).

Kind: (1)

Possessive, Demonstrative, Relative, Qualitative,

Interrogative, Numeral, Indefinite. Degree (where : Positive, Comparative, Super (2) necessary) lative.
: Qualifying Noun (3)Relationship

or

Pronoun, Predicative use

as

Complement

to

Verb.

PARSING
Example That
:

131

The : Best :

Demons., Adj., Demons. Adj.,

His

the bestin his library." qual. book. (Definite Article), book. qual. S Qual.,uperl., qual. book, Predic. use, Gomp. Adj., Possess., qual. library. Adj.,

"

That book

was

to

was.

Adverbs

C (seehap. ix.).

Kind: Time, Place, Manner, Degree, Reason. (1) Degree (where : As (2) necessary) for Adjectives. : Modifying Verb, Adj., Adv., etc. Relationship (3)
" Fortunately they went away almost immediately. Example : Fortunately : Adv. of Manner, Absolute Use, mod. whole sentence.

A way : Adv. of Place, mod. went. A Imost : Adv. of Degree, mod. immediately. Immediately : Adv. of Time, mod. went.

Prepositions

C (seehap. x.).

: Word Relationship governed.

Example On In

: :

He was sittingon a chair in his study."* Prep, governing chair. Prep, governing study.

"

Conjunctions see ( Chap. xi.).

Subordinate. Kind: Co-ordinate, (1) : Joining (2)Relationship what words or
Example
work." But : When here and They came C Conj.,o-ord., joining : Conj., Subord., Adv., joining went away
"

sentences.
when they had finished
went
.

"

They

came

here but went

away

and they

work. work.
.

No Interjections remarks.

PARSING" In (i) parsing a word it is often necessary, in addition to the information given according to the above scheme, to make some additional remarks applicableto the particularinstance at hand.
198. NOTES The following are

ON

The (a) The (") The (c) (d)The The (e)

few of the extra details that should be given : Person of a Noun, ifexceptionally ist or 2nd ("
a
"

108).

Common, etc. Anomality or Defectiveness of certainVerbs. agreement of a Relative Pronoun with itsAntecedent. Predicative use of an Adjective Adverb, and the or Interrogative and Absolute uses of Adverbs.
use

of

Proper Noun

as

132

HIGHER

ENGLISH

(2)Each

part of a composite Verb should be parsed separately

and then as a whole. Example : He has been giving, has : Indie. Pres., 3rd Sing, of have, been : Past Part of be.
giving: Gerund of give. has been giving: Verb Trans., Strong, Act., Indie.,Perfect, he. Continuous, 3rd Sing.,agreeingwith

subject

A etc., (3) Phrase equivalent to a Preposition,Conjunction, should be parsed word by word, and then the equivalence should be stated. Mood requires special consideration. Of The Infinitive (4) Properthe following should be mentioned : the Infinitive
"

(a)Voice: Active,Passive. (b)Tense : Present, Perfect. Noun, Use (qual. (c) : as Noun (Subject, as Adj. etc.), etc.), Verb, Absolute. as Adv. (mod. etc.),
this." To tell:Verb, Infin., Act, Pres., Adv. use, mod. Of the Gerund the following should be stated: (a)Tense : Present, Perfect.
:

Example

"

came

to tell you

came.

"

to Verb, gov. by or : Subj. Obj. Relationship (b) ing what object

Prep.,govern

Example

fond of studying English." Studying: Verb, Inf., Gerund, Pres., gov. by Prep, English.
:

"

He

was

gov. of,

199. Examples

of Parsing.

life.
But
An

Tell me not in mournful numbers Life isbut an empty dream." Tell: Verb, Trans., Weak, Act., Imper., Pres., 2nd Sing, or Plural, agreeing with subject you (thou) understood. Me : Pronoun, Pers., Com., Sing., ist, Dat, indirect to obj. tell. Not : Adv., Degree, mod. tell. In : Prep. gov. numbers. Mournful: Adj., Qual., qualifying numbers. Numbers : Noun, Com., Neut, Plur., Obj.gov. by in. : to Life Noun, Com., Neut, Sing, Norn., subj. is. Is: Verb, Copul., Anom., Indie., Pres., 3rd Sing., agreeing with subj.

(a)

"

:
:

Adv., Manner, Demons., Adj..

mod. is. Indef. Article, qual. dream.

PARSING
Empty
Dream
: :

133

Qual., Adj., qualifying dream.

(b)
Oh

"

Noun, Com., Neut., Sing., Nom., compl. to is. Oh I weep for Adonais, though our tears " Thaw not the frost which binds so dear a head !
Pres., 2nd Sing,
or

: Interjection. Weep: Verb, lutrans., Weak, Act., Imper., you (or understood. agreeing with subj. thou)

Plur.,

For : Prep. gov. Adonais. Adonais : Noun, Proper, Masc., Sing., Obj.gov. by for. Adonais to our head. Subord., joiningeep Though : Conj., w Possess., qual. tears. Our : Adj., Neut., Plur., Nom. to Tears : Noun, Common, subj. thaw. Thaw : Verb, Trans., Weak, Act, Subj.,or ( Indie.), Plur., agreeing 3rd
.

tears. with subj. Not : Adv. Degree mod. thaw. Demons., Def. Article, qual. frost. The : Adj., to Neut., Sing., Obj., Frost : Noun, Common, object thaw. to Which : Pronoun, Rel., Neut., Nom., Subject binds agreeing with

Antec.

frost.
:

Verb, Trans., Strong, Act., Indie., Pres., 3rd Sing, agreeing with subj. which. So : Adv., Degree mod. dear. Dear : Adj., ual., Q qualifying head. A : Adj., Demons., Indef. Article.,qual. head. Head : Noun, Common, Neut., Sing., Obj., to object binds.
Binds EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER
"

XIV.

Parse each word hi the following : Drink to me only with thine eyes. (i) like pretty Sally. There's none for a handful of silverhe leftus. Just Lightly they'lltalk of the spirit that's gone. Earth fills her lap with pleasures of her own. (5) (6)It'sdull hi our town since my playmates left. (7)So Love was crowned but Music won the cause. (8)Alas ! they had been friends from youth. in the following : 2. Discuss the syntax of the words italicised He died lastweek. He died a poorman. death. 3) He died a violent They made him king. 4) 5) The evenings were growing dark. 6) So much the better. (M) Parse the words italicisedin the following :" 3. (i Aftereating apples he fellill. (2 While eating apples he fellill. (3 The eating of apples made him ill. (4 Cooking apples are not good for eating. (5 On receiving orders to leave the town, he asked fora time table, as he wished to find out when the next train started. sentences 4. Form showing each of the words hope,in, which, for, his fast, as two different parts of speech, and distinguish show, only,
"

between

them

in each

case.

134

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

5. Discuss the syntax of the words and phrases italicisedin : He the volume's (ij read beheaded a pages through anda through.! He was punishmentfitfor traitor (2) (3)They abandoned the camp, baggage and all. 1 4) Have I to go there ? Yes, I think 50. (5)He died a martyr's death and leftus his memory as an example. (6)// is supposed that he went on board the ship. in the sentence : Darkling, we went 6. Parse all the words in -ing on our way, with our walking sticks in our hands, weary of toiling singing
"

in the town.

(M)

usage ? words grouped according to their grammatical In which group or groups do you place than, but, divine, single,that, while ? Give reasons. in 8. Discuss the syntax of the words and phrases italicised :" Get (i) you gone 1 Down with it ! Let knowledge grow from more to more. For every why, he had a wherefore. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. I think it right to say. It will last for ever. Let me see you do that again. I would be friendsith you. w They spent fourweeks at Karlsbad, which is one of the most popular health resorts in Europe, (illYou, sir,what trade are you ? (I2" The whole thing, lock, stock and barrel, isn't worth one big

7. How

are

yellow

9. Analyse into clauses, stating the relationship between parse the words .in italicsin the following : (i)I have heard UU and can esteem it true How that an eagle looking on the sun, for Rejoicing his part And bringing oft his young to look there too, If one gaze longer than another one, On him will set his heart,
"

sea-poppy. (M)

them, and

(2)Tired

nature's

sweet

restorer, balmy

sleep,

He like the world his ready visit pays Where fortune smiles ; the wretched he forsakes I on Swift his downy pinion fliesfrom woe And lightson lids unsullied with a tear.

(3)Since

firstI saw thee come and heard thy cry, I could not rid me of the dread that one By whom such daring villanies were done Must be some lord of mine e'en ay, perhaps a son. Whoe'er he was I knew my task ; but feared A father's heart in case the worst appeared.
"

(4)Truths,

our main concern, which depends shame and misery not to learn. Shine by the side of every path we tread With such a lustre he that runs may read.
on

That 'tisour

PARSING
"

135

10. Discuss the grammatical uses of the words what, nothing, both, in the following : (i)I'lltellyou what ; we will go and see him. have you brought ? What news What with one thing and what with another. Nothing good can come of that. Both my friends saw it. We were both of us present. Both the two citieswere Roman colonies. 7) Both the king and the queen spoke. 8) (9)The name set both our thoughts anxiously wandering. in 11. Discuss the case of each word in italics the following sentences : What is he ? They love each other, (ii) He (i) (iii) acted in his age The wind blew hi the bride and bridegroom's capacity as a judge, (iv) faces, (v)Who is he That every man in arms should wish to be ? (vi) knew was One whom all the world The so wronged, (vii) note was then handed to the officer, and the case proceeded without it being read, It (viii)shall come to pass, that the man whom I shall choose, his rod shall

bud.
on anything noteworthy in the syntax of the italicised hi : words The more B the better, (ii)oth in appearance and character, (i) The French press know little the actual facts, were they alike, (iii) of The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof, (v)Every limb (iv) I and feature appearswith its appropriate grace, (vi) thought it best You had better go. Do to remain, (vii) (viii) be still. 13. Explain carefully what there is of a special character hi each of the following examples of the genitive case : He dined at my father's, (ii) friend of my father's. (iii) A (i) That father of mine, (iv)From my father and grandfather's tune, A (v) For long acquaintance sake, (vi)December's snow, (vii) A baker's dozen, hair's breadth, For God's love. (viii) (ix) (x) Scio'srocky isle. on the grammar or construction of the italicised 14. Comment words in : and phrases i) Thine, Gawain, was the voice. Methought I saw my late saint. espoused Then was she chosen abbess : there an abbess lived* He commanded the sea to be scourged. his (5)When, doffed casque, he felt free air, Around gan Marmion wildly stare. Now, good my liegeand brother sage, (6) What think ye of mine elfinpage ?

12.

Comment
"

"

"

CHAPTER XV
ERRORS
200. TN

IN

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR

order to speak and to write English correctly,it is X. necessary to guard against many errors which constantly in the conversation we hear around us, and in the occur

read. It may be pointed out that in writing more than correctness ir correctness nothing ensures speaking. The student should thereforemake it hisaim to speak carefullyand correctlyand to avoid the mistakes,due largelyto ignorance or carelessness, which will be discussed in this and
newspapers

and books

we

subsequent chapters.
Such mistakes are chieflytwofold :" Errors in Grammar (1) which involve a violationof the rules of and principles grammar. Errors in Style, which include such mistakes as are con(2) nected with the order of words in a sentence, ambiguity of expression,use of words in an incorrectsense, slang, etc.
In poetry, a great deal of licence is allowed both in grammar in and style. Many phrases and constructions, therefore, which occur are, strictly be avoided in ordinary erroneous poetry speaking, and must If such sentences are offered for criticomposition and conversation. cism, they must be discussed and corrected according to the standard of modern prose.
"

201. ERRORS.

NOTE.

202. In this chapter of

some

we

common

shall confine ourselves to the considerati errors, due, for the most part,to a

It willbe convenient in the course of our treatment to recapitulatesome of the Rules of Syntax already given in the earlierchapters of this book, and to add a few to others. Reference will be added, wherever possible, the paragraph of violation grammar.

dealing with the grammar in question. In correctingfaulty sentences, the student should take

care

ERRORS
not to make

IN

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR

137

\ unnecessary alterations the least change is always

the best

203. CONCORD
"

The Verb agrees Thou who has created all things will be merciful (incorrec
"

(" SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 108) in itsSubject Number and Person : with
OF

person).
are interesting The study of ancient relics (incorrect number). be noted : The followingadditionalrules should Two or more coupled by and take a plural: (1)
"

subjects

"

dead ? (incorrect Is Bushy, Green and the Earl of Wiltshire together express one idea,or when Except when the subjects
they
are

almost synonymous : drink Milk and soda is a refreshing

"

Wherein doth sitthe fear and are (2)When two subjects connected by or, nor, the Verb : agrees with the nearer one (" 165) Either he or I are wrong (incorrect). A naturallytakes a singular (3) Plural denoting a single
"

(correct). dread of kings (allowable)

object

verb

:
"

army (incorrect). : (4)Subjects distributivelytake a singular(" used 130) Every man, woman and child understand it(incorrect).
an
"

The United States have

Many When (5)

as

person make this mistake

are subjects

(incorrect).

two
as,

connected by the

conjunctional

the Verb agrees with fatfirst well ("167). phrase is Similarlyalso when a subject connected by a Prepositionto
a
"

Noun, the Verb agrees, of course, with the only subject : deserve punishment (incorrect) This man, as well as you, The house with allitsfurniturewere wrecked (incorrect) 204. THE COMPLEMENT aftera Verb must be of the same
as : the word before the Verb (" 77) I know that man to be him (correct).
"

case

It is me

(incorrect).
common
"

The latter error is so that itis often said to be

also defended on itprobably arose.

" sanctioned by usage \ itissometimes the analogy of the French Jest moi, from which

in (particularly conversation

a [Seelso " 247 (3).]

138
205. THE

HIGHER

ENGLISH
is governed by
a

:" ("76) to do the work (incorrect). They did not see you and /(incorrect). Beware especiallyof wfio (Nom.)for whom (Obj.) met and

OBJECTIVE Leave James and /

Verb

versa

"

very

common

error

:
"

told me, I forget whom (incorrect). Who does the book describe? (incorrect). is The Objective governed by a Preposition (" : 155) Between you and /there issomething wrong here (incorrect Someone
"

Who is the book written by ? (incorrect). :" POSSESSIVE USE OF THE ("81) The number of the book's pages is 74 (incorrect ; say
pages of the book "). Use of the Apostrophe for the Possessivef" 80) :
"

"

The

These

the men? books (incorrect). I remain, Youths sincerely(incorrect).

are

206. A

NOUN

vards be used as Plural Verb :" The crowd is fickle they arc ;
207. THE RELATIVE

must not afterused in the Collective sense if it were a Noun of Multitude, i.e. with a

utterlyinconsistent (incorrect

cedent agrees with its Antein Gender, Number, and Person, but takes itsCase from its own clause ("127).If there are two possible antecedents, the Pronoun agrees with the nearer :
"

PRONOUN

of those men who causes all the trouble (incorrect Distinction between that and who, which : They Mr saw Jones that received them graciously
"

He is one

(incorrect).
After Distributives

[" 130

and 203
"

a (4)] Verb,

Pronoun,

or

PossessiveAdjective must
Every
man

If anyone
or

be singular : to thiirtaste (incorrect). let them wait (incorrect). comes,

.

" Strictly speaking, the lattersentence should be : her wait " ; but " lethim wait" suffices. Either, Neither must be used of two things only (" 130,
.

let him

Either of the four will suit

us

: note) (incorrect)
"

ERRORS

IN

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
"

139

: Any, Other cannot be used with superlatives The largestcirculation any daily paper of

Use

(incorrect). Of allother poets he was the greatest(incorrect). : of Another, each other, one another (" 130) They were alltalkingto each other (incorrect). Each of the boys was as clever as another (incorrect).
"
"

One must be followed by one's, not by his : One must not forget his duty to his country
Distinction between has
most
a

(incorrect).

negative idea :
were

few and a few, little and a little. Few " e.g. few were saved," conveys the idea that

lost.
a

This is such
Little money
Noun

difficult
a

that subject a few can

understand

it (incorrect).
goes

long way

(incorrect).
agree

208. DEMONSTRATIVE

they qualify in number I do not likethose kind of men (incorrect). Double Comparative or Superlative is inadmissible("
"

ADJECTIVES ("142):

with

the

than you are (incorrect). Superlative for Comparative is inadmissible("

me

He

is more

140),

dearer to

137).

Of
Some

evilschoose the least(incorrect). Adjectivesannot be compared (" c

two

The most unique specimen has been discovered(incorrect 209. USE OF TENSES ("105). I have gone to London yesterday (incorrect). I
was

141).

here ten days when you came (incorrect). I hoped to have answered his letter yesterday (sanctioned

by

usage).

Past Tense for Past Participle,and viceversa is inadmissible. He has drank some wine (incorrect). Sequence of Tenses (" 106). He wished that you will speak to him They were eatingand read at the same

(incorrect). time (incorrect). Confusion of Shall and Will ("117, V.). I I will be glad to see you to-morrow (incorrect). They shall see you in a few days (incorrect, iffuturt
only).

140
Unrelated

HIGHER
Participle ("

ENGLISH

103).

Having written the book, itwas burnt (incorrect). a Participle (" Gerund used as though it were 103). have not heard of him learning music (incorrect). I 210. ADVERB FOR ADJECTIVE, and vice versa, is inad
except in specialcases ("143). missible, honourable (incorrect). Thou couldst not die more Good gentlemen, look fresh and merrily (incorrect). Distinction between No and Not. Have you ever seen him or no ?

Double negative Nobody never

211.

(incorrect). isinadmissible(" 150). thinks nothing of such people (incorrect).

PREPOSITIONS
AS

USE

OF

CERTAIN

CON

JUNCTIONS

and viceversa (" 159). here without you send for, I shallstay me (incorrect). Do not do it likehe says (incorrect). He is taller than me (incorrect).

Use

Preposition after certainwords of the Wrong This is different that (incorrect) to Wrong Correlatives ("

("161),

165):
or

He

would neitherwork

play

(incorrect).
XV.

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

2.

Write out correctly all the incorrect sentences given in this chapter : Correct or justify following, giving reasons the do you speak to ? Who (i) It was thought to be him. Whether or no I am right, you are certainly wrong. Art thou proud yet ? Ay, that I am not thee. Whoever the king favours the cardinal will find employment
"

for. Nothing but wailings was heard. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. It must be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery and murder. Thersites' body is as good as Ajax when neither are alive. I like it better than any. And since I never dare to write as funny as I can. Laying the suspicion on somebody, I know not who. in the
country.

ERRORS
13) Well 14) I am

IN
is him

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR

141

that hath found prudence I those who cannot describe what I do not see. one of Nobody ever of themselves into their work. put so much (15) (1 Nepos answered him, Celsus replied, and neither of them 6) on were each other. sparing of censures The boy stood on the burning deck (17) Whence all but he had fled. largest circulation of any Liberal newspaper. 1 8) The I am to be married, to If I were old enough old enough 19) husband's house. my manage I heard of him running away. 20) by Buckingham by a met 21) The threatened assault was he knew the Earl of Bristol, whom on counter attack would be the chief witness against him. (22)And many a holy text around she strews That teach the rustic moralist to die. by one This view has been maintained of the greatest (23) that has appeared in this country. writers (24)The administration of so many various interests, and of demand no common districts so remote, capacity and

vigour. distress and anguish cometh When upon you. 25) It has generally been observed, that the European tion popula26) of the United States is tall and characterised by a

pale and sallow countenance. Sorrow not as them that have no hope. He having none but he. but them, they having none They are not only the most charitable of any other nation, in but most judicious distinguishing the properest

objects

of compassion. (30)The part of this reed used by the Indians is from ten to be perceived, one eleven feet long, and no tapering can end being as thick as another. (31)It is observable that each one of the letters bear date aftef his banishment. If he had writ me word by the next post, this had been just (32) and civil. (33)Thou lovest, but ne'er knew love's sad satiety. (34)It was the most amiable, although the least dignified, of all the party squabbles by which it had been preceded. Having re(35) of his poems, they now perceived the weakness appear titles. to us under new (36)His is a poem, one of the completest works that exists hi any language. It is characteristic of them to appear but to one person, and (37) he the most likely to be deluded. I think it may assist the reader by placing them before him in chronological order. Image after image, phrase after phrase, starts out vivid, harsh and emphatic. Humanity seldom or ever shows itselfin inferior minds. The position of an hereditary monarch and an usurper are different. very

142
(42)I
see

HIGHER
there
was

ENGLISH
resemblance
'twixt this good
man

some

and

I*
a legacy to whomsoever was volume values what is best in English literature. (44)The expressions he used in his speech sounded harshly to his audience. Let no quarrel nor no brawl to come (45) Taint the condition of this present hour. so that they die. (46)If an ox gore a man or a woman Our noble Arthur, him ye scarce can overpraise, (47) Will hear and know. Top great a variety of studies distract the mind. (48) (49)Being his sole companion, he naturally addressed himself

(43)That

to

me.

There has lately appeared the life of Cromwell, not Oliver, (50) Henry the Eighth's minister. but he who was Henceforward, (51) squall nor storm from that Eden where she dwelt Could keep me When or I are (52) you made A fable, song, or fleeting shade. (53)And they all murmured gone to be a saying, That he was that is a sinner. guest with a man The French Press know little nothing of the actual facts. or (54) (55)It liesbetween the three. He talks like Brunswick did. For not to have been dipped in Lethe's stream (57) Could save the son of Thetis from to die. Every person has a right to defend themselves. is the good of me learning this ? What Fleet Street and the Strand with Trafalgar Square was one (60) mass of seats on Coronation Day. He is better versed in theology than any living man. (62)A convent, a lunatic asylum, a husband either will do. (M) 3. Correct the following sentences where necessary, giving reasons for your corrections : The influence of men like they are very great. and women Every man to forgive each other their trespasses. ought do you think he is ? Everyone has their own (3)Whom him. opinion about (4)Already embittered by his poverty, this new blow quite him. overwhelmed The king then entered on that career (5) of misgovernment which, that he was able to pursue it,is a disgrace to the country. He does it with a better grace, but I do it more natural. (7)There is at the gate a young gentleman much desires speech with yon. (8)As an old soldier, the paragraph headed " The Waterloo Veteran reads a bit doubtful. It is from this Germanic language that English besides (9) Dutch Frisian are derived. and (10)It was Christmas Day. and dawn was breaking through the window.

(56)

(6iJ

"

"

(ij (2)

(6|

"

ERRORS

IN

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
right to be hung as a along of you knowing

143
man.

(n) A female (12)All these

much.

has as much murderer sorts of mistakes are

too

(13)He

was
were

introduced

to the others present, whom

he thought

all very pleasant people. Telein this morning's seen graph your advertisement for a juniorclerk, I beg to apply for the same. (IS Being killed on the battle-field,I buried him there. (16 My friend and myself took a walk together. (17 There have been three famous orators in our day, either of who would illustrate my meaning. Tell me hi peace what each of them by the other lose. (18) (19)Neither the captain or lieutenant who accompanied you I over their swords. the ship wore and ful over a beauti(20)Standing on the top of the hill,the eye roams

(14)Having

(21)A (22)

landscape. few weeks' anxiety

countenance.

are

enough

to sadden

the most

beaming

Fortune's blows When craves most struck home, being gentle wounded, A noble cunning. There will be quite a panic when the news come. I shall have much pleasure in accepting your kind invitation. 24) (25)Therefore they thought it good you hear a play And frame your mind to mirth and merriment. (26)He joinedthat one of the two causes which seemed to him least unsound. Do you mind me more taking a little sugar ? 28) It would have been wrong to have refused his kindness. Trip it deft and merrily. 30) Be thou, fierce spirit,my spiritI Be thou me, impetuous one. This is the greatest error of all the rest. (32) Coming home from church, it began to rain. (33) Why I do triflethus with his despair Is done to cure it. Neither this boy nor that are worthy (34) of a prize ; and the latter is the worst of the two.

^23)

527) (29)
(3iJ

CHAFFER
ORDER
212.

XVI AND
an

OF

WORDS OF

EMPHASIS
In

ELLIPSIS

language like inflected Latin or Greek, the order of words in a sentence is V_y cases, not, in most of very great importance, since the function of each word and its relationto the rest of the sentence is plain from itsinflection. Thus in Latin whether we say : Roman/ viceruntGallw,

CARDER

WORDS"

"

or,

GallosviceruntRoman/,
same

the meaning

is the

inflections and -os -i But in the English sentences

The Romans

and is perfectlyclear,because of the for the Nominative and Objectiveases, C

:
"

conquered the Gauls, The Gauls conquered the Romans, is the meaning of the first just the opposite of the second, though the words are identical. It is the order, in fact, which has caused the differencein meaning. One sees, in advertisements,many absurditiesdue largelyto carelessness about order of words : e.g. Wanted, a boy to open oysters with good personal character.
For sale, a bookcase by
a

lady eight feet high and five feet

broad.
order of words should invariably be such as will leave no possible doubt in the mind of the The general rule to reader or audience as to their meaning be observed is that things connected with one another should be mentioned together, or should at least be placed as near as possible to This is known as the Rule of one another.
Proximity.
"44

213, CLEARNESS"

The

ORDER
We

OF

WORDS

145

shall now apply this rule to various instances. Some of these have been previouslymentioned and need only a reference.
214. The

Subjectusually precedes the Verb

When (i) certain Adverbs There stood a man.

Except:
e.g.

"

introduce the sentence

Hardly had he spoken when

(2)In

wish, question,command Long livethe king \ Have you any money ?

and condition:

"

Go ye into allthe world. Should he come, tellhim I want him.

NOTE. Where two different persons form the the subject, firstperson is, for politeness,mentioned last : e.g. You and / have seen lands. many
"

The

Objectusually follows the Verb.

:
"

Except

it:
"

Pronoun, which precedes A Relativeor Interrogative Whom do you seek ? I do not know^p/to you want.
:

The

Indirect Object precedes the Direct

Extension

e.g. I gave him

book. of the Predicate must not separate Object and is Verb unless the Object qualifiedby a clause or long phrase. in the house ; Thus we say : he saw the man
An

but

he

saw

in the house the long expecting.

man

whom

he had been

215.

Adjectivessed u

attributively usually precede the Noun

"

they qualify. When Except : (i)

there are several : He spoke of things good, bad, and indifferent. When is the Adjective enlarged by a phrase or (2) clause : I, older in practice, I am a soldier, to abler than yourself
"

make conditions. In certainphrases, mostly legal and mostly from (3) heirtive, the French : e.g.Lords Spiritual, presumpletters C patent,hurch militant.
c

146

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Words, phrases, or clauses in agreement or apposition should be placed next to one another : thus" (a)He saw the ghost of Banquo, sittingwith the courtiers

whom he had murdered, should be : He saw the ghost of Banquo, whom he had murdered, sitting ith the courtiers. w For Herodias1 sake, his brother Philip's (b) wife, : For the sake of Herodias, his brother Philip's preferably

wife.

216. For the various positionsof the Adverb see " 149. The cardinalrule here as elsewhere is that of Proximity. Especial care is needed in the use of certain Adverbs, as the tion meaning of the sentence is often completely changed by alteraat of their position; amongst these are : at least, anyrate, due to the positionof only only, solely. Consider the difference in the following:
"

Only, I wish to draw your attention to this matter. I only wish to draw your attentionto this matter. I wish only to draw your attentionto thismatter. I wish to draw only your attention this matter. to I wish to draw your attention only to this matter. is The Divided Infinitive 101 (" note) not to be imitated. The Adverb should be placed before or afterthe Infinitive.
I should liketo at once say that I wish to personally thank you
.
.

(incorrect). (incorrect).

217. A Preposition should immediately precede its and object should follow as closely as possible the other word or phrase The following is thereforevery awkward : which itconnects.
"

made but by, As heaven forefend, your throne. Except : With the Relative and Interrogative Pronouns, whom which, what, the Prepositionmay be placed after the Verb ; and : with the Relative that itmust take that position
There's
no

to be disjunction

or,

you lookingfort\ For whom are you looking?/ rather better, This is the house that I live/'".
are

Whom

ORDER
NOTE.
"

OF

WORDS
"

147

A clash of two Prepositions should be avoided for the Thus, instead of : sake of euphony. he had been sent to with the money, This was the man say, This
was

the

man

to whom

he had been sent with the money.

218. Correlatives must

be placed immediately before the words

but also punished (correct), but : He not only saw Mrs A. but also Mrs B. (incorrect). " He saw not only Mrs A, The lattershould be changed to : but also Mrs R
not only blamed

connected. He was

frequentlyfind that the order of words in a sentence is not in accordance with the laiddown in the last few paragraphs. The departure principles from the natural order is generallymade for the sake of Emphasis.
219. CHANGE

OF

ORDER"

We

word

or

stand out and be especially prominent to the hearer or reader. Such change in order of books words is frequently employed in poetry, in semi-poetical It is also likethe Bible,and in oratory,for effect and ornament. in serviceable ordinarycomposition, provided it does not in any way obscure the meaning; it should always be borne in mind
sentence,

phrase is placed in in order that it may

certain unusual position in

that the main clear.

of object

Emphasis is to make

the meaning

doubly

220. POSITIONS

OF

EMPHASIS"
which
are

There
more

in

an

English sentence

others. The two positionsof emphasis are the end; the middle is, generally, comparatively unemphatic. is more As a rule, the end of a sentence than the effective beginning; but sometimes both are equally balanced.
221. THE

certainpositions emphatic than the beginning and

are

EARLIER

PART

OF

THE

SENTENCE"

The

our firstwords which meet eye or ear will of necessity be is prominent; hence it is that the Subject usually placed very But the first words will be doubly emphatic early in a sentence.

U8
ifthey appear to Thus we have :

HIGHER
us

ENGLISH
an

to be occupying

unusual position there.

The (a)

: Complement placed first Sweet are the uses of adversity. unto Sufficient the day is the evilthereof.
"
"

The Object : (b) placed first

SerenityShakspeare did attain. Then none have I offended.

Him
An "f)

Adverb

or

Home

declare I unto you. Adverbial phrase placed first : they brought her warrior dead.
"

Seldom he smiles.
It will be readily perceived that if these sentences were arranged in their natural order, much of their effect would be lost Thus the sentences: "The uses of adversity are sweet,"
"Then I have offended none," with the originals. END
are

flatand colourless in comparison

222. THE

OF

THE

SENTENCE

leave

which

special impression on our follows. In the sentence:

"

last words minds because of the pause "Doth this in Caesar seem
"

The

ambitious ? the speaker lays specialstress on the word ambitious, for that purpose, placed last. The impression left on which is, if the minds of his hearers would have been somewhat different
he had said: "Doth thisseem ambitiousin C"sar?" "Most Again, in the sentence: ascribe this play to critics Shakspeare," both the words most critics and Shakspeareare emphatic. Greater stress prominent, but the latteris rather more

the sentence as : could be laidon the former words by re-writing This play is ascribed to Shakspeare by most critics. In longer sentences which are well-constructedthere isanother reason why the final words are especially prominent. This is because they form a kind of conclusion or climax to which the gradually leads. Our minds are therefore in a state of expectancy during the earlier portions of the sentence ; and when the final words arrive they make a certain impression on us, that is,they are emphatic. Thus :
rest

of the sentence

"

ORDER
"When
he had
seen

OF
Mr

WORDS

149

which for many him, he returned home"

NOTE
i.
"

S. and had settledall the business of anxiety to weeks had been a source

changing the order of words to emphasise the earlier part of a sentence, it often happens that we change the order of the final words as well, and thus emphasis at the beginning of a sentence frequently involves emphasis at the end also : e.g. there can be none. Satisfaction NOTE 2. Since the end of the sentence is a position of emphasis, it follows that a sentence should seldom finish with an unemphatic word, such as a preposition or the word it.
"

By

EMPHASIS" OF PRODUCING 223. OTHER METHODS A (a) particular facing word may be made much more emphatic by preitwith the words itis or it was. Consider the sentence : Alfred conquered the Danes in 878.
"

We

may
"

make
was

the Alfred, Danes,

or

878 especially prominent

thus :

conquered the Danes in 878. // was the Danes whom Alfred conquered in 878. // was in 878 that Alfred conquered the Danes. Correlatives (^) may be placed before pairs of phrases, each of : the thereby gains effect which, particularly latter, As in Adam all men die, even so in Christ shall all be
//

Alfredho w

"

made alive. An (c) idea may be made prominent by repetition either in the or in other same words :
"

Britons never,
Many

shallbe slaves. At her feet he bowed, he fell, lay down. he

never,

never

this principle, go in pairs, both members of the pair meaning practicallythe same: e.g. "part and parcel,""odds and ends," "dust and ashes." (d)Effect is frequentlygiven to an idea by means of Figures

phrases of

our

language,

on

of Speech

C (seehapter xxx).

is the omission of some word or words which belong to the grammatical structure of a sentence and which are to be mentally supplied by the hearer or reader. E.g. in the
224. ELLIPSIS
sentences
:
"

Either the
He
came

man
A

or

the

woman

must

go

but

soon
are

words must

go and

he

returned respectivelyomitted.

In such

150
examples
as

HIGHER

ENGLISH

the above, the words omitted are easily supplied, and when supplied they complete the sentences grammatically are said to be Legitimate. Such instances of Ellipsis
225. But

be

as to what words should (i) where any doubt occurs or where the words supplied from another part of supplied, (2)

is, strictly the sentence do not fitgrammatically, the ellipsis though many instanceswhich violate the speaking,Illegitimate, are sanctioned by usage. second of these principles
As
an

we first)

due to a violationof the example of illegitimate ellipsis may take the sentence : I willhave mercy and not sacrifice.
"

There

of possible interpretations this: I ( (1) willhave mercy and willnot sacrifice anyone).
are

two

"

(Noun). mercy and willnot have sacrifice The sentence should accordinglybe rewritten with the missing words supplied. A similar ambiguity appears in the sentence :
"

I (2) willhave

I likeyou betterthan anyone. As an example of illegitimate due to a violation the of ellipsis we : second of the above principles may take the sentence He is richerbut not so happy as his brother. Here it would appear that the word as is omitted afterricher,
"

seeing that itoccupies a correlative afterhappy; but the position word actuallyrequired is than^ which accordinglyshould not be i omitted. Similarly,n the sentence :
"

He neither has A nor willgo to the theatre, gone should be insertedafterhas.

On the other hand the sentence : He is taller than I * is considered perfectly correct, although the words omitted are am tall words quite differentfrom is taller, which would be expected. This can (andsimilar cases) only be defended on the grounds of custom.
" "

NOTE.

226. The
: permissible
"

followingare

few instancesof ellipsishich w

are

(i)Words

previously mentioned : e.g. *" The general inspected the men made and They like him but *" not me. (3)Words mentioned shortly after : He can and must do his work. Thay read * and answered his letter.
*

speech.

ORDER
(3)Words

OF

WORDS

151

than, as : after the Conjunctions as youA I am as old to (4)The Relatives that,whom, which, when objects I saw. This is the man Those were the books *" you meant. that (5)The Conjunction : He said * it was quite satisfactory. : (6)Words after Interjections for a sword 1 0
* *

Verb

is instances in which the ellipsis inadvisablein ordinary composition, though such constructions are often found in poetry :
227. The following
are
"

(1)The

: Relative when Subject e.g. have seen strange sights. There's two or three of us (2)The Relative with a Preposition : e.g. 1 do not like the way you do it. A This is the road you came. (3)The Antecedent : e.g. does this will be punished. AWho (4)The Article : e.g. I saw the principal and secretary. This is incorrect, if different persons are meant. : (5)A Preposition or Conjunction e.g. I saw them arriving departing from the station. and The question iswhether this angle is greater or equal to the other. (6)A part of a Tense, when that part cannot be supplied from the rest of the sentence : e.g. He neither has x will * nor is successful.
A A A
*"

of many cases of ellipsis which the legitimacy is open to question. Each case has to be considered on itsown decisioncan be given ; for and very frequentlyno definite merits,
228. There
are

custom

matical and idiomaticuse have often to be weighed againstgramThe determining factor, after all, in such precision. Some cases, must be the clearness or ambiguity of the sentence. of the examples given at the end of this chapter must be judged according to thisstandard.
sentence which is arranged in faulty order or which is bear two possible interpretations. When will sometimes elliptical is the case, the sentence should be corrected in two ways so as to% this demonstrate each interpretation clearly.

NOTE.

"

152

HIGHER
EXERCISES ON

ENGLISH
CHAPTER

XVL

1.

Rearrange
reasons,

giving

or sentences otherwise correct them, where necessary, for your corrections : (1)Luckily the monks had recently given away a couple of dogs, which were returned to them, or the breed would have been lost. (2)He was shot by a secretary under notice to quit, with finding fault very fortunately without he was whom
"
"

the

following

effect, people learn anything that is worth learning easily. You have already been informed of the sale of Ford's theatre, where Mr Lincoln was assassinated, for religious purposes. The Moor (5) seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy. smothers her. (6)Would you rather a lion ate you or a tiger ? (7)He gave his parting directions to a youth who had come with him, in a tone of mild authority. (8)I have lost not only my customers, but Mrs Rachel herself is gone also. He left the room (9) very slowly repeating his determination to obey. not (10)Brian the hermit stood by a fire, which had been made barefooted and in cap and hood. After a long and prosperous reign of sixty-three years we (n) heard the sad news of the death of Queen Victoria. Homer was (12) not only the maker of a nation but of a language. (M) 2. Rearrange, or otherwise correct, the following sentences, writing : notes on any difficulties" if it were even (1)It is manifestly unjust, possible to really test bis accusations. (2)I saw a gentleman who had shot hundreds of buffaloes in London a month ago. People say that we should not blame Russia of all nations (3) for not evacuating Manchuria, have not yet since we evacuated Egypt (4)The orator spoke of the notion that the national debt might be repudiated with absolute contempt. (5)The Board has resolved to erect a school to accommodate a thousand children three stories high. (6)The captain took the good things which the gods provided with thankful good-humour. The duke yet lives that Henry shall destroy. He not only blamed the manager but also the whole of the staff. (9)The man ought to be brought before a magistrate, who utters such threats. He rode from the house (10) where he had had dinner on a bicycle. (n) You have some knowledge of the subject any rate, whilst at T know DOthtaff about it.

(3)Few

(4)

ORDER
(12)He

OF

WORDS

153

killed a sparrow with a pistol which was eating some bread-crumbs. Meanwhile (13) she rushed into the kitchen and found her friend, laughing and stumbling in her haste. (14)You will see the gentleman to whom I introduced you every day. (15)Driving up in his carriage we saw him as we were going to business. Gibraltar is a rock at the entrance of the Mediterranean (16) which is well fortified. he paid half-aHe wore a curious hat on his head for which (17)
crown.

They only work when they have no money. Many of people know littleor nothing of the abilities our 19) leading men who discuss them freely. (20)He was charged with stealing the goods by order of the seen proprietor of the shop, though he had not even them. It (21) is probable that no one envied the general more than his officers. (22)The captive ate and drank the bread and the water as though they were nectar and ambrosia. (23)He criticisedrecently that renowned singer, who does not know one note of music from another. This coat wants mending badly. (24} (25)Noah for his godliness, and his family, were preserved from the Flood. In the following sentences, emphasise by any method the words 3. in brackets after each sentence : given (1)Nelson defeated the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar in 1805; [(i) Nelson; (2) The French and Spanish fleets;

!i8)

"

(2)The

(3)Trafalgar; (4)1805].

next generation will profit by this law

[Thenext generation}.

glad of this as they [so glad ofthis]. Pope pitied the young English slaves [(i) Gregory; the young English pitied;(3) slaves]. (6)We laid him down slowly and sadly [slowly sadly]. and Never ; (7)I will never allow such conduct in my house ! [(i) /; (3)such (2) conduct]. (8)He shall not break a bruised reed, and he shall not quench smoking flax [A bruised reed and smoking flax}. Write out in prose order : 4. (i) His trust was with the Eternal to be deemed Equal in strength ; and rather than be less, Cared not to be at all ; with that care lost Went all his fear : of God, or Hell, or worse, He recked not ; and these words thereafter spake :" " My sentence isfor open war. Of wiles More unexpert I boast not : them let those Contrive who need or when they need ; not now.**

(3)Thou art dust dust]. (4)I cannot be so (5)Pope Gregory

and thou shalt return unto dust

[dustnd a

unto

(2)

"

154

HIGHER

ENGLISH

(2)Thus saying, from her side the fatalkey.

Sad instrument of all our woe, she took ; And towards the gate, rollingher bestial train Forthwith the huge portcullishigh updrew, Which but herself,not all the Stygian powers Could once have moved ; then in the keyhole turns The intricate wards, and every bolt and bar Of massy iron or solid rock with ease Unfastens. the following elliptical sentences, and otherwise correct 5. Expand is State in which cases the ellipsis to be accounted an error, and them. : why (1)Whose own example strengthens all his laws, And is himself the great sublime he draws. (2)The country was divided into counties, and the counties
"

placed under magistrates.

dedication may serve almost for any book that has, is, be published. shall (4)In the best countries a rise in rent and wages has been found to go together. He belongs to one caste, and the hewers of wood and drawers ($) of water to another. There were (6) went readers in multitudes ; but their money for other purposes, as their admiration was fixed elsewhere. that so errors (7)Breaking a constitution by the very same many have been broke before. (8)This is he, my master said, Despised the fair Athenian maid. My resolution is to spare no expense in education ; itis a bad (9) calculation, because it is the only advantage over which circumstances have no control. ) He preferred to know the worst than to dream the best, I can converse more ii) Nor do I know anyone, with whom or I would prefer as my pleasantly, companion. They drowned the black and white kittens. 13) Nothing has or could be more unfortunate. Men who started on a wrong tack, and instead of grappling of misty speculawith the facts,lost themselves in a maze tion.

(3)This
or

[12) (14)

The (15)

daily walk is essentialfor every school-girl, if not, her as lessons become very dull. (16)Hardly had he done this than the man mentioned appeared. (17)Some girls at school make friends and remain so all their lives. Many thanks for your letter which I have forwarded to Mr (18) S., and asked him to write direct to you. (19)From the pier you can see all the large merchantmen, coming and going from all parts of the world. (20)A statute, inflictingthe punishment of death, may be, and oupht to be repealed, ifit be in any degree expedient. (21)He won't do more than he can help. (22)On attempting to extract the ball,the patient began rapidly to sink. (M)

ORDER

OF

WORDS

155

:" 6. Correct also the following (or defend them)in a similar manner (1)We thank you for the way you received us. (2)You have done this better than yesterday. (3)If the baby does not thrive on fresh milk, it should be boiled. (4)In loving remembrance of B., who passed peacefully away to rest, in her mother's and grand-parents' grave. The general and myself walked around the camp. Man never is,but always to be blest. She calls me proud, and that she could not love me Were men as rare as phoenix. Yet one but flatters us, (8) As well appeareth by the cause you come. (9)Pray you, no more. but of different shape from This triangle is of the same area (10) the other. (n) He is to take the message, not you. He is a man in whom I place entire confidence and shall (12) be prepared to recommend. always Which was the road you cycled to Ipswich ? The manager likes you better than Mr Jones. He has been taken prisoner and given his word that he will not attempt to escape. Rearrange the order of the following words, so as to form a 7. quatrain with alternate rhymes, and punctuate : ever While it lasts small service is true service scorn not one of howhumble friends |the daisy protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun by the shadow that it casts. 8. Rearrange the order of the following words, so as to form lines of
"

poetry with alternate rhymes, and punctuate : Good fellow what will be thy gain lingering thus by my side he cried that I shall have guarded thee faithfully my king |he he only may wear true servants titlewho has not forgot his lord himself for his lords gifts how rich soeer.
"

CHAPTER

XVII

PUNCTUATION
229.

T)UNCTUATION, or the correct use of stops, n an XT important element in any form of Composition. The

effect produced in speaking or reading by judicious modulation of the voice and by appropriatepauses, is obtained in writingby the

of stops. The main object Punctuation is clearness; stops of to group together words closelyconnected, and to separate serve words less closelyconnected.
use

omission or insertion a stop, or the substitution one of of stop for another, may alterthe meaning of a sentence considerably. Thus compare the meaning of the sentences : rWhat ! Have you heard about it? have you heard about it?
The
"

\What
"

The

man,"

The
The
as

man

replied he, "is not here." " He is not here." replied:

"

Stops
"

"

nature and marks of similar

used in English
.

are

follows:

The Full Stop The Comma The

Colon : The Semi-colon ; The Note of Interrogation ? The Note of Exclamation ! The Apostrophe n " Inverted Commas
Brackets

( ) or [ ]
"

The Dash The Hyphen The Diaresis

The
156

Asterisk

PUNCTUATION
When
we

157

examine the work of the best authors in our language, we are struck by the apparently arbitraryay in which w stops are used. It is at once evident that the best authors do not altogether agree on the of subject Punctuation. Just as, frequently, two readers render a passage very differently and yet equally well, so two writers may punctuate a passage differently and yet each may be as correct as the other. in Punctuation is, fact, to some extent, a matter of taste and

judgment.
however, certain general principles underlying the and rules with subject, on these are based certainwell established to the use of particular some stops, together with regard rules or less optional. which are more
There
are,

230. THE

FULL

STOP

OR

PERIOD

indicatesgreatest pause and separation. to mark the end of a sentence, and thus to indicate the completion Sentences in English an entire and independent thought. of should not be too lengthy,for,if unduly prolonged, they are apt to become loose and rambling, and thus to lose both effect and in the composition clearness. No fault, probably,is so common of a beginner,as the scarcityof Full Stops. In general,a Full Stop is necessary at the end of any clause which is not joinedo t the next by a connective word; though a colon or semi-colon often takes itsplace. Thus in the sentence He went to London, he saw me there isinsufficient. We must alter the sentence in one of the comma
" "

is the sign which Its main function is

full stop after London; (2) insert the insert the Adv. Conj. and where conjunction after London ; (3) there. and omit Further, a succession of too many such clauses, even when
three ways: thus connected, is to be avoided by the insertion of Thus consider the sentence : full stops.
"

insert a (i)

one

or

more

"

He

came

to see

me

while I
you

was

you used to know, when

were

staying with Mr Jones whom in the village I livedso where

many

years." This is very awkward

and involved: the mind is bewildered

158

HIGHER

ENGLISH

by the multiplicityf dependent clauses. It can be considerably o improved by the insertionof a Full Stop and the omission of one of the connecting words, thus : " to see me He came while I was stayingwith Mr Jones. You in the village when you were where I used to know the latter
"

livedso many

years." : The Full Stop is also used afterabbreviations M.A. ( Master of Arts). e.g. ( exempli
-= =

gratia).

Lieut. ( Lieutenant). His Royal Highness). When the lastletter the abbreviated word is given, the stop of Dr Brown, Messrs Smith and Jones. is optional, e.g. H.B.H.

is the sign which indicatesthe shortest of separation between words and pause and the least amount
231. THE

COMMA

phrases. The employment

the advice must Beginners are apt to insert commas at every possible opportunity; such insertiononly serves to confuse the mind of the reader by arresting his thoughts too often. As a general rule, Commas are to be employed when they serve to make the sense
clearer. is used in the following circumstances: Thus the Comma (1)To separatewords or phrases in apposition: e.g. Thus died Rienzi,the lastof the Tribunes. The daughter of a hundred earls,
"

been urged ; of plenty of Full Stops has just be reversed with regard to Commas.

You

are

not

one

to

be desired.

(2)After a
(3)To

Nominative of Address : e.g. Milton, thou shouldst be living thishour. at Friend, I do thee no wrong.
"

or separate members of a series enumeration : Germany, Austria, and Italy,formed an alliance. How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable

Seem
NOTE.
"

to me

allthe

uses

of this world !

The comma before and in such a series is optional. M a serie? in pairs, the comma is placed after each pair : "." of words High and low, rich and poor, wise and foolish,must all yield to Death.
are
.

PUNCTUATION
ones separate short co-ordinateclauses (longer : e.g. to be separated by a colon or semi-colon) I saw, I conquered, I came,

159
require

(4)To

He walked in,and found

is often omitted The comma if the sentence is short : e.g. especially
NOTE.
"

me

busy.
there is
a

when
me.

conjunction,

He

came

and

saw

To (5)

separate Adverbial Phrases, Nominative

Absolutes,
utely: Absol-

Adverbial Clauses, and

e.g.

optionally, an

Adverb

used

The doors being shut, they could not enter. When they saw this, they were frightened. Fortunately,the general arrivedin time.
Adis often omitted between a Principal and an verbial The comma Clause when both are short, especiallywhen the Principal Clause stands first: e.g. He started when he saw me.

NOTE.

"

(6)A

Noun

Clause

or

Clause Adjectival

should not

be

but where more than one occur, they separated by a comma; should be separated from one another : e.g. He (a) likesto help those who are thrifty. He (b) has discovered what it is,where it exists, and how to obtain it We like men who are honest, whom
trust,
we
can

and on whose word we can rely. in To a (7) indicate Parenthesisor an interpolation a speech: e.g. He said,to put it plainly, was that the man mad. he, "to set you at liberty." "I have come," replied To : (8) show Ellipsis e.g. You may go your way ; I, mine.
He

willsoon

succeed ; you,

never.

232. It iswith reference to the use of the Colon and Semi-colon that we find the greatest divergence of opinion. Some of the between these stops ; best authors appear to make no distinction

between them, are not agreed as whilstothers,who do distinguish to what the differenceis. Broadly speaking, the semi-colon is more common than the

160
colon
:

HIGHER

ENGLISH

and where any doubt existsthe semi-colon may be safely The most commonly accepted rules are given in the employed. following paragraphs.
marks a pause of greaterimportance than that indicated by the Comma, and of less importance than that denoted by a Full Stop. It is generally used in sentences length,and for the following purposes : of some
233.

THE;SEMI-COLON

"

separate Co-ordinate Clauses, particularlywhen is Conjunctionomitted : e.g.

To (1)

the

that what I saidwas true ; I think,therefore, that certain I was justified in publiclystatingthe factsof the case. have already (2)To mark an important pause, when commas been used for pauses of less importance : e.g.

I was

The theory,as you observe, is unsupported by any evidence ; and even if such evidence is obtained, I shall be unwilling
to

agree

to

your

proposals without further

sentence

investigation.
separate the parts of a compound contrast is shown : e.g. Speech is silver silenceisgolden. ;
He
was

To (3)

in which

kind and sympathetic to me; hand, were decidedly

they,

on

the other

unjust.

NOTE.

"

The Colon is also permissible in this last case.

likethe Semi-colon,marks a pause intermediate between that of the Comma and the Full Stop. It is Its main uses are : often followed by a Dash. (1)To introduce a speech or quotation : e.g.
"

234. THE

COLON,

Addressing the audience he said : " I feel sure that everyone present will agree ..." Before enumerations, examples, etc. : (2) The Magi brought three gifts gold, frankincense and :
"

"

myrrh. The followingare Proper Nouns : John, London, To (3) introduce an explanatory remark : e.g. They cannot
NOTK.
"

England.

pay their debts : for they have

the Semi-colon
may

no

money.

In this last case

also be used.

PUNCTUATION
235. THE

161

of a

takes the place Full Stop at the end of interrogative sentences : e.g. Where have you been ?
What
were

NOTE

OF

INTERROGATION

you doing yesterday? of

a

THE

NOTE

OF EXCLAMATION
or

is used afterInterjection

and afterphrases or desire: e.g.

sentences

like nature expressingemotion Alas ! poor Yorick ! How happy he seems !

Long livethe king !

236. THE

letteror heav'n

is used to show the omission of a lettersin a word : e.g. don't ( do 'tis not), ( it is), It heaven). is thus used in the PossessiveSingularof

APOSTROPHE

mannes),

Nouns to denote the omission of an original : and, by analogy, -eitis also extended to the Possessive Plural. Thus man's ( O.E. king's( O.E. kinges).
=

The Apostrophe is also (rarely) for a few plurals, avoid to used ambiguity : e.g. Dot your i's and mind your p's and q's. If ifs and and's were pots and pans.
237. INVERTED

COMMAS

are

used at the beginning and

end of a quotation : e.g. " I willsee you to-morrow,"

"

" Which of you," said he, of thisflower? They are also occasionally used to set off a word or phrase, particular or phrase is used in a specialsense : e.g. when that word " " is generally a preposition. to The word

"

answered he. can me tell the name

He

went

to see

"Hamlet"
are

the (meaning play ^Hamlet).

Single Inverted

Commas
"

used to separate

quotation

within a quotation, thus : "I consider,"said he, "that the speech beginning ' I know ' where I willwear thisdagger then isthe finest utteredby

Cassius."
NOTE.
commas
"

Some writers of the present day in all cases.

are

use

single for double inverted

238. BRACKETS
a

phrase
L

or

i.e. off a parenthesis, used for separating clause which does not grammatically belong to the

162
sentence,

HIGHER
:

ENGLISH

but which is interpolatedby way of explanation or for

e.g.
common

humour

know him well by slave (you sight) Held up his righthand, which did flame and burn. He used his brains (or on what passed as such) the problem. Double Dashes are commonly used in the present day instead A
of brackets: e.g. Though Shakspeare had

such
NOTE.
a
"

was

been abroad he described his intuition"foreign customs with accuracy.

never
"

sign of

an

Too many parentheses should be avoided ; they unmethodical or careless mind.

are

generally

239. THE

DASH

To (1)

be reproved and what do you say ? I willtry. I have that is well I mean To : (2) resume a scatteredsubject Friends,companions, relatives all deserted him in the hour of need.
"
"

mark an He must

is used:" interruption or

hesitancy in

utterance

"

"

"

"

NOTE.

"

Dashes

are

particularly commas

often incorrectly substituted for other and semi-colons.

a

stops,

240. THE
to connect

HYPHEN"

shorter linethan the Dash"

is used

the parts of a compound word : e.g. Happy-go-lucky, man-of-war, maid-of-honour.

a

It is also used for the purpose of showing the divisionof into syllables e.g. Sweet-ness, beau-ti-ful. :
241. THE

word

is placed over the second of two vowels coming together, to indicatethat they are not pronounced as a diphthong : e.g.

DIAERESIS

Coalition, preordinance, cooperative,

NOTE.
"

hyphen

is frequently used

instead of

diaeresis :

e.g.

co-operative.

indicate some words omitted. Dots sometimes employed for this purpose. All princely graces * * * * shall still doubled on her. be
243. CAPITALS
"

242. ASTERISKS

are

In connection with the of tion, subject punctuaitmay be helpful to mention the functions of CapitalLetters. They are used :
"

PUNCTUATION
To (1) begin a sentence. For all Proper Nouns (2)

163

and

derived from Adjectives

them

English. John, e.g. To (3) begin every line of poetry. To (4) begin a speech, whether preceded by

Full Stop

or not.

titlesf books, for the main words : e.g. o A Grammar of the English Language. For o (6) the titlesf people : e.g.General, Admiral, Dean. In (5)
For (7)

" I,"for the Deity, and for certain interjections, the word such as "Oh," "Ah." For (8) a term newly introduced or described: e.g.

The Comma
EXERCISES Insert

is the sign which, etc.

ON
"

XVII. CHAPTER in the following sentences : commas, I. where necessary, lend me your cars. Friends Romans countrymen (1) To tellyou the truth I was surprised to hear of his success. (2) (3)They willbe surprised when they hear that you have changed your plans will they not ? If (4) you wish to discuss the\matter callat my house this evening. Mark Luke of the evangelists are : Matthew (5)The names and John. or how long he will stay. I dp not know when he will come This man they say will be elected to the council. England is densely populated ; Canada far less densely. the house of which you he had thoroughly examined When he determined that if the price were reasonable he spoke it without delay. would purchase I (io)I cannot understand why you should suppose that because I meant to blame you for what you gave you good advice had done. ing 2. Insert the requisitecommas, colons, and semi-colons in the followsentences
:
"

"

(1)The villageconsisted of the church the vicarage and a score of cottages few of itsinhabitants had ever seen a train. They have worked very hard and deserve to be successful (2) you on the other hand have done nothing. (3)If you enter for that examination you will have to choose one French German Latin. of the following subjects to accept my argument for it (4)I am surprised that you refuse is logical I am convinced from beginning to end. (5)Before rashly embarking on any wild speculation do not forget the proverb a fool and his money are soon parted. On occasions like the present it is customary I know for the (6) chairman to make a few remarks I shall however content tively myself with placing before you three requests listen attento the lecturer observe his experiments carefully afterwards in the books that and finally study the subject he has recommended.

164

HIGHER

ENGLISH

ducing 3. Write a short paragraph, consisting of two or three sentences, introas possible of the marks as many of punctuation. Punctuate, supplying capitals where necessary : 4. (1)Where said i is Johni want him at once you will not find him he has gone to see his mother replied my friend oh is that so well then i will call again in the evening said i then perhaps i shall see him. (2)No cries the dwarf who was by this time grown wiser no i for i find in every battle that declare off illfight no more honours and rewards but all the blows fall you get all the
"

upon

me.

good reynold said the cook we may as well settle the this brave fight we have in hand a true saying rejoined other but firsttellme friend for i protest you are my friend henceforth what is the score we have to settle ? is here so vile continued brutus that will not love his Who (4) country if any speak for him have i offended i pause for a brutus none answered the people then none reply none have i offended said he. (5)It is a pleasure to stand upon the shore and to see ships tossed upon the sea a pleasure to stand in the window of a castle and to see the battle and the adventures thereof below but no pleasure iscomparable to the standing upon the vantage and where the ground of truth a hillnot to be commanded is always clear and serene and and to see the errors air tempests in the vale below. wanderings and mists and Stern Daughter of the Voice of God (6) O Duty if that name thou love Who art a light to guide a rod To check the erring and reprove Thou who art victory and law When empty terrors overawe From vain temptations dost set free And calm'st the weary strifeof frailhumanity There are who ask not ifthine eye Be on them who in love and truth Where no misgiving is rely Upon the genial sense of youth. How would you punctuate the following passages ? State clearly 5. by what considerations you are guided in the punctuation of each : (1)The influence of the literary class in England during the generation which followed the Reformation was very great. " the [Also same transposed : Very great was the influence

(3)And

now

"

of

....

Reformation."]

(2)Books
(3)In

of quick interest that hurry on for incidents are for the able. eye to glide over only. A newspaper read out is intoler-

time however the judgment the many was over-ruled by of that of the few and before the book was reprinted it was so eagerly sought that it sold for five times the original price. It is stillread with pleasure the style is pure and flowing the classicalquotations and allusions are numerous by that are now and happy and we and then charmed

PUNCTUATION

165

(M) nuisance. for each stop : 7. Punctuate, giving a reason dawns Ah sad and strange as in dark summer The earliest pipe of half d birds -awaken' To dying ears as unto dying eyes The casement slowly grows a glimmering square So sad so strange the days that are no more. (M) in metre 8. Arrange and punctuate, supplying capitals where necessary : (1)His courtiers of the caliph crave oh say how this may be that of thy slaves this ethiop slave isbest beloved by thee for he is ugly as the night but when has ever chose a nightingale for itsdelight a hueless scentless rose. (2)What saw he not the churchs floor cumbered with dead and stained with gore what heard he not the clamorous crowd he saw that shout then: gratulations loud" redmond and heard alone clasped him and sobbed my son my son. (3)Thoughts whither have ye led me with what sweet compulsion thus transported to forget what hither brought us hate not love nor hope of paradise for hell hope here to taste of pleasure but all pleasure to destroy save what is hi destroying other joyto me is lost. (M) A chieftain to the highlands bound do not (4) cries boatmen ill give thee a silver pound to row tarry and us the oer ferry now who be ye would cross lochgyle this dark and stormy water oh im the chief of ulvas isleand this lord three days ullins daughter and fast before her fathers men fled together for should he find us in the glen my weve blood would stain the heather. (5)Beside its embers red and clear baskd in his plaid a mountaineer and up he sprung with sword hi hand thy name and stand a stranger what dost thou require purpose saxon rest and a guide and food and fire art thou a friend to roderick no thou darest not call thyself a foe I dare. Let me speak sir for heaven now bids me and the words i utter (6) for theyll find em let none think flattery truth this royal infant heaven still move about her though in her cradle yet now ings promises upon this land a thousand thousand blesstune shall bring to ripeness she shall be but few which behold that goodness a pattern to all living can now living with her and all that shall succeed. princes
" "

singularly humane and delicate humour in which Addison (M) excelled allmen. 6. Say how the following sentences are ambiguous, and how you ings would punctuate in accordance with each of the two meanthat can be assigned to them : were (1)Among other [prisoners] these Mordake Earl of Fife son Earl of to the governor Archibald Earl Douglas Thomas Murray and the Earls of Athol and Menteith. (2)I have said it it is true I deny it it is false. ) Which would you rather that the lionshould eat you or the tiger? 4) I accomplished my business and returned the day after. 5) Next door to us there was a public-house which was a great
"

!3

CHAPTER
ENGLISH
244.
/~*

XVIII IDIOM

If a foreigner endeavoured to IDIOM" \J learn English solely by the study of a grammar he and a dictionary, might, with perseverance, arrive at a very fair knowledge of our grammar and vocabulary; and yet, if
he attempted to translate a passage from his own language into English, or to write a piece of English composition, the result would not be English in the true sense of the word. His failure would be due, in the main, to an ignorance of the Use of English words and phrases ; and this ignorance is shared, to a greater or less extent, by many of us who use the language

ENERAL

day by day. Every language has itsown particular mode of expression its Idiom based on a mode of thought peculiar to the people who speak it. Thus where English says of a person that he is right
"

"

or

wrong, French and German say he has rightor wrong. Compare also the greetings: English : How do you do ? French : Comment how do vous portez-vous? (literally, you carry yourself?) German : Wie geht's? (literally, it?) how goes
"

The term Idiom is,however, more IDIOM" to denote any form of sense commonly used in a restricted expression,fixed in the language by custom, which contains some irregularity grammar or interpretation. of The meaning of an idiomatic expression of this nature is

245. SPECIAL

peculiar to itself, and cannot generally be deduced from that of its elements; the idiom is in fact like a new word. Thus in the sentence : " They rushed at each other " (objective)
grammar strict
tit

would require:

"

They

rushed each

(nominative)

ENGLISH
at

IDIOM

167

but few people would think of using the other" (objective); the second sentence in preference to the first. Again in the sentence : " When are you going to have dinner? '
no a

idea of going isimplied : the words

somewhat So also emphatic future.
some

are

you going merely indicate

of our phrases are inconsistent thus we say ; ; Rome," but not "the river of Tiber." "the city of Much pedantic criticism English is due to the fact that the of nature of such idioms is misunderstood. These irregularand

often curious forms

be avoided or they be considered as the ; rather must accounted erroneous very heart and soul of the language. Their use serves to give a natural fluency and vigour to style which, without their aid, formal, and dreary. becomes stilted, It is largelyowing to ignorance or avoidance of idioms that the
of expression
are

not

to

beginner'stranslation from
so

or

into

foreign language is

(even

though correct) flat and colourless. We shall divide idioms into the following classes:
"

General idioms regular phrases proper (1) Special idioms : (2) Grammatically irregular. (a) Illogicalr inconsistent. o (b) Elliptical. (c) Idioms borrowed from foreignsources. (3) Obsolete idioms. (4)
"

to the

language.

"

246. GENERAL

phrases whose

Many, perhaps most, of those IDIOM" ponent meaning is not the equivalent of their com"

: parts originated language, which, passing through transitional A. In figurative stages,lostalltrace of itsliteral origin.

B. In proverbial semi-proverbialxpressions. or e A. Originally figurative. It is somewhat difficulto draw t

hard and fast line between idioms and such words and phrases use as show merely a figurative these,see of a certainword [for " ; we shallregard as idioms such expressions as are so far

origin that removed from their literal

269]

careful investigationis

168

HIGHER

ENGLISH

translated needed to discover that origin. These phrases, if literally into a foreign language, would make nonsense, unless it happened that the foreign language had the same idiom.

Verbs and Prepositions in all languages seem freely idiomaticuse than the other parts to lend themselves more to of speech. Many of the uses of Prepositionsgiven in " 1 60 are far removed from their originalsignification be to sufficiently
The
commoner

thus regarded. The following are

few examples
:
"

of constructions in which

Verbs

are

idiomatically employed

To make a thing good, to make one of a party, to make up a quarrel, to make up one's mind, to make room for, to make use of, to make believe, to make haste. to (2)Get. To get up, to get to the end of a journey, be getting late, to get ready, to get into trouble, to get a coat mended, to get on well with, to get rid of, to get over illness, an to the way. get out of (3)Take. To take a walk, to take a seat, to take to one's work, to take place, to take after a person, to take to flight, to take part in, to take anyone for a clever person. (4)Give. To give way, to give in, to give out, to give to one's touch, to give chase to a person, give and take. Miscellaneous : (5) To stand to reason, to fall in love, to carry out, to bring about, to set about, to pay a visit,to be in want of, to put up with.
"

(1)Make.

The following are examples of other idiomatic expressions:

"

A matter of course, out of sorts, behind-hand, I dare say, let me see, now and then, the fire has gone out, in short, by the way, for good, well and good, by all means, that will do, on all fours, at any rate, in the long run, titfor tat,
at sixes and
sevens.

actual truths enunciated in a certain particular proverbs general form, which has found favour with the nation, and has thus been incorporated in the language. Thus we speak of " " burning the candle at both ends of a person is working who " or amusing himself night and day ; or again of carrying coals to Newcastle," when we mean doing something which is But in addition to these unnecessary. proverbial expressions, there are many phrases of similarorigin which have become so intricately mingled with the language of everyday life,that they have lost all trace of their proverbial origin and nature:
"

B. Semi-proverbial.

Many

of

our

expressions

are

ENGLISH

IDIOM

169

t their origin, indeed, is sometimes very difficulto discover. Such seem to deserve a place among the idioms of the language. Examples : to have a fingerin the pie,a cock-and-bull story,a to nest, to reckon without one's prettykettleof fish, find a mare's to host,to be driven from pillar post, to run the gauntlet,to call over the coals,to heap coals of fireon any one's head, under the to play ducks and drakes with one's fortune. rose, to eat humble pie,

247. GRAMMATICAL

IRREGULARITIES"

remembered that the. rules of grammar are language, and not the language from grammar
are

It must be derived from the

("18). There
"

ever exceptions to most rules ; and no grammatical scheme, howhope to include all examples, there are, and can skilful, must be, exceptional words and phrases,which conform to no rule. Many of these have already been discussed in the course
cases

of this book ; in such Examples :

"

reference to paragraph willbe given.

shines bright. This isan example of an Adjective in There is a curious inconsistency such (" used adverbially 136). " he spoke loud" but not, " he spoke say constructions. We meaning pleasant" "He looks well" has an entirelydifferent
The (1)
moon

from "he

looks good" ; and

we

have well-builtnd well-nurtured a

sideby side with good-lookingand good-natured. The then queen. Here an Adverb is used (2)
converse

the adjectivally
"

of

thisuse of met but ithas but of the best speakers. not only of good writers, the authority, You are mistaken. This curious phrase isfar more common (4) than the regular formation "you mistook it." It is probably formed in analogy with "you are right,wrong." (5)These sort of things. This oft-used phrase is an instance because of the generalplural pluralised ofattraction the Adjective idea conveyed. Though ithas the authority of some of our great it writers, is perhaps best avoided.
"

(3)It isme

("143). to ("204).Many object

(6)The

that gem cityof Rome, an angel ofa girl, In such phrases the employed ofis peculiarly

ing. of a buildas a

sign of

" apposition. (See 82). ^7)He is coming to-morrow.

The present tense

was

regularly

170

HIGHER

ENGLISH

s used in Old English for future events, and this use stillurvives in certain instances. If The words are as follows. as is a Relative Pronoun the (8) be B Verb should strictly follow, follows.ut itmay be that the not follows (shows). statement phrase is ellipticalas (the which) Is (9) Warwick friendsith Margaret ? Friends is probably w
=

singular: a remnant of the old adverbial pluralbut possessive have in the word needs and use of the possessive which we still in the phrase "it is early days to speak about it." In the Prayeror book we find " anyways afflicted distressed." A similarmeaning
not

late. with the Prepositionofis found in of old,of I (10) had rather. This phrase, which has nothing to do with It may be a corruption of past time, is found only in thistense.

Pd rather I would rather; or more probably had is subjunctive would have. Shakspeare has a corresponding construction with " She were betterlove a dream." the Verb be :
=

(n) Lesser ("140). Introductoryuse of there,now, (12) ^^(""150, 167). Than with the Objective ("167). (13)
It is INCONSISTENT PHRASES" important that our minds should be trained to argue logically, and, as far as possible,ach word we use should serve to develop e our Nevertheless,there are certainwords and phrases meaning. well establishedin our language, which, if analysed into their component parts are, or appear at first sight to be, selfcontradictory or inconsistent. No doubt many of these were formed owing to carelessnessin the use of words ; but originally form part of the standard language. they now
Examples of illogical idioms : (1)There are many pictureshere. If there and here were taken in their literal sense in the sentence of in that place, thisplace, would be absurd.
A.
"

248. ILLOGICAL

OR

both alike. Two likethings cannot be anything else but both alike; one cannot be likeand the other unlike. Both isreallyredundant. (3)They willnot do more than they can help. We mean by
are

(2)They

ENGLISH

IDIOM

171

thisthat there is a certainamount which they cannot help doing : more than thisthey will not do. So that logically the sentence " They willnot do more than they cannot help." ought to be : Ever so many people were (4) present. If expanded, this " sentence, as No. 3, implies a negative omitted : (There
never

were)

there are many people present (as (5)No less a person than the Prime
so
"

now)."
Minister
was

there.

Literallyhis sentence should mean t that there was no one there under the rank of the Prime Minister that all were as important important than he ; whereas the sentence reallyhas no as or more reference to any of the others present, but states emphaticallythat actuallythat important person, the Prime Minister,was there.
of them," many of them," we refer to a number picked out from the rest, ofbeing used in a Partitivesense; but we cannot thus talk of pickingout all or both from the rest. It may be that these phrases
we

All (6) of them, both of them.

When

"

say

some

"

have

come
"

of them

intouse through analogy with " some of them," " many ; or perhaps ofshould be regarded as the sign of apposition
less and
less. To

grow is to become literally taken, self-contradictory. greater; hence the sentence is, (8)I hoped to have seen you. What was hoped was not to have
seen

[" (6)]. 247 His income grew (7)

(Perf. but to see (Pres. which Inf.), Inf.),

is thereforethe

more

however, at leastas much logical construction ; the former is, as the latter.

used

(9)Go

and do this; try and do this. The

former is logical

because going and doing may be regarded as separate actions ; do represent one and the same but try and fore action,and itis therelogicalto say : Try to do this. more
now J (TO) ust

means

"

very short time ago," and not literally

at this very moment

in a short the contrary, in modern usage, means " " now at thismoment time (later) not ; so by and by, which and " latertime. now once at once," meant refers to a still (n) Sooner or later. There seems no reason why sooner
', Presently

on

for or should be comparative,unlessthe phrase iselliptical "sooner " later logical. more than is expected : soon or later would seem

172

HIGHER
tin box,
an

ENGLISH

iron copper Worcester china, ten days' ; beef quarantine, a weekly journal, tea. In these apparently selfcontradictoryphrases, the originalmeaning of the Nouns box, etc., has been lost, and a more general or a different copper, In salt-cellar, "cellar" is from meaning attached to them.

(12)A

so French saliere saltbox), that this curious formation really ( " means saltsalt-box." Examples of Inconsistencies :
=
"

(1)We
when ill.
we

say

say :

do you do 1 but not, how does he do 1 And how is he doing ? we imply that he is or has been How

(2)Out of temperand
The former
a

in
"

temperhave much the

a

same

meaning.

means

out of

good temper

"

" ; the latter in

bad temper." We use the present May (3) Might he livelong / Many (4)
a man, a
"

he live long! but not the past

men.

great many
"

from

many

almost a being omitted before men,

=

one (times) man noun ( number)

former phrase is ; in the lattermany has become qualifiedby an great,

The

adjective
men.

of

(5)We

say : I
we

am

thousand just to go or / have to go, I was

as
a

in

to go

or

/ had to

go; but while

say I shall have to go, we cannot to go ; and although we use / was to have gone, we to have gone.

say I shall be use I had never

249. ELLIPTICAL
most

IDIOMS"

Many

appear quite simple when curious, Examples : He was (1) wasting his time as usual. This, expanded, is as (relative) was equivalentto usual for him. This is useless as a tonic, means thisis uselessin the way (2)
"

phrases at firstsight expanded.

...

that a tonicwould be useful. So (3)Thank you 1 thank you (Pres. Indie.). also: Pray be seated I pray you, be seated.
= =

Please come at once. Originally, itplease(Subjunc.)^ (4) if come Now we probably regard Please as (Imperative). (Dat.) an adverbialphrase (-= indly). Similarlyifyou like was origink ally

impersonal, as in the Bible: "Write, if it like you, in the

ENGLISH

IDIOM

173

" to seems The form : " Please to come King's name." at once be based on the mistaken idea that come is Infinitive. I (5) b*S to inform you. This formal mode of address, used for letters, s an ellipsis " I beg (ask) i in official your permission

to

."

Be : pressi (6) industrious thafs a good boy. In this colloquialexis loosely used for the general idea conthe word that tained " " Be industrious ; thus the meaning is: in the sentence
"

associate with. There is no word governed by the Prep. with-, the sentence may be expanded " he had no one with whom to associate." This expansion as : isratherbetterEnglish than the original, which ends with a weak
no one

a boy (for) who (7) He had

is industriousis a good boy."

to

("222, note 2). is Our friendsleft morning. Left used absolutely, the this (8) objectthisplace being omitted. This, thatand what not ; a contractionfor whatever there (9) this may be which is not included (under and that)." (10)What trade are you? We may regard of as omitted
word
"
"

"

before what trade ;

or

we

may consider what

trade

as

Adverbial

(" Objective78).
Most English idioms have formed IDIOMS" few, however, are ; part of the language for many centuries some in fact, of idioms in other borrowings translations, modem imported words have gradually become languages. Just some as
250. FOREIGN
"

w naturalised,hile others

are

so and purposes (" 260), : followingmay be regarded as fairly well established That is to say. French : c'est a dire. (1) That goes without saying. French : cela va sans (2)
"

feltto be foreign to allintents still is it with translated idioms. The

dire.

He the (3) affectedlatestfashion. French : affecter. German : Standpunkt. A (4) new standpoint. (5)How is thaty^ a joke? German : Was fur ein
.

(6)As forhis friend.

Whereas

(1)The subject The window gives upon the (2)

quanta followingstillound foreign to our the s came upon the carpet. French
.

French:

.?

ears
: sur :

:
"

le tapis.

street.

French

donne

174
251. OBSOLETE

HIGHER

ENGLISH

IDIOMS" Idiomatic constructions have changed with the development of the language; and such likely to occur more before the lyth much changes were of printed century, after which period the widespread use language permanent. books served to render the Consequently find in Elizabethan English many constructions which are we
now

obsolete, or of which only traces remain. Examples : ought (1)I hadn't ought to do it. Originally
"

was a

past tense

o and past participlef owe,

was once

so

that this sentence,

now

vulgarism,

correct.

"

behaviour. An old idiom, now a vulgaralong o/his ism, " found in Shakspeare : All along of the accursed gold " ; All this is 'long of you."
All (2)

his (3)Nor delayed the winged saint after An (Milton). imitationof the Latin use of the

charge received
n participle,ot

accepted in modern English. (4)What went ye out for to see? This construction, which in the Middle Ages in imitation of the French, is arose
now
a

vulgarism. You that presumed, me overthrown^ to enter lists*ith (5) heaven. This imitation of the Latin Ablative Absolute, or Old English Dative Absolute, has not survived; modern idiom prefers the nominative. (6)He plucked me ope his doublet. Me is a dative of advantage a Latin imitation.
"

of the evil: //pitiedthem to see her in the dust. The impersonal use of many verbs with the dative or of objective the person, doubtless in imitation of the Latin, has fallen into disuse; the only survivalis the old-fashioned

him (7)// repented

methinks

it seems

to

me).
ON

EXERCISES
1.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

and

What is meant by an Idiom ? Mention two or three English idioms try to explain them. (M) 2. Explain, as far as possible,what is idiomatic or peculiar in the following sentences : (1)He is the right man in the right place. (2)Has any one got his wrong hat ?
"

ENGLISH
3) The

IDIOM

175

provisions ran short. He is a well-read man. 4) 5) As a statesman he is perfect. The fox dies hard. After paying all expenses I have sixpence to the good. kindly to your father. Remember me He took no end of trouble over the matter, (ib)Since that time the doctrine has obtained throughout Europe. They are said to be well-off. 1 1) 12)His faithful dog shall bear him company. 13) His prophecy came true. (14)He received a Roland for his Oliver. All of a sudden he started up. 15 It is not worth troubling about. 16 They rendered firstaid and he soon came to. (17 What if you lost the case ? 18 (19 I have a rod in pickle for him. (20 That is decidedly a feather in his cap. (21 He paid down on the nail. (22 What you say is neither here nor there. 23 Oddly enough, I have not seen him since. 24 He is a man who does nothing by halves. 25) He stood by his friend through thick and thin. 3. Explain hi what respect the following sentences are contrary to English idiom, or otherwise faulty, and correct them : is quite different to yours. His manner (1) They feel very flattered by your remark. (2) It bears some remote analogy with what I have done. Have you change of half-a-crown, please ? He is feeble as to his mind. Don't blame it on to me ! They exchanged confidences among one another. He took great exception against my plan. They prefer taking a walk than sitting indoors. Will you accept of this piece of honeysuckle ? He is said to 11 enjoyvery bad health. hurt in the accident. A couple of ladies were 12) English 4. Express the following sentences according to modern idiom : He shall refrain the spiritof princes. Spare thou them that confess their faults. It repented Him of the evil. Learn me true understanding and knowledge. He is like to die for hunger. She did eat and was sufficed. Judah was put to the worse before Israel. He (8) halted upon his thigh. (o)The lions brake all their bones or ever they came (9 at the bottom of the den. (10)We are such stuff as dreams are made on. (n) You ought not walk without the sign of your profession. (12)Take no thought for the morrow.
"

"

176

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

5. Without assuming any incorrectness, discuss the following idioms, with special reference to the words italicised: o (1)His constancy as a defenderf the truth was unalterable. (2)No less a person than the Archbishop was present. They saw each other frequently. (3) (4)We gazed upon that gem ofa building, the Taj Mahal. (5)He had no boy of his own age to play with. (6)These growing feathers plucked from Caesar's wing will make him fly an ordinary pitch. The reasons that dissuade us are as follow. That goes without saying. to minister justice. Truly and indifferently They were elected upon the same platform.
The He The The window gives upon the street. reached the goal of his ambition without letor hindrance affaircame upon the carpet. of (M) solidarity their interests is undeniable.

CHAPTER
THE
252. TN

XIX

USES

OF

WORDS

addition to a misuse of the idiom of the language, there is a certain class of faults to which we are familiarity reluctant, it may be"with liable,owing partly to our the worst expositions of English conversation and composition in the and partly to carelessness or lack of judgment

JL

"

this chapter we shall endeavour to manner the use of some examine in a critical jof our words, and to select what is good and weed out what is bad in the The claim of words to find a language of the present day. place in standard English may be decided by a consideration
use

of

our

words.

In

: of the following subjects

"

(1)Idiom. (2)Appropriate words. (3)Distinctionbetween words of similarform. (4)Use of the same word with different meanings,
different words in reference (5)Slang and vulgarisms. (6)Colloquialisms.
to

or

of

the

same

object

(7)Provincialisms. (8)Obsolete words. (9)New words. Foreign words. (10) (n) Pleonasm and RedundancyOver-brevity and Verbosity. (12) Simplicityand Affectation. (13)
253. APPROPRIATE

WORDS"

when we wish to express a from which to choose. Sometimes

It frequently happens that certain idea, several words occur to us

only
one

of the words

con-

178

HIGHER

ENGLISH

to sidered is at allsuitable the accompanying words ; sometimes, one of them is the best for our although several may be suitable, tion purpose. Often, also, through ignorance of the exact significawe apply a word wrongly. of a word or through carelessness, Thus, in speaking of a piece of written composition, we should if say that itis illegible^ we cannot make out the handwriting ;

and unreadable^ if we to be read. not fit

consider its subject or method

of treatment

Again, we may speak of the discovery of America and the inventionof the firstwatch ; but not vice versa. The following are examples of such misuse of words : Marlborough was a notorious general (for famous}. They sell new milk (for fresh), He parts his hair in the centre (for middle}. His death was despaired of (for life}. For further remarks on this important see subject under Synonyms ("
"

265).
OF

254. WORDS
are

SIMILAR

FORM"

Frequent

mistakes

made owing to the confusion of certain similar words, such lay ; overflown and overflowed ; deficientand defective as lie and ; sensuous and sensual ; presumptive and presumptuous \ invaluable and valueless. The following are examples of faults of this nature :
"

I saw the Frenchman lay (for lie). His character is (for unexceptional unexceptionable). This is a continual process (for continuous). The sanatory condition of the village is bad (for sanitary). He was much by the sight (for

effected
on our

affected).

guard against using a word in a certain sense and then shortly after using it in an entirely different sense ; such use often leads to ambiguity of meaning, to total misconception. Thus, such senand sometimes even tences as the following should be carefullyavoided :
must
"

255. We

be

A volume

of water treatiseor The

published relatingto the variation the volume of at different temperatures (forthe first volume say

was

book).
to story was subject fits insanity. of taw, and a law is made for the good of the

of subjectour

is Gravitation a

THE

USES

OF

WORDS

179

is people; therefore gravitation made for the good of the people. law means absurdityhere is due to the fact that the first [The
an

though establishedfact in nature ; the second an arbitrary, convenient,custom.] It may be noted that such constructionsare occasionallypermissibl for the sake of humour : e.g." That lieshalllieso heavy on my sword." A similar fault arises if the same pronoun is repeated twice with reference,not to the
: objects Mr Jones was
"

same,

but to different

that he would do his best to help him. He brought his dog into the room ; where the cat was sitting it rushed at it but it escaped.
sure converse

is equally true, that when a word has been employed to represent a certain idea,it should not be changed, ifthereby itislikely appear that a new idea is meant : e.g. to The cubical content of the largerbox is three times the volume The
content volume say cubical of the smaller (for
or

that).

VULGARISMS consist of words and disreputablein themselves or are used are either phrases which in a connection in which they are considered disreputable many ; All slang should be carefully are ungrammatical. of them avoided both in conversation and in composition; it is a sign of an
AND

256. SLANG

unrefined or carelessmind. The following are examples of slang words : kid, ain't, bloke, bounder, governor (meaningather)^ (meaningonsense)^ rot f n
awfully ripping (meaning splendid), The following are slang phrases :
"

(meaningery). v

beastly rich, this here book, it don't, he didn't ought to, douse the balmy ( somewhat mad),to get the' sack. glim (=put out the light), doubt exists as to whether a word is reputable, a standard When any dictionary should be consulted : slang finds no place therein.
=

The such

English student should also beware of Americanisms

"

as :

boss, elegant guess

so

(inthe was once (this

sense

of

correct

I calculate pleasant}, English).

that it is true, I

180
NOTE.
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Slang usually comes up in a language, lasts a generation or then vanishes, giving place to new so, and slang ; if it keeps its place for a longer period, it generally becomes correct English. in the language a slang word. once Thus mob was

phrases used freelyin conversation which are not exactly to be classed as slang, for they are not b disreputable,ut which neverthelessare not appropriate to any

Colloquialisms are words

or

serious form of composition. They may sometimes appear in in when that and particularly written dialogue (e.g. a novel), dialogue is humorous, but should be avoided in higher forms of in especially an essay. writing, Such are :
"

to be struck all of a heap, to be at a loose end, to end in smoke, to have a good time, to give the show away, to give the lieto, to give the slip = to, to take on a job, good-for-nothing fellow, a good sort ( a pleasant a

person).
Even such contractions as : don't,shan't,won't, can't, are better in avoided in composition though satisfactory conversation. It is

difficult sometimes to draw

colloquialisms.

hard and fastlinebetween slang and

words or expressions used only in a certainpart of the country. Some of these are quite correct in themselves indeed they are often descended from Old English but since they are not in use all over the country and are not generallyaccepted,they cannot claim a place in standard English,
are
"

257. PROVINCIALISMS

"

and should therefore be avoided. Of course, some works (as are those of Scott or Burns) professedly written in a certain dialect, they are considered and then such words (unless
are

slang)

perfectlyappropriate.
are

of Provincialisms (for foolish), (= that). yon

Examples

ourn

her fond (for ours), (for she),

258. OBSOLETE the language but have

WORDS
now

are

such

as
use

were

once are

current

in

regarded as find a place of relics the past. Many old words too, which still in poetry,are not used in ordinary composition : they are generally known as archaic.
and

gone out of

THE
Examples
=

USES
and
=
,

OF

WORDS
,

181
,

= hight ( is called), words are: = = alack ! ( alas!) caitiff( prisoner) ( betray) yclept ( called) = = = ( idler), nill runagate ( with difficulty), uneath yare ( ready), = = = moe wot (= more), sooth ( truth), ( know), (=will ruth ( pity), not), = leasing (=lying), trow ( think), ween (=hope,think),ke ( also), e See jangled (=confused). also " 408 (2).

of Obsolete bewray
,

Archaic

259. COINING

OF

NEW

WORDS"

New

words

are

from

ideas for which no words time to time necessary to express new ; exist and such, ifgenerallyaccepted,become part of the language

" (see 15).

words should not be coined where an appropriate word alreadyexists. Thus it would be absurd to endeavour to for er distance-speakertelephone, air-farfor aeronaut, substitute for folk-wain omnibus ; even though the former words are more
But
new

purely English in origin than the latter. So, again, we must not form words on the analogy of other word-formations. Thus on we the analogy of such words as changeable,moveable, suitable, \ but /allowable it so might be tempted to coin doable, stopable, happens that these words are not accepted as English words. Before using any doubtfulformation itis well to make sure that itfindsa place in a standard dictionary.

words should not be unnecessarilycoined, so foreignwords should not be used unless they represent a new idea or one for which there is no adequate to expressionin English. It is a mark of affectation employ a foreign word where an equally expressive English one exists.
260. FOREIGN

WORDS"

as Just

new

Why

say terra firma when dry land suitsequally well? Thus itis betterto avoid such words and phrases as
=

:
"

= conge ( dismissal), revoir,auf Wiedersehen ( farewell), nettoyage elite ( waiter), ( cleaning), chef-d'oeuvre ( masterpiece), gar9on ( best society), cafe-au-lait ( coffee with milk), cognac (=brandy), = nouveau-riche ( newly become rich).

au

On the other hand, we have probably no words which exactly : represent the following, which are thereforepermissible
"

(= close conversation between two persons), ( pretty chic ( a thing without which it cannot be and fashionable), sine-qua-non done),blase ( wearied and partly worn prestige ( esteem in out), is held a nation which abroad).
tete-a-tete
= =

182

HIGHER

ENGLISH
foreign words, whethei language that they our part of it. It would be impossible

Further, it should be noted that many needed or not, have become so fixed in
are
"

for allpractical purposes

"

grants: and indeed undesirable to oust such old establishedimmito stay. Under this heading we may they have come tions place certainLatin and Greek words and phrases and abbreviasuch
some

as :
"

analysis, criterion, crux, French words such as

i.e.,e.g., viz., etc., alibi, a menu, precis, trait, debut.

priori; and

Both these terms REDUNDANCY" mean the insertionof superfluous words in the same practically a sentence. Unless used for the sake of emphasis(" such 223) repetition should be avoided. The shortestway of saying a thing in isalways the best. at least, prose
261. PLEONASM

AND

"

"

"

In the following examples the pleonasticwords

or

phrases

are

italicised :
"

The boy he would not go without his father's word. have you climbed up Many a time and oft He never doubted but that you would come. Bisect the given line into two equal parts. She had a dreadful temper and which often led her astray.
...

has been called "the soul of wit"; and it is certain that if an idea is expressed in a few words, it is much likely make a deep impression than if expressed more more to clumsily. To this fact is due the popularity of many of our
262. BREVITY

proverbs: e.g.
More Penny

haste,less speed.

The
common

wise, pound foolish. in A stitch time saves nine. Like father,likeson. to opposite characteristic brevityis verbosity. fault in the composition of beginners. Many
sentences
are

This is a
words
or

and employed where a few would suffice, thus a tedious and laboured effect is produced ; the words are Moreover, as the minds of such many, but the ideas are few. beginners, especially if they are youthful, are not sufficiently trained to grasp an idea in its entirety, seizing on the salient
many

THE

USES

OF

WORDS

183

it details, frequently happens that a mere points and rejecting thing is repeated over and over again, with perhaps an extra

here and there. It should be the aim of every student to condense his knowledge, to siftit carefullyfrom the dross of mere words, and to say exactly what he has to say in the Even from the extersest, and most emphatic manner. clearest, aminati

detail added

point of view, where the student has to work against time, brevityis of the highest importance. On the other hand, itmust be noted that over-brevity tends to Ellipsis obscurity. For instances of this fault,see Illegitimate

("" 225, 227).

words in hand. be chosen as far as possibleto suitthe should subject If we are treatingof or poetical nature, an of abstruse subjects long and uncommon both necessary and appropriate. are words But ifwe are dealingwith simple treated in a practical
"

263. SIMPLICITY

AND

AFFECTATION

Our

subjects,

the simplest words the best. This does not, of imply that we must continually hunt up the simplest course, possible word we could use ; but rather that we should not do hunt up a difficult Where a simple word exone. the reverse presses
manner, are
"

meaning as fullyand should be preferred. The use of difficult uncommon or

our

as

clearlyas

difficult one, it

words where unsuitable is like the employment of foreignwords unnecessarily a mark of the person who uses them does not affectation. In many cases completely understand their meaning. Thus it is appropriate to speak of the erudition of a great
"
"

scholar, but the knowledge of a school-boy; the altitudeof a mountain, but the height of a house ; the rotundity of the earth, but the roundness of an orange : though even in these cases the choice of word will depend upon the method in which we are the whole subject. treating is an So also,for simplicity, affirmative generally better than " " is honest rather than " This man two negatives: e.g. This man is not dishonest " ; unless, as in certain cases, a slightdifference
in meaning

is intended.

184

HIGHER

ENGLISH

It is ridiculous to say (unless humorously) caudal appenda^ for mean we tail; or domiciliary edifice house; a canint. when day for art natal day for birthspecimen a dog] piscatorial forfishing;
for culinary department kitchen. And, except in poetry, such phrases as the followingare
;

for ; a unlawfulppropriation stealing

"

unacceptable:

the land the god of war the eye of heaven (= the sun), (= Mars), = Isle ( Ireland). Sun the Midnight (= Norway), the Emerald of Affectation in the use of long and high-sounding aggerat words and in exfrom " Euphues," is often called Euphuism, comparisons in a book written by Lyly (1579) this style.

EXERCISES
any common in illustration: sentences divine. jolly,
"

ON misuse

CHAPTER

XIX.

1.

Explain

of the following words and write artist, transpire, stop, nice, female, lot,

2. Comment in the following passage and rewrite on any errors it in standard English : One day he come up to the office,all in a hurry, and had a private interview with the magistrate, who after a great deal of talk, rings the bell, and orders Jem Spyers in (Jem was a active and officer), tellshim to go and assist Mr Chickweed in apprehending as the man robbed " " his house. I see him, Spyers," said Chickweed, house pass my " Why didn't you up and collar him ? yesterday morning." says " I was so struck all of a heap, that you might have fractured Spyers. my skull with a toothpick," says the poor man. 3. In the following sentences point out any inappropriate words for them : and substitute suitable ones bought a quantity of books. (1)I have just (2)We have constantly seen him do that trick. (3)The man claimed that he had done the work well. (4)His exodus from the building was hasty and undignified. (5)I expect it was as you say. (6)We possess an abbreviated edition of that book. (7)There were fifty clergy in the procession. (8)Can I trouble you for your pen ? (9)They unanimously deliberated upon the matter for an hour. (10)Democracy stood prostrate at the tyrant's foot. I do not think he was intentionally irreverend. (n) (12)He comes of the older branch of the family. (13)This is the most splendid sight I have ever witnessed. (14)He gave up his post and was replaced by his younger brother. (15)The master learnt him French and German. is (16)I doubt his love of the subject very great. (17)I am sorry to decline your invite. (18)A mutual silence took place for some time. (19)His extravagance eventuated in the loss of all his property. is (20)His acquaintanceship with the subject strictly limited.
"
"

THE

USES

OF

WORDS
"

185

to 4. State in what respects the following sentences do not conform : English and correct them standard modern c (1)This is along of your being so jollylever. (2)I guess he acts very much like James acted. (3)They left their books home this morning. (4)His modus operandi was to borrow a hat from one of the

audience.

(5)There are a lot of unfamiliar words on this page. (6)Bring them books down from the shelf ! (7)The concert went off with great eclat. (8)You can't get a rise out of me like that. (9)Many mickles make a muckle. does. is as handsome 10) Handsome That is how the jeunesseoree spend their time. d n) 12) Haply some hoary-headed swain will say 13) It is real good of you to help me. (14)Come away in quickly 1 (15)I never could mind dates. (16)He is generally reckoned to be a very nice fellow. (17)It has been motioned and carried that we proceed
. . .

with the

present business. They bus or tube it to business every morning. now getatable. 19) My money is not just I must say that he made the amende honorable. 20) Examine the following sentences for faults due to Redundancy, 5. for Over-brevity, or Affectation, and correct them, giving reasons

ii8)
:
"

your

answers

(1)I may do that" I shall be sorry for. More haste less speed " is too true, as is (2)The proverb cases. often found in many I am to you. not surprised at his not being unknown (3) (4)His speech was frank and courageous as is everything he in the says, and which will please every honest man
country. Fortune forbid my outside have not charmed her. (5) This is the palatial residence of those who toil not neither (6) do they spin. He alone has the sole right to inflictpunishment. (7) a (8)He enjoyed life of peace and a natural death. Conceal me what I am, (9) and be my aid. He took an early matutinal walk just (10) after sunrise, (n) The sly slow hours shall not determinate The dateless limit of thy dear exile. His pecuniary deficiency brought him into conflict with (12) the majesty the law. of to his repeated deviations from the principles of Owing (13) truth, he received his conge. The reason doubt, because of the no (14) of this disaster was, inefficiency of the officers. (15)In candent ire the solar splendour flames. (16)The final completion of the building will be done to-morrow. (17)I must firsthear the conditions before I accept the post. (18)It is rather coldish this morning.

186

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

6. Comment on any errors of expression in the following : This was by Macbeth in one (i) said of his soliloquies to his wife, (a)One should always give an action a moment's thought before putting it into execution and so saving a great deal of when one of these eruptions grand sight. that could be identified as worn (4)A suit of armour at the battle of Agincourt be priceless, and certainly would ought to be deposited at the Tower. " The meaning Look before you leap," is (5) of the phrase, that before attempting to do anything to think over the best way, and then to give those thoughts practical experience. (6)Although everyone has heard this maxim, we still find that not ninety-nine in a hundred practise it. Compared the (7) with the continents of Asia and America mountains of Europe are rather low. has no Night's Dream (8)As White remarks, the Midsummer prototype in ancient or modern story. (9)In a word he apes the worst behaviour of the mule. No one yields (10)I am sorry not to subscribe to your cause. to me in appreciation of its importance, (n) Where there are plenty of boys, there is plenty of fun. Such a statement is diametrically untrue. 13) I consider that his opinion should be wholly discounted. 14) Shakspeare frequently has passages in a strain quite false and which are entirely unworthy (M) of him. on 7. Comment any peculiarity hi the construction or style of the following : (1)Mr S. made a good speech for him, comparatively speaking. (2)He managed his friend's estate like his father did. (3)An aftermath of the war seemed to glow before the assembly all the evening. (4)Which way I fly is hell : myself am hell. Him listed ease his battle-steed. (5) 'Tis sweet to rove when morning light Resounds across the deep.
a

(3)If it were

unpleasantness. possible to get near take place, we should have

512)
"

CHAPTER
THE
264. TN

XX

MEANING

AND

STRUCTURE

OF

WORDS

JL

the last chapter we were chieflyconcerned with the use of words and their claim to a place in our composition To some extent it was necessary to examine their

meanings also,since use and meaning frequentlycorrespond with one another. The purpose of the present chapter is the considerat in greater detail, the meaning of words, and of the of bearing of structure upon theirmeaning.
: shallhere deal with the followingsubjects Synonyms (1) words of similar or and Antonyms
"
"

We

opposite

meanings. Doublets (2)

"

Homonyms (3) Change of meaning. (4) Structure of words. (5)

"

words of likeorigin. i words identicaln form.

words which have the same, or nearly are the same, meaning as one another. Few words if any exactlyequivalent: some either in meaning or slightdifference, can use, generally be discovered. A careful writerwill select the one word that he needs in preference to all the others. Examples :
265. SYNONYMS
are
"
"

"

Custom

Habit

use, (i)Custom, habit, fashion, routine. the repetition of an act, generally by a number of people, for " definite reason It is the custom in England : e.g. to some drive on the left-hand side."t involving a tendency, original or acquired, generally of an individual : e.g. " He has the habit taking

objectionable

ofj

snuff." " Fashion : La small or transitory matters, such as dress : e.g. The i fashionn hats changes from year to year." " dealing with a thing in a certain manner Use : : e.g. The use of long and uncommon words is a mark of affectation."

188
Routine
:

HIGHER
doing

ENGLISH

Ask:

Request Beg:

" things in regular order : e.g. The routine the same of office- ork is distasteful to him." w pray. (2)Ask, request, beg, entreat, beseech, implore, the desire of obtaining may what reasonably be with " expected : e.g. He asked for a week's holiday." " Mr formal : e.g. more Jones requests the pleasure of

Entreat

company." appealing to the pity or sentiment of a person, usually a " superior ; or for politeness' sake, to an equal : e.g. He " I begged his master to overlook the offence this once." beg your pardon." " with special earnestness or repeatedly : e.g. He entreated
your
not to leave him alone.' " We : e.g. humility and reverence with is nearly Lord." hear us, good [Beseech

them

Beseech

beseech thee

to

Implore
Pray
:

with

passionate utterance,
on

imploredhim
chiefly to servants."

God:

perhaps with tears : her knees to forgive her son." therefore pray Thee e.g. "We

obsolete.]
"

e.g.

She

help Thy

Proud:

Haughty
Vain
:

Conceited

Truth Truism

Veracity

(3)Proud, haughty, vain, conceited. has done or of feeling exalted because of something one " He is proud of his is connected : e.g. one with what " they are proud of their clever son." success ; " His ostentatiously showing superiority : e.g. supposed is haughty and overbearing." manner of speaking of something which really exists, generally personal, but for or unsuitable which is an insufficient subject pride : e.g. " looks." He is vain of his good assuming the possession of qualities which do not exist " He is conceited or exist only in a minor degree : e.g. enough to suppose that he is the finest singer in England." (4)Truth, truism, veracity. " The truth of your or fact : e.g. correctness of statement is incontestable." remarks " : e,g. that a self-evidenttruth, an axiom a circleis round " the sun shines are that truisms. and the power or quality of a person to tell the truth : e.g. " The veracity of the witnesses was questionable."
" " "

(S)Suffer, allow. permit,

Suffer : Permit
:

to refrain from hindering, " it Suffer to be so now."

even

though

it be distasteful: e.g.

to give express consent : e.g. " He permitted his son to go there." Allow : to remain neutral, to refrain from consenting or prohibiting : " e.g. He allowed the enemy to pass through the land." NOTE." It requires a considerable knowledge of English as well as a careful and accurate mind to explain the shades of difference in the The student will find it excellent meaning and use of Synonyms. to attempt to discover and express such differences ; where practice he finds, after due consideration, that he is unable to do this successfully, he should consult a dictionary. By such practice his actual vocabulary will be considerably extended, and his language will gain both in in versatility. precision and

MEANING

OF

WORDS

189

Pairs of Synonyms. We find many pairs of Synonyms in English ; this is due, in many cases, to the twofold origin of language Teutonic and Romanic (Chapter After the our i.).
"

words, corresponding to English words already existing,were often introduced. Frequently, the new word was the exact equivalentof the old ; but time has generally in produced a greater or less difference their meanings. Thus
we

Conquest,Norman-French

have

:
"

Teutonic Origin
wander acknowledge buy work foe

Romanic
err

Origin

confess

purchase
labour

enemy

During the Middle Ages, and particularly in the sixteenth century, a large number of Latin words were into English. Some of these had already been introduced directly
266. DOUBLETS"

brought into the language through the medium

a

of French, but in

slightlydifferentform. Thus we have many pairs of words derived from the same originals these are called Doublets. In ; cases some the meanings of a pair are sufficiently close for them to be classed as Synonyms ; in others,the meanings have become be so classed. We may classthe so divergent that they cannot

following Doublets

as

Synonyms

assay, essay ; gentle,genteel;

poor, pauper ; regal,royal ; redemption, ransom. On the other hand the following doublets now differconsiderabl in meaning : chant, cant ; fealty, fidelity treason, ; tradition feat,fact; legal,loyal ; sure, secure ; potion, poison. ;

267. ANTONYMS
or

pairs of words which have the opposite, as nearly as possiblethe opposite, ing meanings. Thus the follow: true, false simple,complex ; beautiful, are Antonyms ; ugly ;
are

concrete ; honour, dishonour. abstract,

268. HOMONYMS
sources, entirelydifferent

are

words which, though derived from have assumed the same form in English

with various meanings corresponding to their originals. Thus they may, in a sense, be considered as the converse of Doublets. Examples are :
"

190
Lie
Bark
:

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Date

(i)To speak untruths (O.E.leogan). (2)To recline (O.E.licgan). (i)The cry of a dog (O.E.beorcan) bark). (2)The rind of a tree (Swedish (3)A ship spelt also barque (Low Lat. barca). datum). (i A fixed point of time (Lat. A fruit (Gk. dactylos).
"

A young male servant. A side of a leaf of a book. Yard : (i)A measure of 3 feet. A small enclosure (O.E. (2) geard). Tear : (i)To pull apart (O.E. teran). (2)A drop exuding from the eye (O.E.tear). till, race. Other examples are : bear, list, pound

Page

Words have altered their meaning considerablyas the language has grown older ; and even now many are undergoing a process of change from year to year. This may occur in severalways :
269. CHANGE

IN

MEANING"

"

A word of simple direct meaning may be abstruse; its original used metaphorically for something more r meaning may then die out or it may still emain.
By (i)

Metaphor.

Thus

we

have literal (or

our

and primary)
as

derived

(or secondary)
:
"

meanings for many of

Primary
to
an see

words ;
to

in the followingexamples
Secondary
=

an

iron chain

object

an apple silverwatch the stone is hard to seize a person to seize an opportunity his anger has cooled the water has cooled light upon a the light of a lamp subject he was rushing down the street the rushing wind " The word prevent originally had the literalmeaning of go before Prevent us, O Lord, in all our doings." as in : From this the meaning " hinder its present meaning ; and the literal gradually changed to a
" " "
"

to eat

see ( w understand)hat is meant chain of circumstances = to eat one's words ( to apologise) the silver moon a hard task a

straying

brother to the truth."

(2)By
"

Specialisation. The

or greatlyrestricted narrowed. afield " a meaning stillurrent in the phrase God's acre " ( churchc yard) is applied only to a piece of land of a certain acre : now The following are other instances area. :
=
"

meaning of some words has been Thus acre originally meant

MEANING
Vulgar
:

OF

WORDS

191

general', stillretained in the phrase the vulgar tongue." Present meaning : low, base. (2) love ; as in: "the greatest of these Charity: (i)Original meaning: is charity." Present meaning : giving to the poor. (2) in Original meaning : fine any respect ; as in : " this brave Brave : (i) " o'erhanging firmament ! Present meaning : courageous. (2) This process is still going on in the language : thus the word gas is (meaning substance in a certain physical state) commonly applied any So " the paper " commonly to the gas we use for illuminating purposes. " " " " for those of David ; the Psalms ; stands for " the newspaper " for Parliament." the House

Original meaning: (i)

"

"

Generalisation. This is the converse Thus of (2). triumph originally referred to the procession of a victorious " generalon his return home, as in : To see Caesarand to rejoice is in his triumph."Now triumph used for any success. So also
are

By (3)

have

:
"

: (i) Influence Originally,the

power supposed to be exercised by the

life. stars over a man's Now, any power affectinga person's conduct. (2)

Miscreant:

(i)Originally,an unbeliever. (2)Now, an evil-doer.

Some words have become so far generalised in meaning as to be able to take an apparently contradictory qualifying word, such compounds as tin box, beef-tea,etc., being formed ["248 (12)].

Degradation. Many words with dignifiedmeanings have acquired a lessdignified ludicrousor (often meaning. evil) knave originally a young male servant : as in : " Gentle Thus meant knave, good night." Now itsignifies rascal. a So also we have : By (4)
"

'"

: blessed then innocent as in : ; There he met a sillyold palmer." Present meaning : foolish. : (i) to make Officious Originallybusy, as in : "Be every one officious this banquet." Now, meddlesome. : Originally,a sponsor baptism. Gossip at Now, an idle talker. " Cunning Originally, as skilfulin : Nature's own sweet and cunning hand laid on." Now, deceitful. (2) The words dub, pate, seriouswords ; now nap,imp were once perfectly they are used humorously.
"

Silly:

Original meaning (i)

(2)

192

HIGHER
Elevation.
"

ENGLISH

This is the converse of (4).Shrewd once meant wicked, as in That shrewd and knavish sprite." Cf. also " Now the word means Taming of the Shrew." far-seeing. clever, Christianwas once a term of reproach ; now, of honour. So also :

(5)By

"

Minister

Politician:

Originally,a servant as in : (i) Now, a dignified title. (2) (i)Originally, an intriguer, as

"

Let him be your minister."

in
:
"

There

are

This vile politician Bolingbroke." (2)Now, a member of a political party or a statesman. fewer examples of Elevation than of Degradation of words.

270. STRUCTURE

and are by addition of particlesto words. This process, which may be in called Word-building, takes place chiefly two ways :
"

Words have been formed, WORDS" to-day being formed, by combination of simpler words or

OF

addition of a Prefix or rw^marine, man/y, duck/ing.

Many

(1)By By (2)

compounding

two

or

more

hearsay, folk-lore. words : e.g. Suffixto a word : e.g. rc-eminent, /

such combinations and additionshad been already made in words before their introduction into English. We shall now in greater detail. consider these

subjects

consist, for the most part, of A Nouns, Verbs, and Adjectives. hyphen sometimes separates the parts of a compound word, particularlyhen the compound w is of fairly recent formation. Compounds of ancient origin are
271. COMPOUND

WORDS

often disguisedto such an extent as to be unrecognisable as compounds " " thus the word orchard is compounded wort ; of and "yard."
Nouns

formed from : (1)Noun + Noun or Gerund:

are
"

manservant,

railway,motor-car,

walking-stick. or : (2)Noun + Adjective Participle blackboard, blue-stocking, redbreast. Verb + Noun (often : toothpick,watershed, sunshine, (3) object) hold-all. (4)Noun + Adverb or Preposition: upland, outhouse, at-home.

MEANING

OF

WORDS

193

(5)Verb
outlet. Verbs
are

Adverb

or

Preposition : farewell, send-off, onset,

:
"

formed from Verb + Adverb or (1) ill-treat, out-distance. Verb (2)

+

Preposition : Noun

withstand, undermine,

or Adjective

(not very common): whitewash,

typewrite. safeguard, star-gaze, are Adjectives formed from :

"

+ Noun : headstrong, world-wide,sky-blue. Adjective (1) : or + Adjective Participle white-hot, dull-grey, (2) Adjective

good-looking, half-eaten. + Adverb : ill-gotten, Adjective never-ending, (3) well-deserved. Noun + Preposition: inland,uphill. (4) Noun (5)
+

Participle or

Gerund

church-going, money-

making, poverty-stricken. Phrase Compounds consist of phrases of two or more words together to form various Parts of Speech : the separate joined standing, parts of the new word are usually hyphened. Examples : notwithforget-me-not. toad-in-the-hole, will-o'-the-wisp, AND SUFFIXES" 272. FUNCTIONS OF PREFIXES Prefixes usually modify the meaning of the word before which

have the word post, and by aid of variousprefixeswe obtain the following words, each of which has differentmeaning, though that meaning always has some a : connection with the original root pose ( place) compose,
they
are

placed.

Thus

we

impose, depose, dispose, propose, oppose, suppose.

the other hand, usually (though not always) the grammatical function of the word; very frequently modify Thus from man they alter its Part of Speech. (Noun)is Suffixes, on from sweet is formed sweetness (Abs. manly (Adj.); is Noun); from bear (Verb) formed bearer (Noun). But in from poet, duckling from duck, the meaning and not the poetess

formed

grammatical function is modified. In order to illustrate this method of formation of words we Prefixes and Suffixes add a few specimens of the commonest of Teutonic origin, Classical together with examples of words and formed by their aid.

194
273. PREFIXES" Latin
or

HIGHER
Greek Origin
=

ENGLISH

as-, advent, accustom, assist. (ac-, etc.) to. Adjust, Com- (con-, o-)=with. Combine, connect, co-operate. c Ex- (e-) out of. Express, exit, evade, educe.
=

Ad-

Recede, reduce, re-enter. back, again. Sub- (suff-, = under. Substance, subvert, suffix. etc.) Monarch, Monomonotone, monad. (mon-)=only. Synthesis, sympathy, Syn- (sym-) with. symphony.
=
=

Re-

Teutonic Origin:
AAside, aboard, adrift. =on. Midnight, midsummer. Mid- = middle. Misdeed, mistake, misappropriate. Mis- = wrong. Undo, unkind, untie. Un- =reverse. With- = against. Withstand, withhold.

274. SUFFIXES"

Latin

or

Greek Origin
forms Feminine.
"

Poetess, lioness. ( Adjectives like).Picturesque, grotesque. -esque forms Nouns, Tradition (-tion, mainly Abstract. -ion -sion) transition. forms Nouns, Logic, arithmetic, mainly scientific terms. -ic music. Nouns. Schism, aneurism, realism. -ism Nouns from Verbs. Judgment, settlement. -ment
-ess
=
,, "

Teutonic Origin :

(= state).Manhood, childhood. -hood forming Abstract Nouns Diminutives. Gosling, duckling. -ling = Abstract Nouns ( Goodness, gentleness. -ness state). ( property).Worship, kingship. -ship = full " ( Adjectives of). Shameful, hopeful. -ful NOTE. Two useful exercises may be worked by the student (especially if he is unacquainted : with Latin and Greek) (1)To separate prefixes and suffixes from the word to which they have been added, and thus to determine their or function. meaning (2)From a list of words, all containing a certain prefix or suffix,to discover its meaning or function.
" " "
"

"

"

"

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

XX.

Are they any words that are said to be synonymous. how synonyms really so ? Show tend to acquire different shades of meaning. (M) 2. Give examples of words which in the course of history have (a) Narrowed their meaning, (b) Widened Degraded their meaning, (c) their (M) meaning.

Mention

MEANING

OF

WORDS

195

3. Explain the meanings of the following words, and \\ rite sentences containing them : coalition, ephemeral, reprisal,aphorism, permeate,

parsimonious, reduplicate. to the following words, and write sentences con4. Find Antonyms taining : glad, courage, clever, kind, hope, new, the Antonyms ancient, well. easy, never, 5. Name any ten words introduced into the language during the last century, and explain their meaning. for each of the following words and explain the 6. Find a Synonym difference between" the members of each pair thus formed : house, labour, pleasant, crowd, put, buy, see, gracious, holy, worry. 7. Write sentences to illustrate the meanings of the following words : mendicant, cataleptic, pertinacious, realistic, psychical, academic, cryptic, referendum, atrophy. 8. Explain and illustratethe various meanings of : second, measure, mate, pound, way. : p. Distinguish between, and write sentences to illustrate principal, reverse ; useless, futile ; converse, ; ; respectfully, respectively principle ; law, rule ; old, ancient. perspicuity, perspicacity the uses or meanings of : few, a few ; with, 10. Distinguish between beside, besides; by; assent, consent; precise, exact ; aphorism, simulati ; obsolete, archaic ; fresh, new ; disproverb ; physician, physicist deceit. (M) 1 1. Compose sentences that distinguish the meanings of these words : induct ; hermitical, hermetical ; indigent, indignant ; manage, induce, menage ; deprecate and depreciate. (M) Distinguish between : imperial, imperious ; esteem, estimation ; 12. reverent, reverend ; millinery, millenary ; filter, philtre ; contemptible, ; and write sentences containing each word in its special contemptuous
.

sense.

(M)

between : virtual, virtuous ; is the difference in meaning ; monitory, ; politic, political nearest, next monetary ; conscious, ? (M) aware ; outer, utter the meanings 14. Distinguish between of : beneficent, benevolent ;

13. What

; judicial sensuous, judicious,

sensual ; continuous, continual ; expedient deficient, defective ; efficient, effective ; exceedingly, expeditious ; ; stimulus, stimulant. excessively ; presumptive, presumptuous

(M)
"

15. Construct six sentences, using each of the following words in an appropriate sense : Docile, tractable, ductile, (i) Satire, irony, sarcasm. (M) twelve compound 1 6. Name words and explain their formation. in line,foot,ay (i) s 17. With regard to any one of the words : post, it is used, (ii) how these senses may be connected what various senses Add sentences in illustration. (M) with each other. ing 18. Write short sentences, containing, respectively, one of the followthe meaning to each : words, and explain precisely you attach scope, prohibitive, limbo, crucial, reciprocity. (M) 19. Give the ordinary meaning conveyed by each of the following expressio it with the original literalsignification of the and connect

jii)

words

in italics: (a)A threadbare argument,

"

(b)He

reckons without

his host.

196

HIGHER
,

ENGLISH

in He is just his element. He is out of his proper sphere, (e)I endorse all that he has said. To (M) (/) sum up the arguments. is the meaning 20. What of the final syllable in : oxen, golden, duckling, streamlet, readable, singer, peaceful, darken, bounden, faithless? Write four words beginning with each of the following prefixes, 21. thence deduce the meaning of the prefix : e, ob, re, super, inter, un. and Write three words ending with each of the following suffixes,and 22. thence deduce the meaning of the suffix : -ish.-ist, -let,-dom, -fy, -ly. 23. Take each of the following words and to it add a prefix or a suffix ; explain in each instance what change in the meaning or function of the hope, friend, effect,collect, judge, word has been made : serve, stand,
act.

from man, dust, 24. Form Nouns from hate, sweet, royal ; Adjectives from holy, fast,retty. ; Adverbs p admire 25. In each of the following sentences substitute one word for the phrase in italics: (1)His methods of business are not allowed by law. (2)His conduct was such as deserved praise. (3)He was practically without any money. (4)Their behaviour is not capable explanation. of (5)This doctrine is one which was current in the Middle Ages. (6)The main facts of the play are to be found in history. (7)His remarks were not loud enough to be heard. (8)The bite of that serpent is likelyto cause death. (9)He listened to the conversation, although not wishing to do so He is one who does everything for the sake ofmoney. His general appearance is likethat 1 ofa king. 1)His is only fora time. appointment 12)
"

!io\

CHAPTER
INDIRECT
275.
"

XXI SPEECH

SPEECH TT^IRECT

It gives me
Indirect

consists of the exact words of a speaker whether uttered by him or writtendown : e.g. great pleasure to be here thisevening."

or

Reported

Speech

speech subsequent to itsoccurrence would be reported as :

"

consists of the report of the ; the words above mentioned

The speaker said that itgave him great pleasure to be therethat from evening. The words in the Indirect Speech which differ those in the Direct are printed in italics.

276. RULES

above example of the rules to be observed. These may be summarised as follows: (1)The Report begins with an Introductory Clause and a "he hoped that Conjunction, as "he said that .," .," such " he asked whether unless suitable .," words happen to begin the speech. A similar introductoryclause should be repeated
"

FOR CHANGE illustrates most

from Direct to Indirect. The

to occasionally give varietyto the report. In (2) accordance with the laws of Sequence of Tenses ("106) a a Present Tense is changed to a Past, and similarly Future becomes a Conditional statement : e.g. Direct: " I think that you willagree with what I have said." Indirect:He thought that they would agree with whafhe had$di\". All words signifyingpresence or proximity in Time or (3)

Place

distance changed into corresponding words signifying away in Time or Place : e.g. here yesterdaywill remember Direct : " Those who were this
are

quotation." Indirect: He said that those who were would remember that quotation.

there tht day

before

198
Thus these

HIGHER
the words:

ENGLISH
to-day, yesterday, last week, here, Then, that day, the day before, the

Now,
:

become (Direct),
are

previous week, there,those

Pronouns (4)

(Indirect).

If,as isusuallythe case, changed in Person. the speech is reported by an independent witness such as a tives reporter,all persons are levelled to the Third. PossessiveAdjec-

undergo a corresponding change. Example : it Direct : " While you support me so loyally, willalways be a to carry out your wishes as far as liesin pleasure to me
"

my power." it Indirect: While they supported him so loyally, would always be a pleasure to him to carry out theirwishes as far as lay in his power.

If the speech is reported by the person as applying to himself, the Second Person becomes the First instead of the Third : e.g. Direct: I tell you that you are mistaken. Indirect He told me that 7 was mistaken. :
LITTLE DIFFICULTIES 277. CERTAIN verting Direct into Indirect Speech. Imperatives (a) (1) require
. .

arise in

con

Introductory Clause such as " " He He commanded them .," and .," urged them to the are then changed to the Infinitive, or, less commonly, (b) : or are Subjunctive, rendered by must with the Infinitive e.g.
an
. .

Direct: "Resist such injustice do not be deceived by and specious words." Indirect: He urged them to resistsuch injustice not to be and deceivedby specious words. Direct : Be quiet and listento what I say. to Indirect He insistedhat they should be quiet and listen what : t
he said. (2)A Nominative
of Address difficulty.
or an

Exclamation

or

Interjection

presents some (a)Sometimes itmay be omitted altogetherin the report : e.g. Direct : M I believe, gentlemen^ that you have heard this before,"
Indirect He

believed that they had heard that before.

INDIRECT
Sometimes (b)
a

SPEECH

199
of Address
a

slight change of the Nominative

: will suffice e.g. Direct : "You all know, ladiesand gentlemen, what pleasure it is."

Indirect He :

knew said that all those present pleasure itwas

.

what

Sometimes (c)

explanatory phrase must be added because an actionof the speaker islostto those who afterwards read the speech : Direct : "And I am sure that you, Mr Chairman, will bear me out ..."
an was

Indirect Turning to the Chairman he said that he : sure that he would bear him out
.
.

A (3) Question usuallyrequires an

Introduction, such

as

"

He

asked whether Direct :

.
.

e.g. " Will you vote for a man with such a policy? Indirect He asked them whether they would vote for :
." "

with such a policy. Sometimes, however, itis leftas a question : e.g. Would they vote for a man with such a policy? of Third Persons. Since it usually happens that allPersons are levelled to the Third, doubt may ariseas to " he," " they," etc. In such cases the name or who ismeant by officeof the person referred to should replace the Pronoun, or

a man

Ambiguity (4)

be introduced in parenthesisafterthe Pronoun : e.g. Direct : " You have not brought your book."
Indirect He said that he (the had not brought his book ; : boy) or, The master said that the boy had not brought

his book.
278. EXAMPLE"
/ assure that 7 for my part, will do all 7 you, my friends, Vow know that 7 have always been to resist this measure. possibly opposed to it ; as recently as yesterday I spokeagainst it here in this very hali. Do you think that the people of this country will tolerate such ? the injustice 7 am sure they will not. My opponent openly supports he fail through measure that support I Prepare for a great ; may Exstruggle ; influence your friends, and we shall win in the end. plain all to them as 7 have explained to you that their liberty is at stake. To-morrow J shall again speak on this same when. 7 h*ar, you.
Direct
:
can
"

subject,

200

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Mr Chairman, will again kindly give me your support. / thank you all, ladies and gentlemen, for your kind attention to me to-night." that he for his part would do all he Indirect : He assured those present They knew that he had always been possibly could to resistthat measure. he day before had spoken against it there opposed to it ; as recently as the in that very hall. Did they think, he asked, that the people of this country His sure they would not. ? would tolerate such injustice He was hoped that he the measure ; he (the speaker) opponent openly supported He urged them to prepare for a great might fail through that support. influence all their friends and they would win in the struggle ; they must as he had explained to to end. The audience should explain theirfriends On the next day, he said, he should was at stake. them that their liberty would when, he heard, the Chairman again speak on that same subject, for their again kindly give him his support. He thanked all those present kind attention to him that night.

EXERCISES
i.

ON

CHAPTER

XXI.
"

Change

a.

the following into Reported Speech : come not, friends, to steal away your hearts. I in the place of God ? Fear not : for am (2) in This day is this scripture fulfilled your ears. (3) I charge thee, fling away ambition. (4)Cromwell, (5)Will you not come to-morrow and hear what our friends have to say about this important matter ? (6)Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king, He would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies. here to disturb What do you want ? And why have you come (7) me this hour of the day ? at (8)Well done, good and faithful servant ; enter thou into the joyof thy Lord, Sweet son 1 God give you good perseverance ! You are my (9) weet son, for most loyally have you acquitted yourself this day and you are worthy of a crown. You ask me, gentlemen, what I mean by such a proposal as (10) that I have always this. My answer to-day is the answer given to this question. Unless you provide an efficiently be trained force for home-defence, this country can never from the dangers of invasion. secure Change the following into Direct Speech : (1)She promised to betray the hillto them if they would give he: on their left arms. what they wore He proposed that Caesar should disband his army by a certain (2) date, and that, ifhe did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the state. She asked Alfred why he did not turn the bread which he saw (3) burning. He was glad enough, she affirmed, to eat it before it was half-baked. (4)He could not, he declared, do better than repeat to that assembly the statement which he had made there in that very hall the previous day, that whatever happened, the integrity of the Empire must be preserved

(1)I

"

INDIRECT
(5) He replied

SPEECH

201

these matters that if it lay in his power to remedy All that do so then and there. he would not hesitate to House, to raise the question in the he could do was and that, he promised them, should be done on the following day. Change the following into Indirect Speech : " As you have done your work, you may go (1)He said to me :
"

now."

(2)She
"

" " He been here long ? Have you said to him : " No, I have only justarrived." replied : " he, do you demanded persist " in holding this (3) Why," " because I have "I stillhold it," T replied, opinion ? heard no argument that disproves it." " You have evidently done no work (4)The master said to us : I shall detain all of you this out of the room. while I was

evening." he, that there will be you really think," exclaimed " I am ? Turkey war afraid there will be," I with replied. " Choose ye said Fabius. (6)"I carry here peace" and war," the reply. Give us which you will," was which ye will." " We Then take war," accept the gift," said Fabius. the Senators of Carthage. cried Speech : Turn the following passages into Reported from the sea As to the wealth which the Colonies have drawn (1) fully opened at by their fisheries, you had all that matter You surely thought those acquisitions of value, your bar. for they seemed to excite your envy ; and yet the even has been by which that enterprising employment spirit exercised ought rather, in my opinion, to have raised your And pray, Sir, what in the world esteem and admiration. is equal to it ? Pass by the other parts, and look at the have of late England in which the people of New manner follow them fishery. Whilst we the whale carried on ice, and behold them the tumbling mountains of among of Hudson's penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses looking for them Bay and Davis's Strait ; whilst we are beneath the Arctic Circle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold, that they are at the Antipodes. (M) (2) If we are afraid that the people may attempt to accomplish let us give them a solemn thek wishes by unlawful means, in thek cause high and that we use all our pledge will in old conflicts ancient privileges, so often victorious voked, inancestors with tyranny ; those privileges which our a faithless king filled not in vain, on the day when house with his guards, took his seat, Sk, on your chak, our the floor before and saw your predecessor kneeling on him. The Constitution of England, thank God, is not one are those constitutions which of past repak, and which for the public welfare, be utterly destroyed. must, (M) graces that, in addition to the dis(3) But, my Lords, who is the man has dared to authorise and of the war, and mischiefs

(5)

"

Do

"

"

"

"

associate to

our

arms

the tomahawk

and

scalping-knife of

202

HIGHER
"

ENGLISH

the savage ? to delegate to the merciless Indian the defence of disputed rights, and to wage the horrors of his brethren ? But, my barbarous war against our has been defended, not only barbarous measure Lords, this on the principles of policy and necessity, but also on those For it is perfectly allowable," says Lord of morality. " Suffolk, to use all the means which God and nature have into our hands." I am shocked, to astonished, I am put hear such principles confessed ; to hear them avowed in this House, or in this country. (4)As for me I have chosen my part. I will remain here, to bear me If there be while there is one company. to shrink from sharing the dangers of as so craven any our glorious enterprise,let them go home in God's name. There is stillone vessel left. Let them take that and They can tell there how they deserted return to Cuba. their comrades their commander, and and patiently wait tillwe return laden with the spoils of the Aztecs. (5)Observe now, Cataline ; mark the silence and composure Does a single senator of this assembly. remonstrate, Is it needful that they or so much to speak ? as offer they so expressly should confirm by their voice what declare by their silence ? But had I addressed myself in this manner to that excellent youth Publius Sextus, to the brave Marcus Marcellus, the senate would ere or have risen up against me now and laid violent hands in this very temple ; and justly too. upon their consul But with regard to you, Cataline, their silence declares their approbation, their acquiescence amounts to a decree, and by saying nothing they proclaim their consent, 5. Turn the following passages into Direct Speech : (i)As for the command of that town, he rejoiced not in it, but looked upon it as a great burden ; yet since it was conferred as an honour on him, he should not decline serving them who had thought him worthy of it, unless it gave distaste to any of those present, which, if it did, he would esteem it an obligation if they would but declare it before he published his commission. The prince told the old man that he had already (a) enjoyed too much, to and begged him to give him something desire. The old man had replied that if he (theprince) seen the miseries of the world, he would know how to value his present state. The prince exclaimed that he had given him something to desire ; he should long to see the miseries of the world since the sight of them was necessary to happiness. (3)Wat told his men that that was the king over there. He would go. he said, and speak with him and tellhim what they wanted. Wat then rode up to the king and asked him whether he saw men there ? The all his (Wat's) king answered that he did, but demanded why he asked that question ? Wat replied that they were all at his to do whatever he bade them command and had sworn
.

"

"

CHAPTER
COMPOSITION:
279. /COMPOSITION
V^
manner.

XXII
AND

THE

SENTENCE

PARAGRAPH

consists of the written expression oi in our ideas on any given subject the best possible : In composition,two main factorsare thereforeessential
manner.

matter and

We

must

have

some
we

ideas
must

on

the

subject

about which
our

we

propose to write; and

be able to express

opinions satisfactorily. shall have something to say in the next chapter concerning the matter for composition ; at present we shall confine ourselves of itsproduction. mainly to a considerationof the manner
We

All educational ideals PRACTICE" are based on the doctrine that theory and practicehould go s hand-in-hand where possible. It would be absurd, for instance, for anyone to study the whole theory of Engineering, even in the
280. THEORY

AND

elementary way, before attempting any practical work; and itwould be equally absurd to go through all the practicalwork without studying the theory on which that work is based. As is more of the theory and more advance in practicalskill attained,
most

be grasped by the student,unless he wishes to remain a mere labourerallhis life. tion. These remarks apply with especialforce to the art of ComposiThe student needs from the very outset to be able to
must

for the ; express his ideas in writing not only because writing is, most part,the examination test of knowledge, but also because, we when we have to explain a thing in writing, are bound to attain
to a much

clearerand

more

accurate

knowledge of our
It may

subject.
therefore be

281. PROGRESS

IN

COMPOSITION"

assumed

that before the student has read any account of the before he is acquainted with theory of composition, perhaps

204
any grammar,

HIGHER

ENGLISH
a And after fashion.

he has written English

"

in

Composition, of all subjects, everyone has a certain basis on which to build his natural power of speech. Yet even if his write speech is accurate and grammatical, he may not necessarily ideashave to be expressed or very freely for in writing, ; very well
without gesture or emphasis of the voice. Certainly those who have been taught to speak well and carefully, find Composition so much the easier and practicewill ; will great deal to make everyone perfect. But it will not do that allour practice ; may lead everything for it is quite possible us in the wrong direction, and confirm in us certainerrors or bad

do

habits, unless we

guide to point out the rightroad and by to warn us of the pitfalls the wayside. Our lastfew chapters have dealt with preparatory matter which is of the highest importance in this respect; a careful study of
have
some

those chapters and practice in working out the exercisesthereon will be of great service in eliminatingmuch that is faultyin our

diction. The

next

composition from a Sentence, Paragraph, and Essay should be constructed.

282. THE
"

few chapters will deal with the of subject by showing how the point of view, practical

the simplest possibleform of composition has alreadybeen denned as the expression a thought. of As a thought may be simple or complicated, so a sentence may be short or long. We may have a sentence in the one word :

SENTENCE

"

Go I ; or we may have Sentence.

283. LENGTH

long and involved Complex

or

Compound

The genius of the English SENTENCE" language, like that of the French on which its style is largely modelled, is,on the whole, bettersuited to short sentences than The beginner willdo well to cut down the length to long ones. of his sentences everywhere ; for him short sentences should be the rule rather than the exception. It is only too natural to many " i.e. on vaguely and at great prattle," to talk (or people to

OF

write)

length without any pause or connection untiltheirbreath (or their fails them, afterthe manner of the celebrated Mrs Gamp. pen) The student must disciplinehimself against this habit ; such

COMPOSITION
a

205

style,besides being inelegant, tends to obscurityof meaning and muddling of the grammar and of the construction of the The best correctiveis the use of short connected sentences.
sentences,with plenty of fullstops

("230).
him

that the art of English variationof the length of successful sentences as well as of theirform. We shallnow consider some of the merits and defects of the Further experience will show composition consistsin the
structure of sentences

and paragraphs.

284. A succession of very short disconnected sentences generally impression of monotony. The reader iswearied produces an by the abruptness and apparent irrelevance with which each
statement
extreme
"

is thrust upon instance :

"

him.

The

following is, perhaps,

an

John wished to visit his friend. He took the train to the city. His friend lived in George Street. He walked there from the station. He found the house. It was locked up. His friend had gone away to Germany."
This series of sentences should be condensed and connected to be presently indicated (" together in the manner 298). It must, however, be here pointed out that short sentences do

to a sometimes give a vividness, realism, a descriptionof stirring are varied in form (" events, especially if such sentences 292). Lord Macaulay was especiallysuccessful in this style of composition We quote a beautiful : see his Essays on Clive, etc. and of short passage from Dowden consisting almost entirely effective

sentences
"

:
"

The lifeof Brutus, as the lives of such men a good must be, was lifein spite of its disastrous fortunes. He had found no man who was true to him. And he had known Portia. The idealist was not destined preBut for him the true failure to fail in the positive world. would have been disloyalty to his ideals. Of such failure he suffered Octavius and Mark Antony none. remained victors at Philippi. Yet the purest wreath rests on the forehead of the defeated conspirator."

very long and involved sentence, produces an even worse cated effect than that indiin the first part of the lastparagraph, but in the opposite direction. The reader is perplexed by the number of ideas the series of long sentences,
or

285. A

indeed

one

206
sentence

HIGHER

ENGLISH

should be the ex contains ; the rule that the sentence pression of only one thought is broken. Unless such a sentence

is studied carefully and read through time after time, the thread is and the connection between the various parts of continuity lost,

is not apparent. hands, is apt to Further such a sentence, unless in very skilful lose its grammatical structure altogether. A very good test of
the correctness

be can of the latter is whether the sentence If analysed satisfactorily. it is found, for instance, that clauses are uncompleted, or that some word which is evidently a
has
no

subject
needs

predicate, the sentence

is obviously bad

and

reconstruction. To illustrate he effect produced by a long and involved sentence t we quote the followingfrom Hawkins' Voyages :"
into the channel, the wind and east-south-east, which, blowing hard, and a chapping sea, and my vice-admiral bearing Launching
out
"

being at east by south flood in hand, caused

a good sail made some her, to water, and shooting off a piece of ordnance, I edged towards know the cause that they had sprung a great leak ; who answered me, and that of force they must return into the sound ; which, seeing to be
.

necessary, I cast about where anchoring, and going aboard, presently found, that betwixt wind and water the caulkers had left a seam being filledup with pitch only, the sea labouring that uncaulked, which, out, had been sufficient to have sunk her in short space if it had not been discovered in time."

rambles on from one thing to another without aim or The construction object. is,to say the least,doubtful. What, for instance, is the antecedent of who (italicised and above), to whom Is made (italicised) Verb, a Finite (italicised) refer? be the Participlehaving made ?
The
sentence
sentences

What

are

we

to

make

of all this?

The

sentence

does
or

her

should it

should be broken up into three or four shorter indicatedin " 297. and recast in the manner PARAGRAPH"

The above considerationsnaturally lead us to the consideration of the paragraph,which is a collection bearing on the same sentences idea or set of ideas. It of in fact be a divisionof the in should subject hand. Thus if we

286. THE

short account of the Wars of the Roses, one paragraph might be devoted to the causes of the wars, a second
were

writing

COMPOSITION
to

207

the final results,and so on. Each paragraph would contain several sentences. The sentence from Hawkins (" might well have formed a paragraph of
the battles fought,
a

third

to

285)
OF

severalsentences.

Like the Sentence, the Paragraph may be long or short. Modern writers lean towards short paragraphs ; this is no doubt due to the fact that a subject is much more easily grasped ifthe matter isdivided up into short if paragraphs,particularly such paragraphs are prefacedby suitable
287. LENGTH

PARAGRAPH"

furnish good examples of such paragraphing under appropriate headings. It should be remembered that in any form of composition both the eye and the ear should be pleased. The end of a paragraph is a relief the attention to ; if the paragraph is too long, the eye is apt to pass on to the next
headings.
Newspapers wearisome we should find our newspaper if were the whole of it (like leading article) written in the form the of an essay and unparagraphed ! As a matter of fact,the earliest newspapers were thus arranged. involuntarily. How

OF THE PARAGRAPH" We consider the essentialfeatures of a good paragraph. : chiefly (1)Unity. (2)Development. (3)Variety in length of sentences. (4)Variety in form of sentences.
288.

QUALITIES

may They

now are

"

There should be a central idea on which the 289. UNITY" paragraph is based, and there should be no dou-bt in the mind of the writeror reader as to what this centralor main idea is. There must be no rambling from the particular portion or aspect of the

subjectto another
aspect.

(andperhaps

more

interesting) portion

or

In writinga piece of composition we cannot, of course, indicatethe central idea contained in the paragraph by putting a heading to it, a newspaper or text-book can do ; but it is a as

good plan to begin each paragraph about an inch from the leftof the paper, so as to mark it off clearlyfrom the preceding one. The student will find it a helpful rule to ask himself : Can the

208

HIGHER

ENGLISH
a

substance of each of my paragraphs be summarised in sentence ? If so, the condition of Unity is satisfied.
290. DEVELOPMENT"

single

Around the central idea other subordinate it should be grouped, in as natural ideas connected with a manner as possible, according to their order and importance. If we are dealing with historicalvents, the natural order willbe e every mainly chronological; in any case the order must be logical, helping one, sentence following smoothly afterthe preceding and the argument forward one more stage,in the manner of a proposition
in Geometry.
We have OF SENTENCES" tences already discussed the merits and defects of short and long sen; the conclusion at which we should have arrived is that the great charm of successful composition depends largelyon its variety. Though no hard and fast rule can be laid down, it is often well to begin a paragraph with one or two short sentences, l then to follow with a fairlyong sentence describingthe matter in 291. VARIETY

IN LENGTH

hand, and to conclude with up the whole.

292. VARIETY

short sentence

which terselysums

OF IN FORM Equally SENTENCES important with variety in length is varietyin form : the sentences should not allbegin in the same way, nor should they continue in The followingparagraph willillustrate manner. the same what is
"

to
"

be avoided :
William
won

"

in 1066 invaded England

which

was

then ruled by Harold.

the battle of Hastings, which laid the foundation of the conquest He introduced the Feudal System which of the whole country. He put down several rebellions was then current in Continental Europe. by the English." were which raised

He

intolerable effectof this paragraph isdue, not so much to length, as the fact that the sentences are all of about the same We may notice that : that they are allof the same structure. All begin with the pronoun he. (1) but the first (2)All consist of a principal clause followed by a relative clause beginning with which. For correction of this paragraph see " 296.
The
"

COMPOSITION
As
to

209

again no willbe found of service.

293. VARIATION

the methods by which variety of form may be obtained, hard and fast rules can be laid down, but a few hints

OF

THE

FORM

of sentences

in

should not begin with the same words. It is not always possible,nor is it necessary, that every sentence word, but it isuseful for the beginner should begin with a different to try to carry out this principlewithin reasonable limits. The
" I " should be or fault of constantly beginning with " He in speciallyavoided ; repetition of the latter, addition to being is bad style, also bad taste.
"

paragraph. The sentences (1)

Some Neither should the sentences begin in the same way. writersare very fond of beginning with words or phrases like: "and so," "thus," "then," "therefore." It is good practice to part endeavour to begin each sentence with a different speech^

of

A little though this again is not always possible or convenient in willnot only help in overcoming monotony effort this direction

in this respect, but will also aid in the development of each l be shown. as willnow sentence on different ines, (2)The sentences should be varied in type construction

of

throughout. the Simple sentence

There

are

at least six differenttypes of sentence in its elementary form, the Simple sentence

sentence, and the three phrase, the Compound with a participial The Complex sentence may also be kinds of Complex sentence.

varied by placing either the principal or the subordinate clause for the sake of variety, first. We can generally, change from one altering the meaning, of these types to another without vitally idea by all the though it is rarely possible to express the same
six types. Thus we may say :
"

(a)He

saw

me

and at

once

delivered the message

once
'

he
As

Having seen}me' phrase).

soon
as

at

"

"

(Co-ord.). (simPlewith partic.

. . .

he had

seen

me,

he delivered

+ (Adverbial
a

Princ.). (b)He
O
won

his laurels

as

general and

then became

famous

statesman

(Co-ord.).

210
He, who
After

HIGHER
had
won

ENGLISH
a

his laurels as his laurels

general, became
a

(Pnnc.
.
.
.

he had

won

as

general, he

became

hewas (f)He replied to my question and said that

+

+ (Adv. Princ.).

(Co-ord. satisfied
his satisfaction
Pnnc.
+

Noun).
question and expressed
.

He

replied to my

In reply to my question, he said that

(Co-ord.).
Noun).

+ (Phrase

to employ, four things In deciding which type of sentence should be considered: Which is the simplest and most straightforward. (1) in (2)If,as often happens, there is a shade of difference the to our purpose. meaning, which is most suitable (3)Which serves the purpose of variety the best (4)Which sounds best to the ear. It will generally be found that only one of the types satisfies all one should then be selected. these requirements ; that particular
"

294. SPECIMEN
a

PARAGRAPH"

We

may

now

confitly sider

t paragraph which appears to fulfil he requirements just For this purpose we quote a beautiful passage from laid down. Lowell's Essay on Spenser :
"

to apologise for the grossness of our favourite authors wont to blame and not they ; and by saying that their age was sometimes is a good one, for often it is the frank word that shocks us excuse the No while we tolerate the thing. Spenser needs no such extenuations. " " Faery Queen and be anything but the better for man can read the Maids of Honour drank beer for it. Through that rude age, when a gross thing to Ophelia, he passes breakfast and Hamlet could say serenely abstracted and high, the Don Quixote of poets. Whoever delight, whoever can tolerate music and painting can endure unmixed in one, whoever wishes to be rid of thought and to let and poetry all the busy anvils of the brain be silent for a time, let him read in the " Faery Queen." There is a land of pure heart's ease, where no ache
"

We

are

or

sorrow

of spiritcan

enter."
"

In thisparagraph we have : Unity. The paragraph may (1)

:
"

be summarised

in the sentence

are also pure. Spenser'sworks, besides being beautiful, is introductory,stating The firstsentence (2)Development.

what

we

usuallyhave

to

do for poets

"

apologise for theirgrossness

COMPOSITION

211

The second strikesthe keynote of the paragraph by asserting that Spenser needs no such apology ; and the third,fourth,and fifth develop this argument by comparison, contrast, and reference.

The

last sentence

forms

beautifuland effective conclusion to

the whole paragraph. (3)Variety in length of sentence. This is obvious at a is followed by two short ones ; then l glance : a fairly ong sentence long one ; and, in conclusion, a by a fairly a moderate sentence

No sentence is over-long. short sentence. (4)Variety in form of sentence. This is equally pleasing. No two sentences begin with the same word ; and fiveout of the
ment parts of speech. The developsix happen to begin with different of each sentence is also greatlyvaried ; note, for instance, sentence isin form. what a complete change the fifth
295. SPECIMEN

EXERCISES"
to

preliminary aids will include :

"

composition

"

Several useful exercisesbe worked. These may now

Variation of the Type of a Sentence (see " 293). (1) Analysis and reconstructionof a long and involved sentence. (2)
series of short disconnected few sentences of varied length and form. (4)Condensation of a passage in which much

(3)Synthesisof

sentences

into

or repetition

verbiage occurs. (5)Rearrangement of a passage in which facts are order. without regard to logical

set

down

VARIATION example given in " 292

296.
"

"

As
:
"

an

illustration we

will recast

the

England In 1066 William invaded and defeated king Harold at This victory laid the foundation of the conquest the battle of Hastings. Though several rebellionswere raised in William's of the whole country. they were speedily quelled. One of the most important acts of reign, the introduction of the Feudal System, then current the Conqueror was in Continental Europe."

297. ANALYSIS the sentence

:
"

AND

RECONSTRUCTION

"

Consider

212
"

HIGHER
No
doubt

ENGLISH

is, that if the king who is supreme lord what you mean of the nation and the parliament who with him makes the laws, were the value to agree, we will say, for argument's sake, that your head may be intrinsicallyonly a few pence, but to you a great deal of which from your body, loyal though that body mOre should be removed have been in their service, this might be done constitutionally, might and actually without any trial,to which under ordinary circumstances are entitled, by merely suspending for the time being all acts all men dealing with the liberty and safety of the citizens of this land."
"

"

This passage may

"

bo reconstructedas follows:
"

your meaning is this. The king, as supreme lord of the the parliament, together make our laws and have power to nation, and Suppose, for instance, that they agreed that your head, rescind them. intrinsicallyworth only a few pence but a great deal more valuable to However loyal that body from your body. be removed you, should For man. might have been in their service, you would be a doomed to a trial, men are entitled although under ordinary circumstances all be carried out constitutionally and actually your execution might without such a trial,by the suspension for the time being of all laws dealing with the liberty and safety of the citizens of this land."

No doubt

furtherexample of this process, we from Hawkins in "285 :

a
"

As

willrecast the passage

launched out into the channel with the wind blowing hard by south and east-south-east. This wind coupled with a flood at east As my vjce-admiral's ship, though bearing tide made the sea choppy. some good sail,made water and shot off a piece of ordnance, I edged her to know My vice-admiral informed me the cause. that .towards they had sprung a leak and must perforce return into the sound. Seeing this to be necessary, I cast about and anchoring there, went aboard, had been left uncaulked by the caulkers. where I found that a seam This seam had been filledup with pitch only ; and, as the sea had laboured that out, the ship would have sunk in a short space if the damage had not been discovered in time."

"

We

student should consider how far these paragraphs fulfil the conditionsof Unity, Development, and Variety.
298. SYNTHESIS"

The

To

illustrate this process

:
"

we

will recast

the example given in

"

" 284

Wishing to visit his friend, John took the train to the city and walked to his friend's house which was situated in George Street. To his surprise,the house was locked up ; and on enquiry he learnt that his friend had gone away to Germany."

It should be observed that it is possibleto combine sentences only when they refer to ideas closely akin or in some way connected in our minds. If they express entirelydissimilar thoughts

COMPOSITION
they cannot Unity.

213

be

so

of combined without a breach of the principle

:

Thus the sentences

(1)The (2)The
may

be combined

as :

"

boy likescricket boy does not likestudy The boy likescricketbut he does

not

likestudy." On the other hand, the sentences : (1)The boy likescricket in The boy lives London (2) be combined as: "The boy likes cricket and livesin cannot London," because the thoughts contained in the two sentences
are

dissimilar.The two sentences must entirely

299. CONDENSATION"

be leftseparate.

Consider the paragraph:"

The meeting consisted mainly The orator addressed the meeting. Some of the men had brought their and women of men and women. The orator in his speech said that he wished children to the meeting. to tell all the men, women, and children at the meeting that the bill had introduced was an bill. The governthe government ment which unjust for the bill and the government was should bear responsible The country should rise and show its indignation and the blame. its anger against the government who had brought in the bill. The its anger freely and openly against the governcountry should express ment. It had been said that Britons never should be slaves and they should not be slaves, they should not live in a state of serfdom, if they would do as he desired."

"

This may
"

be condensed in the following manner

:
"

Addressing the meeting which consisted of men and women with few children, the orator affirmed that the bill which the government had introduced was and unjust, that the latter should bear the blame for it. He hoped that the country would show itsindignation by opposing It had been said that Britons never that billwith all its might. should be slaves ; and they should not, if they did as he advised."
a

300. REARRANGEMENT"
"

Consider the paragraph

:"

Edward III. lost the greater part of France hi 1360. He won the Before that in 1340 he had defeated battle of Cre9y there in 1346. the French in a naval fight at Sluys. The Black Prince led the army He won his spurs at Poitiers in 1356, where he gained a great victory. III. The Treaty oi the eldest son was at Cre,9y. He of Edward Bretigny was signed in 1 360. But in a few years only a small portion France in the hands of the English. This war of remained with France in 1337 that Years' War. It was was the Hundred called Edward III. claimed the French "rown bejran " and thus the war

214
This

HIGHER

ENGLISH

passage should be arranged in chronological order, :" being avoided, in the followingmanner repetitions
III. claimed the French throne and thus the In 1337 Edward fight at Sluys in 1 340, a naval He won Hundred Years' War began. victorious at Cre9y, where his eldest son the and six years later was the latter who in 1356 led the his spurs. It was Black Prince won English to victory at Poitiers. In 1360 the Treaty of Bretigny was France remained signed ; but a few years later only a small portion of in the hands of the English."
"

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

XXII

an

Absolute in the following sentence into Change the Nominative Adverbial Clause (i) Time, (2) Reason :" of of The enemy having fled,we occupied their camp. 2. Expand the following sentence by qualifying each word with an : or Adverb Adjective Men say Henry was mad. Condense the following sentence by substituting a word or phrase 3.
"

the place where he had memorial in stone to the goodness and set up what should slept, God who had kept him so that his enemies could not hurt him. of into (i) a Simple the following Compound sentence 4. Change Principal and Adverbial a Complex sentence, (2) sentence consisting of Clauses, (3)another kind of Complex sentence : He came to me and confessed his misdeeds. 5. Rewrite the following sentences so that they may sound better and time express the meaning more at the same clearly : He said he was happy which as I ought to know was due, as (1) health owing to his summer he said, to his greatly benefited holiday. (2)He went to see the friends that had taken such care of him that had endangered that he had recovered from the illness his life. I meant (3)Whom you see is the man when I spoke to you of him. yesterday (4)Where has the boy, of whom I told you yesterday how clever he was, gone to while I have been away ? 6. Change into a Complex the following Simple sentence sentence an Adverbial Clause, (2) Clause : an containing, (i) Adjectival At this season of the year the flowers so much admired by you begin to show themselves. the following Simple sentence into (i)a Co-ordinate 7. Change a Complex a sentence, (2) sentence containing an Adverbial Clause, (3)
serve as a
"

for each subordinate clause (where : possible) from As soon as it was arose morning, Jacob
"

"

"

Complex

Clause : containing an Adjectival Meeting the man in the street, I spoke to him. 8. Change the following Complex sentence into, (i) Simple sentence, a (2)a Complex sentence containing a Noun Clause, (3) a Compound
sentence
"

sentence

"

Your

meaning

is

certainly not

as

clear

as

it ought

to be.

COMPOSITION
"

215

so as to make 9. Break up the following sentence into shorter sentences che meaning perfectly clear, without omitting anything material : I, Prospero, in this manner omitting to attend to business matters, being devoted entirely to retirement and to improving my mind with what, in my opinion, surpassed in value people's estimation, surpassed it in allways except for the fact that being so retired might not be good for me, rea bad warded awoke spirit in my false brother, and my trust was belief,a by him with treachery (just according to a common as, a good parent often begets a bad son), treachery as great in its position in its position among trust was the virtues, a the vices as my among trust which had indeed no end, a confidence without boundary. 10. Break up the following long and involved sentences into several sentences so as to form a paragraph : (1)Touching laws which are to serve men in this behalf, even as those laws of reason, which (man retaining his original had integrity) been sufficient to direct each particular person in all his affairs and duties, are not sufficientbut that man of other laws, now and his require the access are thus corrupt and ; again as grown sinful offspring have those laws of polity and regiment, which would living in public society together with that men served harmless disposition which then they should have had, are to serve, men's iniquity is so hardly not able now when bounds : in like manner restrained within any tolerable between societies the national laws of mutual commerce of that former and better quality might have been other than now, whe^ nations are so prone to offer violence,
"

injury,nd a (2)Having leftthe

(Hooker.) wrong. born and in which country in which they were the tiny school of which Herr Heinrich was the master was, found no scope for their abilitiesthere, the lads, who determined to seek their fortunes under the auspices of the British flag, which was favourable, as they thought, to trade and commerce, and sailed to Australia where, after in which they encountered many a long voyage hardships, being taken illthrough the food suffering shipwreck and which they had, they arrived. (3)There he stood pointing me out with his dusky finger to the (I suppose his mother) in mob and to a poor woman particular, tillthe tears for the exquisiteness of the fun he (so thought it) worked themselves out at the corners of his poor red eyes, red from many a previous weeping, and soot-inflamed, yet twinkling through all with such a joy, but Hogarth snatched out of desolation, that Hogarth has got him already (how could he miss him ?) the March in to Finchley, grinning at the pieman there he stood, as he stands in the picture, irremovable, as if the jest to were last for ever a maximum of glee and minimum with such for the grin of a genuine sweep of mischief in his mirth hath absolutely no malice in it that I could have been content if the honour of a gentleman might endure it, to have remained his butt and his mockery till midnight.
" "
"

"

"

(Lamb.)

216
11.

HIGHER
Rewrite
"

ENGLISH
passages with
fewer sentences,
avoiding

as

continuous

repetition: It was supposed that he had gone to London. (1)He went away. He arrived there. to escape arrest. They thought it was
would give him a situation at first. At last he got It was in an office. This as a clerk. a situation. It was in the City. was office (2)He walked in. His friend was there. His friend sat in an fast asleep. He was A book was on his knee. armchair. A cup stood by his side. There was tea in the cup. He walked up to his sleeping friend. He took him by the looked His friend woke. He He him. arm. shook amazed. (3)The young man made up his mind. He would go to America. There In fact, he would and be a farmer. emigrate He for him at home. seemed to be no permanent work for only three weeks at for a firm was generally employed Then he would be out of work for a corresponding a time. Moreover period. So he would try his fortune abroad. He had a little he was strong and understood ploughing. He would money. Therefore, he would take a farm. He would take it, he thought, in the west of Canada. For he had friends in take it in Manitoba. probably Manitoba. These friends might help him. They might him. They might buy the stock for his farm. At advise he would go to them. He would ask their advice. any rate He would request them to help him. 12. Rewrite, omitting words that seem superfluous and condensing : After he had successfully overcome all the various obstacles, which, uneven setting out on life's road, had at many when he was a young man different points in his career opposed his onward progress, he pursued for many successive years a course of uniform prosperity unchecked until at last he reached the ultimate goal towards which from the outset all his steps had been unswervingly directed. (M) 13. Rewrite as a continuous passage, avoiding repetitionsand the.use sentences : of too many There are passages of Homer Horace, which to a boy are but or To him they are neither better nor worse rhetorical commonplaces. He gets than a hundred others which any clever writer may supply. them by heart. He thinks them very fine. He imitates them in his own versification. He thinks he imitates"them successfully. At length they home to him when long years have passed. come home to They come him when he has had experience of life They pierce him with their sad They pierce him with their vivid exactness. They pierce earnestness. him as if he had never before known them. (M ) 14. Recast the following short account of lifein the country so as to improve the style and arrangement without adding or omitting anything material : The people who live in the country are always up early and at work, and those who keep farms have plenty of work to do in feeding the poultry and cows, etc., and in getting a good crop of corn and hops. The people in the country bring in their poultry to town on market days and ire busy selling them. You can go for beautiful walks and drives in the No
one
"

"

"

COMPOSITION

217

Everything is so pleasant and kept so nice. The wild flowers country. smell so sweet and the fruit is so nice to eat. The country drives are The birds Plenty of people always take a drive in the country. good. things to watch sing so sweet in the woods, and the squirrels are nice It is very healthy to reside in the country, there is playing about. The tradesmen nothing to blow about, no smoke, as there is in a town. have nice drives to take their goods into town, or generally send them by The poultry which country carriers'carts which run nearly every day. Country people do a lot of work keep is interesting to watch. people and are always busy. (M) 15. Rewrite as a continuous passage, avoiding repetitions and the use sentences : of too many The Umbrians gazed in wonder on the slingers from the Balearian The Umbrians islands. The slingers were in Hannibal's army. gazed in wonder on the regular African infantry. The African infantry had not yet exchanged their long lances for the stabbing sword of the Roman their small shields for the long soldier. They had not yet exchanged ginian shield of the Roman soldier. They gazed in wonder on the heavy CarthaThe heavy Carthaginian cavalry were on mounted cavalry. horses superior to those of Italy. Above allthey gazed in wonder on the The Numidians bands of wild Numidians. rode without saddle or bridle. They scoured They rode as if the rider and his horse were one creature. over ing the country with a speed and impetuosity defying escape and defy"

resistance.
1 6.

(M)
the following ideas by
state your
reasons

Express
"

speech into others, and instance :

of the parts of changing some for the alteration in each

result would be a hopeless confusion of thought by such statement of the theory of evolution without any modification, His (fe) assertion that the combination of two elements would be the effect of extreme pressure was a manifestation of his ignorance of recent discoveries. The King's favouring the extreme (c) party, in spite of their declaration against the war, gave great offence to his wellwishers. (d)Humble origin is no bar to the attainment of greatness, while pride t"fbirth is a frequent cause (M) of humiliation. following passages with regard to Compare the style of the 17. (a)The structure of the sentences. (6)The choice of words. T (i)hat which was organised by the moral abilityof one has been executed by the physical effortsof many, and DRURY LANE THEATRE is now complete. Of that part behind the curtain, which has not yet been destined to glow beneath the brush of the varnisher, or vibrate to the hammer of the carpenter, littleis thought by the public, and littleneed be said by the committee. Truth, however, is not to be sacrificedfor the accommodation that our of either ; and he who should pronounce edifice has received its final embellishment would be disseminating falsehood without incurring favour, and risking the disgrace of detection without participating the advantage of success. R that. Never forget that. Read it to your children, (ii)emember to your children's children ! And now, and most thinking people, cast
a
"

(a)The

218
your eyes
over

HIGHEH

ENGLISH

my head to what the builder (I beg his pardon, tht calls architect) the proscenium. No motto, no slang, no popish Latin, Nothing in the dead languages, pro to keep the people in the dark. manager perly so called, for they ought to die. The Covent Garden uses a man tried that, and a pretty business he made of it ! When Latin phrases he is called a man of letters. Very well, and is not a man of letters too ? You ran your O.P. against who cries O.P.1 a man I never I prophesied that, though his Latin, and pray which beat ? told anybody. Finding on enumeration that they have, with a with-two-hands(iii) liberality, contracted for more to-be-applauded gunand -one-tonguepowder than they want, they have parted with the surplus to the high-bailiffof Westminster, mattock-carrying and hustings-hammering has, with his own dug a large hole in the front of the parishwho shovel, oi church of St Paul, Covent Garden, that, upon the least symptom ill-breeding in the mob at the general election, the whole of the market at first may be blown into the air. This, ladies and gentlemen, may make provisions rise,but we pledge the credit of our theatre that they

fall will soon again, and people be supplied, as usual, with vegetables, in the in-general-strewed -with-cabbage-stalks-but-on-Saturday-night lighted-up-with-lamps market of Covent Garden. (M) Express in a more but, as far as possible, in the 18. simple style, same from Milton's words, the substance of the following sentence '' For the Liberty of unlicenc'd Printing " : to Parliament speech If therefore ye be loth to dishearten utterly and discontent, not the crew genuous of false pretenders to learning, but the free and inmercenary born to study and love learning sort of such as evidently were for itself, not for lucre or any other end but the service of God and of truth, and perhaps that lasting fame and perpetuity of praise which God and good men have consented shall be the reward of those whose labours advance the good of mankind, then know, that so far published to distrust the judgmentand the honesty of one who hath but a common him fit to repute in learning and never yet offended, as not to count his mind without a tutor and examiner, lest he should drop a schism print or something of corruption, is the greatest displeasure and indignity to a free and knowing (M) spiritthat can be put upon him.
"

1 O.P. refers to the Old Price Riot, caused by the rise in the price of admission Covent Garden Theatre.

to

the New

CHAlTIt* XXIII REPRODUCTION

301.

AND

EXPANSION
It is
our

T^LUENCY OF
JL

EXPRESSION"

experience

that many such as are sufficiently students, even advanced in other respects to prepare for an examination, find a in difficulty writing,not merely an essay,but even a simple piece of a tale they have read. This of composition, say an account

chapter is intended to help such students to make a beginning, to put them on the right road, before they attempt an Essay in the true sense of the word. An Essay proper requires considerable knowledge, thought, judgment, and arrangement, as well as fluency of expression ; the exercises in this chapter will be progressiv far as possible of such a simple character as but allas
due to deficiencyof knowledge, thought, avoid difficulties judgment,nd arrangement, and to concentrate the student's a attention mainly on expressinghimself freely. Such students as feel themselves fairly proficient in this
to

elementary work willnot need to work all the exercisesappended to this chapter,but even they willdo well to read the chapter itself. It may be noted that these exercises will not only help the
serve student in composition,but willindirectly to Paraphrasing and Precis-writing.
"

as

an

introduction

or

The work may be divided intothree stages: Reproduction of a short piece of prose such (1) tale. (2)Reproduction of a simple poem. (3)Expansion of Outlines.

as

fable

302, REPRODUCTION OF A PIECE OF PROSE" The tale, which at firstshould not exceed a printed page in length, should be rtad through carefullyonce or more, untilthe substance

220

HIGHER

ENGLISH
not
"

is thoroughly known.

For the present purpose the language need

be remembered unless it be a particularlypposite quotation or remark ; for the a whole aim of this kind of work is that the student shalluse his
words. Then the book should be shut and the account written. It is that some time should elapse between the reading and advisable the writingso that the memory may be trained to retainwhat is essential.This facultyis not less important for Composition than
for other work.
own

not be thoroughly studied and indeed must

which may occupy about a page of ordinary writing should be simple and straightforward. There ought to here as to where to begin or where to end. The be no difficulty tale itselfhas decided these things as well as the order and
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The Reproduction

arrangement of the facts. Attention should be paid at this stage to Punctuation (especially regard to full with and stops) to Grammar and Spelling. No endeavour should be made to give
fine turns

particularstyle of imitationin a beginner's writing;the result of such conscious work is usually bathetic. Each sentence should be thought out before itis written down ;
there should be
no

to the phrases or

to imitate any

loose writing due to the notion that the words

as we willcome w write. i When the reproduction is finished, t should be read through to possible aloud) see whether the sentences are with care (if grammatically constructedand whether they sound well.

303. EXAMPLE
THE

of a piece for Reproduction :

"

HORATII

AND

THE

CURIATII.

the two cities[Rome and Alba Longa], and their armies having been drawn up in array against each other, the princes determined to avert the battle by a combat of champions There were in the Roman chosen from each army. army three brothers birth, named Horatii ; and in the Alban army, in like born at the same three brothers born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. manner, The two sets of brothers were chosen as champions, and it was agreed that the people to whom the conquerors belonged should rule the other. Two of the Horatii were slain, but the three Curiatii were wounded, the surviving Horatius, who was unhurt, had recourse to stratagem. and He was unable to contend with the Curiatii united, but was more than for each of them separately. Taking to flight, a match he was followed by his three opponents at unequal distances. Suddenly turning round.

A quarrel hayingarisen between

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were

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he slew, firstone, then the second, and finallythe third. The Romans But a declared the conquerors and the Albans their subjects. followed. As Horatius Rome, bearing was tragical event entering his threefold spoils,his sister met him and recognised on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii, her betrothed lover. She burst into kindled, and such passionate grief that the anger of her brother was " So perish every Roman stabbing her with his sword he exclaimed, he was by woman condemned who bewails a foe." For this murder the two judges the blood to be hanged on the fatal tree, but he apof pealed to the people and they gave him his life.

304. REPRODUCTION

OF

SIMPLE

POEM

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stage further. The facts in a poem are not carries us one as direct as that of prose ; they are generallytold in a manner or less figurative, need to wrapped around in language more and be carefullydissected out A poem, in fact,as will be seen in is Chapter xxxii., written with the idea not so much of conveying information, as of expressing thoughts beautifully and mere

artistically.For the present purpose, narrative poetry of a simple nature should be selected. The poem should be read once or more as in the case of the prose tale ; and it must be particularlyemphasised that it is not the language, however be, with which we are now concerned. The diction of poetry is frequently quite unsuitable to prose and therefore must not be reproduced. Before beginning to write the reproduction, it may be well, in this case, to jotdown on
paper the main facts which are about to be described. These will serve as a beginning of the outlineswhich are so important in the construction of an essay and of which more will be said later. At present such notes need only be very brief. 305. EXAMPLE"
There was a time when all the body's members Rebelled against the belly, thus accused it : That only like a gulf it did remain I* the midst of the body, idle and unactive, bearing Stillcupboarding the viand, never Like labour with the rest, where the other instruments Did see and hear, devise, instruct, walk, feel, And mutually participate, did minister Unto the appetite and affection common The belly answered : Of the whole body.
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beautifulit may

True is it,my incorporate friends," quoth he, That T receive the general food at first.

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you do live upon ; and fitit is, Because I am the storehouse and the shop Of the whole body ; but if you do remember, I send it through the rivers of your blood, Even to the court, the heart, to the seat o' the brain ; And, through the cranks and officesof man, The strongest nerves and small inferior veins From me receive that natural competency Whereby they live ; though all at once cannot See what I do deliver out to each, Yet I can make my audit up, that all From me do back receive the flour of all, And leave me but the bran." PROSB. IN REPRODUCTION Once upon a time the other members of the body rebelled against the belly. They complained that they had to do all the work of hearing, seeing, speaking, walking, and thinking and received nothing for their labour ; he, on the contrary, ate all the food and grew fat on it, but did nothing. The belly replied that although they were tention quite right hi their conthat he received all the food, this was only a part of the truth. They must remember that without him they could not live. All the hi the food was carefully dispersed by him to every organ of nutrition body ; the brain, the heart, the nerves the all received strength from blood. him through the Possibly each of them could not exactly estimate the share he received ; for his actions he called to account yet, affirmed the belly, if he were could easily show that he gave them all the best part of the food, retaining for himself only the husks.

306. EXPANSION

OF

OUTLINES"

The

excellence of

piece of composition beyond the stage of Reproduction will depend very largely on the method of arrangement of the material,and this arrangement can only be obtained by setting care a scheme or outline on paper beforeattempting out with some to write the composition. At present,however, our main purpose isto furnishmaterialsready to hand, arranged in suitableorder,
each of which is to be expanded into a paragraph or a piece of composition containing several paragraphs. Where the expansion length the outlinesare paragraphed as is intended to be of some an indicationof the paragraphing of the expansion.
307. EXAMPLEULYSSES
AND
THE

CYCLOPS.
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OUTLINE. i. Ulysses
Next
cave.

disembarks reaches country of Cyclops to mainland twelve companions rows with morning No person there, but sheep, goats, milk, cheese.

on

island.
-explores

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await Cyclops. lights fire sees

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eye.

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milks flocks with wood two eats them sleeps. strangers slays men two more goes morning slays and eats
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closes cave. In evening plies him with wine Ulysses plans his downfall. puts 3. but helpless. Ulysses ties in eye Cyclops enraged red-hot stake thus escape from cave reach ship. comrades under rams EXPANSION. In their voyage home from Troy, Ulysses and his comrades arrived on a small one night in the country of the Cyclops, and disembarked They resolved to explore the mainland island in the bay. opposite ; with and, with that intent, Ulysses, taking twelve of his best men Close to the shore they perhim, rowed over thither next morning. ceived a large cave ; they entered, and found therein flocks of sheep being. of milk and cheese, but no human and goats and abundance for themselves to determined the little company Unfortunately The latter a terrible monster the coming of the Cyclops. with await his wont, driving his flocks returned at night, as was only one eye and carrying a bundle of faggots. He entered the cave and closed its mouth After he had milked the goats stone. with an enormous and sheep and lighted a fire he perceived the strangers. He sprang upon two of them, tore them to pieces, and devoured them ; then he he arose, went to sleep. Next morning and, having slain and eaten his flocks, closing the cave behind him. left with two more men, The prisoners spent the day in planning the Cyclops' unhappy destruction. On his return, Ulysses, having plied him with strong red-hot, wine, took a stake of wood which he had pointed and made and with the aid of his comrades thrust it into the monster's eye. The giant shrieked with rage, but could do nothing to avenge himself because of his blindness. Ulysses then tied each of his men under the belly of a ram, next morning and it was thus that they left the cave to the Cyclops ; they regained their ship and continued unknown their voyage in safety.
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Space prevents the insertion of exercises for reproduction the student will find plenty of material for such work in any ; reading-book or book of fables or short tales. The following poems " are of a nature suitable for reproduction in prose : Browning's Incident " Abou ben Adhem," Tennyson's of the French Camp," Leigh Hunt's " " Lady Village Blacksmith," Browning's of Shalott," Longfellow's " from Ghent to Aix." How they brought the good news
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NOTE.

EXERCISES
i.

ON

CHAPTER

XXIII.
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Expand each of the following outlines into a paragraph : (i)The luck ofPoly crates. Pol ycrates always fortunate. Amasis his ally says he is too lucky some evil will come should loved possession. Poly crates loves sacrifice his most beautiful emerald ring throws it in the sea sorrowful. Fisherman brings great fish fish opened the ring inside. Amasis informed renounces the alliance says Polycrates be doomed. Polycrates entrapped by Oroetes must
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(2) Death

HIGHER
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of Ccesar. Caesar returns victorious from Spain honoured by Senate Some at highest point in his career. citizens jealous some private enemies to Caesar plot hatched to murder him. Cassius leads persuades Brutus for good of Rome to join. He joins thinks Caesar too Caesar warned not to attend Senate on Ides of ambitious. March" disregards warning goes. Conspirators close for recall of Publius Cimber from him offer petition round banishment. Caesar refuses is stabbed by Cassius then by rest finally by Brutus dies saying, " Thou too, Brutus." Rhea Silvia daughter of Numitor (3)Romulus and Remus. bears twins babes doomed by usurper Amulius to be drowned in cradle. Tiber overflows cradle washed ashore found by a shepherd babes suckled by wolf grow up Made leaders of herdsmen. to young manhood Quarrel Remus Numitor arises with royal herdsmen captured him hears story of his childhood. sees recognises him Romulus Remus and slay Amulius replace Numitor found Rome. Remus for disobeying Romulus. slain (4)Horatius. Porsena king of Etruria besieges Rome seizes thinks Janiculum only Tiber between him and Rome to cross by Sublician bridge. Romans determine to Etruscans already there to cross. cut it down about Horatius and two other Romans cross and hold that end Bridge against the enemy while bridge is cut through. Horatius sends other two back just timein gives way on. remains himself wounded swims Tiber with armour Rome Horatius publicly honoured. saved (5)Orpheus and Eurydice. Orpheus beautiful player on lute trees, animals, even Has a to hear him. stones come beautiful wife Eurydice dies is carried to Hades she her Orpheus mourns goes to Hades plays lute keepers him. Pluto king of Hades delighted of gate admit to restore Eurydice. She is to with music promises follow Orpheus he must not look back at her. Orpheus departs time looks back Eurydice lost for a after
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Hengest and Horsa invited by Vortistory of Hengest. to help against Picts and Scots. Hengest gern receives Thanet for friends and relations. as a reward sends Arrival of Rowena his daughter Vortigern loves her Christianity and gives Kent for her. Vortigern renounces deposed by Vortimer defeats Hengest son
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Vortimer poisoned Hengest rules S.E. of England. the Great. Gregory sees English youths in Rome as " " their nationality Angli thinks should slaves asks " " be Angeli Asks come they (angels). whence " " " " Deira that means de ira (from wrath). says Determines to undertake is premission to England vented by Romans because of danger. Becomes Pope to Kent ^Ethelbert converted nings beginsends Augustine Christianity in England. of
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(8)Canute.

AND

EXPANSION
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Courtiers flatterCanute say nothing can withstand Canute orders a chair to be brought him. places it on tide not to there to await tide commands the sand sits his feet Canute over Waves gradually wash advance
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points moral to courtiers.

I. of Orleans in St on in boats at night land at Troops conveyed Wolfe repeats Gray's Elegy to officers. Scale cove small British army heights of on precipitous cliffs. At dawn Wolfe orders British battle Montcalm Abraham. gives fire enemy to reserve charge of the within 40 yards in wrist, then in groin, then Wolfe wounded Grenadiers Battle rages fifteen falls and is taken to rear. in breast defeated flee French Montcalm they minutes Wolfe dies capitulation of Quebec firststep wounded. in conquest of Canada. Hilda to Whitby Caedmon. Servant at (10) monastery leaves table when singing ignorant of music and poetry begins. One night leaves table and tends to the cattle is told he is told to sing says he cannot sees a vision is commanded to sing to sing the must asks what beginning of allcreated things. Reports vision to Hilda then of all Old Testament. sings story of Genesis the following outlines into a piece of composition : a. Expand each of II. AND BOLINGBROKE. I. RICHARD Norfolk and Bplingbrokequarrel each accuses (1) other of Richard treason. orders duel at Coventry nobles assemble to witness it Richard stops it banishes Mowbray for life Bolingbroke for ten years. John of Gaunt for his son Bolingbroke sentence reduced to six pleads

(9)Captureof Quebec. Wolfe disembarks

Lawrence
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years. bids farewell goes to France. Richard rules England harshly discontented. John of Gaunt dies Richard seizes lands and treasure to go to uses money in Ireland York left as Regent. war (3)Bolingbroke plots with nobles returns claims his property by joined nobility especially powerful Northumberland is at length York joinshim. Richard II. returns his friends captured deserted by by Bolingbroke Bolingbroke becomes crown. Henry IV. resigns Pontefract. Richard murdered at GREAT. II. ALFRED THE (1)Danes invade England under elder brothers of Alfred Alfred gains experience in war (871) ascends wins Ashdown throne shortly after indecisive battle at Wilton Danes for time leave Wessex Mercia. Alfred wins conquer (875). naval battle at Swanage Alfred disbands (2)Fresh invasion of Wessex by Guthrum flees to Athelney the cakes army and story of story of his entry into Danish camp disguised as a harper prepares for fresh struggle makes several successful sorties. Great battle at Ethandune (3) (878).Danes defeated. Treaty Guthrum to become Christian and to a of Wedmore

(2)Bolingbroke
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Peace for some receive East Anglia and part of Mercia. years. for navy coasts kept (4)Alfred increases fleet trains men some inviolate Hastings lands (893) is defeated of his followers settle. invites scholars from Alfred improves condition of people (5) translates various works establishes schools abroad commerce into English and encourages manufactures Death about 900. collects and revises laws. PRETENDER. III. THE YOUNG leaves Rome Edward sails (1744) arrives Dunkirk (1)Charles for England storm destroys them with eighteen ships Next year sets out with two expedition abandoned. ships one disabled by English fleet lands at Moidart followers. with seven Charles's forces swell to 1600 avoids Sir John Cope" enters (2) take castle takes up Perth cannot enters Edinburgh Palace in Holyrood James VIII. proclaimed residence King, and Charles regent. At Prestonpans defeats Cope latter flees to Berwick. increases forces (3)Charles determines to invade London from that country into England no marches support Highlandeis refuse to go farther. reaches Derby at (4)Charles retreats besiegei Stirling" defeats Hawley Falkirk (1746) Cumberland arrives Charles retreats Battle Cumberland Inverness towards of pursues defeated Charles Culloden about wanders utterly Flora Macdonald him. saves country for five months. Goes on board a French vessel lands in France retires to Rome where dies.
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JAMES II. (1)High Admiral under Charles II. resigns owing to Test Act (1673).Billto exclude him from succession failsin Lords (1680). (2)Succeeds 1685 promises to uphold church and state soon
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suspicions. Regis (1685) proclaimed rebels lands at Lyme king at Taunton him defeated by Feversham 5000 join Sedgemoor forces dispersed he himself captured and at executed. (4)James evades Test Act by " Dispensing Power " gives posts to Roman Catholics interferes with the Universities Declaration of Indulgence orders it to be read publishes in Seven Bishops churches. refuse petition king arrested and tried for libel acquitted. latter (5)Several leading men appeal to William of Orange lands at Torbay desert James Latter flees is many recaptured again flees reaches France. (6)Attempts conquest of Ireland aided by Louis XIV. defeated by William III. at Boyne retires to France S. Germains till his death (1701). resides at

arouses

(3)Monmouth

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V. ACQUISITION (i)Dutch

OF

SOUTH

AFRICA.

earliest settlers.

Capetown

taken

(1795)owing

to

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Cape
across

Napoleonic Wars retaken 1806. restored 1802 Colony sold to English 1814 colonised from 1820. (2)Dutch (Boers) trek north owing to grievances
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finallyacross Vaal. Natal 1836 and into Natal Orange Free State in 1848 but restored 1843 annexed 1854 Transvaal recognised as Republic 1852. fresh Zulu Wars 1879. Transvaal annexed 1877 (3)Zulu Wars Transvaal restored 1881. First Boer War 1880. Transvaal and Orange Free Second Boer Wat 1899-1902. State annexed. occupied 1885 (4)Gradual extension north Bechuanaland founded 1889. Rhodesia occupied. S. African Company COLONIES. VI. Loss OF THE AMERICAN (1)Grenville passes the Stamp Act (1765).Colonists resist Act repealed (1766).Fresh tax refuse to use the paper tea, glass, paper, etc. Agitation in colonies on soldiers in Boston fire on (1770) tea destroyed (1773). mob from Boston to Salem. British transfer custom-house States hold congress at Philadelphia (1775) decide on war (2) Lexington and Washington appointed commander-in-chief Bunker's Hill (1775) British victorious but lose heavily. (3)Declaration of Independence (1776).Brooklyn, Brandywine British victorious on the whole. Creek, Germantown. Burgoyne at Saratoga (1777).French assist (4)Surrender of Colonists henceforth victorious. Surrender Colonists (1778). of Cornwallis at Yorktown (1781). of Colonies (5)Treaty of Versailles (1783).Independence Orange
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3. Arrange the following notes in logical order, and write a piece of composition, using them as a basis : Died 1616. Greatest dramatist. 601111564. Shakspeare, William. Wrote Comedies, Tragedies, Histories. Manager of Theatre and part Actor and writer from 1585. Wrote thirty-five proprietor about 1595. Probably not advanced education. Retired to money. plays. Made Little known of his life. Birthplace Stratford-oncountry about 1612. his forerunner. Obtained plots of Died there also. Marlowe Avon. Henry from Italian tales. VIII." probably his last play, comedies
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his first. Historical plays from Holinshed's Love's Labour's Lost two daughters son. Chronicle and Plutarch's Lives. Had and one Married Anne Hathaway. 4. Arrange and paragraph the following notes, and write a piece of composition, using them as a basis : Heroic actions by English at Balaclava (1854) The Crimean War. " " " Brigade Light Brigade." Heavy France, England, and charge of Russia destroys Turkish Fleet at Sinope Turkey against Russia. and 1853. Real cause of war growth of Russia and attempt to find an outlet for Black Sea Fleet. Sardinia joinsallies 1855. Victory of Lord Raglan at Alma 1854. Mismanagement of war soldiers badly clothed fed. Siege of Sebastopol 1854-5. Victory of Allies at Inkerman and cause a quarrel between Greek and of war 1854 (Nov.). Immediate Land. Peace of Paris 1856. in the Holy Roman Fall of monks Sebastopol 1855 (Sept.). Turkey promises better treatment to Christians. Black Sea fleet to be abolished. Danube opened to commerce.
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CHAPTER
PREPARATIONS
308.

XXIV

FOR

COMPOSITION

dealing with the actual production of a piece in Jj of composition or of an essay we shall, thischapter, indicate the methods by which a student may equip himself with the necessary material. We shallalso summarise the rules to be observed in composition. Most of these have already been ence exemplified in previous chapters ; where such is the case, refer-

TQ

EFORE

to chapter or paragraph

willbe given.
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writing it is A obviouslynecessary to know something about one's subject. good general education should go a long way towards supplying the requisiteknowledge; yet students frequently declare themselves to be unable to write an essay because they know little in hand. This seems to be due or nothing about the
309. THE

SUBJECT

MATTER

Before

subject

mainly to three

causes

:
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Inexperience in setting out (1)

and arranging knowledge which

over
a

they actually possess. (2)Unwillingness to think and ponder first sight may not be interesting. Actual (3)

which subject

at

lack of knowledge. The firstof these defectsmay be remedied by constant practice on the right lines itwillbe our ; aim in the next few chapters to show how matter should be arranged and plans sketched out

before the essay is begun. by perseverance and industry. The second can be overcome Remember that nothing which is worth doing is done easily. The third must be remedied by reading. Where so many be studied,students are inclinedto think that outsidereading isimpossible as well as unnecessary and tedious.
to

have subjects

PREPARATIONS

FOR

COMPOSITION

229

It is, however, absolutelynecessary, as a mere glance at the titles of the essays set in recent years for publicexaminations such as

Matriculationwillshow. And, moreover, ing reading of this nature need not be uninterestin fact,itmay and should be a relaxationfrom the somewhat ; monotonous routine of ordinary study. Habits, good and bad, easilygrow ; and, once seriouslyattempted,reading willbe found
to

London

be the

reverse

of tedious.

310. WHAT

TO

READ"

earnest students: What not easy, owing to the number

on

question is often asked by is shallI read ? An immediate answer

The

almost subjects

of books, ancient and modern, ; and it is a somewhat equally numerous

some thankless task to name and omit others equally good. As the matter is vital, however, an attempt will be here made to offer some guidance in this respect. First of all,it may be well to ask : What are the purposes of reading as an aid to the acquisition three things : composition ? They are chiefly of Knowledge of our Subject. (1)
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A (2) A (3)

good serviceableVocabulary. power of expressionsuch as is found in the best authors in other words, a command of Style.
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It willbe evident, first, that in order to acquire the requisite knowledge some, at least, of our reading matter must consistof
in as works which are instructive such subjects we are likely to be asked to discuss; secondly, in order to secure a good vocabulary, and a faculty of expressing ourselves in the best manner, the best and most careful authors must be read. Essays set for examinations deal for the most part with

Abstract and General Subjects. History,Geography, Literature, With these principlesas a basis,we shall now endeavour to as make our selectionof reading as interesting possible. The is followinglist not intended to be in any way dogmatic, but is designed rather as an indication of the lines to be followed

especially with a view to the requirements of such examinations as the London Matriculation and the Senior Oxford and Cam bridge Local Examinations.

230
311. PROSE

HIGHER
WORKS"

ENGLISH

I. For History and Geography. For (1) the main facts,a good elementary History of Eng land, and a good text-book of Geography.

Ifpossibk) Richard (2) John

Green's " History of the English People," which gives an insight into the development of the nation, politically and socially, should be read. Biographies of great Englishmen, such as Macaulay's (3) Essays on Clive and Warren Hastings. Travels in foreign countries, such as Captain Cook's (4)
Voyages, Prescott's Mexico,
as

such Nansen. II. For General

those of

tions exploraand modern Livingstone, Stanley, and

Subjects.

(1)A shorthistoryof English Literatureshould be read by all. interest (2)Novels : those of R. L. Stevenson (for and beauty of Dickens and Thackeray (for wonderful style), insightinto character and humour), Scott (one two or
those dealing with of the Waverley Novels, especially English History, e.g."Talisman," "Ivanhoe," "Waverley Bulwer Lytton, Kingsley, Stanley Weyman, Anthony "),
others. The leading articles a good daily newspaper. (3) of The better magazines (4) which give a large amount of miscellaneous information about current topics in a small space, and which are themselves mainly composed of Essays. (5)Some Essays : Bacon's, Macaulay's, and the papers in are the Spectator especially suitable. An encyclopaediaof some (6) sort should be at hand for
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purposes reference. of
312. POETRY"

Some students are apt to fightshy of anything in the form of for several reasons. poetry, but such reading is indispensable It

PREPARATIONS
should add
an

FOR

COMPOSITION
our

231

style, and should help us to a more perfect understanding of the words and phrases language. Therefore we find that many of the questions of our set at examinations deal, and rightlydeal, with poetry. Even

elegance and grace to

from thismore mundane point of view, then, some with poetry is necessary.
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acquaintance

The following may be recommended : Shakspeare : one or two plays. The English Historical (1) " appropriate,e.g. Richard II.," plays willbe especially "Henry
V."

C "Juliusaesar"

is also an excellentplay
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(2)A

collection^ Historical Poems or Extracts such as that of Nicklin. Scott : one poem, e.g." Marmion." (3) Milton : part of " Paradise Lost." (4) A (5) few of the shorter masterpieces of English literature, Bard," Macaulay's e.g. Gray's "Elegy" and "The " Armada," Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner," Tennyson's
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313. It is impossible to mention all, a even or great part of be read,eitherin prose or in poetry : we have what may well only been able here to indicatethe lineto be taken. As far as interesting to be at once possibleworks have been chosen that seem

and educative. The student who has a taste for English Literature and it is surprising how this taste will grow by discover what further to read. But even reading will soon those who have no taste for literature should read at least
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similar nature. Apart from mere examination purposes, no one can consider himself truly educated who has not at leastdipped into the vast treasure-house literature that the world has ever seen. of the finest
of the above,
or

works of

that many essays surprising fail hrough carelessnessor ignorance in thisimportant, though elet mentary is English spelling no doubt difficult owing to its subject. inconsistency(" but the ability to spell correctly must be 16); attained in some way or other. It may be helpfulto point out that
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314. SPELLING

It is somewhat

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HIGHER

ENGLISH

English spelling depends at leastas much on the careful observation the eye as on the ear ; hence, in reading,the student should of endeavour to picturein his mind any new word, and if necessary, he should writeitdown so as to fixthe impression. Do not hesitate if dictionary any doubt arisesin writinga word ; a word mis-spelt and leftincorrectis worse than entireignorance of the word.
to consult a

315. HANDWRITING" Good handwriting ismainly a matter to write well of industry and perseverance. Some people seem
; naturally but the very worst writerscan improve wonderfully by but practice. What is wanted is not beautifulor artisticriting, w legible plain, writing such as can be instantly read, and about the
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meaning of which there can be no doubt. Illegible writingis a disgrace to any otherwise well-educated person. With regard to examinations,supposing that the student knows his well,

subject

and expresses himself well,his work will be of little value if the examiner cannot read what has been written ! An examiner will, answer quite properly, subtract marks from a student's when he has to puzzle over the handwriting.

followingrulesrecapitulated from previous chapters and extended should be carefullystudied and committed to memory : (1)Be carefulof Grammar and CorrectOrder of words (Chaps. xv., Practise the correction of faultysentences. xvi.). Avoid Vulgarisms,Provincialisms, Foreign words, and Coined (2) words anything, in short, that is not standard English (Chaps,
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316. RULES

FOR

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"

"

xviii., xix.). (3)Avoid puns, attemptedmartness, or any form of flippancy. s Remember that the Examiner does not want to be amused. (4)Avoid Abbreviations in an Essay, unless it be a few welli.e.,tc. e recognised ones such as : Mr, e.g., Numbers should be written in words ; except dates and large
numbers. (5)Beware of obtruding your own personal ; opinionsavoid the " " " " I and use of me as much as possible.

PREPARATIONS
Avoid (6)

FOR

COMPOSITION

233

or the introduction of politics religion, xcept in so e in hand. far as it may be necessary to the subject introduced such matters should be treatedimpartially, When

and apart from any personal views. or Avoid any attempt at being sentimental appealing to the (7) emotions of the reader. Attempted pathos often degenerates into bathos.
as possible. meaning as clearly and tersely to illegitimate Avoid ambiguity due to wrong order (" 212),

(8)Express

your

or o (" ellipsis 225), to multiplicity f negatives ("263).Be as but take care not to be too brief (" concise as possible; 262). Always try to find the bestword to express your meaning. (9) Study synonyms carefully(" and use the appropriateone in

265),

every

case.

Where

two

or

more

seem

use them equally suitable,

to vary the language, and

repetition. as nice,good, Avoid the frequent use too bad, fine; and be sparingof Adjectives many weaken instead of strengthen the effect. It Study the (10) of subject Punctuation (Chap. xvii.). is the handmaid of clearnessof diction. set (n) Keep to the subject Be sure throughout that you are kindred more writingon what is asked, and not on some
"

thus to avoid monotonous of hackneyed words such

subject

or

less closely connected with the question. This may seem a superfluous piece of advice, yet how many essays fail through this defect! Observe proportion (12) and logical order in all you write.

Take

do comprehensive view of the subject; not write too which pleases you most, or much about the part of the subject with which you are best acquainted. Learn what part of your knowledge to leave out. Paragraph Vary the length and form of your sentences. (13)
a

your Essay

("286, etc.).

that your work should be pleasing both to eye and to ear. It is well for practiceto read your composition aloud in order to see how it sounds. CultivateEuphony to yourself,

Remember (14)

" That hour our troops arrived." as : and thus avoid such jingling Above allthings be natural and simple. Avoid affectation (15)

234

HIGHER

ENGLISH

of word or style ("263), and discard conscious ornamentation. A great writer, who is master of the language, may endeavour to make his writingsas ornate as he can, but you must not.

Sincerity counts
you
mean,

for

good deal, even

in an Essay.

Say what

what you say. and mean Ready to improve your vocabulary,styleand knowledge. (16) Think, before you write. Make up your mind what you (17) are going to say before you write a sentence. Arrange your ideas on paper before beginning your Essay (see next Chapters).

anything that is of importance, eliminate anything superfluous or irrelevant, and look to the
work.

Revise your (18)

Add

punctuation. Practise constantly. Industry and perseverance (19) the high-roadsto successfulcomposition. all,

are,

after

CHAPTER
COMPOSITION

XXV

We 317. /^VRIGINAL COMPOSITION" domain of originalcomposition. fluency of expression which has hithertobeen

now

enter

the

\J

To
our

freedom and

main purpose

be added experiencein the selection and arrangement of material. In this chapter the subjects considered willbe of a fairly elementary nature, such as :
must
now
"

(1)A tale or novel. An (2) event in history. A (3) biography or a reign in history. The geography of a country or region. (4) or (5)Descriptionof a common object process. an event (6) witnessed.
" "

four of these itis necessary to For the first Notes may be made unless already known. read up the subject, be remembered ; but the as to dates and numbers ifthese cannot
318. READING"
notes than necessary while student is warned not to make more be trained; for no notes will be must reading. The memory availableat the examination I It is not advisablefor the beginner to read too many authorities

unavoidable conflictof detailsin the various accounts willonly serve to bewilder him. The necessary informationshould be obtained from one standard author ; be of although the elucidation any particular oint may certainly p looked up elsewhere.
on

the given

; the subject

The next step isthe formation of the OUTLINE" for on it largely outline. This requires careful consideration, depends the success of the subsequent composition.
319. THE

236

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Facts may, in the first down with dates as they place, be jotted They then need arrangement and grouping to the mind. occur under headings; these headings will,in the main, indicate the

paragraphs into which the composition will naturally fall. The actual form of the Outline (and consequently that of the w composition based upon it)illvary according to the nature of the subject shallpresently consider forms of Outlines appro; we priate to the classesof mentioned in " 317.

subjects
"

principlesembodied in Chapters xxii.,xxiii., and xxiv. should be remembered and applied to the composition. The body of the composition on or narrative in charwill simple subjects be mainly descriptive acter. Important featuresare : (i) The beginning ; (2) the end;
320. THE The

COMPOSITION

of transition. It has already been seen that the beginning and the end of a sentence and of a paragraph are important, because they are ginnin positionsof emphasis ("220).This is equally true of the be-

the (3) method

and end of a piece of composition. The beginning should, as a rule,be of an

It may

introductory nature.

"

the of the characters, supply the reader with the names scene of the plot,the circumstances prior to the event described in fact,with any information necessary for the complete understanding

of the main theme. The end should, if possible, be striking a tame finish ; puts a kind of damper on the whole work. The conclusion of a piece task, and requires practice and of composition is a difficult

it If possible, should in some or other gather manner together the threads of the argument. A general remark or an apposite quotation often forms the best possibleending ; but the
thought.

student should beware of any attempt at feeble sentiment or or moralising, of any remark which is not very much to the point of anything,in short,which isobviously an artificial attempt to " The highest art is to conceal make a satisfactory conclusion.
"

art."

Transition is an

important factorin the

success

of

piece of

composition. The

student must

not

jump

from point to point

COMPOSITION

237

the necessary connections ; otherwise the without establishing logicaldevelopment, which all written work should show, will probably not be obvious ; and at best the composition will give
an

impression of jerkiness.
The

conclusion of one paragraph should prepare the mind of Very frequently a sentence will be the reader for the next. but to show the connection needed, not to give any information at all, Useful words and phrases for ever, are : howconnecting paragraphs and sentences in this manner nevertheless, in this way, such was consequently. ., But these words must not be idlyused, and, above all, they must
with the next statement.
. .

not

be over-used.
shallnow

consider the formation of Outlines on the mentioned in " 317, which very fairly represent the chief subjects types of elementary composition. It should be observed that instances, lengthy the outlines more given below are, in some than those which the student will need to prepare for himself, since he willbe able to carry in his mind the detailsof what he h intends to write. At first,owever, we advise him to map out

321. We

his work somewhat fully,as in these outlines; after some experien he will be able to shorten this preliminary work considerably. OR NOVEL Composition on a long tale or " Robinson Crusoe " or " David Copperfield," novel, such as takes us a stage further than the exercises in reproduction given in the last chapter. We have to describe several hundred pages
"

322. A

TALE

many words. Hence condensation is essential; details must be rigidly xcluded ; whole chapters dealing with the advene tures no more than a passing of secondary characters will need reference. The outline drawn up should consist of the main

in

as

of of the book. It will, course, vary considerably to the type of book described; the headings of according the most important chapters will serve as a basis. A factor in the success of the composition willbe sympathy with the subjectmatter and style of the book; an attempt should be made to in or serious enter into the spirit which it is written humorous
events
"

the plot
"

"

238

HIGHER

ENGLISH
will

o grave or gay, instructiver amusing. Sympathetic treatment lend vividnessand attractiveness the composition. to

323. AN
nature
we

HISTORICAL

EVENT"

As

for an
1.

causes
2.

willconsider the descriptionof a outline should include the following: Introduction date of the battle, : circumstances for the battle.
"

example of this battle. The scheme

at the

an

time,

Preliminaries the battle nature of the country, position : of of the armies, theirnumbers, theirleaders. A rough sketch map is of great service. the 3. The fight: its beginning, the turning-point (if

any),

victory. losses on 4. Conclusion : immediate results,

both sides, advantage

if gained by victors. Permanent results, any. As an example, we give an outline of the battle Hastings. of
1.

2.

BATTLE OF HASTINGS. Introduction : At death of Edward Harold the Confessor (1066) William claims crown becomes King vasion : ; reasons prepares inHarold England. fighting Hadrada Tostig of and hurries south. William lands near Hastings. Preliminaries : Harold seizes hill of Senlac surrounds with
" " "

3. The

stockade. fight : English pursue

William orders advance doubtful for some time

"

to attack stockade.
"

become
"

cavalry attack at same stratagem a second time English give way at last. 4. Conclusion : Harold slain Normans pursue their advantage firststep in the Conquest effects on England. For other events than battles, the above scheme will naturally need some modification of detail, though its construction will be on similar lines. As further examples we give : MAGNA CARTA. 1. Introduction : John rules tyrannically quarrels with Church and Barons both under Stephen Langton demand Charter reform drawn up. 2. The signing : Runnymede John forced to sign the scene. 3. Chief Terms : (i)No taxes without consent of Great Council. (2)No freeman imprisoned without trial by his equals. (3)Rights of Church safeguarded. burns and devastates 4. Results: (a)Immediate: John enraged loses property in Wash invasion of Louis death
"

Normans pretend retreat Normans turn N. scattered round English lose heavily time same Norman archers shoot from behind
"
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

of

John.
:
"

(b)Lasting

liberty of citizen and extended.

afterwards

confirmed

COMPOSITION
THE Introduction
TREATY
OF

239
UTRECHT.
"

: War of Spanish Succession since 1702 against France Marl borough's great victories war lags from 1710 to 1713. Preliminaries: meeting at Utrecht 1713. Earl of Strafford and Bishop of Bristol for England. Terms: (i)Louis XIV. to abandon the Pretender and acknowledge Anne and Protestant succession. (2)England to have Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, Gibraltar and Minorca. Allies to have certain advantages. (3) Results : gave England beginnings of Colonial much needed peace Empire in America Gibraltar : importance.
" " "

BIOGRAPHY" Composition of this nature is rather difficult.irst all, more F the materialhas sometimes to be picked of out piece by piece from a mass matter ; thus for a of irrelevant biography of Wellington we should have to select our material from a historyof the reigns of George III.,George IV., William IV., and Victoria,unless we happened to have a " Life of Wellington " to consult. Then, as our composition is to be comparatively short,the materialdiscovered must be condensed : details must be omitted and due prominence given to the important points
324. A

Lastly, reflective remarks are generally of the hero's career. necessary : thus, an estimate of the hero's character and influence is required. In this class of composition an introduction is generallyunnecessary. The scheme for an outline should include

the following:
"

life birthplaceand date" parentage" surroundings. : Education youthful deeds or aspirations. Career : development rise in position or in fame. Work (2) Early (1)
"

"

or

writingsby which best known. Last years : death. (3) Conclusion : character and influence effectsof work (4) the future. : As examples we give the following
"

on

"

NELSON.
I.

Thorpe. Father a clergyman. Early life: Born 1758 at Burnham As a boy weak in body but daring in mind. Midshipman goes Glow of patriotism. to Polar regions : to India.
"

240
a.

HIGHER
Career
:

ENGLISH
"

modore. ComBastia : and Calvi" loses an eye. knighted Bravery and skill at St Vincent Teneriffe loses an arm. Admiral. made and Lady Hamilton. Marriage meets attacks French (b)The Nile 1798 follows Buonaparte Nelson wounded brilliantvictory at Alexandria made Baron. The Baltic 1 80 1" refuses to see signal" terriblebattle (c) Nelson. Viscount great victory the battle" Trafalgar causes" Death: vigilance for years (d) 3. death of Nelson (Oct. 2ist, 1805). the signal in saving England" 4. Conclusion :" his character" effectof his work England expects that every man his motto will do his duty."

(a)Besieges

"

"

"

"

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"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAUCER.
1.
" "

Page to Lionel duke of Early life: Born probably 1340 in London in France Clarence released 1 360. soldier taken prisoner Death of Compleynte to Pity 1368," 2. Career : (a)Early works: Blanche the Duchesse 1369." Goes to Italy on diplomatic affairs influence of Dante (b) writes "Troylus and Creseide." and Boccaccio a gradual compilation If)The Canterbury Tales his chief work description of contemporary of narration power life. Hous Parlement ol of Foules," (d)Other works : Legend of Good Women," Fame," etc. officer patronised by John of Gaunt 3. Later years : Customs " Compleynte becomes writes poor 1386 of Parliament member for rest of life. his Purse to receives pension Abbey. buried in Westminster Death in 1400 " Father of English Poetry welds English and 4. Conclusion : first great poetry in English French elements of language influence on later poetry.
"

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"

akin to a biography, It a method of treatment. thissubject requires somewhat different is not only the life of the sovereign, but also that of the nation during his reign that is required. A listof the chief events of be made, and from these an the reign (with ates) should first d outline developed. As proportion is an important feature in a
325. A REIGN

IN HISTORY"

Though

of subject

this kind, the events should be divided into three or to four groups, and the amount of space to be allotted each group roughly estimated. Each group willprobably require a paragraph It (orin some cases two paragraphs).is not necessary nor indeed advisable to mention each event of the reign in exact
" "

chronological order : the groups will probably overlap, but as possible they should be treated in order of sequence.

as

far

COMPOSITION
Example
:"

241
I.
"

EDWARD

The events of this reign may be grouped under three headings : (i)Conquest of Wales, (2)War with Scotland, (3)Home policy and as follows : The outline should be somewhat reform. 1. Introduction : dates of reign 1272-1307. from Crusades. returns home 1274. Edward 2. Wales :" does homage. surrenders 1277. Llewellyn defeated 1282. Llewellyn and David rebel former slain, latter executed. 1284. Edward's son born and created Prince of Wales. 1286. Conquest completed. 3. Scotland : favours Balliol. Edward 1291. Scottish claimants Balliol revolts Edward Surrey defeats captures Berwick 1296. Scots at Dunbar., 1297. Wallace rebels defeats English at Cambuskenneth. defeats Wallace at Falkirk. 1298. Edward Wallace executed. Stirlingtaken 1304-5. Edward Bruce rebels defeats English marches 1306. Younger his son promises to complete the Carlisle near north -dies conquest. 4. Home affairs : titles inquired into. of Barons checked 1278. Power Power of Church limited Mortmain. 1279. constitution. 1295. First representative Parliament Great and Forests. Confirmation of Charters 1297. character 5. Conclusion : Edward's strong, brave, firm ; ruled in liberty revision of laws by Reign prosperous advance well. " Edward. Called English Justinian."
"
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326. GEOGRAPHY

OF

COUNTRY

In thisexercise the multitude of factsat our bewildering; a complete descriptionof a country would often need is Some skill therefore necessary in the a dozen pages or more. in of selection material. Further, there isa difficulty arranging the

OR DISTRICTdisposalis somewhat

material so that the subsequent composition may be a coherent, readable account, and not merely a stringof facts. for differentcases, but the The outline may vary considerably following may be adopted as a general outline for a country :
"

The country: situation boundaries size. (1) (2)Natural features: chief rivers mountains bays
"
"

"

"

"

capes

"

lakes. Special natural advantages climate. : industries trade. (3)Political population chieftowns (4)Communications: natural, e.g. waterways artificial, e.g.
"
"

"

"

"

railways. Q

242
defences.

HIGHER
"

ENGLISH
"

(5)Government

history possessions

or

colonies
"

national

(6)Conclusion :
Example
1.

positionamong the nations

"

prospects.

:
"

2.

SWITZERLAND. by Germany Switzerland : centre of Europe (N), surrounded F Austria (E), Italy (S),rance (W)" twice size of Wales. Natural features : very mountainous, Jura (W), Alps (Central, East, and South). Glaciers.
"

Rhone, Po, Inn. Rivers : Rhine (with Aar), Lakes : Constance, Geneva, Zurich, and many others. Climate : healthy severe winter. 3. Political: population 3^ millions most in west. Towns : Berne (capital), Geneva, Zurich, Basle, Neuchatel, Lucerne. Industries : agriculture, cattle, cheese ; watches, carving, silk
" "

chief passes (Simplon and railways over S. Gotthard tunnels) rivers mostly unnavigable. ; and Army 5. Government: president cantons. republic two Houses History uneventful. conscription. 6. Conclusion : Peaceful industrious. Scenery noted. poor
"
"

and cotton. : roads 4. Communications

"

"

"

"

As
1.

an

example of

different nature
"

we

take

:
"

rises Cotswold Hills flows East the South of England to North Sea. 2. Course and Tributaries : receives Cherwell at Oxford, then Thame left bank. on Through at chalk hills and receives Kennet Reading on right ; then Colne on left,and Wey and Mole on right. Broadens out at London into an estuary, receiving Lea and Roding on left ; then Medway right. Tidal up to Teddington 80 miles up. biscuits ; bishopric ; Reading 3. Towns : Oxford university Eton ; Brentford ; London college ; Windsor royal residence largest city, greatest port in world 4 " millions ^ of exports over " of imports docks ; Woolwich arsenal ; Gravesend and Tilbury Sheerness London ; Chatham, end of port of military bishopric. and naval stations fortified; Rochester Conclusion : important waterway for south 4. rich agricultural land scenery pretty.
"

THE RIVER THAMES Introduction: length 215 miles

across

M (Sketchap).

"

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"

OF COMMON CESSES OBJECTS OR PROThis may include the description a common of object as an apple,a butterfly, dog, or a an or science lesson. such of object Such work is serviceablenot only as practicein composition, but intrinsically. ow many science H students do we find who, while they know their well, subject are utterlyunable to express their knowledge with the clearness which a answer demands ! scientific
"

327. DESCRIPTION

COMPOSITION
Besides power
"

243

of expression, another quality,will be here required power of observation. If two students are set to describe an placed before them, or an experiment they object it have witnessed, is surprisinghow different theirwork will be. One willgive such an account that any one reading itcan picture like or exactly how the experiwas to himself justhat the object ment w information, so little even proceeded ; the other will give that the reader will though he uses as many words as the first, described, or to understand the fail to distinguishthe

object

of the experiment performed. This difference willbe due largelyto power ofobservation. To observe a thing is not merely to look at it; good observation
nature

comprehension of requirescareful examination and an intelligent the parts which go to make up the whole, and of their intimate connection and interdependence. for the description of an A general scheme will object include : 1. Definition, where possible.
"

Occurrence. 3. Modes of preparation,ifany. or 4. Properties characteristics. 5. Uses. This willof course need modificationfor the special type of dealt with, e.g.No. 3 will be omitted entirely the case in object of a living object. For the description an experiment the different of stages of the
2.

process and their results should be noted, and the final result which the experiment was intended to prove or illustrate should form the conclusion. Examples :
"

HYDROGEN.
1. 2.

Occurrence Preparation

:
:

free in the sun, combined in water, acids, etc. (i)Zinc and dilute acid (sketch). (2)Sodium and water. (3)Other methods (verybriefly).
"

Equations wherever possible. Properties : very light colourless gas" insoluble in 3. water to form water does not support combustion, etc. 4. Uses : balloons, oxy-hydrogen flame, etc.
"

burns

244
1.

HIGHER

ENGLISH

2.

LEAD. OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY Placed piece of Lead on pan of accurate balance : counterpoised with weights. from one arm Suspended same of balance by thread ; allowing is completely under water contained in lead to hang so that it beaker. Counterpoised with weights. = x grams. Wt. in air Wt. in water = y grams. Difference
= =

3. Specific Gravity of

x-y grams. wt. of water displaced by lead. wt. of an equal vol. of water. wt. of lead = Lead
wt.

*
=

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

x-y. of equal vol. of water THE HORSE. Mammal, Quadruped, One-toed (hoof). Allied to Ass, Zebra, and long-haired tail. Quagga differs from them in long mane Rarely Colour: (examples). zebra. very varied striped as Height : up to six feet when domesticated. Occurrence : (a)domesticated everywhere tamed at very early : originally in steppes of Europe ; (b) and Asia : wild period from America Australia. orig. absent and Habits : herbivorous in wild state : live in droves in open country. Reaches thirty years : not used after sixteen. Breeds : agricultural, carriage, cob, etc. Use : traction riding war racing. After death : flesh, mane hide, bones, hoofs. and tail, Conclusion : substitution of mechanical inventions cycle, motor, train, etc.
"

"

"

"

"

"

in the of subjects the last paragraph, careful observationis needed. There may be
328. AN

EVENT

WITNESSED"

Here,

as

many thingswhich happened during the time of the event, more or less closely connected with it. A careful selection of these must be made, and then they may be incidentally mentioned but

description should be as vivid as of possible. There will be scope in subjects this nature for individuality. No two persons would personal reflection and probably describean event likea shipwreck in the same manner, for different even though both were equally observant, aspects of the situation people. would appeal to different
not

fully described. The

Example
i.

:
"

THE
"

BOAT
"

RACE.
"

favourites. Preliminaries : The previous practices -Cambridge Mortlake. Date time fixed for start your position, e.g.at The crowds on banks ; amusements stilts cheapclown on jacks conjurerscocoa-nut shies Aunt Sally. boats The river barges steamers on the advertisement launches.
" "

"

"

"

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"

COMPOSITION
2.
"

245

Conservancy launch clears river. The Race : Thames The start gun heard. The first sight cheering of spectators. Cambridge leads. The boats nearer The Press boats and steamers following. light blue by two lengths 3. Conclusion : victory of Cambridge flag goes up on Barnes Bridge enthusiasm of crowd. Record of victories of Oxford and Cambridge.
" " "

"

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

XXV.

Write

piece of composition

from each of the outlines given in

a

this chapter. 2. Use each of the following outlines as from 300 to 600 words in length :
"

basis for

tion, piece of composi-

(1)Born
"

A BECKET. I. THOMAS London Educated at Oxford parents Norman. 1119 at Paris placed in household of Theobald, Archbishop of and by his Canterbury sent to Bologna to study law returns .help of Canterbury and Provost of Beverley. made Archdeacon II. appointed Chancellor 1157 to Henry given (2)Recommended becomes several baronies very rich his pomp and retinue. Made tutor to king's eldest son supports king in everything. (3)On death of Theobald becomes Archbishop of Canterbury (1162). Conduct towards king changes stands up for Church against defeats an king and barons unjusttax. barons pass Constitutions of Clarendon Henry (1164) and bishops and abbots to do homage and clergy to be tried hi Becket demurs is summoned to attend civil courts. goods by the king flees to France confiscated supported by Louis VII. and the Pope. Becket returns (1170) received with joy by people excom(4) municates banishes various clergy. Henry furious lets and Four knights swear fallhasty words. secretly to avenge Henry. The knights proceed to Canterbury (5) confront Becket, who forbids to defend him monks attempt to drag him out of the church. Murder of Becket (1170).
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(6)Character
"

capable statesman and prelate Church spirit sincere defends against beloved by the people.
" "

intrepia and noble royal aggression

"

II. THE BILL OF RIGHTS. William of Orange lands in England (1) James'sfriends desert to Parliament him Convention to William meets offers crown Mary Declaration of Rights (1689) thisbecomes and publishes law as the " Bill of Rights." (2)Chief Provisions : (1)Dispensing or suspending power of Crown illegal. (2)Court of Ecclesiastical Commission illegal. (3)Levying taxes without consent of parliament illegal. (4)Keeping standing army in times of peace illegal. fO Subjects' right to petition the sovereign. (6) Freedom of election and of speech in parliament.
" " " "
"

"

246

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Parliament to be held frequently. to be King William and Queen, then their and Mary Papists if any, then Anne and her descendants children to be excluded. (3)Importance : Divine right and discretionary power of Crown legal powers limited Monarchy disappears henceforth of freedom and importance of Commons Crown defined asserted. Corpus as bulwark of Ranks Carta and Habeas with Magna English Liberty.

ill

"

"

"

"

WAR. PENINSULAR III. THE has conquered Napoleon master of most of continental Europe (1) Holland, Italy ; finallycrushed Austria at Austerlitz and Prussia Has his brother England victorious. at Jena ; only on sea Spaniards resist and rise king of Spain Joseph proclaimed to Portugal England sends an resolves to assist them army under Wellington (1808). (2)Wellington defeats French at Roh'9a and Vimiera (1808) is superseded Portugal. by Dalrymple, who allows French to evacuate turns and defeats Soult Sir John Moore retreats to Corunna covers troops. (1809) of embarkation and (1809) wins Talavera (1809) (3)Wellington in supreme command holds lines of Torres Vedras (1810) defeats Massena at Busaco and (1810) Fuentes d'Onoro (1811). Beresford wins Albuera defeats and Ciudad Rodrigo (1811).Wellington takes Badajos (1812).Wins enters Madrid main French army at Salamanca border (1813). drives French across Vittoria and The Pyrenees France invaded Soult defeated at Toulouse (1814). is defeated at Leipsic. fails in Russia (4)Napoleon meanwhile Owing to this and to Peninsular war abdicates and retires to Elba. ZEALAND. IV. NEW by The Islands : North, South, Stewart (small)surrounded (1) England Pacific Ocean Size of 1000 miles S.E. of Australia. and Wales. (2)Natural features : Mountains : N. all over ; S. range along West. Rivers : unimportant. Lakes : N. Taupo ; S. Te Anau others. and many Bays : N. Hauraki Bay Gulf, Hawke ; (few harbours) S. Tasman Bay, Milford Sound (goodharbours). Capes : N. Maria Van East, Palliser, Egmont Diemen, ; S. Farewell, West, East Head. West. Stewart : SouthClimate : resembles that of British Isles. Soil fertile. (3)Political: Population 1,000000. Towns : N. Wellington, Auckland, Napier ; S. Christchurch, Port Lyttleton, Dunedin. Industries : corn, timber, gold, coals, sheep, cattle. Exports : wool, frozen meat, corn, gold. Communications : railways frequent. Government : Part of British Empire, self-governing Colony ; Governor and two Houses democratic. advanced (6)Conclusion : History : discovered by Capt. Cook 1770 Maori Wars, etc. Education: elementary (free), secondary, very good Nation prosperous race beautiful and varied. scenery good
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it!

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COMPOSITION
V. SUGAR.

247
"

crystalline sweet. thence to the East thence to Spain W. Indies now cultivated in British Guiana, Mauritius, also Ceylon, United States. In W. Indies Natal, Fiji, ueensland, Q by Guiana sometimes originally by slaves now and worked Indian coolies. Not much used in Europe before i8th century. becomes rich : canals supplied with fresh (3)Growth. Land dyked Canes grown from cuttings from stem water when possible. light and air as possible worst rows as much planted in even inches thick. high, grow 8-15 feet weeded out i"-2 (4) Manufacture : Canes cut down when ripe brought down to factories by canals crushed, torn into shreds, or macerated with hot water or steam purified often sugar crystallised out further refined hi Europe.
" " " " " " "

CiaH^On i 1 ) Carbohydrate (2)Occurrence : originally in

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

3. Throw
:
"

into the form of continuous narrative the following summary

of events A.D. 1640.

Attack on The Long Parliament hi November. meets King's Ministers. Impeachment of Strafford. Arrest of Archbishop Laud. Triennial Bill passed. 1641. Feb. March." Trial of Strafford. The charges against Strafford not amounting April-May. to high treason, he is charged under a Bill of Attainder and executed. Bill providing against solution or adjournment disParliament without its own of
"

"

consent.

Ship-money declared illegal. Courts of Star Chamber abolished. and High Commission Recess of Parliament. Sept. -Oct." to the King. Nov. Remonstrance Grand presented Division between Cavaliers and Roundheads firstapparent. Commons Attempted 1642. Jan. arrest of five members. demand control of militia. May. Falkland, Hyde, a of peers and and number Commons of the secede to the King. members July 12. Army raised for the "defence of King and Parliament." Essex made Captain-General. Aug. 22. Charles raises Royal Standard at Nottingham.

June.
"
"

"

"

"

"

(M)
4. Construct
as
"

from the following notes, as well as from your own ledge, knowan as can the geography of Austriaaccount of good you

Hungary : Austria-Hungary, Largest country in Europe, except a monarchy. Russia. for great variety of configuration, climate, Remarkable languages, and governments. races, Boundaries : Russia, Germany, the Adriatic, etc. Mountain Systems : Alps, Carpathians, Bohemian, Moravian and
Plains

ranges. : Lower

Austria, Hungary,

and Slavbnia.

248

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Rivera : Danube, Dniester, Adige, Vistula, Elbe. Gulfs : Trieste, Quarnero, Cattaro. Population : Germans, Slavonians, Roumanians, Magyars, Internal Communications. Cities Resources Trade (M)
" "
"

etc.

5. Write following :
"

paragraph, not exceeding

one

page in length, on each of the

The Feudal System. Evening. The Rhine. The character of Henry VI L (5)Sunday. (6)A wild animal. (7)Wild flowers. (8)The rebellion of Jack Cade. (9)An English county. (10)The Sun. Water. (12)A politicalmeeting. 6. Write a short paragraph.explaining and illustratinghe following : t " More haste, less speed." (1) " (2)" A burnt child dreads the fire." (3) All that glitters is not gold." (4)" Familiarity breeds contempt." (5) Too many cooks spoil the broth." (6)" A new broom sweeps clean." (7)" A friend in need is a friend indeed." (8) Honesty is the best policy." Draw up an outline and write a short piece of 7. composition (300-400 words) on each of the following : (1)A day in school. (2)Natural features of one of the English counties. (3)The battle of Waterloo. (4)The conquest of Ireland in Henry II.'sreign. (5)Your favourite novel. (6)Clive. vw

(11)

"

"

"

"

"

(7)Japan.
An ancient building you have visited. A walk in the country. The bicycle. 10 Tea or Coffee. II 12 South Africa. The barometer. 13 The reign of Elizabeth, 14 General Gordon. Wolfe. 17 Minor British Possessions. 1 8) The Restoration of 1660. Spring and Autumn (19) : a comparison. (20 Cardinal Wolsey. (21 A storm. The Revolution of 1688. Country lifeand town life: a comparison. An important town in England. "

II

'

\7,-*.-._ /"_.

:A_

"

CHAPTER XXVI
THE
329.
to

ESSAY

npHE ESSAY is the highest form of Composition. It i JL is intended,by description,llustration, criticism, and

and expound a particular subject, to give expression to our in as a thoughts on that subject as clear and beautiful manner place, original; possible. Hence the Essay must be, in the first find it in any book of reference, although the main we cannot factsto be utilised can no often be thus discovered; and further, in exactly the two people will probably treat the same

subject

same

way. Then, again, the Essay must

be critical itisin this respect a ;

than a mere piece of composition which, ambitious exercise language what we broadly speaking, only reproduces in our own have read. In the Essay we have to examine materialsat hand,
more

we the suitableand rejecting unsuitable, the and besidesselecting have to apply our own judgment the result to Essay-writing should therefore not only improve our command

of English; it should also serve to strengthen our reasoning faculties.Very frequently we have to treat of a controversial ; then both sides of the case must be estimated with great subject care conclusion formed from the and impartiality, and our own

data set forth.

Before puttingpen to paper it is essential obtain a clear understandingof what the to subject set for the Essay means and what is itsscope.
330. SCOPE

OF

THE

ESSAY"

" in Uneasy liesthe head that wears For instance, the subject, a crown," the main idea on which the Essay should be builtis that those who have the greatest position in this world have also "A penny and anxiety. In the great responsibilities

subject,

250

HIGHER

ENGLISH

the main idea is economy and saved is a penny gained," thrift (2) Again, let us consider the subjects: Shakspcarc, The (i) The Works (3) Life Shakspeare. of ofShakspearc, essay An inexperiencedwriter would consider that the same in other words, he might be written equally well on all three" to would fail understand the scope of his subject The firstis the most general of the three. It may be treated on the broadest lines,and should certainly include a general to his appreciation of the genius of Shakspeare, with references in works, and should touch on his personal historyand the times which he lived. The second should deal almost entirely with his works their nature, theirbeauties, and the genius they display.
"

third is a biography pure and simple ; reference will, of come be made to Shakspeare's works, but only as they course, into the course of his life.
The

A clear idea of the meaning of the title the Essay and itsscope having been obtained,the subject of on thought out. Various authorities the should then be carefully should be consulted,and notes may be made on anything subject suitable. There isa great art even in such an apparently simple
331. PRELIMINARIES"

taking notes j they should be briefand to the point. to the mind, and any apt Then any originalideas which occur bearing on the should proverb,or illustration quotation,
matter
as

subject

be

down in any order. Next, the Essay should be planned jotted Main headings on each of which a paragraph is to be out. built up should be carefullychosen ; and the various items of informationpreviously noted somewhat at random should now be
" "

this has been accomplished, arranged under these headings. When a clear conception should have been obtained of how the Further informationor ideas willprobably now Essay will run.
occur

t line mind ; and these should be added brieflyo the outin appropriateplaces. Finally, when the outline is as satisfactorynd as perfect as the a time at our disposal willallow, the Essay may be begun.
to the

THE
We

ESSAY

251

should advise the student to spend at leastone-sixthof his time in thinking out the subject drawing up his outline,and and about three-quartersin writingthe Essay, thus leaving about onetwelfth for revisionand correction. That is,ifan hour is given for the Essay period and thisis somewhere about the maximum allowablefor the Essay at Matriculation ten minutes or a quarter of an hour may be devoted to the outline and five minutes to
"

"

revision. In this case

pages.

the length of the Essay should be two

or

three

The rules given in Chapter xxiv. should be thoroughly If only they are borne in mind, and what is more important studied. difficult, though more acted upon, the student will not go far wrong in his his work he being, probably, not a genius though essay-writing, even our not be of the high literarymerit of some may of classicalessayists.
"
" "

NOTE.

A cursory glance at 332. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS" the subjects for Essays at various examinations will show us set in theirgreat variety almost any subject any form may be given. ; It is consequently impossible to divide Essays into classeswhich overshall be mutually exclusive; there must needs be some lapping,

and there must

of necessity be

some

which fallinto no

classat all. however, the following classification With this restriction, will be found useful:
"

I. Essays II.
333. ESSAYS
are
"

on
"

Subjects. Abstract Subjects.

Concrete

ON

CONCRETE

included those for which some as a basis. Such Essays will be mainly of a descriptiveor narrative have its character,though reflection and criticism willalso treatedin the last chapter fallunder place ; most of the subjects thisheading. Concrete Essays may be subdivided according as they deal
with :
"

SUBJECTS" In this class or facts materialcan be utilised

Alfred the Great, The Norman Biography : e.g. Dynasty, The Hundred Years' War. Progress : t,g.England under the Tudor" (2)Socialor Political

History or (1)

252
The Rise and Parliament.

HIGHER
Progress of
e.g. The

ENGLISH
Party Government,

The

English

Nile, The Lakes of Europe, The Race, Balkan Peninsula,Climate and its effectson the Human Great Rivers of America, Novels, The A : Literature e.g. description one of Scott's of (4) Works of Shakspeare, Poetry of the Nineteenth Century, The

(3)Geography:

English Drama.

Science : (5)

The manufacture of Steel,Modern e.g. of Science,The Sun. Town holidays,

tions applica-

: e.g. A (6)Miscellaneous subjects

Summer

Storm at Sea, A Strike, and Country life.

THE

334. CHARACTER

OF

ESSAY"

help has Sufficient

on of already been given (Chapter xxiv.) simpler subjects this The arrangement and method of drawing up outlines nature. for an Essay. The main difference should willbe equally suitable

be in the actual composition. work

We

have

now

to ensure

that

our

to a answer shall not appear as a fragment, as a mere b a question, but as a treatiseon the subject little ook, in fact. The Essay must therefore be a unity in itself.Although, as has
"

been said, Essays on Concrete will subjects be in the main or descriptive narrative in nature, much of the success of the in Essay will depend upon the thoughtful and judicial manner which the
at subject our

disposalistreated. NOTES"
We will now

consider an example in each of the above sub-divisions. The subjects complex nature than those of the selected will be of a more previous chapter.
THE (i)
What

335. EXAMPLES

AND

NORMAN

DYNASTY.

include? Briefly, Essay is required does this an subject which deals with the rule of the Norman kings. As it is a very care covering a long period (1066-1154),must be general

subject

exercisedthat informationon any one point be not too detailed. The Conquest and the battle of Hastings will (after few a form a natural starting-pointbut itwould introductory ;

remarks)

THE

ESSAY

253

be absurd to spend a great part of the Essay over a description that event might of the battle of Hastings, however interesting We shallhave to consider : be. The The The diate (i) Normans as a race; (2) Conquest; (3) immeThe individual changes in England due to that event ; (4) Norman monarchs and the chief events of their reigns; (5) The lasting effect of the Norman On English laws and rule (a)
"

the language. In this manner The OUTLINE we make up our rough notes. to be based on thislittle analysiswill be somewhat as follows:
customs

On (b)

the country generally ;

O (c)n

"

in Normandy before 1066. Norman Introduction : The Normans influences in England under Edward the Confessor. Hastings Preliminary : William claims the crown Harold's difficulties Norman dynasty in England begins. William I. (1066-1087) Continuation of the Conquest : English Rebellions The Feudal System and Government. William II. (1087-1100) war : with Robert quarrel with Church character. Henry I. (1100-1135)conciliation of English : charter, marriage, Normans war justice with French quarrel with Church character. Stephen (i Wallingford. retrograde movement 135-1154): Civilwar Effects of Norman rule : Feudal system established. Normans dominant but gradually mix with Saxons. Language modified by Norman French. Education and church unproved. England ruled well.
" " " " " "

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

THE (2)

ENGLISH

PARLIAMENT.

This is a fairly history. We have to selectour straightforward matter from almost every reign,but the limits an essay willnot of permit of too detaileda treatment. l After a briefnotice of the institutionseading up to the Parliament, Its foundation; (2) Dewe velopme shall have to deal with (i) Increase in power of Commons up to the Tudors ; (3) Predominance of the Commons under the Stuarts; (4) under the Present constitution nd power of both Houses. Hanoverians ; (5) a
OUTLINE.

Introduction : (i)Witenagemot under Saxons : King, royal family, Powers Archbishops, Bishops, Ealdormen. theoretically great but at will of the king. (a)Great Council under Normans : constitution nearly same : generally called three times a year.
"

254
(3)Under

HIGHER

ENGLISH

John,rising of Barons and Clergy prepare the way Parliament. for a Parliament" Foundation: (i)The "Mad really only summoned for reprede Montfort's scheme Simon Great Council. sentative by civil wars. delayed government" bishops, clergy, barons, two (2)1295. First real Parliament knights from each shire, two burgesses from each borough. Development: appeals to them (i)Edward III. calls Parliament for money. Division into two houses about 1338. demand Commons treasuryaccounts under Richard II. gradual establishment of right to control finance. IV. to Henry IV. and Edward Parliament grants crown (4) reasons. Decrease in power during Wars of Roses larly Parliament meets irreguEarly Tudor sovereigns supreme in power under Elizabeth begin to rise Commons
" "
"

"

"

II

"

"

"

w (i)Quarrelsith James I. Parliaments of Charles I. Petition of Rights (1628) The Short Parliament the Long Parliament (1640) Civil Commons War triumphant. Bill of Rights. (3)The Revolution 1688. Limited Monarchy. Beginnings of Party Government. Reasons. Predominance under the Georges. Union with Scotch Parliament (1707)nd with Irish (1801). a (5) Peers Spiritual and House Present Constitution : (i) "n of Lords

Increase of power

to object

monopolies.
:
" "

(2)Early

"

"

"

it!

"

"

Temporal. House of Commons numbers Rights and privileges. Work and methods.
"

English, Scotch, Irish.

III. THE

GREAT

RIVERS

OF

AMERICA.

Chief : St Lawrence, Mississippi,Amazon. Less important : Mackenzie, Yukon, Rio Grande del Norte, La Plata, Orinoco. St Lawrence : (i)Vast system of lakes and river total length 2000 flows E. into Atlantic. river alone 700 miles miles (2)Lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario. Rapids avoided by canals, esp. Welland avoiding Niagara. Tributary : Ottawa (left). Towns River or Lakes : Duluth, Chicago, Detroit (U.S.) on Toronto, Montreal, Quebec (Canada). and United (5)Great waterway useful for central Canada States. drains whole of U.S. Mississippi: (i)Flows S. into G. of Mexico Rockies and Appalachians between length with Missouri 4000 miles. (2)Tributaries : Missouri (1400miles from source to junction), Ohio (left), Arkansas and Red River (right). City (3)Towns : S. Paul, Minneapolis, S. Louis, Kansas Cincinnati and Louisville (Ohio), Vicksburg, New Orleans (at
" " " "
" "

(Missouri^,

mouth).

THE
Amazon
:

ESSAY
"

255
4000 miles from basin equal to estuary
"

(i)Flows
to

Andes Russia Madeira (right). (2)Chief Tributaries : Negro (left), towns No important countay undeveloped great possi(3) bilities forest land (selvas) tropical abundant animal and plant life. Great Bear and Great Mackenzie : connected with lake system into Arctic Ocean tributaries Athabasca flows Slave and Peace, flows through desolate country Yukon : length 2400 miles gold. Rio Grande del Norte : 1400 miles north of Mexico scanty rainfall. La Plata : immense and Uruguay estuary formed by Parana with Buenos Ayres at mouth. Parana 2300 miles Orinoco : 1 500 miles tributaries. many
"

Brazil E. through Atlantic very broad

length

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

IV. THE

ENGLISH

DRAMA.

Origin

(i)Religious

"

at firstpart of Scriptures recited dramatically

"

from Life of Christ, e.g. Resurrection. mainly from Old Testament and Lives of from church: 1268 Guilds acted outside : whole cycles of these plays. Object popular instruction hi religion. (3)Morality plays next step Virtues and Vices as persons. (4)Interludes short farces transition to regular drama. Udall's Roister Doister," : (i)First Comedy Elizabethan Drama Sackville and Norton's "Gorboduc," First Tragedy 1561. 1562. Several plays translated. Marlowe (2)Early dramatists Greene, Peele, Lyly, Lodge, Nash. forerunner of Shakspeare Tamburlaine, wrote Jew of II. Malta, Dr Faustus, Edward (3)Shakspeare : greatest dramatist of the world : his plays : his genius. Fletcher, Massinger, Ford, Webster (4)Jonson, Beaumont, decay of Elizabethan drama. gradual : degenerate coarse Restoration Drama mainly comedy showing Dryden, manners. Congreve, Wycherley, contemporary Influenced by French drama. Vanbrugh, Farquhar. " She Stoops to Conquer," Later Drama : (i)Goldsmith Sheridan School for Scandal Rivals and sentimental comedy brilliant wit. (2)Present day drama mainly non-literary.
events
"

in church. (2)Mystery Plays Miracle Plays Saints. Acted

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

MODERN SCIENCE OF V. APPLICATIONS IN TIMES. Main : objects (i)Health and Comfort, (2)Commerce. Health and Comfort : (i)Surgery instruments new more
"
"

perfect

methods. discovery of bacilli. Knowledge of diseases Sanitation hygiene new disinfectants (3) and methods public health. (4)Anaesthetics avoidance of pain. (5)Nursing.

(2^

"

"

"

"

"

256

HIGHER
(6)Medicine drugs and (7)Electricity X-rays,
" "

ENGLISH
their effects. induction coil. more more and

Commerce

(i)Machinery
"

"

perfect
"

increases

manufactures,

e.g.cotton.

(2}Steam-power : railways, steamboats. development. a new (3)Motor-traction Light gas. (4) electricity, (5)Telegraph, telephone, wireless telegraphy,
"

electric bells,

clocks, etc.

(6)Chemical processes" (7)Sound gramaphone

"

NOTE.

The branch
"

indigo, gas, coal-tar products. for amusement. is a general one : a student of any particular above outline of science, e.g. engineering, would naturally treat that
fully, though
he should not omit the others.

branch rather

more

HOLIDAYS. VI. SUMMER fine holidays : Summer time for longest weeks usually some longest days. warm weather Objects Holiday : rest after work of the year, change from routine of for preparation future work. of everyday life, Holiday Resorts : chiefly of three kinds : hot and relaxing (1)Seaside: cool and bracing (East Coast), tages AdvanClevedon or Yarmouth. or lively, ; e.g. (South) quiet : fresh sea air, bathing, boating, sea-fishing, the sands, etc. Example. Country : quiet life fresh air, walks, cycling, driving, (2) Country and seaExample. side simple life,perhaps at farm. be combined. may often interests : customs, language, new Abroad : complete change (3) food, sights educative and interesting. Examples : Paris, Switzerland, The Rhine. Choice of Holiday dependent on : (1)Individual taste : e.g. for a quiet restful holiday ; quite alone for fishing, walking, cycling ; with friends ; to be in
" " "
"

"

"

"

"

"

for concerts, amusements, near a town etc. Circumstances : e.g. family or friends' convenience. (2) (3)Cost : holiday abroad generally more expensive. Conclusion : thorough enjoyment of holiday of whatever kind Results : improvement banishment of business cares and worry. of health ready to take up work again with refreshed spirit.
or
"
"

336. ESSAYS

ON

ABSTRACT

SUBJECTS

include those

own our on thoughts, which have to be built up almost entirely our the factsbeing such as we may use to illustrate arguments. These Essays may be subdivided according as they deal with : : liaritie (i)Moral and Philosophical Subjectse.g. National pecu"

A happy life,Where "

knows

no

law," "A

cessity there'sa will there'sa way," "Nepenny saved is a penny gained."

: Abstract qualities c.g.Truth, Courage, Friendship, Character,Discipline.

(a)Purely

THE

ESSAY

257

tages advantages and disadvaneducation, Capitalversus Labour, Is Capital of a classical ? The Punishment justifiable value of Legends.
: e.g. Subjects The (3)Controversial

REMARKS" of Subjects this nature present to considerabledifficulty the beginner. In previouswork we have had some what we have been materialat our disposal, either able to observe ourselves,or what we have been able to discover
in books.

337. GENERAL

required to discuss something purely or theoretical abstract qualities tioned relationssuch as those menabove and the treatment must be almost entirelythe outcome of our own reflections. Everyone knows how much easieritis to obtain a good idea of what a tableor a house is,than of such a thing as Courage in the abstract. Most people could recount the deeds of some particular
We
are
now
" "

of courageous men ; but their ideas on the subject itselfre generally decidedly hazy. a courage is In the highest sense, then, an Essay on such a subject original; it requiresresearch work into the realms of thought. We have before us an open fieldfor speculation on the given we may take what attitudewe please towards it provided

subject;

"

always that itbe sensibleand consistent and there is no right or wrong way in the method of dealing with the subject, Two Essays of equal value might be written on the same abstract from entirely opposite points of view, according to the therne
"

or bias of the writer. personal judgment Moreover, to add to our difficulties, there is, generally, no is there any natural beginning or end to such an Essay : nor

obvious method of procedure or development of the subject. Here again we have freedom of choice ; and though this makes our work pleasanter and less stereotyped, it adds greatly to its difficulty.Hence, if for no other reason, the student should follow the plan of this book in writing on some concrete
first.

subjects

be remarked that the advantages of writing abstract to essays are incalculable. Nothing is more stimulative original thought, nothing tends to develop and train the mind betterthan
It may

258

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Here too a student the composition of an essay of this nature. \ of above the average abilitymay gain distinction and it is the however humble, to aim at the highest. duty of all, NOTE. The student should study the Essays of well-known
"

He on those of Bacon abstract subjects. particularly will obtain from them a good deal of information, a good idea of the method of treatingsuch subjects, assistancein the art and Essay. of opening and closingsuch an 338. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE ESSAY ABSTRACT As the treatment of an abstractessay may be extremely varied, itis impossibleto lay down any hard and fast rules for a scheme
writers
"

"

"

which to build. Most of the following features, however, to should appear ; the order in which they are given is suitable but many subjects, may be varied at will: SCHEME: (i) Introductory remark, ifnecessary. Definitionof scope and importance. (2)
on
"

subject
"

Relation contrast or resemblance to other sub(3) jects familiar (generally ones). Opinion. Reason for the same. (4) from historyof national or individual Illustrations (5)
" "

life from legendary sources. or Apt quotations or proverbs. (6) Conclusion finalsumming up (7)
"

"

moral drawn if

necessary. In Controversial instead of Subjects

must (4)
"

be substituted :
"

appropriate illustrations possible but these must be to thepoint, as ; otherwise they are worse than useless,for they weaken the argument.
will now consider an example from each of the sub-divisionsentioned in " 336. m
339. EXAMPLES

Arguments for one side with reasons. (a) (fy other,, W (c)eighing the evidence decision. Judgmentsiven should be supported by as many g
"

,,

"

"

"

AND

NOTES"

We

(i)

"

NECESSITY
"

KNOWS
"

NO

LAW."
"
"

Introduction : Necessity known also as now mother of invention in less pleasing light as law-breaker. Laws have to be broken " ones then time is out of joint." sometimes and new made
"

THE
"

ESSAY
"

259
"

Illustrations from history : liberty a necessity all must give way (1)French Revolution Bastille, king, laws swept away oppressed become oppressors laws. outrages against all right of individual revival of learning showed (2)Reformation laws of church of Rome and conscience and interpretation tyranny of priestcraft overthrown. Illustrations from drama : (1)Hamlet has necessity for revenge breaks alllaws to accomplish it. (2)Brutus "for his country's sake breaks laws of friendship and It must be by his death," etc. love. break laws owing to their own In ordinary life: Men and women needs on them. e.g. a poor man or needs of those dependent stealing food or robbing. Conclusion : " " When culminating point in struggle necessity knows no law of nation or individual is reached. h life,onour, every thing Desperation conquers all victim sacrifices for real or fancied necessity.
"

"

"

"

"

"

(2)TRUTH.
Introduction : Concise definition difficult. Truth associated with " is What what is genuine and without deceit. Pilate's query : One of chief virtues basis of goodness and honesty. ? truth it even deceit and Effect on Society : Society impossible without based on assumed fidelity. intrigue use it as a cloak.^.g. treachery Causes tempting to untruthfulness : (1)Deliberate intent to deceive. (a)for personal gam example. (b)for mere amusement.
"
"

"

"

sin example. less reprehensible Ignorance example. (2) for what results may be Cowardice example. (3) (4)Flattery of persons in higher rank. Advantages of Truth : (1)Character for truthfulness brings trust "and respect. Reverse is the best Honesty lack of confidence and suspicion.
"

(c)to

cover
"

"

"

"

"

"

(2)Builds

policy." nature : brings up moral Untruth leads to other vices. " O what a tangled web
When firstwe
"

other
we
weave

virtues

into

play.

practise to deceive."
of

many-sided : opinions differ opposite points example. Conclusion : Importance of training child in truthful ways of power of truth. '* This above all : to thine own self be true, it must follow, as the night the day, And Thou canst not then be false to any man." Truth

view

"

"

estimation

260
(3)A
etc.

HIGHER
SCIENTIFIC
:

ENGLISH
VERSUS A

Scientificeducation

EDUCATION. LITERARY study of sciences, Chemistry, Physics, Botany,

Literary education : study of languages and literature. for Scientificeducation : Arguments (i)Introduction to wonders and beauties of nature broadening views and sympathies. Training in carefulness and precision. induction and Importance of processes of thought employed deduction. Development of originalityand inventive faculty. Practical uses in skilled trades or professions, e.g. (a)Engineer Doctor, (d)PhotoChemist, (c) or grapher. (fc) electrical, mechanical
"
"

"

for Literary Education : Arguments (1)Language a record of thoughts past and present of languages increases our range of thought. (2)Language an instrument of thought by which
"

"

knowledge
we

express

ourselves.

of knowledge of other nations, customs and modes thought. of (4)Grammar and study of a language a good training for the mind : literaturecultivates artisticand aestheticfaculties. languages business and travel. Practical uses of Modern (5) Conclusion : : Scientific most practicaland useful for after life Literary educative in the highest sense. Combination of two sides the best for general education. For or the other according to older pupils, specialisationin one Examples. taste and future career.

(3)Importance

"

EXERCISES

ON

CHAPTER
ESSAYS,

XXVL

SUBJECTS FOR 1. Popular Superstitions. 2. The Alps. 3. Are second thoughts the best ?

4. The Armada. 5. The educational value of the drama 6. The great rivers of America.

and the noveL

7. Hobbies. 8. The reign of Queen Victoria, 9. The future of Africa. 10. Free Libraries. Social problems of the twentieth century. n. 12. Egypt. 13. The relations between England and the United States since 1750. 14. Sympathy. " Sweet are the uses of adversity." 15. 1 6. The Peninsular War. 17. The uses of books. 1 8. The continents of Europe and Asia : a comparison, 19. English lifeand customs in the days of Elizabeth.

THE
K". 21. 22.

ESSAY

261

23. 24. 25.

26.

27.
28. 29.

30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

Tb" Wars of the Roses. England in 1837 and 1897 : a comparison, " is power." Knowledge The rise of Japan. The growth and development of the English Language. Our Indian Empire : itsfoundation'and subsequent development The Industries of Great Britain and Ireland. " Happy is the country that has no history." Poets of the Nineteenth Century. The advantages of education. The Tudor sovereigns. English Oratory. Hero Worship. " Acts our angels are, or good or ill." Time-saving Appliances in Modern Life. Lost Opportunities. Holiday Resorts. Business Habits. Gardening. Travelling in the olden days and to-day. Fashion. " a crown." Uneasy liesthe head that wears True patriotism. A great Exhibition. " It is more blessed to give than to receive."

Newspapers. Good manners. The best way to spend a day's holiday. England's maritime power. " Let knowledge grow from more to more. But more hi us dwell." of reverence ; how to account for,and hovr to 50. The Problem of Unemployment solve it, 51. Wonders and uses of the microscope. " 52. Not once or twice in our rough island-story. The path of duty was the way to glory." Alfred the Great. 53. 54. Natural advantages of the British Isles. 55. Rebellions in England during the fourteenth century. 56. The products of South America. Em pure. 57. The foundation and progress of the German The Hundred Years' War. 58. 59. The home and foreign policy of the Tudors. 60. The Crusades, with especial reference to the part played by the
English therein. 61. The great charters of English liberty. 62. English explorations. 63. England at the time of Edward the Confessor. 64. The struggle between the Crown and the Parliament
seventeenth

during the

century.

65. Marlborough and Wellington ; a comparison. 66. The Capitals of Europe. " The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 67.

262

HIGHER

ENGLISH

their relative 68. The longest reigns in English history and importance. 69. The relations between geography and history. 70. Party government. yt. Trade follows the flag. in Europe, (ii) 72. The Balance of Power among European States (i) in other parts of the world. 73. Municipal Trading. to Penzance or Edinburgh. from London 74. A railway journey in the Sixteenth Century. 75. The Revival of Learning 76. The Colonial Expansion of England. 77. ScientificAdvance in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. 78. An account of a walking or cycling tour. 79. The Decimal System. than coronets, And simple faith than 80. " Kind hearts are more blood." Norman 81. Journalism. 82. The advantages of foreign travel. 83. The uses of discipline. 84. Arbitration. 85. Success as a test of merit. 86. National greatness. 87. The debt of English Literature to Roman and Greek literatures. 88 The relative advantages of Health, Wealth, and Wisdom. language and literature. 89. The advantages of studying our own The value of examinations. 90. 91. Methods by which absent friends may communicate. 92. Topics of the day. the proverbs : " Penny and wise, pound foolish 93. Compare " Take care of the pence and the pounds will take care of themselves." 94. Recreation. 95. The pleasure and profitof country rambles. 96. Printing. 97. Historic pageants. 98. Presence of Mind. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing." 99. A national strike. 100. The influence of climate on a people, as illustratedby the cases 1 01. India, England, and Scotland respectively. of A comparison of the career 102. of an Engineer and a Business man or of a Doctor and a Lawyer. Education. 103. Compulsory School Museums 104. and Libraries. 105. Chivalry. 1 06. Garden cities. " Elegy," Coleridge's 107. One of the following poems : Gray's Mariner," Scott's "Marmion," Macaulay's "Ancient "Horatius," Tennyson's "Idylls of the King." "Pilgrim's Progress," 108. One of the following prose works: Hoi" "Utopia," "Westward "Pendennis," "Waverley." 109. One of the following characters from Shakespeare's plays : Antony, Orlando, lago, Rosalind, Perdita, Miranda, Bottom. A writer who has distinguished himself both in prose and poetry. no.
"

"

CHAPTER XXVII
THE
340. /^

LETTER

F.NERAL
some

VJT

To those who have had PRINCIPLES" practicein writing Essays, the composition of

difficulty. the body of a letter should present little The difference between an Essay and a Letter is chieflyone of form; there are certain technicaldetailspeculiar to a letter,
and these willbe explained in the course of thischapter. The following are applicableto lettersof all general principles kinds :
"

be paid to writing, spelling and neatness. Alterationsshould rarely be made; when absolutely necessary, words should be neatly crossed out and the correction " above ; erasure should be avoided. It is decidedly bad written form " to send out a letter which is untidy even to an intimate
"

Careful attentionshould (1)

friend. The (2)

rules of Grammar and Punctuation should be duly observed. The Full Stop and Apostrophe need the most attention Commas are of less importance here than in the Essay ;
"

clear and Semi-colons except to make the meaning perfectly

"

are

of

rare

occurrence.
"

Colloquialisms in may be used particularly a letter to a friend actual slang is never permissible. for delay in writing, No excuses e (4) untidiness,tc., should be
Though (3)
"

Postcripts should be avoided as far as possible. There should be a narrow margin (5) about half an inch the lefthand side of the body of the letter.

made.

"

"

on

letter clear and without exaggeration. should be perfectly Letters are often used as evidence in a court of law. (7)Every letter read before itis sent off. should be critically A (6)

264
NOTE.
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

or less particuSeveral other points which apply more larly to businessletters willbe discussed under that heading.

Letters may be divided into LETTERS" three classes: Private, Business and Official. A Private Letter is one which is sent to a friend or acquaintance. As it is intended for his perusal alone, itmay be free and colloquialin style. Logical order of detail need not be strictly may be freelyemployed. observed. Humour implies, one which is written is A Business Letter, as itsname
341. KINDS

OF

"

be personally It is much more business matter. acquainted,dealing with some formal and carefullyworded than a private letter it should be ; brief rigidlyto the business on hand. and should confine itself Letter is one written by an official the GovernAn Official ment of business matters. It is much or of a Local Authority on in formal and stilted expressionthan a businessletter. more
to some

person with whom

you may

or

may

not

LETTER^ OF A PRIVATE Heading. This consists of the Address of the sender (1) followed by the date, written at the top right hand corner of
342. PARTS

the letter. (2)Salutation

"

such

as

My

dear Father, Dear George, Dear

Mr Smith, according to the closeness of the acquaintance, Body of the letter. This is written in a chatty,narrative (3) to as style, and should be as interesting possible the person to whom sign of abruptness should be avoided, for this ; may appear to the reader as discourtesy and no remark, whether humorous or serious,should be capable of bearing an interpretation Any

itissent.

in the slightest degree offensive. It should be remembered do that letters not smile. Free use may be made of the personal pronouns, even of the
First Person Singular; though it is better not to begin many " " I." The forms : " It seems sentences to me It with .," " has occurred to me Probably are ." .," examples of a pleasant variation. (4) Ending" such as : I am, Your affectionate John. son,
.

I remain, Yours sincerely, ohn Smith. J Believe me, Yours very truly,J.Smith

THE

LETTER

265

These may be varied according to the closeness of acquaintance. The ending iswrittentowards the rightat the end of the letter.
343. SPECIMEN

OF

PRIVATE

LETTER"

STREET, BRISTOL, 24 MILTON i ^th May 1906.

DEAR I
am

GEORGE,

Your letter last week was, as usual, very welcome. glad to hear that the examination went off all right and I hope you have been most successful. Let me know the result when it comes lately beyond out, won't you ? I have not been doing very much had a holiday which however, we ordinary business. Last Monday, I used to take a trip to Lynmouth. The boat left here at 9 o'clock lovely and Lynmouth The weather was I o'clock. and arrived at at by the sea quite calm. After a light lunch, I walked to Watersmeet Then I climbed the hill to Lynton the river and returned by the road. and took a short walk in the direction of the High Rocks, as I think they are called. The boat left again at half past five, and after a somewhat cold and windy passage, we arrived at Bristol at 9.45. It was day. altogether a most enjoyable I have done some tennis, as far as the weather shooting and a little has permitted. Please give my kind regards to your parents. I hope to see you all Before that, however, I shall expect another again in a few weeks. letter from you. Don't forget to write 1 With very best wishes, I remain, Your sincere friend, JAMES ALLEN.

above. Address of person written to. This additional and feature lower should be placed on the lefthand side of the letter, than the date, and immediately above the salutation. Salutation : Sir,Dear Sir,Gentlemen (never Dear Gentle(3) men),
Name (2) Madam,
My

344. PARTS Heading (1)

OF
: as

BUSINESS

LETTER"

Lord, etc. Body (4) of the letter. Business letters are an important factorin the success of a firm, for it is largelyfrom the correspondence a firm that business men itsstanding. Moreover, of judge businesslettersare often the only record of a transaction, are and consequently preserved for years. The following rules and hints may be given :
"

266

HIGHER
Acknowledge (a)

ENGLISH
letter the same then be sent.
a

the receipt of

day, even

ifa complete answer cannot Be as brief as possible,and yet perfectlyclear in your (") Short sentences and simple phraseology meaning. should be always employed. is Avoid curtness and be polite, even when censure (c)
necessary. Be absolutely correct in details. Any offer made (") accepted should be definitely and explicitlytated. s
or

For (e)

Reply, read the originalcarefully,nd take care a is fittingin every respect ; the points that your answer raisedshould be dealtwith in order,each forming the
a

short paragraph. The Style of the letter should be, as far as possible, (/) adapted to the class of businesson hand. Yours obediently, Your obedient Ending : Yours faithfully, (5)
servant, etc. A clerkon

of subject a

behalf of a firm should (when authorised Messrs Jones Co. " Smith, p.p. (or : J. per pro) sign
345. SPECIMENS-

CO Application.
15 CHARING
STREET, PLUMSTEAD, 7th Oct. 1906.
KENT,

To L. J. Smith, Esq., 175 Bonchurch Street, London, E. SIR, " " Daily Telegraph In reply to your advertisement in the of Clerk, I beg to apply for the position. For the Oct. 6th for a Junior Polytechnic last four years I have been a pupil at the Woolwich Secondary School. Since leaving there three months ago, I have been working as a clerk in my father's office. I can write shorthand freely (about100 words a minute) and understand typewriting, although I have not had very much practice in the
latter. While at school I passed the Senior Oxford Local Examination with Third Class Honours First Division ; Matriculation the London and I have also several science certificatesof the Board of Education. The Principal of the Polytechnic has kindly offered to testify as to my character and ability. My age is sixteen and a half. Trusting that you will regard my application favourably, I am, Sir,
"

Yours

obediently, J. G.

THE
(3)Order.

LETTER

267

BROWNTREE ROAD, ELTHAM, 121 To The Manager, 6th Sept.1906. Messrs Johns " Son, Edward Wharf, Woolwich. DEAR SIR, tons of best I shall be obliged if you will send me 10 Wallsend Coal at 26s. per ton, and 5 tons of Kitchen Coal at 2 is. per I should be glad if you could manage to send the Kitchen Coal ton. to-morrow as I am (Friday), running rather short. Yours faithfully, A. B. SOPES.

(3)Reply to
To Mr
121

3.

EDWARD
A. B. Sopes, Browntree Road,

WHARF, WOOLWICH. jth Sept.1906.

Eltham. SIR, We beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter. We have great pleasure in despatching the Kitchen Coal this aftershall noon according to your request. With regard to the Wallsend, we have to inform you that it has now Shall we execute your order at that risen in price to 28s. per ton. figure ? Yours obediently, p.p. JOHNS " SON.
DEAR

B.) (J.

(4)Reply to 3.
ROAD, ELTHAM, BROWNTREE 121 To The Manager, Sth Sept.1906. Messrs Johns " Son, Edward Wharf, Woolwich. DEAR SIR, Many thanks for your prompt despatch of the Kitchen coal which is quite satisfactory. Please execute my original order at your earliest per ton), (10 tons Wallsend)at the new price (283. Yours faithfully, convenience. A. B. SOPES.

(S)
ELTHAM. ROAD, BROWNTREE 121 To the Manager, i^th Sept.1906. Messrs Johns " Son, Edward Wharf, Woolwich. DEAR SIR, Enclosed please find cheque for ^19, 53. in payment of Please let me have a receipt at your convenience. account. your Yours faithfully, A. B. SOPES.

INVITATIONS are often given in the Third Person. The Address and Date are often placed belmv the letter hand side. There is no salutation or ending to such on the left it be called. a letter ifletter can
"

346. FORMAL

268
Specimens.

HIGHER

ENGLISH

(1)Invitation.
Mrs Brown 204

Smith requests the pleasure of the company to dinner on Saturday, May 25th, at 7 P.M. JOHN STREET, BIRMINGHAM, 22nd May, 1906.

of Mr

and

Mrs

Reply. (2)
Mr and Mrs Brown regret that they are unable to accept Mrs Smith's kind invitation to dinner on the 25th, owing to a previous engagement. STREET, BIRMINGHAM, 187 MANFRED 23rd May, 1906.

347. AN

OFFICIAL

LETTER

itdiffers from a businessletter; and legalphraseology. The beginning may be to Sir,I take the liberty
...

is of the same form as a business letter only in itsformality

:

or,

My

Lord, I have the honour

to

submit

and the ending : I have the honour to be, Your obedient servant. Letters will be found in the next Specimens of Official chapters.
348. THE

ADDRESS OUTSIDE of the Envelope. Example E G. Jones,sq., M.A., 15 Broad Street, Lewisham, London, S.E.
NOTES.

(1)An ordinary person may be addressed as Mr J.Smith or J.Smith, Esq. Originally " Esq." was applied only to one who was independent to a great or who belonged to a profession, but the distinction is now extent lost, and the term may be applied to anyone of the middle or upper classes below the rank of a knight. (2)Address:" A Clergyman as Rev. J.Smith. A Bishop as The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Southwark, An Officer the Services as Major Jones, in General Smith, etc. A business firmas Messrs J. Smith " Co., Messrs Jones. " Titlesor Academical Degrees are added after the name (or after Esq.") except to intimate friends, e.g. C. Smith, Esq., M.D. ; J. Jones, Esq., M.A., B.Sc. ; Major Browne, D.S.O. A lady should be addressed as Miss Smith, Mra Jones. In the (3) case of sisters, the eldest is Miss Smith, the others Miss A. B. Smith, If necessary to distinguish between etc. married ladiea oi the same

THE
name,

LETTER
names
are

269
added, e.g. Mrs George

the husband's

initials or
a

Smith.

(4)If anyone is staying as the the letter care of" (c/o)

"

guest temporarily, it is better to address Mrs Jones. hostess, e.g. J.Smith, Esq.,

c/o

EXERCISES
I.

ON

CHAPTER
"

XXVIL

Write

the following private letters: (1)Boy spending holiday with friends to his father or mother. (2)Parent's reply to No i. (3)Boy or girlto friend describing his or her new school. he (4)Reply to 3, asking which subject or she likes best. Congratulations to a friend on passing some (5) examination. (6)To brother away from home describing the school sports. To teacher, thanking him for post-card from France and describing holidays. Boy to uncle describing business which he has just entered. To "friend inquiring how he likes his new post and inviting him to spend a week-end. To (10) former teacher, asking advice about a course of study with view to a degree, To relation in Canada wishing him a happy Christmas. n) 12)From officeron ocean liner to friend at home. 13) Friend's reply to No 12. 14)To teacher asking for a testimonial as to character and industry while at school. To friend describing a day's outing in the country. (15) (16)Boy to friend stating that he likes winter better than
summer

n.

and why. of friend agreeing or disagreeing. to a friend in London, asking him to recommend lodgings for a few weeks. Write the following business letters : Ordering various goods from the grocer. (2)Reply to No i, stating that the goods are being sent, with the exception of two items which are at present out of

Reply (17) (18)Letter

"

"

(i^

stock. Notice to landlord of intention to leave house. house and request to view the same. Inquiry as to a new for an estimate for installation of electric light in Asking new house. Reply to No. 5, enclosing estimate. Ordering daily paper, local weekly paper, and two monthly magazines, for the next three months. (8)Ironmonger ordering large quantities of various articlesof wholesale firm as per their catalogue. (9)Testimonial from teacher concerning boy who is leaving school. 10)Testimonial from employer as to clerk, u) Application for post as clerk hi wholesale grocers. Master in a secondary school. Application for post as Junior for post as traveller to a business firm. 13) Application

I2j

270

HIGHER
Application (14) Favourable

ENGLISH

for post as engineer. (15) reply of employer to an application,appointing time and place for interview. of late J. Sprigg, stating that you (16)Letter to customers have taken over his business and have made various improvements. due. Application for payment of quarterly account now Tritethe following set of letters : (i)A German firm to an English firm ordering woollen goods of various descriptions and prices as specified in enclosed Promise of further orders if satisfactory. order. Enclosed order. (*) (3)English firm stating that goods are being despatched, and line of goods. a certain new recommending (4)German firm acknowledging receipt of goods and ordering line ; asking if English firm can small quantity of new them a firm from which to purchase certain recommend
"

(5)English
NOTE.
"

cotton goods. firm's reply. The letters written should

be kept for

use

ss

directed in

jxerciscs

on

Chapter xxviii.

CHAPTER
INDEXING
349.

XXVIII

AND

PRECIS-WRITING
THE

closelyconship with one another, and each bears a relationto the Essay and the Letter the Precis resembling the Essay and the Index the Letter in certain respects. The distinguishing of characteristic the Precisand the Index isthat they summarise in the smallestand most convenient form

-^pHE JL nected

INDEX

AND

PRECIS

are

"

document

or

series of documents

bearing on

particular

subject
head of a firm or government department often requires general information concerning a certaintransaction. To acquire a full knowledge of the subject hand, it would be necessary for him to read everything at first Suppose, of importance that had been written on the subject. for instance, that the head of a firm needs information concerning firm carriedout during the a piece of business with another past few months by his subordinates. He might read all the letters received from the other firm and the copies of the ment letterssent by his own firm. Or, again, suppose a Governfor some desires, official purpose or other, to know how have been progressingin some foreign country or colony. affairs He would be obliged to hunt up all the letters that have
350. THEIR

USE"

The

passed between the foreign or colonial office and our consuls in or officials that country, and to pick out all the information he needs from the more or lessirrelevant matter with which it is cloaked. Now, probably,neither the head of the firm nor the government has the time or the inclination to undertake this official wearisome task ; and, as a matter of fact,it would be a waste of energy on their part. For what is actuallyneeded is the essence
"9*

272
of the whole
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

contained,probably, in a tenth part of the wnoie Instead, therefore,of all this labour, some correspondence. trustworthy subordinatedoes allthe reading necessary, and makes notes in some clear and concise form. These notes, containing form, according to the method adopted, the pith of the

subject,

Precis or Index of the whole. It may be further remarked that much of what we allread is a really a precis. Any text-book of history is in itself precis
"

from various " standard authorities on the subject, with, of thereon ; an elementary text-book course, comments the writer's of writings great of scienceis,in the main, a precisof the original

The reports of speeches which appear in the papers scientists. are generally a condensation of what was said; it is part of the businessof a reporter to be able to pick out the salient and points state them effectively. It is not, however, only from the point of view of commercial utilityhat these subjects t are of importance. They also furnish a valuable exercise both in the use of English and in the logical training of the mind.
351. USE

AS

AN

EXERCISE"

Though

requiring the depth or originalityof thought essay since the material is in this case necessary for an supplied they nevertheless supplement and strengthen original composition. Practice in these exercises entailsmuch judgment in the arrangement and condensation of prolix and unordered
not
" "

material. The success

on

of much

abilityto " " time is money subsidiary. And the well-known dictum that is especially applicable to examinations ; the art of stating our case in the most manner possibleis of complete and yet briefest the highest importance in the examination-room and elsewhere.
our

throughout life willdepend discriminatewhat is essential from what is of

our

work

352. INDEX,

now terms, we must pass on reviewed the to the considerationof each of these processes separately,and explain the special technical rules which govern the formation

PRECIS AND in subject general

SUMMARY"

Having

thus

of each.

INDEXING
An
Index
"

AND

PRECIS-

WRITING

273
"

is also called an Abstract, Docket, or Schedule an arrangement of the essential parts of a letteror document in tabularform under various headings, in such a way that itmay be intelligible glance. Various methods are employed according to at a

treated or the use to be made of it An the nature of the subject index of a book, for instance, might consistof the heading of each chapter,followedby the heading of each paragraph in that chapter. A Precis is a condensed narrative,in the form of an essay, of a document
or a

The precisof a of the book containing itsmain points. This term is loosely used to denote, generally,a A Summary. half-way between an index and a precis. compilation which comes A summary of a book might consistof the headings of the different chapters,each followedby a briefaccount or precisof the chapter.

of series documents bearing on book would be a short account

the

same

subject.

Sometimes, however, the term summary

is used

as

an

equivalent

of precis. We shalldeal first allwith the Index ; many of the general of principlesgiven will apply equally well to the Precis and the Summary.

index may, as has been said, be constructedon various principles the nature of the is ; subject usually a sufficient guide as to what form itshould take. In some examinations a specimen index is given. The followingexamples of index cover the main ground : form of all; it Alphabetical Index. This is the commonest (1) of the main points of a book, arranged in consistsof the names order,and followed in each case by a list the chief of alphabetical
353. KINDS

OF INDEX"

An

"

items under each with the page or paragraph in a form suitable for reference to the text. The index at the end of this book is an example of this nature. (2)Table of Contents. This isan index arranged in the order
of treatment, and is usually placed at the beginning of a book. The headings of each chapter of the Bible or the syllabusof a course of lectures are examples.

(3)Business Index.
letterson
s

In businessfirms itis customary to index

are

the day they

their purport received, noting briefly

274

HIGHER

ENGLISH

which has been sent. This is often and that of the reply (if any) done in a "Letter-book" which is ruled in columns, the exact firms. The following is an example of form varying in different
a

commonly

adopted method

"

in public or government departments for important correspondence, such as that taking place between in o government officials this country and officials f a foreign indexing is a good mental exercise, country. This classof and ; needs practice it is the type of indexing generally required in deal with it more fully. examinations. We shall .therefore The following specimen of the INDEX" 354. OFFICIAL index of a set of correspondence concerning the Jameson Raid I Officialndex, used (4)
shows the method

adopted

:
"

INDEXING
355. NOTES ON are four columns :
"

AND
THE

PRECIS-WRITING
ABOVE"

275

In the above specimen there

The first the number marked, for convenience simply indicates of reference,on the given letter. The second gives the name of the place from which the letter

and itsdate. It is advisablefor clearness that the date 6 Jan, 1896 rather than Jan. should be written as above
was

sent,

"

"

6, 1896. The third tellsus the names of the correspondents,Sir H. designations, Robinson and Mr Chamberlain, or their official "The High Commissioner" and "The Colonial Secretary." But whatever style is adopted must be preserved through the not be referred to in person must whole series; the same " Mr Chamberlain," and in another as " The one place as

Colonial Secretary."
fourth is the real index, containingthe of subject-matter each letteror telegram. It should occupy nearly half the width may of the page. The Verb introducing the subject-matter be as either in the Present Participle above (announcing, ing^ expressThe
or ; expresses, stating)^in the Present Tense (announces, states]

but here again, whichever employed throughout; not for another.

is chosen

must

be
one

announcing for
as

consistently letter, and

expresses

The Verb employed should be varied should be appropriate to the

some

far

as

subject-matter.

The

possible, nd a followingare

: suitable Acknowledging, advising, announcing, ing, informdemanding, explaining, expressing, approving,containing, transmitting. submitting, suggesting, recommending, stating,

of the most

INDEX" The essential OF AN features of the index should be proportion,uniformity, brevity, clearness and elegance : Proportion. In order that a due appreciationof the relative (a) importance of the various lettersshould be obtained,the whole note of the contents seriesshould be rapidlyperused, and a brief down beforethe indexing isbegun. of each lettershould be jotted Some lettersmerely acknowledge the receiptof other letters, or

356. THE

QUALITIES
"

276
return

HIGHER

ENGLISH

thanks for some permissiongranted; these can be dismissed letterscontain the real very briefly. Perhaps one or two of the essence of the whole correspondence; these will be treated fully. most

Uniformity. (")

Consistencyin the

manner

of treatment of all

" the columns should be observed (see 355). The art of indexing consistslargelyin the ability Brevity. (c) in the smallest space. Hence itis to express the greatestamount
important to pick out the salient points of a letter, and omit all it is very important that no essentials subsidiaryinformation. But should be omitted; many students in their anxiety to be brief omit much that is important, and their index is consequently bare or even unintelligible. The dictionand styleof the index should be as briefas possible can generallybe put freefrom allverbiage; the index of a letter
"

into

one

sentence.

space than a short one, determining factor. The

long letterwill in general require more importance is a though of course relative

index should seldom exceed 8 half-lines, should, as a and (foolscap rule,be confined to 5 half-lines size). to brevity. Ambiguity Clearness must not be sacrificed (d) language employed should be should at allcosts be avoided ; the language, exaggeration, nd English; figurative a the plainest possible
excess

should be carefullyeliminated. of Adjectives Elegance. The writingand arrangement of the index should ("e) be neat ; and the diction should be as free and pleasing to the possible. The applicablehere,
ear
as

rules given for composition

are

equally

NOTE.

"

ServiceExaminations in The instructions given at Civil

"

indexing are worth quoting:

"

should deal separately with every letter or document It should contain the date of each letter whether covering or enclosed. it is document the persons by whom the name or ; of and to whom in as few words as possible, it. The merits of the subject of written, and to such an index are (a) give the really important point or points of each letter or document, omitting everything else ; (b)to do this briefly, in such a form as readily to catch the eye." distinctly,and The Index

357. We

append specimens of indexing of the lettersgiven in

INDEXING

AND

PRECIS- WRITING

277

lettersmay be Chapter xxvii. Examples of indexing of official more together with the precis of a seriesof conveniently treated, i such letters n the next chapter.

differs from an index mainly in form. The compilation of an index is to a great extent mechanical; after some practice it should need little mental effort. A precis, however, being of the nature of an essay, requires considerable in a skill judgmentnd arrangement It has been saidthat precis-writing only a matter of common is sense, and there is much truth in the remark. Unfortunately, " " " is by no means however, this " sense to all naturally common of us ; itneeds educating and developing. Hence the need for once the student knows rules and methods for a precis. When
358. A

PRECIS

278

HIGHER

ENGLISH

for him to follow these rules what he is about, there isno necessity too slavishly he willthen be in a position to use his own methods. ; in the MatriculationExaminations The varietyof types of questionsset to of the examiners is just test shows, indeed,that the

object

possesses thiscommon whether the student really

or

sense

"

inherent

acquired.
359. KINDS

OF

PRECIS

"

As treatedin examinations precis

includes :
"

Condensation of a passage from a standard author. (1) Summary of a passage in paragraphs under headings. (2) Formation of a (so-called) from a set of notes given. (3) precis The formation of a continuous narrative Officialrecis P of (4)
"

or of given series letters documents. As preciswe of writing this nature entailslong and involved illustrations, shall postpone itsconsiderationto the next chapter, dealingwith three kinds at once. the first

the

of subject a

360. CONDENSATION

"

The

worked through the exerciseson of Sentences (Chap, xxii.) willbe well equipped for an exerciseof thisnature. xxiii.) Generallyabout a page of printed matter is given, of which a gible condensed account, giving the main ideas in a brief and intelliform, is required. As a general ruletthe precis of such a ; of passage should be about one-fifth the length of the original

student who has carefully ment Condensation and Rearrangeand on Reproduction (Chap,

but itis not possible nor, indeed,advisableto keep exactly to this for while some proportion, material is prolixand requires to be cut down, other material may be already very terse and ruthlessly
compact. The remarks

brevity,clearness, and uniformity, proportion, elegance of an index (" 355)are equally applicable to a precis; position and since the precisis of the form of an essay, the rules on Comon

(Chap, need xxiv.)

Method

to be

strictly observed.

passage given should be read through so that the general meaning may be grasped ; a second careful reading should then be made, during which sentences or The
phrases which
seem

Recommended.

to

give the pith or

essence

of the whole may

INDEXING
"

AND

PRECIS-WRITING
"

be marked in pencil. Then briefnotes of the main points should a word be made two about each will suffice and these or should, if necessary, be arranged in logicalorder and cut down
to the

points being eliminated. These minimum, all subsidiary notes willform a kind of outlineor skeleton for the precis. From them a connected and intelligentccount should then be written; a the briefest modes of expression should be employed, and all
o flourishesr ornamental phrases avoided.

361. EXAMPLEORIGINAL.
effectsof the incapacity shown by the popular leaders in all the " to be covered with the are allgreat members " of the Commonwealth of liberty. In some people I see great liberty indeed ; atoning name in many, if not in most, an oppressive, degrading servitude. But what is liberty without wisdom, and without virtue ? It is the greatest of all possible evils ; for it is folly, vice, and madness, without tuition or restraint. Those who know what virtuous liberty is, cannot bear to see itdisgraced by incapable heads, on account of their having high-sounding Grand, swelling sentiments of liberty, I am sure words in their mouths. I do not despise. They warm our the heart ; they enlarge and liberalise minds ; they animate our courage in a time of conflict. Old as I am, I read the fine raptures of Lucan and Corneille with pleasure. Neither do They facilitate I wholly condemn the little arts and devices of popularity. the carrying of many ; they keep the people points of moment together ; they refresh the mind in its exertions ; and they diffuse Every freedom. brow the severe occasional gaiety over of moral to sacrificeto the graces ; and to join compliance with politicianought But in such an undertaking as that in France, all these subreason. sidiary sentiments and artificesare of littleavail. To make a government Settle the seat of power ; teach requires no great prudence. To give freedom is still the work isdone. more easy. It obedience, and to guide ; it only requires to let go the rein. But to is not necessary form a freegovernment ; that is, to temper together these opposite elements of liberty and restraint in one consistent work, requires much thought ; deep reflection ; a sagacious, powerful, and combining mind. This I do not find in those who take the lead hi the National Assembly. I rather Perhaps they are not so miserably deficient as they appear. level of human believe it. It would put them below the common understanding. But when the leaders choose to make themselves bidders at an auction of popularity, their talents, in the construction of the state will be of no service. They will become flatterersinstead of legislators; the instruments not the guides of the people. If any of them should happen to propose a scheme of liberty, soberly limited, and defined with proper qualifications,he will be immediately outbid by his competitors, who will produce something more splendidly popular. Suspicions will Moderation will be stigmatised as be raised of his fidelityto the cause. the virtue of cowards, and compromise as', the prudence of traitors ; until, in hopes of preserving the credit which may enable him to temper
The

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occasions, the popular leader is obliged to become and moderate on some in propagating doctrines, and establishing powers, that will active afterwards defeat any sober purpose at which he ultimately might have on (BuRKE Reflections the French Revolution.) aimed.
"

PRECIS
The
errors
"

excused by

madness. It is easy to create a government : it is still easier to give a a combination nation freedom ; but to form a free government of liberty and restraint requiresreflection, wisdom, and prudence. The French leaders do not appear to possess these qualities they ; barteringtheir talents for popularity, are and will soon become
" "

wisdom and becomes mere

of the popular leaders in France are said to be liberty." Liberty is admirable if tempered with virtue; but without any restraintor guidance it

the slaves rather than the guides of the people. The resultwill be that any moderate man will have to make promises which he

willafterwardsregret.
362. SUMMARY" summary
of
an
a

each with

The student is frequentlyasked to writea passage, arranging his condensation in paragraphs, appropriate heading. The settlement of what the

difficulty. They should be paragraphs shall be presents some introduce some new short; each should, if possible, portion or Sometimes the paraaspect of the subject "" (see 286-294). graphing is given in the question. Having decided (when are to be, what the divisions in other words, to heading for each paragraph. These should be obtain a suitable appropriate and brief:as a rule they should not exceed one line in length. As the value of the summary will depend largely on
the next
step is to find
names

requisite)

for them,

or,

intoparagraphs and on the clearnessof the headings, great care should be bestowed on this part of the exercise. There only remains then to writea precis under each heading according to the methods of " 360. thisarrangement
363, EXAMPLEORIGINAL.
in the sixteenth century, England all the states of Europe in greatness and importance. While the political stood pre-eminent influence of other nations had at the or less close of this period more

Among

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281

declined, the vigorous and successful policy of Elizabeth had infused lifeand energy into the English people. The continual wars flew with France, and the long civildissensions of the Roses, had broken the feudal powers of the Barons, and established the authority of the sovereign and thereby given a new and shape to the politicalrelation of government The accession of Henry VIII. to the cause of the Reformation people. life. The in religious and ecclesiastical occasioned a mighty movement firstdegenerated, no doubt, but too in this movement at participation often into partisanship and vindictive persecution ; nevertheless, the however its growth might be for a sown, sound and vigorous seed, once time retarded, could never be destroyed, and it eventually produced the did but fairest flowers and fruits. Thus the persecutions of Mary stimulate the Reformers to greater exertions, and strengthened, rather than weakened, the fostering reign of their cause ; while, under Elizabeth, it again raised its head, and put down all opposition. The between English Episcopal Church furnished from the first happy mean a Romanism Puritanism. While the former wished the extremes of and to abide by whatever was old, and the Puritans longed for novelty in all things, and with a blind fanaticism desiring on the one hand to separate the Church and state, and on the other to destroy all liberty in customs, the Episcopal Church adopted all necessary changes, science, and art but at the same time retained the ancient wherever it was practicable. The mingled rigour and mildness of Elizabeth and Burleigh employed almost invariably with the greatest judgmentand propriety held the course extreme of things. parties in control without impeding the new The successful wars this reign in France and the Netherlands, in of defence of the reformed faith, the conquests in the West Indies, new discoveries in remote quarters of the globe, the firmer establishment of in Ireland, the acquisition of a lasting political the English dominion in Scotland, and especially the great victory over Spain, were influence events which contributed to stimulate the energies of the people, to direct its views to greater enterprises, and to awaken and confirm a its political importance. consciousness of (UiRici Shakspeare.)
"
"

"

"

Firstof all, the main subject the passage must of be discovered. Brieflyput, this appears to be : England's greatness in the sixteenthcentury.
Subdivisions. (2)

Title. (1)

that itmay To (a) "

A careful study of the passage willshow us be divided into three paragraphs : government and people." This deals with England's
"

life political and the causes which led to the new relationbetween sovereign and people. From "The accessionof Henry VIII." to "was (b} practicable." This describes Reformation and itsresults. the From "The mingled rigour" to the end. This describes (c) England's triumphs abroad, which raised her to a high position among the nations.

282
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"

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The first sentence of paragraph (c) might be included ; with (b) itreallyforms a connecting link between the two.

We

now

proceed to the complete Summary

of the passage.

SUMMARY
England's greatness in the Sixteenth Century.
Change (a) in England's political life :
"

The

French

wars

and the

wars

of the Roses

had broken the

power of the nobility, and although strengthening the sovereign, had made the bond between her and the nation closer. The Reformation : (V)
"

support given by Henry VIII. and Elizabeth to the Reformation invigorated religious life, and persecution only The Church of England strengthened the cause of reform. furnisheda happy mean between the extremes of Romanism and

The

Puritanism.
Successes (c) abroad
:
"

Discoveriesand conquests in the new world, the of subjugation influence over Ireland and Scotland, the successful Protestant in France and the Netherlands, and most especiallythe wars Armada, raised English prestigeand stirred the patriotism of the
people.
364.

PRECIS

FROM

NOTES"

set is the formation of a

given. This exerciseis,strictly speaking, not on preciswritingor Such notes as were condensationat all; itis rather on expansion. are made by the student in the course of his condensation (" 360) in thiscase furnished as material, and a continuous narrativehas to be formed. The student who has practised expansion from
in outlines(Chapter should find no difficulty an exercise of xxiii.) Only, he should always bear in mind that he is this nature. writing a/r/iu,and should thereforebe as concise as possible.

type of exercise sometimes from so-called precis a set of notes

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PRECISON
CHAPTER

WRITING
XXVIII.

283

alphabetical index of this chapter. index of all the letterswritten by you in accordance an official mth the examples at the end of the last chapter. and mention the 3. Distinguish between Index, Precis and Summary to all three. chief qualities common 4. Write a concise summary of Chapter L arranging the matter in about six sections under suitable headings, 5. Make an index, consisting of principal and subsidiary headings in the order of treatment, of Chapter vi. (Verbs). 6. Write a precis of Chapter xxx. (Figures Speech). of 7. Write a precis of the transaction in letters written for question 3 of Chapter xxvii. 8. Make a precis of the leading articleof a daily paper. 9. Write a Summary of the following passage, dividing the matter into three or four paragraphs with suitable headings :
1.
2.

Make Make

an

"

THB COLOSSEUM have been perpetuOf all the citiesof remote celebrity whose names ated for virtue and for by history, for literature,for arts and arms, depravity, there is none which abounds in so many beautiful and sublime On its present architectural evidences of former greatness as Rome. mental comparatively small site,it has remains of almost every useful or ornaThe spectator of reflection, feeling,and taste, inhales structure. its once breathless surprise, amidst an almost useful aqueducts, its temples, pillars, theatres triumphal arches, pleasure-crowded " pavements, health-giving baths, and gorgeous palaces." Of these none or of moral are so creative of pleasure to the imagination perhaps begun by Vespasian and finished by as the Amphitheatre reflection Titus in the first century, and called by the Romans the Flavian, or Vespasian's Amphitheatre, and by the modern Italians, Colisei,from its It was erected from the materials of Nero's " golden palace," vastness. an people, prodigious and splendid, but of disgust to the Roman object The awe with which we view its and therefore destroyed by Vespasian. immense oval length and height is tempered by the varied beauty of the whole and its particular parts, by the graceful orders rising on each other, with Corinthian pilasters and an attic, by the numerous arcaded statues, windows and steps. We feel the profound silence and solitary aspect of its numerous and ambulatories, its immense and untrodden desert arena, where myriads of unfortunate captives and slaves, and of to an faith, have for many martyrs successive centuries unshaken the thousands of spectators who occupied the surrounding seats, amused and filled with horrid shouts the reverberating walls during the intervals the groans of the dying gladiator, or the criesof wounded of and ferocious This great and sanguinary portal to the next world, this honour animals. and disgrace of Rome, this theatre of cruel and vulgar joy, anguish, of of terror, of wasted d courage and despair, this;efaced but still legible epitaph of great and guilty Rome, stands in its immensity and decay, out of the conflictof ages and of nations like an aged and and has come venerable veteran, who having himself survived dangers and witnessed innumerable deaths is mutilated and scarred is
"
"

"

Shatteredwith ag" and farrowed

e'"r

with ywtn."

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Had not the selfish aristocracy of Rome, in differenttimes of the Popedom, hands on this magnificent structure, its massive strength laid sacrilegious And solidity would have resisted the slower ravages of time in the dry almost a and genial climate of Italy, so that it would have remained Rome. It was in a state perfect memorial of the public splendour of old of such useful and excellent preservation even so late as the I3th century, used for the purpose of about 1 200 years after its erection, that it was games ; but the Barbarini and other base patrician families, public dilapidated it to build the Barbarini and Farnesian palaces, at once the of the moral degeneracy ornament of modern Rome, and the monuments their respective builders. By exciting a mixture of spiritual and of temporal dread, Benedict XIV. at last successfully interdicted these He planted the venerated emblem of the Christian faith, vandalisms. declared the Colosseum sacred the cross, in the centre of the arena, and Christian martyrs who had perished there as devoted to the numerous combatants with the wild beasts and the gladiators. 10. Write a very concise summary of the following passage, arranging in sections under suitable headings : the matter Scott and Shakspeare are the two poets of English history, standing dealing each with a particular series out by themselves in strong relief, cause, a disputed succession to the of events starting from the same crown, and both equally well adapted for poetic treatment. Scott's execution of this labour of love is a masterpiece of art, and it is,we think, in these novels that posterity will recognise his greatest We do not mean to say that his best novels are to be found work. the number, but that, regarded as the presentation of one long among drama, complete within itself and capable of being detached from the to the series without injury any part of it,they remain the most rest of brilliant of his genius. Scott made this great and enduring monument has stamped upon it the impress of his own his own, mind story and fade. The house of Stewart, like one in characters which will never of the old royal houses of ancient Greece, seemed to lie under the curse of some avenging deity, with which the virtues of individuals, the gallantry and self-devotion of knights and gentlemen, contended in Scott has worked vain. great poem up these elements into one tact, with breadth of sympathy of with skill and and warmth imagination. In glancing briefly at the general characteristics of these novels, we should prefer to take them in their historical order, beginning with " The Abbot " and ending with " Redgauntlet." The career of Mary board the the keynote of the whole ; and her embarkation on strikes shadow in a manner to forevessel which conveys her out of Scotland seems to typify the embarkation RedCharles Edward and and of to carry them to France ; the gauntlet on board the vessel which was " beginning and the end of an " auld sang." The In the story of " Scott had perhaps a more Abbot difficulttask to perform than in he himself thought about the Queen any of the Stewart series. What has long been the common property of all his admirers. He refused to write her Life because he did not like to tell what he thought the truth about it. Yet in the pages of " The Abbot " he is at little trouble to conceal it ; though the manner of its revelation is one of the most wonderful monuments of Scott's literary skill which he ha* bequeathed
"

to

u*.

(11)

INDEXING
11.
"

AND

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285

Summarise the contents of the following under a main, and under subordinate heads : by the Genevan Bible The wide popularity which was so rapidly won it undermined the titular authority h (1560)ad two important results : inferior to it beyond all doubt, was of the Great Bible (1539), which, into the endeavour Parker as a translation ; and it forced Archbishop to supersede it by a Bible whose excellence might deserve to be stamped with the hall-mark of Church and State. To have silentlyacquiesced in the free circulation of the Genevan Bible, side by side, not only with the Great Bible, but with Coverdale's and Matthew's Bibles, would have been to condone a medley of authorities that fell but littleshort of It must be borne in mind that our great Tudor Queen, spiritualchaos. whose sagacity was always alert to discern and recognise
The limitsof resistance, and the bounds Determining concession,

differed altogether from Henry the Eighth hi her attitude, during the first period of her reign, towards the current English version of the Scriptures. Firmly opposed to whatever she considered dangerous to the cause no of the crown, of order, or to the supremacy she saw She would have no reason to interfere between one Bible and another. " She would be the leader of no either abled or disabled." version but the Queen of England. Left section of her subjects, particular inevitable that the Genevan should, on its own it to itself, was merits, dethrone the Great Bible ; yet it was tion plainly impossible for Convocato erect the Puritan book into a standard version, or to obtain the Queen's authorisation of an annotated Bible so undisguisedly associated the names of Calvin, whom she detested, and of Knox, whom with detested stillmore. she love of uniformity, if nothing else, would sooner His own or later have caused Parker to address himself to a task which, if there was to be any finalityin the interpretation of, and the appeal to, Scripture, Accordingly, about the year 1563-4, must inevitably be undertaken. he set himself to organise a select revision committee, and inasmuch the as taken from the Episcopal Bench, the of them were majority known they were to history version for which responsible became as the Bishops' Bible (1568).(M) Make 12. an Abstract of the following passage, indicating in a (i) form suitable for a title or heading, (a)its general ( subject,b)the of particular subject each paragraph. U (ii)pon the lines of this Abstract write a precis, or account in brief,giving the substance of the passage without anything superfluous. Grotius [1583-1645] gives in his account De JureBelli a very definite to the prevailing* as At the devastation of a statement sentiment.] or the capture of a city, he thinks it right that children, province women, old men, clergy, farmers, merchants and other non-combatants be spared. He allows that tradition and sentiment are against should him, but he claims to be speaking of the newer spirit. Speaking as a lawyer, bound by tradition, he has to admit the right of the victor to but he thinks that if heathen they slay all prisoners taken in arms, might be more enslaved, and if Christian they ought to be only wisely
*

VU,, respecting the treatment

of a conquered peopU.

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It was not tillanother century had gone by that the held to ransom. feeling of Europe was absolutely clear and definite about the matter, to say without reserve that was and that Montesquieu [1689-1755] able " condemned made after the heat of action is now slaughter of prisoners by every civilised nation." If one wishes to see clearly how far the new sentiments had travelled, let him compare the civil war of Cavalier and Roundhead with the war Stephen and Matilda five centuries before, or even with the Wars of He will find an almost complete of the Roses half-way between. war the earlier ferocity. Men make with grave regret ; absence of but a sad necessity reluctantly comit is not the aim and object life, of plied little as possible molested, and are as Non-combatants with. or in malice. property is rarely destroyed in wantonness it On the Continent the progress was slower ; still, went somewhat Palatinate by forward ; and Niebuhr says that the devastation of the was the last instance of the old the troops of Louis the Fourteenth out the houses, crops, and every kind of property throughpractice whereby burnt, and the inhabitants turned out as a fertileprovince were homeless wanderers. But. of course, the greatest contrast between the seventeenth century the seventh is found in the growth of a huge civil population. and He had trained to arms. Every man of the seventh century was his only chance of prospering, and thus it to be so trained. It was in man his only pride. In the seventeenth century not one became in any way trained to arms or taken part in warfare. a dozen had been had learnt to live in absolute peacefulness among Great bodies of men a clear mark themselves ; and this alone was of a huge alteration in warlike sentiments effected in the intervening thousand years. time. own Now the final transition to the England of our make For two and a half centuries her soil has been practically free from war ; for a century and a half it has been absolutely free from it. Scotland and Ireland have been very nearly as long undisturbed by live at conflicts. It now appears that forty millions of people can themselves in a land where, ten centuries ago, absolute peace among our ancestors of the Heptarchy spent their whole lives in fighting as Milton says in his history of those unlovely times, till, each other, too the tangle of feuds and wars, murders and devastations, became If we contrast the present habit of going to be recorded. sickening dreaming of the need of arms, with the dire necessity unarmed and never his weapons were a man's constant companions, of those days, when far the race has travelled on the road to peace. So, we can see how ifwe wish to see how far it has travelled on the way to humanity, tnink on the field of battle, with what gusto our ancestors slew the wounded invention of the last two an and then consider how the army-surgeon for the wounded cares centuries of the enemy, with almost as much (M) solicitude as for his own. points 13. Indicate, after the style of a table of contents, the chief touched upon in each paragraph of the following description,and give a brief summary of the whole : It is not our intention to attempt anything like a complete examination The public has long been agreed as to of the poetry of Milton. harmony the merit of the most remarkable passages, the incomparable the numbers, and the excellence of that style,which no rival has been of
" "

"

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287

able to equal, and no parodist to degrade, which displays in their highest perfection the idiomatic powers of the English tongue, and to thing which every ancient and every modern language has contributed someIn the vast field of criticism of grace, of energy, or of music. on which we are entering, innumerable reapers have already put their that the negligent search sickles. Yet the harvest is so abundant of a straggling gleaner may be rewarded with a sheaf. The most striking characteristic of the poetry of Milton is the extreme remoteness of which it acts on the reader. of the associations by means Its effect is produced, not so much by what it expresses, as by what by the ideas which it directly conveys, as it suggests ; not so much by other ideas which arc connected He electrifiesthe with them. The most unimaginative man through conductors. must mind stand underthe Iliad. Homer gives him no choice, and requires from him no exertion, but takes the whole upon himself, and sets the images in The works so clear a light, that it is impossible to be blind to them. Milton cannot be comprehended or of unless the mind of the enjoyed, reader co-operate with that of the writer. He does not paint a finished picture, or play for a mere passive listener. He sketches, and leaves others to fill up the outline. He strikes the keynote, and expects his hearer to make out the melody. We often hear of the magical influence of poetry. The expression in general means nothing : but, applied to the writings of Milton, it is most appropriate. His poetry acts like an incantation. Its merit lies less in its obvious meaning than in its occult power. There would in his words than in other words. seem, at first sight, to be no more But they are words of enchantment. No sooner are they pronounced, New forms of beauty than the past is present, and the distant near. into existence, and all the burial-places of the memory once start at Change the structure of the sentence ; substitute give up their dead. for another, and the whole effect is destroyed. one The synonyme loses its power ; and he who should then hope to spell with conjure it would find himself as much mistaken as Cassim in the Arabian tale, " he stood crying, " Open Wheat," Open Barley," to the door when " Open Sesame." which obeyed no sound but (MACAULAY.)
State (a)the main purport of the following passage under 14. (i) title or heading ; and (b)the purport of each paragraph in the same way. Write a precis of the passage, giving the substance of it,without (ii) anything superfluous. The impulse given to the study of Greek by exiles during the half century preceding the conquest of Constantinople, and by the enthusiasm of a series of scholars from Petrarch and Boccaccio down to 1453, was greatly stimulated by the increase of fugitivesconsequent on the capture of the city. The arrival of numbers of scholars in Italy shortly before and shortly after 1453 is contemporaneous with the full spring-time of the great of learning. A series of remarkable revival efforts had been made to restore ancient Roman Greek glory as seen in literature and and Learning was regarded as a new improved example. architecture. and The learning of the ancients was compared with the ignorance of the Churchmen. The new a great reaction and movement marked went
one

288
to

HIGHER
Some
to the extent

ENGLISH
of the advocates for classicalinfluence Christian in favour of Pagan morality.

of because it was Paganism, contemporaneous with the classical ture period, invaded the Church itself. All the architecture, art, and literabad except in so far as it approximated to of Christianity was The careful study of the Latin classics, Pagan models. the marvellous development of painting, architecture, and sculpture, but, above the keen interest felt in the newly developed study of Greek, were all, all to produce wonderful fruit within a generation after 1453, and to culminate in Italy hi an age of singular intellectual brillancy. The study of Greek, at first almost confined to Florence, gradually the whole of the peninsula, and finally passed north of spreads over taken up with great earnestness. the Alps into Germany, where it was In 1485 a Greek professor was in appointed in Paris, and one In the reign of Henry the Seventh, Oxford consented to receive Rome. Grocyn and Linacre as teachers of Greek. " known The Revival of Learning " was The movement as accomplished before the end of the fifteenth century, and all investigators are agreed that it had been very largely contributed to by Greek exiles during the half century preceding and following the Moslem conquest. But the critical Its paganisation of Christianity proved temporary. had more durable of the text of the Greek New Testament examination It called attention to the contents of a book which had hitherto results. When been taken as outside controversy. the study of Greek passed no longer the Alps, the examination of the sacred writings was north of looked upon the text with the contempt hi the hands of dilettanti who as the complement of a higher of scholars disposed to accept Paganism had no patience with what they regarded form of civilisation, and who b as trivialities, ut hi those of religious and earnest German students, in Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin, and others with results, the end of which is not yet visible. doubt that the dispersion of students from ConWhile it is beyond stantinop in Western Europe, there aided the intellectual movement is no ground for the belief that, if the city had not been captured, Greek influence would itself felt in the Renaissance. The not have made dispersion hastened the development of a movement had already which begun, awakened a spirit of inquiry, and conducted scholars into new fieldsof thought earlier than they would have arrived if not thus aided. In this sense, and to this extent, it may be claimed as a beneficial result of the capture of Constantinople. [PEARS" Destruction of the Greek Empire.] (M)
went
.
. . .
.

extremes. unjustifiable discarding

...

for each paragraph of the following, and then write precis of the whole : The cloud has burst, and for the moment, I think, has been dispelled in Warsaw. But the atmosphere is stilllowering. Evidences of the on storm are seen every side in the broken shop windows and smashed street appointments, and the military pickets stationed at every corner. As was naturally to be expected, the temper of the malcontents took from that of the St Petersburg strikers. Ever since a different form the outbreak of the war there has been depression in the trade of these districts, manufacturing and much wider distress owing to the drafting of the Polish battalions eastward.

15. Write

brief heading

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289

When the Polish Socialist St Petersburg had given the cue, once Society set their prepared machinery in order. Their industrial works on strike gave the masses, and the Socialists supplied leaders. For days before the demonstration reached its climax bodies of the worst type of malcontents concentrated on Warsaw. From the lethargy of the police, it almost looks as if the authorities encouraged the gatherings, for fhe purpose of putting into force their drastic measures own of suppression. Yet, in spite of the fact that the to leavened with armed Socialists bent on disorder, even strikers were the point of attacking isolated Cossack patrols, the results have not burg. been as sanguinary as they were of St Peterswith the peaceful masses Saturday, Sunday, all unlawful assemblies were and Monday an down After dark two persons sufficed to make put ruthlessly. to give the strikers Three bugle calls were sounded assembly unlawful. warning : then rifleand sabre did their work, with the result that 200 This for the time has killed and about 600 wounded. persons were disorder. To-day is a religious festival, and to-morrow quieted the the workmen (The Times.) will return. On
a heading 1 6, Form a suitable title for the following passage and for each paragraph, and write a precis of the whole : first find mention of the impotent In a statute of Richard II. we poor, who are directed to remain and abide in certain places ; but no Indeed, during the Roman provision is made for their maintenance. Catholic times, begging was allowed on the part of the impotent poor. Thus even late as 1530 a statute which inflictssevere as punishment on sturdy vagabonds valiant beggars, allows the aged and impotent and poor to beg and live off alms, provided they confined themselves to certain districts. The first act for the reliefof the impotent poor was passed in 1536, to be made in the parishes for their by which collections were ordered statute incorrigiblevagrancy is, on a third support. But by the same The dissolution felony, with the penalty of death, conviction, made the religious houses in the reign had the effect both of increasing of the number of vagabonds and beggars and of diminishing their means of support. At length, hi 1601, compulsory assessment for the reliefof the poor fully established ; and the statute then passed was was till recent The overseers times the text-book of English poor-law. of each parish directed to raise by taxation the necessary sums "for providing were a sufficient stock of flax, hemp, or stuff, to set wool and other ware for reliefof lame, blind, the poor on work, and also competent sums old and impotent persons, and for putting out children as apprentices." Workhouses first established in 1722. were They were not initially intended so much as a refuge for the poor, or as a test by which real destitution might be discerned, but, as their name implies, with a view to derive profit from the labours of the poor. The workhouses were in fact a kind of manufactories carried on at the risk of the poor-rate ; and though they at firstdiminished the cost of relief,they ultimately increased it, by pauperising the independent labourer. By the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 all bodies charged with the relief of the poor were placed under the control of a central board
"

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who One
were

ENGLISH

to make rules and regulations binding important power given to them was that for the purpose of a more oi economical uniting several parishes have now been The Poor Law Commissioners administration. seded superBoard, with a president who by the Local Government is a member of the government. History of England.") (From HUME

of three commissioners, upon the local boards.

"

17. Write a precis of the following : In its origin the war inevitable, and unconfused by secondary was issues. Briefly stated, the causes led to the struggle were as which follows : Japan,baulked by the action of the European Powers of the fruits of her victory in the war with China, found herself as a result it except so far as the acquisition of Formosa was of of some potential benefit to her in a position of dangerous isolation. Worse than this, she found, as a consequence of her own and victories, that Korea Manchuria, by Japan as lying within both of which were regarded her legitimate sphere of interest, if not of influence, were, if anything, less within her control than before the war. Both province and kingdom were now of the Tsar. persistentlyencroached upon by the Government This immediate by no means effect of the weakening of China was herself yearly what Japan had expected or desired, and Japan saw more threatened by the spread of the vast Empire which and more had already swallowed one of the territories of the island Empire Saghalien. The acquisition of Port Arthur by Russia was the last the patience and long-suffering of the Mikado. straw which broke down It soon became of a warm-water obvious that this tardy attainment was the inauguration of a policy of extension on the part of Russia port which aimed at nothing less than the ultimate absorption of Manchuria, Korea, and Mongolia. What Government cause gave the Mikado's for even more disquiet was that in the opinion of those in the serious Far East best qualified to judge, this expansion would not have checked itsgrowth before Japan itself had fallen within the ever-growing frontiers Muscovite. The next step taken by the Russians was the conof the struction Eastern Railway, This railway, which is of the Chinese the property of a private company the Russo-Chinese nominally Bank on connects at Manchuria Junction the frontier with the Siberian Railway, and divides at Harbin into two branches, one leading to Vladivostok, the other to Port Arthur and the neighbouring civil port and town of Dalny. It is not necessary to dilate here upon the terms of the construction of this line. It is sufficient to remember that for a the railway was to be entirely controlled, minimum space of eighty years by Russians, and that the only opportunity protected, and worked to China of ever given of an regaining possession of it at any cost was description. The Russians in possession of the only were illusory means in Manchuria, of communication of the Russoand the officials Chinese Bank to the present writer of the ultimate no secret made intention of Russia to keep both line and province in her power. It was clear that any such permanent occupation of Manchuria Russian interests in Korea would have been fatal to and extension of any real independence, and probably to the existence of the Island Empire. It was, therefore, without capitals surprise that European the news, that strong and reiterated protests in St Petersburg received were being made by the Japanese. (Daily Telegraph.)
"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER XXIX
ADVANCED
365

PRECIS
"

of lettersor docuare ments presented to us, and from these we are of the events required to construct a short narrative account cult diffiwith which they deal. This kind of precisis of a far more nature than those considered in the previous chapter. To

/^\FFICIAL

PRECIS

number

\^J

begin with, there is often as much as twenty pages of printed matter to read through and master ; consequently a great amount of concentration of mind is necessary in order that the essential features of allthismatter may be grasped and retained as we go Further, the matter does no't always follow on in logical on.

a order ; it is sometimes difficultt firstto see the connection between one document and the next. And when the matter is in the once understood, the task of condensing such an amount on what points to -emphasise, small space of a page or two, and of fixing what merely to mention, and what to eliminatealtogether requiresmuch thought and judgment.We cannot do betterthan Index, the excellent advice quote, as in the case of the Official given in CivilService Examinations : " The of s object the precis(whichhould be drawn up, not letter is that b by letter^ ut in the form of a narrative) anyone who had not time to read the originalcorrespondence might, by reading the precis,be put in possession of allthe leading featuresof what
"

should not exceed precis (which to are two pages in length) (a) contain all that is important in to present this in a consecutive and the correspondence ; (b) a and as briefly readable shape, expressed as distinctlys possible, as is compatible with distinctness."
passed.
The

merits of such

366. METHOD

RECOMMENDED"

Experience in precis-

292

HIGHER

ENGLISH

writingshows that the followingmethod, though apparently long and tedious,is the best for the student to adopt, at any rate until : he has had some practice
"

whole correspondence should be read through rapidly. If it is of any considerable length,a brief of the purport of note each lettershould be made as it is read : a line,sometimes a couple of words is sufficient By thisprocess a good idea of the main pith of the whole correspondence willbe obtained. be read slowly and The originalshould now (2) The (1)

carefully

additions being made

a

letterwhich

seems

or the notes ; and any letter portionof to deal with essentialsmay be marked for

to

future reference. The

taining, should now present an outline condoubtless, much that is superfluous; they should be or anything irrelevant unimportant being deleted. revised, (3)From the revisednotes and from memory of what has been
notes
" "

of reference being made where necessary a rough copy the in the precis should be made. This should be an account language of what took place ; it should be of student'sown somewhat greater length than the finalprecis is intended to be :

read

it should

in containing too much rather than too little, wise otherbe lost. some valuable point may be revisedin an impartial The rough copy should now and (4) of s criticalpirit. The student should always have the title the his eyes, and use it as a kind of text correspondence before
err

towards the exemplificationof which the whole precis should should tend. Sentences should be cut down or combined ; some be crossed out altogether. p should be written. Due regard (5)Lastly, the finalrecis
should be paid to grammar and punctuation. but only After some NOTE. that" amount of practice, after the and (4)above. student will find that he may omit stages (3)
"

That is, after reading the correspondence and making notes as described in (i) the experienced student may write his and (2), precis forthwith. But the beginner is cautioned not to attempt to In nothing is it easier to deceive oneself do this too soon. than in precis-writing.If an attempt is made by the unskilledto
cut

b the process short,the resultwill inevitablye that

merely

ADVANCED

PRECIS

293

knowledge of the contents of the correspondence will superficial be obtained, and the vagueness of the preciswrittenwillclearly show that the heart of the matter has never been reached at all,
featuresare lacking. Speed is of importance in that essential later. precis-writingbut itmust come
or
"

index and a precis are both required, the labour is considerablyshortened. The index should be constructed first, described in the last as serve the purpose of the outline. chapter,and this willpractically Then whatever has been found in the originalcorrespondence to be of importance should be read again, and the rough copy in (or, the case of experienced students,the final may be
AND

367. BOTH

INDEX

PRECIS"

If

an

precis)

at once

attempted.

the general to rulesgiven in the lastchapter, and in particular those of " 356, the following may be added as especially appropriate to the

368. THE

QUALITIES

OF

PRECIS"

To

precis: Perspective. (a)

"

must precis-writer endeavour to view in as a historian the events narrated from a distance, fact, views An event which might have appeared to the writer his subject. as of one of the letters of supreme importance, willto the precisits proper significance,hich may be very subw writer assume sidiary however, the precis-writer Unlike the historian, must

The

not

add any originalcomments. Continuity. As the events of which the correspondence (") tells may be spread over a considerableperiod, many minor changes will appear which should be eliminated in the precis. For instance, the Colonial Secretary may, at the time with which lettersare concerned, be Mr Chamberlain; in later the earlier letters the name of Mr Lyttelton or Lord Elgin may appear as holding that office. This difference need not be shown in the " Colonial Secretary" should appear in all ; precis the term
cases.

The length of the precis will, course, vary of to the length of the original and to the nature of the according o and subject the terseness or prolixity f itstreatment. Conciseness. (f)

294

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Provided always that nothing of importance is omitted, the shorter it is the better. A safe rule is that,for correspondence the precis should not exceed oneof six printed pages or more, tenth of the original,nd to contain everything can rarelybe less a than this, than one-twentieth of the same ; for shorter originals length must generally exceed even the higher limit the The student should always take the view that he has only a

certainnumber of words to dispose of in a precisof 10 pages therefore,is to be really good, say 300 words. If the pre'cis, these 300 words must be chosen carefully. Much space may be saved, and a correspondingimprovement in the precisobtained, if
"

itis clearly thingswhich are remembered that it is only the vital of supreme importance. For example, suppose a letterstates that John Smith has written such-and-such to the consul, and that James Brown told him so-and-so,and that other persons tion, confirmed their statements and added further informano names need appear at all in the precis. All that should " be said is that the consul, on enquiry, found that such-and-such had occurred." named
369. EXAMPLE
the formation of
CORRESPONDENCE
an

of a set of official orrespondence, and c Index and Pre'cis the same. of

TO A

of

RELATING

PROPOSED
i.

COLONIAL

CONFERENCE.

No.

NEWFOUNDLAND. Governor Sir Wm.

SIR,

MacGregor
St

to Mr

Lyttelton.

House, Government November 18, 1905. John's, With reference to your despatch of i6th October, I have the honour to inform you that my Ministers agree in principle to the institution Commission. of the contemplated Joint I have, "c., MACGREGOR. WM.

No.

2.

CANADA.
Governor-General Earl Grey to Mr
Lyttelton.

(December 5, 1905. Telegram.) Referring to your telegram Responsible Ministers of 29th November, have no to Colonial Conference being held in 1907 instead of objection
"

906.

ADVANCED
No. NATAL.
Governor

PRECIS
3.
to

295

Sit H. E. McCallum

the Earl of Elgin.

(December 22, 1905.

Telegram.)
Ministers
are

Referring to your telegram 2oth November, to postponement of next Colonial Conference No. 4. CAPE

agreeable

until 1907.

COLONY.
to Mr

Governor Sir W. F. Hely-Hutchinson December 23, (Received

SIR, I have the honour the annexed schedule.

Lyttelton.

1905.)

Government House, Cape Town, December 6, 1005. to transmit to you the document specified in
I have, "fcc., WALTER HELY-HUTCHINSON.

Enclosure in No. 4. Ministers to Governor. Prime Minister's Office, Cape Town, December 6, 1905. (Minute.) In acknowledging the receipt of His Excellency the Governor's the joth ultimo, transmitting a copy of a telegram from the minute of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated the Right Honourable idem, relativeto the date of meeting of the next Colonial Conference, 2Qth Ministers have the honour to state in reply that they are desirous that the Conference should meet in the year 1906, due consideration being given, however, to the wishes and necessities of the various Colonial Governments in regard to the actual date of assembly. T. W. SMARTT. No. 5. AUSTRALIA. Lord Northcote to the Earl Governor of Elgin. -General (December 23, 1905. Telegram.) Colonial Conference, Referring to your telegram of 29th November, to postponement, have no Government 1907. objection No. 6. NEWFOUNDLAND. Governor Sir Wm. MacGregor to Mr Lyttelton. (ReceivedDecember 28, 1905.)

St
SIR,

Government House, December 8, 1905. John's,

With reference to your telegram of the 29th November, I have honour to inform you that my Ministers are of opinion that it would the be advisable to postpone the meeting of the Colonial Conference till 1907. I have, "c.,
WM.

296

HIGHER
No.

ENGLISH
7.

NEW

ZEALAND.

Governor Lord Plunket to the Earl

(January26,
"

1906.

ofElgin. Telegram.)
"

Following telegram received from Premier : to ment Begins : Government of New Zealand see no objection postponeMinisters until 1907, but would of Imperial Conference of Prime prefer that it should be held at an early date in that year.
No. The Earl

8.

Coloniet. of Elgin to the Governors of Self-governing (February19, 1906. Telegram.)

my

and to predecessor's telegram of 29th November, Government that Colonial Conference propose your reply, His Majesty's impossible to arrange a 1907, as it seems should meet early in March I shall be glad to learn that this date meeting conveniently this year. will suit your Prime Minister. Despatch follows by mail.

Referring

to

No. 9* Colonies. The Earl of Elgin to the Governors of Self-Governing LORD, MY Street, February 22, Downing SIR, 1906. last, My predecessor, in his telegram of the 29th of November that it might be advisable to postpone the Colonial Conference suggested not possible for the Prime Ministers of until the year 1907, since it was ence the Australian Commonwealth and of New Zealand to attend a Conferin 1906 if it was held later than in the spring, and it did not then appear to be practicable to make preparation for a Conference by that
time.
2. I have now the honour to enclose, for the information of your Ministers, copies of the repliesreceived from the several Colonies, from that while the Cape Ministers desired that the which it will be seen Conference should meet this year, the other Governments agreed to Zealand New next year, and the Government of postponement until a hope that the meeting take place early in the year. expressed might 3. I accordingly informed you, in my telegram of the i9th instant, Government that His Majesty's proposed that the Conference should meet early in March 1907, and added that I should be glad to learn if that date would be convenient to your Prime Minister. in his despatch to your Government, 4. My predecessor communicated last, the Parliamentary Paper [Cd. December of 7th 2785]containing the correspondence with various Colonial Governments arising out of his despatch of 2oth April, which dealt with certain proposals respecting the organisation of future Colonial Conferences. I do not feel myself to adopt the recommendation called upon of those proposals ; but in view of the expressions of opinion received from the Colonies I think that it will be desirable that the scheme should be freely discussed wheu the Conference meets.

ADVANCED
5. It will much

PRECIS

297

facilitate the proceedings of the Conference by enabling to municate full preparation be made beforehand, if your Government will comto me, so as to reach me not later than the ist of September as to any next, a statement which they desire to be discussed, subjects and as to any resolutions which they wish to submit to the Conference. 6. I will address you in due course as regards the which His subjects Government Majesty's may wish to bring before the Conference. His Majesty's feel every confidence that the next Government 7. Conference, like those which have preceded it,will help to increase the ments good understanding and cordial feeling which exist between the Governthe Empire. the various self-governmg communities of of I have, "c.. ELGIN. No. NEW
10.

ZEALAND.

Governor Lord Plunket to the Earl ofElgin. (April 27, 1906. Telegram.) that My Colonial Conference. Responsible Advisers, whilst aware Governments Colonies will be invited to submit proposals of self-governing for consideration at Conference, would be glad to know whether proposals concerning fiscal matters and preferential trade throughout Empire will be admitted.
No. ii. ZEALAND. The Earl ofElgin to Governor Lord Plunkft,
NEW

(May 12, 1906. Telegram.) Referring to your telegram of 27th April, any proposals regarding fiscalmatters which your Prime Minister may wish to bring forward to Conference, in accordance with my despatch of will be submitted 22nd February.
No.
12.

The Earl

of Elgin to the Governors

(May

12,

1906.

Cdloniet. of Self -Governing Telegram.)

Referring to my despatch 22nd February, I have now ascertained by the Colonies concerned that the date for Colonial communication with all Conference most acceptable to all Premiers, having regard to the varying conditions involved in the meeting of their Legislatures, will be April i $th next, in place of the previous suggestion of a date early in March. I have, therefore, much pleasure, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, in inviting yovu Prime Minister to attend the Conference 1 5th April. on

INDEX

Most of the lettersand telegrams of the Correspondence are brief;the Index willtherefore record them almost as they stand Letter 9 is a, fairlylong one, but is mainly recapitulatory

298
Thus

HIGHER
"" i,
a

ENGLISH

summarise the

confirms No. 8 ; wish for success

to

of Letters 1-7 ; " 3 subject-matter " 6 promises further information; " 7 expresses

portant " 5 is the most imof the Conference. ; it asks for subjects which Colonial Governments desire discuss. This accordingly forms the gist of the Index to
of indexing and qualitiesof
a

No. 9. For methods

good index, see

""354-356.

ADVANCED

PRECIS

299

300

HIGHER

ENGLISH

for the formation The above Index will be of much assistance of of the Precis. No. i isoutside the subject the Precis ; allthe in the Precis. No. 9 should to other lettersneed to be referred be carefully a studied; itis itself kind of Precis of the previous
letters. For methods of forming the Precis, of and qualities good Precis,see ""365-368.
a

PRECIS.
As itwas

impossiblefor the Prime Ministersof certain Colonies to attend the Conference late in 1906 (the date originally suggested Government proposed to postpone it till the Home To this all the Colonies, except Cape Colony, agreed, 1907. New Zealand desiring that the early part of the year should be
mate selected. March 1907 was therefore suggested as an approxifor date, and the Colonies were asked to submit subjects discussionby September ist, 1906. Motions on the fiscal question to be admitted. Finally, were to suit the convenience of
later date, April i5th, 1907, was a the various colonies, slightly fixed,and invitations definitely despatched to the Prime were

Ministersto attend the Conference on

that date.

EXERCISES
A.

ON
FOR

CHAPTER
PRECIS
ONLY.

XXIX

L The Eruption of Vesuvius. NAPLES, Wednesday, March 28, 1906. After perceptible shocks of earthquake a crevice opened on the side Vesuvius this afternoon some hundred yards from the upper of Mount station of the Funicular Railway. Lava is pouring out, and wreaths of smoke are rising from it to a con siderable height. The eruption from the principal crater also continues. Reuter.

(1)

"

NAPLES, Thursday, March 29. The latest phases of the eruption of Vesuvius are much the same as, but more than, the symptoms There have the last six months. violent of been successive streams of lava from the edge of the old crater, and a violent of ejection incandescent stones from the eruptive crater at the The lava flowed across Cook's electric railway four times in summit. the last three weeks of January, by and its issue has been accompanied slight earthquake shocks and subterranean thunder. On February i a small eruptive cone formed in the lava itself was February 6 enormous on masses were and ejected from the central cratez,

(2)

ADVANCED

PRECIS

801

About this time the and the lava again crossed the electric railway. black smoke gave the mountain ice,fire, snow, steam, and combination of
a

terrific ppearance. a On March 17 stones from the crater fell on the roof of the upper station of the Funicular Railway, and an imprudent Russian passenger in working order, The railway is now received severe scalp wounds.

and tourists can ascend with safety as far as the lava stream, which has The lava is crossed the line about half a mile from the observatory. to the top. crossed on mules and donkeys, and the trains run again a notable increase During the recent earthquake at Ustica there was in the violence of the explosions from the crater of Vesuvius. Justnow the lava is flowing harmlessly towards the north side,but tourists should content themselves with going as far as the end of the Funicular Railway and should not attempt to proceed to the edge of the crater. The trip by the railway is perfectly safe and is best performed at night, impressive. when the spectacle is more

Thursday, March 29. felt here. The inhabitan Last night another severe earthquake shock was Many families are leaving of the island are greatly alarmed. A member to-day, and others are preparing to do so. of the scientific is of opinion that the shocks show no sent from Palermo commission signs of abating. Reuter.

(3)

USTICA,

"

Saturday, March activity of Vesuvius is increasing, telegraphs our Naples and a stream of lava is flowing towards the observatory. Thursday The cone was covered with snow on night, and loud heard at Naples. were occurred, which The first band of convicts rescued from the island of Ustica, continue, has arrived at Palermo. earthquakes still

(4)

NAPLES,

The

31. correspondent,

sions explowhere

(5)
A
new

crater formed

on

Mount

NAPLES, Wednesday, April 4. Vesuvius at three this morning above

are

Pompeii. Great volumes of steam

and black smoke

issuing from the volcano.

NAPLES, Wednesday, April 4. The explosions in the crater continue to be numerous and violent. are Should the crater fallin, interesting phenomena anticipated. The line to the Vesuvius Observatory is interrupted. Reuter. telegraph
"

NAPLES, Sunday, April 8. Vesuvius on Saturday burst into full eruption, and the violence of felt in Naples the volcano continues to increase. An earthquake was is said to have been caused by part of the cone falling yesterday, and have reached the towns in. Lava streams to the south and villages by the inhabitants. of the mountain, which have been abandoned Ashes and stones falling in other directions have caused some loss to property. The population of the places life and grave damage of is in flight, and the eruption appears to be the near the mountain most serious one recorded for many years. In the district of San Giuseppe several houses and the church have persons have been extricollapsed. Several dead bodies and injured cated from the ruins, while five are known to be stillburied.

(6)

302
Two
men

HIGHER

ENGLISH

and a child have been buried beneath a country house The authorities and troops in the neighbourhood of San Giovanni. Torre Annunziata, Poggio, Marino, and have abandoned Ottajano, Somma.
NAPLES, Sunday, April 8. A stream of lava twenty -one feet high and 600 feet wide is approach The ing with formidable rapidity the north-west side of Pompeii.

(7)

cemetery, Reuter.

some

houses, and

several properties have

been destroyed.

"

NAPLES, Monday, April 9. The present eruption is far worse than the famous outbreak In 1872. flowing down towards the coast towns in three great The lava is now one ziata. streams, of which has all but reached the cemetery at Torre AnnunThe soldiers there had to fight to prevent the relations of the dead from exhuming the bodies of their relatives. last night all the coast and inland towns were During terrifiedby The foreign visitors are leaving Naples en masse. showers of mud. fled from the Vesuvian towns. At least 130,000 persons have now Very many of them slept last night on the fishing boats in the harbour. This evening the lava streams are showing signs of stopping.

(8)

NAPLES, Monday, April 9 (11.35A.M.). The flight of the inhabitants of the town of Torre Annunziata, which is threatened by a great stream of lava from Vesuvius, was continued through the night. The lava is stillmoving slowly towards the town. Groups of weeping women waited in the darkness along the railway line for trains to take them to Naples. Volumes of sand are still Electric pouring from the volcano's crater. flashesincessantly pierce the sand clouds, which at sunset take wonderful tints of purple, green, and violet. The eruption is most violent and is the matter ejected thrown to an immense height. The whole mountain is enveloped in thick smoke from the lava, while has fallen so thickly that it has partly blocked the railway lines sand and impedes traffic. The railway service altogether is in considerable A train full of refugees was delayed at San Giovanni, five confusion. from Naples, for two hours. minutes

(9)

NAPLES, Monday, April 9 (7.5P.M.). and Queen of Italy are taking the greatest interest in the progress of the eruption, and are doing all they can to relieve the distress. Their this morning, and a majestiesrrived here a littlebefore seven travelled on to Torre Annunziata, they reached at half past which eight. Their majestiesisited all the ruined houses, and inquired v the value of the crops destroyed by the lava. One result of the King's visit has been a great increase in the military activity in transporting refugee* (DailyMail.)

(10)
The

King

n. The Turko-Egyptian

Frontier.

CONSTANTINOPLE, April 19, 1906. The British Government being convinced of a prompt settlement of the Tabah question, is carrying on the negotiations firmly but not peremptorily.

(i)

ADVANCED
(a)

PRECIS

303

CAIRO, Friday, April 20. in your columns, the British Government As was recently predicted The present strength has decided to reinforce the garrison in Egypt. the increase is not yet decided. of This is chiefly due to the symptoms of unrest which have recently in the country, due principally to outside themselves manifested believe, to the impressions on the Oriental influences and partly, some in the Far East. mind of the recent war The~increase may also have its effect on opinion in Constantinople.
CAIRO, Wednesday, April 25. Turkish Government There is every indication that the will maintain its ground against Egypt in the Tabah dispute. A telegram from El the marble pillars troops have removed Arish states that the Ottoman the frontier between Egyptian and at Refkh, placed th"re to mark Turkish territory. One of those pillarshad inscribed upon it the name This impudent act of the Khedive and the date of his visit to Refkh. has more than ever complicated the situation. With regard to the question of the Persian frontier, the British and have informed their Persian colleague that they Russian Ambassadors to support measures have received instructions from their Governments the difference. a view to the settlement of with had a long conference yesterday at the The three Ambassadors To-day Prince Riza Khan, the Persian Ambassador, Persian Embassy. his representations to the Porte insisting upon the withdrawal renewed troops. of the Ottoman The Porte has been greatly impressed by the Anglo- Russian action, and it is believed that the situation is beginning to improve.

(3)

"

April 27. Sir Edward Grey stated that In the House of Commons yesterday the necessity for reinforcing the garrison in Egypt was due to the unrest measure was now owing to the action of the existing, which in some Porte in connection with the frontier. The time the additional troops would remain in the country would obviously depend on circumstances.

I)

May 2. to a question in the House Sir E. Grey, in answer yesterday, said : " The demands have extended put forward by the Turkish Government far beyond Tabah and itsneighbourhood, and have rendered it necessary delimitation of the whole frontier on that that there should be a joint that pending a general settlement the Turkish forces should side, and This is what his Majesty's Government have asked retire from Tabah. from the beginning, but what the Porte has hitherto declined. The being urged again to agree to it." Porte is now

(5)

May 5. The British Government yesterday officiallyissued at the Foreign Office the notification to the following effect : The British Government yesterday presented a note to Turkey which was virtually equivalent to an ultimatum. This ultimatum It constitutes Great will expire in ten days' time. Britain's last word on the Turkish encroachment in the Sinaitic Penin-

(6)

"

304
"ula, and

HIGHER
demands the withdrawal

ENGLISH
of Turkish

troops from

Ejjyptian

territory.
The French and Russian Ambassadors at Constantinople are supporting British Ambassador, in his representations Sir Nicholas O'Conor, the on the subject the Turkish military occupation of territory which of belongs to Egypt.

MALTA, Friday, May 4. All the battleships and destroyers here have coaled and taken on They received orders by wireless telegraphy and stores. ammunition to-day to proceed east. Lord Charles Beresford is on the Formidable, and Rear-Admiral is on the Irresistible. Bridgeman There will be a gathering of all ships at Cape Matapan. The fleet Malta to the Piraeus, where they will await developis proceeding from ments.

(7)

(8)
The Note presented by that the frontier between basis of the arrangement such delimitation Tabah

CAIRO, Friday, May 4. Britain to Turkey yesterday demands Egypt and Turkey shall be delimited on the in 1892, and that pending made which was be evacuated. Reuter. shall

Great

"

May 8. The Foreign Office has issued the following officialversion of Sir in the House of Commons Edward Grey's statement yesterday on the difficulty: of subject the Turco-Egyptian Thursday stantinop on The British Ambassador presented a note at Conby Great requesting the Porte to agree to the demarcation Britain and Turkey on the basis of the telegram from the Grand Vizier to the Khedive of April 8, 1892, and, pending a settlement, to withdraw We have asked for a favourable reply in ten his troops from Tabah. days' time. After tellingthe story of the dispute, fully related in the Daily Mail, the Foreign Secretary proceeds to state that Turkey's final reply was to the effect that the Gulf of Akaba outand the Sinai Peninsula were side the territory defined in the Imperial Firman ; that the telegram of April 8, 1892, only referred to the western side of the Sinai Peninsula ; a matter that the interpretation of the telegram was cerned which only conhad been Ottoman Akaba Government the Imperial ; and that The hope was adopted as the headquarters of the district of Akaba. be afforded for interference. expressed that no occasion would To that, I need only add that the delay, the extent of the demands which have been put forward by the Porte, and the tone and character to the Khedive, have made it impossible of the Turkish communications to defer a settlement indefinitely, and that is why we now press our for joint delimitation. original demand I think I may claim on behalf of this Government that they have ; but the latest developments shown great patience and moderation if admitted, would place Turkey in a position of the Turkish demands, be a real danger, not only to the freedom of the Suez Canal, which would but also to the libertiesof Egypt and to the Khedival dynasty. His Majesty'sovernment G be indifferent to such issues, and cannot it necessary that we the importance of them makes should press for a

(9)

"

ADVANCED

PRECIS

305

disputed settlement on the lines of the frontier of Egypt, as it has existed unfor a period many years previous to the British and undisturbed occupation.

(10)

May Monday, CONSTANTINOPLE, 7. I learn that in the event of a refusal on the part of Turkey to withdraw the Turkish troops from Tabah within the time limit of the ultimatum, or in the case of any attempt at temporising by the Sultan, the British Fleet assembled at Athens will immediately seize some Turkish port hi the ^Egean.

Thursday, May CONSTANTINOPLE, 10. Sir Nicholas O' Conor this afternoon received Tewfik Pasha, the Foreign Minister, who utterly unacceptable. The made proposals that were that the British Ambassador told the Minister bluntly to remember was not to attempt to waste time with such expiring, and ultimatum talk. He urged him to give a definite reply to the British demands. Another official was mission to the Ambassador sent on the same and The Sultan has attempted to negotiate the same met with reception. directly with the Khedive, but without success. If the Sultan does not yield on Sunday the British Fleet will at once which have already been decided proceed to take coercive measures, to the British Admiral at the Piraeus. on and communicated under seal

(n)

Friday, May n CONSTANTINOPLE, (6 P.M.). The Grand Vizier is to have an interview with Sir Nicholas O'Conor at eleven o'clock to-night. Mr Ryan, British Vice-Consul here, left yesterday for the Piraeus. Reuter.

(12)

"

(13)

May 12. Sir Edward on Grey Pasha, the Turkish Ambassador, called yesterday afternoon. His Excellency's interview with Sir Edward Grey was fairlyprolonged, It is understood that there are some ment grounds for hoping that a settleof the dispute is on the point of being reached. Musurus

Saturday, May 12. CONSTANTINOPLE, last evening. Council of Ministers was summoned extraordinary As a result of its deliberations, Tewfik Pasha, Minister for Foreign Affairs,was sent late at night to the British Ambassador with a reply The Sultan thus forestalled the expiry of to the British ultimatum. the ultimatum by forty-eight hours. ment Tewfik Pasha informed Sir Nicholas O'Conor that the Turkish GovernTabah and other localities had already ordered the evacuation of the in the Sinai Peninsula occupied by Turkish troops. Regarding by Great Britain the Turkish delimitation of the frontier demanded the on reply suggested that the Turkish and Egyptian officers now should proceed to re-establish the status quo ante. spot Sir Nicholas, whose attitude has been unbending throughout, was not satisfied with this suggestion, which is not in accordance with Commission. for a regular Boundary The Porte the British demand to-day gave him further explanations on this point, and unless the to virtual these explanations, which Foreign Office rejects amount be considered to the British demand, the incident may submission

(14)
An

closed.

306
(15)

HIGHER

ENGLISH
announces

A specialedition of El Mokattam her troops to evacuate all Egyptian

CAIRO, Sunday, May 13. that Turkey has ordered territory. May 13 (7.40 P.M.). by order of the Sultan.

(16)
"

Sunday, CONSTANTINOPLE, The Turkish garrison at Tabah has withdrawn Reuter.

m.
The Courrieres Mine

(DailyMail.)

Disaster.

LENS, Sunday, March II, 1906. A catastrophe appalling in itsmagnitude has plunged this melancholy. dreary-looking place into a horrified stupor. This is the Black Country Everything around one is drab in colour, and the of North France. inhabitants have a silent, phlegmatic manner. Three miles from Lens are the mines of Courrieres, the third largest in France, and here on Saturday morning twelve hundred miners, men in a few moments hurled into eternity as the result and youths, were an explosion of fire-damp, owing to a firewhich had been smouldering of Hundreds it is feared, are in one of the seams. more, since Monday hell below, from which, alas, there is littlehope of imprisoned in the

(1)

rescue.

LENS, Monday, March 12. this morning at the Courrieres Mine, in Northern France, of a dramatic character. As early and especially at Pit No. 4, were seven as the great crowd of miners and relatives had again o'clock begun to gather outside the wooden barriers leading into the yard. They were impossible almost so closely together that it was packed to wedge one's Many hundreds of people who had through them. way arrived from afar by the early morning trains to Lens to inquire after the crowd and were their relatives in the mines had joined clamouring to be admitted to view the corpses. " Unless we are allowed in we will rush the barriers," shouted several men, and in a minute a score of them had wedged themselves in between the soldiers'horses, and were only thrust back with difficulty. " for the conUnless these people are allowed in I cannot answer sequences " I cannot keep order peacefully." the officer; said At this declaration the officialsof the mine allowed the women inside the yard twenty at a time. They walked through files soldiers of into the lamp-house, and out again through another door leading into the open country. LENS, Tuesday, March (3) 13. The most interesting episode of the last twenty-four hours at the collieries Courrieres has been the work of the special team of German at coal-mining firemen, whose arrival on Monday evening took the officials of the mine by surprise. There were nineteen of them, headed by a man Hugo Kopp, who was the captain of the team. named

(2)

The

scenes

LENS, Wednesday, March 14. the Germans the work is becoming far too difficult. The say men are obliged to wear thick indiarubber gloves in handling the corpses, before placing them in the cages the bodies are wrapped in linen and steeped in carbolic acid. The statement that oxen are stillalive in the mine telegraphed to

(4)

Even

ADVANCED

PRECIS

307

by M. Francis Laur, an ex-mining engineer, is not the Paris Journal M. Francis Laur says that credited by the mining engineers at Lens. are he is absolutely convinced that some of the men stillentombed " Unfortunately," says distant parts of Pit No. 3. alive in the more " M. Laur, the great fall of mineral has blocked up the passages, and are alive, I think it is impossible to explore them rapidly. If any men be some of them may still able to hold out for another two or three days." A miners' strike has broken out in the colliery districtaround Lens, in the Courrieres collieries. Altogether including the survivors employed have gone out on strike. men 4000 LENS, Sunday, March 18. is at present impossible, In order to reach the pits, to which access it will be necessary to cut through the barriers built to prevent the flames from spreading. It is evident that the air will rush in through the breaches thus made, and very possibly set the galleries ablaze again. In that case the salvage gangs with the Paris firemen and the German the fire as possible and stretch a salvage corps will approach as near behind which the men canvas across screen the gallery, wet will shelter themselves while a fireman wearing a respirator will advance with the hose and pour a stream of water on the flames. In this way it is hoped that it will be possible to extinguish the fires, this is accomplished the work of recovering the bodies will and once be resumed.

(5)

PARIS, Wednesday, March 21. So great is the excitement among the miners at Lens, whose delegates that the general yesterday proclaimed a strike involving 80,000 men, in command has applied for a reinforcement of 1000 men. The more extreme strikers are furious at the arrest of their leader Broutchoux, and are actively hostile to the " Baslicots," as the Moderates Socialists are called, after their leader, M. Basly. All last and night a band of the Broutchouists patrolled the streets of a number of the mining settlements around Lens, smashing the windows of their lukewarmness had refused those who comrades and of suspected of to join the strike.

(6)

PARIS, Saturday, March 24. telegram to the Temps from Lens says : The strike is losing the efforts of the pickets, ground in the Pas-de-Calais notwithstanding in some are tying wire across the roads in order to hamper places who Reuter. the cavalry.

(7)
A

"

LENS, Friday, March 30. Like an electric shock the news ran round Lens at seven o'clock this morning that some of the miners had been discovered still alive in No. 2 Pit. Twenty-one had survived through twenty-one days of men nervous thousand feet below the strain and starvation close on one in the blackest of darkness. surface The news had not time to run far before the cage had come up to the the pit with the first thirteen of the exhausted littleband. of mouth It has been found impossible to remove the eight others as yet, but every precaution has been taken to provide for their safety. At the shaft-head the crowd was kept back, and mattresses and

(8)

308

HIGHER

ENGLISH

laid out and doctors and nurses were on the spot. eiderdowns were Twelve of the survivors had to be assisted out of the lift; the thirteenth refused assistance. Then the doctors and nurses administered a little milk to each shaking, black, their eyes sunken, their faces wan. All were One haggard man. Nemy, had the strength to talk, named only of the thirteen, a man but the doctors imposed silence, fearing the effect on his wasted frame.

LENS, Sunday, April i. M. Barthou, the Minister of Public Works, at CourThe arrival of rieres this afternoon with the different members of the Commission The Minister the miners. of Inquiry caused a great sensation among known to be the bearer of the Cross of the Legion of Honour awarded was by the Government to Nemy and Pruvost, the two plucky leaders oi the thirteen survivors. by the Prefect of the department Accompanied the Minister went first to the little hospital to perform this pleasant duty. Standing by the bedside of Nemy, he began his speech of congratulation. The miner at once said that he could not accept the cross unless his mate The second cross was had one too. then taken out, and M. Barthou fastened it to the breast of Pruvost' s nightshirt.

(9)

LENS, Tuesday, April 3. The explorers returned to the surface at three o'clock this afternoon, and declared that they had found nothing but corpses, and that there is no longer a man alive in the mine. Twelve left hospital this evening and of the thirteen rescued men The boy Martin, who is feverish, is alone detained. returned home.

(10)

Wednesday, April 4. Another survivor from the catastrophe of twenty-five days ago brought up from Shaft No. 4 at Sallaumines at two o'clock this was morning. Three miners were they saw working in the icoo-foot level when He cried faintly staggering towards them the very spectre of a man. Help me," and fellunconscious into their arms. The man's brought He was immediately is Auguste Berton. name to the surface and taken to the infirmary. (DailyMail.)

(n)

LENS,

"

B.

FOR

INDEX

AND

PRECIS.
the Leeward

IV. Correspondence

regarding

Islands.

No. LEEWARD
Acting
-Governor

i.

ISLANDS.
Chamberlain.

Melville to Mr
1899.

(AugustTO,

Telegram.)

Regret to report have received information from Montserrat, stating island completely devastated by hurricane, 7th August ; every church ; and chapel completely destroyed ; all buildings destroyed or damaged seventy- four deaths reported up to the present time ; whole country House Suggest that Mansion Relief Fund should b" people homeless.
started
at
once.

ADVANCED
No.
2.

PRECIS
to Office

309

Colonial SIR,

Treasury.

August

ii.

to transmit to you, I am directed by Mr Secretary Chamberlain to be laid before the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, a copy of a telegram which has been received from the Officer Administering

Islands, reporting that the Colony the Government of the Leeward his government has been visited by a hurricane which has caused under loss of life and property. much Mr As their Lordships are aware, under ordinary circumstances Chamberlain is most desirous of holding to the rule that the expenditure in these islands should be kept as low as possible, in order to lighten but, in the circumstances on the Imperial Exchequer, the burden by this telegram, he feels that it is necessary to make an exdisclosed ception if great suffering and possibly even loss of life are to be avoided. to authorise He therefore proposes, with their Lordships' concurrence, by telegram to expend a the Officer Administering the Government sum not exceeding ^500 for relief in Montserrat, and, if absolutely in not exceeding "500for relief the other islands necessary, a further sum by the hurricane. visited I am to request the favour of a reply at then: Lordships' earliest convenience. Mr Chamberlain is not yet in a position to decide whether or not the Acting-Governor's suggestion, that a Mansion House Fund should be opened, should be conveyed to the Lord Mayor. I am, etc., C. P. LUCAS. No.
SIR, 3.

Treasury to Colonial

Office.
August
12.

As requested by Mr Secretary Chamberlain hi Mr Lucas's letter of Treasury the nth instant, the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's in the proposal to authorise the Officer Administering the Government concur Islands by telegram to expend a sum the Leeward of of ^500 for hi Montserrat, and (if a further sum not relief absolutely necessary) exceeding "500 for relief in the other islands visited by the recent I am, etc., hurricane. FRANCIS Mo WATT.

No. 4. Mr

Chamberlain

to Acting-Governor Melville.

(Telegram. August 12.)

In answer to your telegram of loth August, deeply regret to learn distress and loss of life caused by hurricane in Montserrat and other islands. You are authorised to expend sum not exceeding ^500 for Montserrat, and if absolutely necessary, equal amounts for relief relief Fear it might be of little avail to suggest Mansion other islands. Fund unless necessity most urgent, as to which I await further House

information.

310

HIGHER
No.
Acting-Governor

ENGLISH
5. Melville to Mr

Chamberlain.

(Telegram.August 14.)
10,000 Further intelligence received from Montserrat. ;" 1000 to feed destitute population. want medical assistance.

required

No
MY LORD Your

6.

Mr Chamberlain to the Lord Mayor. MAYOR, Lordship will have already noticed, through telegrams which to the newspapers, that some have been communicated of the West Indian Islands have been visited by a hurricane, and that among the Islands islands which have suffered are British Colonies in the Leeward groups, and especially the island of Montserrat. A week has passed since the disaster took place, and, though the nrst telegram received from the Acting-Governor on the loth instant asked that a Mansion House Relief Fund should be started at once, I deferred might communicating with your Lordship in the hope that later news indicate that it would not be necessary to repeat the appeal which you made on behalf of the West Indian Colonies in September last. There is no submarine cable to the island of Montserrat, and up to date full have not been received, but such details as have been given particulars point to great loss of life, and to want of food and clothing for several thousands, while in the island of St Kitts it is stated that 3000 people are homeless. in Under these circumstances, I do not feel justified further postponing to you to invite public subscriptions on behalf of the an appeal sufferersin the Leeward Islands, and I would wish to emphasise the fact, as, or even that in the islands which have suffered this year, as much last year, were more than, those which suffered already from other distressed ; that their administration has only causes impoverished and been carried on with Imperial aid ; and that poor relief has been a Montserrat, in particular, growing charge against falling revenues. has been year after year to subject visitations of various kinds, and I have already on a previous occasion been forced to enlist the aid of the Mansion House Fund on its behalf. Should your Lordship see fitto open a fund on the present occasion, I venture to hope that, hi view of the pitiful succession of calamities which have befallen pur West Indian Colonies, the appeal may meet with a speedy and a liberalresponse. I remain, etc., J. CHAMBERLAIN.

(M)
V. Correspondence

relating to Decree respecting Chinese Imperial Customs. Maritime

No.

i.

Mr

Carnegie to Sir Edward

Grey.

Peking, May 9, 1906. I have the honour to report the issues this afternoon of an Imperial Decree by which the President of the Board of Revenue is appointed Administrator-General Chinese and Customs. Control over of all foreigners ia the Customs Service is time. given him at the same

(Telegraphic.)

ADVANCED

PRECIS
Grey. Peking, May

311

No. 2. Mr Carnegie to Sir Edward

10, 1906. My telegram of yesterday's date. This decree comes as a surprise to every one, and grave apprehensions felt here in regard to what the consequences of it may be. I beg are leave to suggest that you instruct me to request the Chinese Government to explain the terms of the Decree. I could point out at the same G time that His Majesty'sovernment cannot consent to any change 'being made in the present system of administration of the Maritime Customs in view of the undertaking given by the Chinese Government in 1898 to Sir C. MacDonald that Sir Robert Hart should be succeeded Englishman, as Inspector-General by an and in view of the terms of Articles 7* and 6* of the Anglo-German Loan Agreements of 1896 and 1898 respectively. No. 3.

(Telegraphic.)

Grey to Mr Carnegie. Foreign Office, May n, (Telegraphic.) 1906. With reference to your telegram of yesterday relativeto the appointment the of Administrator-General of Chinese Maritime Customs, Chinese Government be informed that His Majesty's ment Governshould as are anxious to receive an explanation of the Decree as soon to interfere with the powers now was possible. If its object exercised by the Inspector-General, which His Majesty's Government cannot suppose to be the case, it would constitute a distinct breach of the in the Loan Agreements given by the Chinese Government engagement of 1896 and 1898, to the effect that, during the currency of the Loans, the administration of the Maritime Customs should remain as then constituted. No. 4. Mr Carnegie to Sir Edward Grey. Peking, May 16, 1906. (Telegraphic.) Your telegram of the nth instant. to note which I I received last night reply of Chinese Government to them in accordance with the terms of your telegram above addressed

Sir Edward

referred to. Reply is evasive and unsatisfactory.

Mr
My

No. 5. Carnegie to Sir Edward Grey.

"

May (Received Peking, May

i6")

(Telegraphic.)

16, 1906. telegram of to-day's date. Venture to bring to your notice following points which His Majesty's Government may think worthy of consideration when reply to note of is being drawn up. Chinese Government in internal affairs of China is, of course, Interference not desired by The constitution of the Imperial Maritime Government. His Majesty's Customs of China exists,however, under abnormal conditions. Customs are pledged as security for various loans and revenues 1900 Indemnity,
Chinese Imperial Government undertake in the Loan Agreements that the administration of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs shall remain as at present constituted during the currency of this Loan.
*

The

312

HIGHER

ENGLISH

in the employ of the Chinese and they are administered by foreigners in thei* Government interest taken by His Majesty's Government ; any G legitimate, and His Majesty'sovernment administration is therefore that it is not contemplated to effect only desire to receive an assurance Customs. any change in the existing system of administration of the Decree is not underIt is not surprising that the precise import of the stood, in view of the way in which it was worded. No. 6.

Sir Edward

17, 19x36. Your telegrams of yesterday. You should impress upon Reply on lines you suggest is approved. that we do not wish to interfere in the internal Chinese Government the affairsof the country, but that, in view of the engagements contained in the Loan Agreements of 1896 and 1898, on the strength of which they were of money, we are entitled to a definite able to borrow large sums on their part that no change in the Customs administration assurance will be effected by the terms of the Decree.
Mr Carnegie to Sir Edward

(Telegraphic.)

Grey to Mr Carnegie. Foreign Office,May

No. 7. Grey.

"

May (Received Peking, May

28.)

28, 1906. Your telegram of the 1 7th instant. to note I have the honour to report that reply of Chinese Government I addressed to them in accordance with instructions contained which been received. Note in your telegram above referred to has now Chinese Government that at the assurance expresses gratification of Great Britain does not wish to interfere with China's internal affairs. Chinese Government consider all their Treaty obligations with foreign They Powers and their agreements with banks as most important. faithfully observed all such obligations. maintain that they have always Chinese Government attach the greatest importance to the collection at the various ports, as has been evinced by the appointment of customs by the Throne to superintend these matters. of High Commissioners feel sure, These officerswill, the Chinese Government perform their duties in an admirable The carrying out of any reforms manner. which may have to be made will be effected under orders issued by the The hope is exto the Inspector-General. Administrators-General pressed for constant expansion of customs revenues, so that a still safer security may be afforded the bondholders in the various loans. Chinese Government, in their reply, evade giving assurance asked for, and intimate plainly that the new Administrators have their hands free to effect any changes they may consider fit. I shall ask Foreign Board categorically at interview, which I have ment Governasked for this afternoon, whether they will give His Majesty's the assurance or not. required

(Telegraphic.)

Mr

No. 8. Carnegie to Sir Edward Grey."

May (Received

28.)

28, 1906. My telegram of to-day's date. I had an interview with the Wai-wu a They gave me Pu to-day. definite promise that a note would be sent to me in a few days in which

(Telegraphic.)

Peking, May

ADVANCED
the specificengagement

PRfiCIS

313

of 1896 contained in the Loan Agreements that the administration of the Customs (Article and 1898 (Article 6), 7) continue as at present constituted, would be formally recapitulated "rhall and reaffirmed by Chinese Government. I informed the Foreign Board that the requirements of His Majesty's Government would, I thought, be met by such a note, if its terms were satisfactory.

No. 9. Carnegie to Sir Edward Grey."

(Extract.)

(Received July 30.) Peking, June 14, 1906.

In accordance with the promise reported in my telegram of the 28th on a note the evening of the ist June, ultimo, Prince Ch'ing sent me the engagement in Articles 7 and 6 of the Loan Agreements which quoted of 1896 and 1898 respectively, and affirmed that the Decree of the 9th May did not make any change in the method of administration of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs therein stipulated. I have the honour to enclose a translation of Prince Ch' ing's note.

Inclosure in No. 9. Prince Ch'ing to Mr Carnegie.

(Translation.)
SIR,
I had

Peking, June i, 1906. the honour to inform you hi a note of the 27th May that the for the exclusive specialappointment by China of High Commissioners the Maritime Customs made no change in control (ormanagement) of in the Loan Agreements. At the mode of administration laid down interview at the Wai-wu Pu on the 28th May you intimated that the an terms of this note were not sufficiently explicitas to China's intentions, in the matter. a further statement and requested In the 7th Article of the Loan Agreement of 1896 and in the 6th Article of the Loan Agreement it is stipulated " that the adof 1898 ministra of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs shall remain as at present constituted during the currency of this loan," and I have the honour to state that the Imperial Decree of the 9th May specially affairs appointing High Commissioners to control (ormanage) revenue does not make any change in the method of administration laid down in the Loan Agreements. While communicating the above to you, for the information of Hia Government. I avail "c Majesty's

CHAPTER
FIGURES
370.

XXX

OF

SPEECH
A

word ox phrase is J/ said to be used when it is intended to meaning, but a secondary or derived meaning convey, not itsliteral is plain to the hearer or reader. Thus the Adjective which to sweet appliesliterally taste, but we also speak of sweet music, sweet words, etc. Or, again,we may say a thing is as sweet as honey. In all these instances we are employing Figures of Speech. Figures of Speech, or Figures of Rhetoric, may be denned as

T^IGURATIVELANGUAGE" figuratively

unusual methods of expression,by which the effect of our words is increased. for two purposes : They are employed chiefly
uncommon
or
"

Ornament. They serve to give beauty and variety to our discourse, and to raiseit from a commonplace and often level. Some of the most striking monotonous e and artistic ffects in English Literature are due to the judicious employment of figures speech especiallyf Metaphor and Simile. o of For Clearness. Frequently, as the teacher well knows, (2) can the idea of a complex subject be best conveyed by an illustration analogy. or It willbe evident from the examples given in thischapter that the best Figures of Speech often combine both of these functions
For (1)
"

^they

are

at once

artistic and explanatory.

"

Figures of Speech may be classified according as they depend on : Similarity Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Fable, Parable, : (i) Personification.
"

371. Classification

FIGURES

OF

SPEECH
Pun.

315

Oxymoron, (2)Contrast : Antithesis,

Epigram, Irony, Sarcasm,

Innuendo, Hyperbole, Litotes, Euphemism, Association: Metonymy, Synecdoche. (3) Arrangement: Interrogation, Apostrophe, (4)
Pleonasm, Climax.

Repetition,

Of all these, by far the

Metaphor.

most

common

are

the Simile and

is the expression of a resemblance existing 372. A SIMILE between two things. The more diverse in their general nature the objects compared are, the greater is the force of the simile. Thus we speak of water being clear as crystal;of a runner being
being likeSamson. Similesare swiftas a hare ; of a strong man drawn for the most part from thus reallyillustrations a subject, of l history,egend, or nature. They are generally introduced by the words likeor as.
Examples
:
"

The Assyrian came down like a wolfon (a) Her eyes as stars of twilightfair. (b) I (c) wandered lonely as a cloud. (d)She sat like Patience on a monument,

the fold.

Smiling at grief. We are only like dead walls or vaulted graves (") That ruined yield no echo. The quality of mercy is not strained, (/) It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the earth beneath, (g)And the great lord of Luna Fell at that deadly stroke As falls Mount Alvernus on A Thunder-smitten oak.

A Simile is sometimes worked

out

at some

length and is then

said to be sustained

e.g.

(a)Why,

he doth bestride the narrow world Colossus, and we petty men Like a Walk under his huge legs and peep about To find ourselves dishonourable graves. see, against some storm, (b)But as we often A silence in the heavens, the rack stand still, The bold winds speechless, the orb below and As hush as death, anon the dreadfulhunder t Doth rend the region, so after Pyrrhus' pause, Aroused vengeance sets him new awork.
man,

373. A

METAPHOR

is an

implied comparison.

In

simile

316

HIGHER

ENGLISH

the two things compared are stated side by side so that we may mentally compare them ; in a metaphor they are stated together in combination, so that a mental effortis needed to perceive the comparison intended. A metaphor may, in fact,be regarded as
a

condensed simile. " Thus we speak of the silver is moon, meaning that the moon as bright as silveris" The lattersentence contains a simile
"

from the metaphor. In the metaphor one part only and of each side of the comparison (silver moon)is taken and Thus again we say " he is a snake in these are fused together. " he is as deceitful as a snake in the grass is the grass" meaning

expanded

(deceitful)."
Examples
:
"

He (a)

is a dog in the manger.

(b)Lawrence was a tower of strength. lion, were hinds. He were no not Romans (c) in the flower their age. They were cut off of (d) Thy word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto (e) Error is a hardy plant it flourishes every soil. in ; (/)
like a Simile, may be sustained, many brought out in a series images : e.f. being effectively of
A Metaphor,
There is a tide in the affairsof men l Which taken at the floodeads on to fortune. Omitted, all the voyage of our life Is bound in shallows and in miseries. In such a full sea are we now afloat, And we must take the current when it serves, Or lose our ventures.

my

path.

details

Metaphors, to be effective, need to be carefullyused.

As has

some amount already been stated, of mental work is needed to perceive the comparison intended. Hence metaphors must not be far-fetched; for a resemblance which no one but the writer
can

see

is

worse

than useless it is confusing to the reader's

"

mind. Neither must they be too frequently employed, beyond the point of interest.
Further, we must

nor

sustained

take care not to apply two different metaphors For instance, it would be absurd to say " He the same at time. sleetedthe ship of state safely through the serried ranks of the

FIGURES

OF

SPEECH

317

is enemy," for the metaphor of a ship conjoined the metaphor with We could make the metaphor good by substituting an army. of " " for " through the serriedranks of through the troubled waters
the enemy."Most " Irish Such constructionsare calledMixed Metaphors. " bulls are of this nature : e.g." I smell a rat ; I see itin the air; but I willnip it in the bud." We find examples even among the
greatestpoets, thus :
"

To take up arms against a sea of troubles. I that sucked the honey of his music vows. As has been

said, very much of our ordinary language is words are used both literally and metametaphorical. Many phoricall have even lost their original meaning and and some are employed solely in their metaphorical sense ("

269).

of consistsof a metaphor or a series into a tale. closely allied and consistent metaphors expanded is Its s abstracttruth, for object to teach by illustrationome instance,of morality or religion;in order to effect this,it is necessary that all the incidentsdescribed should offer parallels intended,and that these should be of a sufficiently to the

374. AN

ALLEGORY

subject

evident nature to the reader. The greatestexample in our language of an Allegory isBunyan's " Progress,"in which all Pilgrim's the incidents the hero'sjourney of life. are comparable with the events of an ordinary Christian's " " Other examples of allegoryare Langland's Piers Plowman and " to Spenser's Faerie Queene." In the latter intended originally
"

allegoryon the reign of Elizabeth the resemblances are so that at length they break down altogether, and the allegory slight merits as literature fails completely. apart from itsintrinsic

be
"

an

"

"

to an allegory. They very similar are generally shorter. In the fable itis customary to make birds and even inanimate objects, speak and act like men. and beasts,

A Fable and

Parable

are

Lesson intended to be conveyed is calledthe Moral, and is often definitely statedat the end of the fable. The best known fablesare those of y"sop, which, with greater or less variations, The have been translatedinto alllanguages.

318
The
Parable

HIGHER

ENGLISH
from

in ordinary life, deep moral or spiritualruth. Examples t tended to imply some are Jotham'sarable of the Bramble, and Christ'sparables of p the Sower, the Talents, the Ten Virgins,etc.
figure which ascribes the of animate beings : e.g. life,thought, speech, characteristics feeling, things inanimate or to abstractqualities. It is,thereto fore,
375. PERSONIFICATION
a

is a simple story drawn

is

alliedto Metaphor and Allegory. Thus we speak of the sun as "he" as "she"; we say that "the ship and the moon broke her mast"; that "love is blind"; that "necessity knows Other examples are : no law."
"

the floods clap their hands, and the hills be joyful together. (b)I heard the thunder hoarsely laugh. (c)Death is no respecter of persons. (d)The stars in their courses fought against Sisera. (e)Andd now the storm-blast came, and he was tyrannous and strong.

(a)Let

We
we

frequentlyuse thisfigure of speech unconsciously,as when speak of a promisingmorning, a treacherous sky, a thankless

task.
is the illustration a by of subject the better to method of contrast. In many cases, nothing serves give a clear idea to a person's mind of a thing than to state exactly what it is not. Further, by balancing two opposing words 376. ANTITHESIS
or

ideas againsteach other, vividness obtained. is

Examples
:
"

(a) Speech is silver ; silence is golden. (b)To err is human ; to forgive, divine. (c) He wept for joy. (d) The evil that men do lives after them,
The good is often interred with their bones. Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; (e) Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing full.

The
in

first two
Epigram
an

of these

are

; examples of Double Antithesis thus

is (d) speech contrasted with silence, nd a

An
such

as

silverwith golden. hero ; and was an originally inscriptionto some inscriptionnaturally summarised his qualitiesas

FIGURES
terselyat
"

OF

SPEECH

319

meaning the same into proverbs.

the term gradually passed into its present possible, a brief, pointed expression showing contrast. It is of nature as a Proverb : indeed many epigrams have passed
was

Tradition says that the followingwitty epigram Charles II. during his lifetime :
"

written of

Here lies king whose word no man a on relies ; Who never said a foolishthing,and never did a wise one. To which the king repliedby another epigrammatical remark
True j my words
Examples
:
"

:
"

are

my

own

; my actions,my ministers'.

(a)More haste, less speed. (6)Conspicuous by its absence.

It Jc)
is
a

custom

more

honoured
what

in the breach
may

than

the

(d)Do
Oxymoron

observance. to-morrow not put off till

be done to-day.
to con

is a statement which, on the surface,seems it itself; is a kind of concise paradox. tradict

Examples
:
"

(a)Masterly inactivity. (6)There is method in his madness. to a living death. (c)He is condemned If I did love you (d) with such a deadly life, His honour rooted in dishonour stood, (e)
. .

And

faith unfaithful kept him

falsely true.

closely another, and less closely to Innuendo and related to one In all four, contrast is implied between the literal Euphemism. meaning of the words employed and theirintended significance. Irony is a mode of expression by which the words are intended to suggest the opposite to theirliteral if meaning. For instance, " You are a fine fellow to enter for that examination,"we we say
that the person addressed is not at all likelyto be successful. The effectof irony generallydepends on the tone of voice in which the words are uttered,and on theircontext. " Brutus is an honourable Mark Antony's oft-repeated words : become more ironical as he proceeds to give man," and more
mean

377. IRONY

AND

SARCASM"

These

figures are

instanceswhich prove the opposite ; change in the tone of his voice.

we

can

imagine the gradual

320

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Irony which is intended to be bitterand actuallyoffensive is Such irony is found in satiricalorks (" w termed Sarcasm. 393).
Examples
:
"

is a perfect Solomon. how these Christians love one another I literal,now (Originally sarcastic.) ($)Who both by precept and example shows That prose is verse, and verse is merely prose.

(a)He (b)See

(Byron on
Innuendo
"

Wordsworth.)
"

is a figure by which a certainmeaning is conveyed by insinuation.

:
"

agreeab usually dis-

Examples

of that country are like the snakes in Ireland. there are none.} (i.e. His (6) ideas of the truth are peculiar. he (i.e. does not tell the truth.) That matter is postponed tillthe Greek Kalends. (c) for (i.e. ever, since there were no Greek Kalends.) The (a)
resources

is a play eitheron the different meanings of the same word, or on the meanings of words resembling one another in sound. It is usually employed for the sake of humour. 378. A

PUN

Examples

:
"

That lieshall lie so heavy on thy sword. Not on thy sole but on thy soul, harsh Jew 1 Is lifeworth living ? That depends upon the liver.

379. EUPHEMISM

"speaking (literally, consists in well")

c unpleasant or terrible ircumstance softening the effect of some In that the words it in pleasant terms. or truth by describing meaning, Euphemism used do not bear their literal resembles Irony and Innuendo; but whereas the effectsof the latterare
or those of Euphemism offensive irritating, are

soothing to the

person addressed
Examples
:
"

last night (a)He passedaway (i.e. died) (6)I know not, gentlemen, what you intend,
Who else must be let blood, who else is rank, What, must our mouths be cold ? (i.e. (c) must we

die

?)

Euphemism

must

not be confounded

with Euphuism

("263).

380. HYPERBOLE

consists in exaggeration,not for the pur

FIGURES

OF

SPEECH

821

pose of deceiving anyone, but merely for the sake of effect. Thus when we say: "He ran as fast lightning" or "that idea as isas old as the hills" no one, of course, imagines that our statements intended to be taken literally. are Care should be taken to avoid unconscious exaggeration e.g.y circumstance which is a :
merely unusual should not be termed marvellous.
Examples
:
"

" O king, live for ever." said Daniel unto the king : were than eagles, they were swifter stronger than lions. Weep your tears (c) Into the channel, till the lowest stream Do kiss the most exalted shores of all. (J)I loved Ophelia : fortythousand brothers Could not with all their quantity of love Make up the sum.

(a)Then (b)They

Litotes is the

converse secure

underratea thing,and
Examples
:
"

of Hyperbole, Here we purposely an effect by denying the contrary.

is (i.e.clever). (a)That man is no fool a general was (b)Maryborough of no mean He is certainly not a millionaire. (c)

reputation.

381. METONYMY,

which

means

literally "change

of

name,"

by is the representationf an o object means of some other object Sometimes the cause or circumstance associated with it of a Thus when we say : for its effect,and vice versa. thing is put that books have "The/"?" is mightier than the sword"' we mean than battles fought. greater influence
Examples
:"

Thy salvation (i.e. Him eyes have seen who shall bring Thy salvation). members of Parliament). (b)The House sat for three hours (i.e. is the The kettle boiling (i.e. water contained by the kettle). lend me Friends, Romans, and countrymen, your ears (i.e.

(a)Mine

the The stage is greatly reformed (i.e. actors). Shakspeare's is studying Shakspeare(i.e. He works).

attention).

Here the part is put Synecdoche closelyresembles Metonymy. for the whole, the lessgeneral for the more general ; or viceversa.

322
Examples
:
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

(a)All hands on deck 1 (6)The power of the crown is limited. (c)Some mute inglorious Milton here may
Some

rest,

Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood like Milton or Cromwell), man some (4.9. No (rf) useless coffin enclosed his breast.

382. INTERROGATION" with view then figuresof speech.

not
or
a

to an

answer,

sometimes asked, but for rhetoricaleffect. They are The answer should be obvious,and may
or

are Questions

may not be given by the speaker

Examples
:
"

writer.

is the arm hath believed our report ? And to whom of Lord revealed ? the Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the leopard his spots ? Which of you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his stature ? (d)Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleetingbreath ? Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust, Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of Death ?

(a)Who

383. APOSTROPHE person absent (generally is addressed.

Examples
:
"

is
or

figure of speech by which some or dead), some abstract idea personifie

daughter of the Voice of God I thou love. O Duty, if that name O (fc) ye gods, ye gods, must I endure all this ? (c) Pardon me, Julius! Here wast thou bay'd, brave hart I (d)England, with all thy faults I love thee still, My country I

(a)Stem

figure of speech, is a mode of emphasisi in the same a thing by saying it more than once, either is or in different words itis words. If the repetition in different often termed Parallelism.
384. REPETITION,
as a

Examples

"

(a)Water,

water, everywhere^ And not a drop to drink ! he (b)At her feet he bowed, he fell, lay down ; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he felldown dead, (r)Half a league, half a league, half a league onward. (d)And Nokomis warned her often, Saying oft. and oft repeating t
.

FIGURES
Pleonasm is
a

OF

SPEECH

323

in idea is of repetition which the same : expressed again in a different grammatical construction thus a Verb may be followed by an Adverbial phrase meaning the same, or a Noun be accompanied by an Adjective conveying the same

form

thought
Examples

Pleonasm

is sometimes effective, but should be used

" sparingly(see 261).

:
"

it with my own eyes. sly slow hours shall not determinate The dateless limit of my dear exile. (c)Essex had the sole monopolyof sweet wine*. doth he lie. (d) Most falsely

(")I saw (*)The

is the arrangement of a series of statements order of ascendancy, so that the last is the strongestof all

385. CLIMAX

in

Examples

:
"

(a)I came, I saw, I conquered. (6)The cloud-capped towers, the

gorgeous palacei, The solemn temples, the great globe itself Yea all which it inherit, shall dissolve. (c)What a piece of work is man ! How infinitein faculties 1 In form and motion how express and admirable ! In action how like an angel I In apprehension how like a god !

is the converse of Climax. In this figure, the statements gradually descend in order of importance. but otherwise, when uninIt is used humorously with success, tentiona itoften produces ludicrouseffects.
Anti-climax
or

Bathos

Examples

:
"

(a)He

is a great philosopher and a member of parliament, and he plays golf well. (b)He lost his wife, his children and his purse. (c)And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war, Lieutenant-Colonel to the Earl of Mar. (d) Werther had a love for Charlotte, such as words could never
"

utter;

Would

how you know bread and butter.

first he met

her ?

She

was

cutting

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

XXX
"

: Define the following terms and illustrate them by examples Bathos, hyperbole, euphemism, metonymy. euphuism, antithesis, does a metaphor differ from a How 2. Explain the term metaphor. is it a fault in style to mix metaphors ? ? Why simile in the following, and correct 3. Point out errors in the figures of speech

them

"

324

HIGHER

ENGLISH

as not to contain any alloy. happiness is so serene No human Let us be attentive to keep our mouths as with a bridle,and to steer our vessel aright that we may avoid the rocks us. and shoals around In a word, he apes the worst behaviour of the mule. The capture of Cape Town from the Dutch sowed the seed of South African possessions, and paved the way for our future administration. (5)He was ever a light to guide us, behind which we could always shelter ourselves. (6)The state stood prostrate at the tyrant's foot. 4. State and explain carefully the figures of speech in the following : (Note: Some of these passages contain more than one figure) (1)And thou sad hour selected from all years loss, rouse To mourn thy obscure compeers our " With me died Adonais." And say : (2)And that which would appear offence in us. His countenance, like richest alchemy, Will change to virtue and to worthiness. for a horse I A horse ! A horse I A kingdom 3 Every cloud has a silver lining. 4 5 Cowards die many times before their death ; taste of death but once. The valiant never some of you with Pilate wash your hands (6)Though Showing an outward pity ; yet you Pilates Have here delivered me to my sour cross. (7)Look how the Lion of the sea liftsup his ancient crown, his deadly paw treads the gay lilies And underneath down. on So stalked he when he turned to flight, that famed Picard field, Bohemia's plume, and Genoa's bow, and Caesar's eagle
"

shield. Having nothing, yet possessing all things. is woman ! Frailty, thy name being weary of these worldly bars, But lifeitself, (10) Never lacks power to dismiss itself. Though ii only a beginner, he is already a good shot. 12 He was led like a lamb to the slaughter. 13 After a gallant defence, the town fellinto th" hands of the enemy. terms with Japan. 14 Russia at length made All that I live by is with the awl ; I meddle with ne trades 15 men's matters, nor women's matters, but with all. Many a time and (16) oft Have you climbed up to walls and battlements, To towers and windows, yea, to chimney-tops. He carries his fifty summers lightly. With how sad steps, O Moon, thou climbest to the sky I 19) Fair waved the golden corn. 20) The bride hath paced into the hall,

g;

Red as a rose is she. (ai)Hark how each giant oak and desert cave. Sighs to the torrent's awful voice beneath

FIGURES
{22) Then

OF

SPEECH

325

the progeny which springs From the forest of our land, Armed clad with wings, with thunder, Shall a wider world command. men they died. as (23) Though gods they were, Such these as (24) the ark to lay their hand Presume upon

Of her magnificent and awful cause. (25) Cry aloud : for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is he sleepor pursuing, or he is in a journey, perad venture
be awaked. eth and must (26) He drank the cup without another word. pillars of the state. (27) Brave peers of England, thine ear, but few thy voice. (28) Give every man

(29) Only
4

30)

the actions of the just in the dust Smell sweet and blossom Thanks, proud peacock, for thy tuneful

CHAPTER

XXXI

PARAPHRASING
386. A

PARAPHRASE,
expression of
a

in its most

general

sense,

is the

XJL
we

explain anything to a as he can of the subject understand, and his comprehension the success of our taught will depend to a great extent on language to paraphrase. So also in translation from one

When passage in other words. child we use simple language such

rendering often makes nonsense, exactly literal nations ; owing to the varied workings of the minds of different we are obliged therefore to paraphrasecertain words and
another,
an

phrases,
As an PARAPHRASING" exercise in English, paraphrasing consists in the careful rendering of the passage of prose or verse in other and, meaning of a literary is ; s where possible, impler language than the original itsobject

387. AIMS

OF

to explain or make

clearerthe meaning of the original. to speak, from what is proAs we are obliged to translate, so bably dignified language into our own beautifuland ordinary factory, mode of expression,the paraphrase is ever somewhat unsatistrue bathetic. This is especially and sometimes even when a passage of sublime poetry, such as that of Milton, is in
the hands of a beginner watered down into the flattest prose. If,however, the results paraphrasing are not always particularly of happy, there are many reasons why, as an exercise,it is useful. It trainsthe mind to think out carefully the exact meaning and

the value of each word of the original, nd hence enlarges our a knowledge of English ; itincreasesour vocabulary and facilitates freedom of expression, since we have, where possible,to find
other words and other constructions equivalent to those of the

PARAPHRASING

327

original and, owing to the necessity of concentrating oui ; thought on one passage rather than vaguely reading a large it helps us to enter more and amount, closelyinto the spirit

in way as parsing and of the author, just the same analysis help us to understand the grammatical and logical relationof the words.
meaning
388

METHODS

OF

PARAPHRASING"

There

are

two

opposite methods of paraphrasing, which we shall call the General and the Literal. The General Method consists in reading through the passage several times, and then writing down its general purport, ignoring detail. This practically Literal The to Reproduction (Chapter amounts xxiii.). Method consistsin taking the passage as it stands, altering
the arrangement of the words to suit prose order,and replacing helps us by equivalentwords. The first words (where possible) to grasp the main ideas of the passage and of the author'smethod to unfold the of treatment ; but, on the other hand, it fails detailed expression and force of each word, and the result is
as therefore,

rule,vague and shallow. The second produces an from literal ranslation t effectsomething like that of a slavishly French into English \ the words are English, but meaning isin the main unintelligible ridiculous. and A great many attempts at paraphrase err by their too close
a

to adherence to one or other of these methods, and especially the latter. The Combined Method. A good paraphrase is obtained by On the one a felicitous combination of these two methods. hand, the paraphrase should contain as much as possibleof the even to the smallest details and, on ; meaning of the original, the other hand, the resultshould be a readable pieceof prose, developing in logical the ideas ratherthan order and proportion the words of the original. In what proportion, then, ought the ? two methods to be combined so as to produce the best results This must depend on two things : The taste of the writer. Our minds do not all work in (i) the same groove, and itisunnecessary to force them to do so. It
"

328

HIGHER

ENGLISH

is quite possible to have two equally good paraphrases of the incliningto the general, the other to the same passage, one literal.

Some passages may be treated of the subject. almost entirely on the lines of one or other of the methods. This is especially the case where a single phrase or sentence is given for paraphrasing. Thus :
The (2)
nature
"

The child is fatherto the man." " The infant is the parent of Here a literal such as rendering, the grown up person," reaches the height of absurditywithout in any way explaining the meaning. Some general rendering like

(a)

"

A child's character is generally a good is necessary. willbe as a man,"

"

indication of what he

The loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind." Here the fairly literal rendering, "The hearty laughter that showed a mind free from care," is quite satisfactory.

(b)

"

389. MODE

OF

PROCEDURE

RECOMMENDED"

(a)Read
clear as

through the passage several times so as to be quite but also to the meaning, not only of the whole generally,

words of the meaning of to the whole. After some practice it will be sufficient think this out mentally without writing it down, Next find synonyms for the most important words ; do not (c)
own

of each phrase. Write a rough (b)

copy in your

tillthe best one is selectthe firstthat occurs, nor be satisfied obtained. Then try to change some of the constructions; active for passive,adverbialclause for adverbialphrase, the general for
the particular, and so forth. From the next chapter the student willunderstand that many words and constructionsin poetry are unsuited to prose diction. (d)In writing the final paraphrase, it is generally best to word by word or line by line, but sentence by sentence, thinking out the paraphrase of each sentence before it down. Sometimes it is necessary to be even more writing

proceed,

not

general than this owing to repetition from another or illogical order of the original.

one

sentence

to

PARAPHRASING
390. REMARKS

329

ON
to

THE

PARAPHRASE"

remember that the paraphrase is a piece of composition : all the rules applicable to composition must therefore be carefullyobserved. Long and involved sentences, in poetry, should be broken up. common which are specially
It (1) is important
feature. The aim of the paraphrase essential is to explain, and it therefore needs to be couched in and unaffected English. Owing to itsexplanatory straightforward nature, the paraphrase willnearly always be rather longer than the

(2)Simplicity

is

an

original. (3)It is not

necessary that a synonym every word ; itfrequentlyhappens that the has selected the only word suitable. In harm in retainingthe original word, or even,

should be found for author of the original that case there is no in extreme
cases,

Under no circumstances should a originalsentence. word or involved constructiontake the place of a simple word
construction.

the difficult
or

be retainedwith change of phraseology,or may be transmuted into ordinary language ; but care should be taken not to mix figurative and ordinary.
may (4)Figures of speech (Chap, xxx.) 391. SPECIMENS
L ORIGINAL.
Illfares the land, to hastening illsa prey decay : Where and men wealth accumulates fade ; Princes and lords may flourish or may A breath can make them as a breath has made ; But a bold peasantry, their country's pride, be supplied. destroyed, can never When once A land will not prosper in which wealth fallsinto the PARAPHRASE. hands of a few people whilst the mass of the population dies out ; an evil it. It matters little fate will soon overtake whether kings or nobles die, but it is impossible to fillthe place for others can be easily created ; of brave peasants who are the backbone of the nation. II. ORIGINAL. law, although there be for the prince provided many By our common princely prerogatives and royalties, yet it is not such as the prince can take money or other things or do as he will at his own pleasure without to but quietly to suffer his subjects enjoy their own without order, wrongful oppression : wherein other princes by their liberty do take as pleaseth them. Although PARAPHRASE. the king of our country enjoys many royal to law and has grants of money provided for him, privilegesaccording kings have, of extorting money he has not the power, as many o* a"" y
"
"

OF

PARAPHRASING"

330

HIGHER

ENGLISH

In fact he dare not interfere with their thing else from his subjects. in any way, except by act of parliament, but must allow them liberties the fullenjoyment their rights and property. of

EXERCISES
1.

ON

CHAPTER

XXXI.

into good modern prose, and write notes on any historical in the following passages : allusions one or (1)"Wherefore we require you give us answer other, be minded to have this noble prince now whether ye At these words the protector to be your king or not." began to whisper among themselves secretly,that people the voice was neither loud nor distinct but as it were swarm the sound of a of bees, till the last in the nether at hall, a bushment end of the of the duke's servants, and Nashefeldes and others longing to the protector,with some the prentices and lads that thrust into the hall among backs to cry out as loud as press,began suddenly at men's " King Richard, king Richard." their throats would give, The king that day showed himself a valiant knight, albeit (2) almost felled by the Duke of Alencon ; yet with plain he slew two of the duke's company and felledthe strength duke ; whom when he would have yielded, the .himself king's guard slew out of hand. In conclusion, the king to make an end of that day's work, caused his minding horsemen to fetch a compass about, and to join with him against the rearward of the Frenchmen. " " (j) MY lords, I thank you then," quoth queen Catherine, of -v to your request I your good wills ; but to make answer cannot so suddenly, for I was set among my maidens at work, thinking full littleof any such matter, wherein there needeth a longer deliberation and a better head to so noble wise men than mine, to make answer as ye be." in prose the sense 2. Express can as as of the completely you following : (1)As long as skies are blue and fieldsare green, Evening must usher night, night urge the morrow. (2)One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. (3)And on the tossing sea of steel To and fro the standards reel. (4)The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave Awaits alike the inevitable hour. (5)Hope springs eternal in the human breast : Man never is, but always to be blest. Fame is the spur that the clear spiritdoth raise (6) (Thatlast infirmity of noble minds) To scorn delights and live laborious days. Day set on Norham's (7) castled steep. (S)Yet the lark's shrillfifemay come At the daybreak from the fallow. And the bittern sound his drum Booming from the sedgy hollow.
" "

Put

PARAPHRASING
(9)Turn, Fortune
turn

331

thy wheel with smile or frown ; With that wild wheel, we go not up or down ; Our hoard is little, but our hearts are great. The child is father of the man : (10) And I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety. (M) Paraphrase the following : 3. to make a virtue of necessity ? (1)Are you content In notes with many bout a winding (2) Of linked sweetness long drawn out. (3)The rank is but the guinea's stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that [go wd all ] gold ; a' (4)The dread of something after death, The undiscovered country from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will, And makes us rather bear those ills have, we Than fly to others that we know not of. Where ignorance is bliss,'tisfolly to be wise. The loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind. (M) 4. Paraphrase the following passages, and write short notes explaining the historicalallusions contained in them : (1)It was the time when England's queen Twelve years had reigned, a sovereign dread ; Nor yet the restless crown had been Disturbed upon her virgin head ; But now the inly working North Was ripe to send its thousands forth. A potent vassalage to fight In Percy's and in Neville's right. Two earls fast leagued in discontent. Who gave their wishes open vent, And badly urged a general plea, The rights of ancient piety To be triumphantly restored By the stern justice the sword. of (2)Ere you were queen, yea, or your husband king, I was a pack-horse in his great affairs.
"

...

"

In all which time you and your husband Grey Were factions for the house of Lancaster, Was And, Rivers, so were not your husband you. In Margaret's battle at St Albans slain ? Poor Clarence did forsake his father, Warwick Yea, and forswore himself which Jesu pard To fight on Edward's party for the crown ; And for his meed, poor lord, he is mew'd up. the woof (3)Weave the warp and weave The winding sheet of Edward's race ; Give ample room and verge enough The characters of hell to trace. Mark the year, and mark the night.
"

332

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Severn shall re-echo with affright. When The shrieks of death, through Berkeley's roof that ring, Shrieks of an agonising king ; She-wolf of France, with unrelenting fangs, That tear'st the bowels of thy mangled mate, From thee be born who o'er thy country hangs The scourge of heaven 1 (M) State its general purport 5. Of each of the following passages : (i) Explain, particularly,the meaning of each portion printed in italics (2) (3)Write short notes on any historical allusions in it. forget ; yet all shall be forgot (1)Old men But he'll remember with advantages feats he did that day : then shall our names What Familiar in his mouth as household words, Harry the king, Bedford and Exeter, Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester. Be in their flowing r cups freshlyemembered. What the fiery soul of James ? (2) checks Why sits that champion of the dames Inactive on his steed, And sees between him and his land Between him and Tweed's southern strand His host Lord Surrey lead ?
.

"

"

"

O for one hour of Wallace wight Or well Bruce, to rule the fight, -skilled St Andrew and our rightI" And cry
"

Another sight had seen that morn, From Fate's dark book a leaf been torn, And Flodden had been Bannockbourne 1 6. Paraphrase the following and write notes on the historicalallusions contained in them : (1)The king that loved him, as the state stood then. Was force perforce compelled to banish him : And then that Henry Bolingbroke and he, Being mounted and both roused in their seats
"

Then, then, when there was nothing could have stay'd My father from the breast of Bolingbroke, O, when the king did throw his warder down, His own life hung upon the staff he threw. Cromwell our chief of men, (2) who through a cloud Hast reared God's trophies, and his work pursued, While Darwen stream, with blood of Scots imbrued, And Dunbar field,resounds thy praises loud, And Worcester'* laureate wreath : yet much remains To conquer still peace hath her victories ; No less renowned than war. " felt (3) Sweet is the holiness of youth ""so Time-honoured Chaucer, when he framed the lay By which the prioress beguiled the way, And many a pilgrim's rugged heart did melt.

PARAPHRASING
! whose spiritoften dwelt In the clear land of vision, but foreseen King, child, and seraph, blended in the mien kneeling as he knelt Of pious Edward In meek and simple infancy, what joy For universal Christendom had thrilled hopes inspired thy genius, skilled Thy heart ! What Precursor, genuine morning star) (O great to employ. The lucid shafts of reason Piercing the papal darkness from afar ! (4) Know that when made Archbishop I was freed, Before the Prince and chief Justiciary, From every bond and debt and obligation Incurr'd as Chancellor. Hear me son.

833

Hadst

thou, loved Bard

As gold Outvalues dross, light darkness, Abel Cain, The soul the body, and the Church the Throne. I charge thee, upon pain of mine anathema, That thou obey, not me, but God in me, I refuse to stand Rather than Henry. By the King's censure, make my cry to the Pope, I will be judged; refer myself, By whom The King, these customs, all the Church, to him, I depart. (M) And under his authority 7. Explain the italicisedportions of the following passage, and write notes on the historicalallusions in it : (i)At this time the king began again to be haunted with spirits by the magic and curious arts of the Lady Margaret, who
"

"

raised up the ghost of Richard, Duke of York, second son the king. the Fourth, to walk and vex to King Edward Simnel, This was a than Lambert stone finer counterfeit hands, being graced after betterdone and worn upon greater with the wearing ofa king of France and a king ofScotland, not ofa Duchess of Burgundy only. And for Simnel, there in him more than that he was a handsome was not much did not shame his robes. But this youth ofwhom boy. and to now we are speak was such a mercurial as the like hath part ifat any seldom been known, and could make his own time he chanced to be out. (M) 8. Paraphrase and explain the historical allusions in the following : (1)Not all the water in the rough rude sea Can wash the balm from an anointed king j The breath of worldly men cannot depose The deputy elected by the Lord : For every man that Bolingbroke hath pressed To liftshrewd steel against our golden crown, God for his Richard hath hi heavenly pay A glorious angel : then, if angels fight, Weak men must fall,for heaven still guards the right. Ye towers of Julius, London's lasting shame, (2) With many a foul and fed, midnight murder Revere his consort's faith, his father's fame,
"

334

HIGHER

ENGLISH

And spare the meek usurper's holy head I Above, below, the rose of snow, Twined with her blushing foe, we spread ; The bristled boar in infant gore Wallows beneath the thorny shade. Then you lost (3)

The view of earthly glory : men might say, Till this time pomp was single,but now married To one above itself. Each following day Became the next day's master, tillthe last Made former wonders its. To-day the French, All clinquant, all in gold, like heathen gods, Shone down the English ; and, to-morrow, they Made Britain India : every man that stood like a mine. Showed (4)Never durst he attempt our hapless shore. Nor set his foot on fatal Ravenspore ; Nor durst his slugging hulks approach the strand, Nor stoop a top as signal to the land, Had not the Percies promised aid to bring Against their oath unto their lawful king, Against their faith unto our crown's true heir, Express in simple prose : 9. Her downcast eye e'en pale afflictionrears (1) To sigh a thankful prayer, amid the glee That hailed the despot's fall,and peace and liberty, (2)We'll have a swashing and a martial outside
As other mannish cowards have That do outface it with their semblance*. (3)Scantly Lord Marmion could brook The harper's barbarous lay. (4)Give me in peace my heriot due, The bonny white steed, or thou shalt rue. (5)O good old man, how well in thee appears The constant service of this antique world. When service sweat for duty not for meed I (6)Thy word is current with him for my death, But dead, thy kingdom cannot buy my breath, Thither full fraught with mischievous revenge, (7) Accursed and in a cursed hour, he hies. (8)But firsthe casts to change his proper shape. Which else might work him danger or delay.

CHAPTER
PROSE
392. T

XXXII
POETRY

AND

in itswidest sense, includes the whole I ^ of the written expressionof a nation'sthoughts from t the earliestimes. into two classes Prose and Poetry. f All literature alls naturally is Prose (Latin prorsus unchecked)the language of ordinary life: it includes our conversation, composition, and by far the
ITERATURE,
"

"*

greater portionof what we read. form of literature, main Poetry is an artistic the

of object which

from is beauty and dignityof thought and language. It differs as prose in form and diction, willbe presentlydescribed.

393. CLASSIFICATION
nature

OF

PROSE"
the
manner

of the
an

treated, and subjects

very varied of theirtreatment,

The

o exhaustive classificationf either prose or poetry impossible. There is bound to be some overlapping practically many works belonging partly to one class and partlyto another ; but stand,as itwere, works fall within no general class, and some by themselves. The majority our Prose writings may, however, of be grouped as: I. Technical work ; II. History; III. Description; IV. Fiction ; V. Humour ; and Satire VI. Reflection. tended This includes all works which are inI. Technical Work. merely and solely for the purpose of giving information makes
"

particular subject Thus we may have a treatiseon Algebra, a grammar of the German language, or a science text-book. In all such works form is subordinated to
or

in instruction

matter.

definition literature of adopting a narrower authorities, than the one given above, would exclude technicalworks from Literature altogether.
Some
us

336

HIGHER

ENGLISH

IL History and Biography. This includes allnarratives dealing of with events in the life a nation or of an individual. From one History and Biography are technicalcomposition, for their aspect in : place,to instruct and an elementary text-book aim is, the first

history can undoubtedly be so classed. The value of history, however, depends not only on the correct statement of facts though thisis important but also on : (1)The criticaland reflectivefaculties displayed by the historian his selectionand arrangement of material, in and the inferences drawn from that material The literary with which he narrates and explains. art (2) Among the greatestexamples of History xtt \ Gibbon's "Decline Empire," Clarendon's " History of the and Fall of the Roman Great Rebellion," Napier's " Peninsular War," and the works of Macaulay, Freeman, Stubbs, Gardiner, and J.R. Green.
on
"
"

"

be mentioned : Boswell's Life of of Biography may Life of Scott," Stanley's Life of Arnold Johnson,"Lockhart's Morley's " Life of Gladstone," and Southey's " Life of Nelson."

As

examples

"

"

"

"

III. Description. There is a large class of works to which this term is applicable, uch as travels, s voyages, antiquarianresearches.

both instruction usually have for their object and enter instructive tainment; a merely treatisesuch as a text-book of geography would works.
"

They

not

find

place here, but under

technical

" As examples may be named : Raskin's Stones of Venice," Prescott's Peru and Mexico/' Hakluyt's Voyages," Nansen's " Farthest North," Stanley's " In Darkest Africa."
"

IV. Fiction. Under this heading

are

and romances which narrate events Their chief and almost sole aim is to give pleasure,either by the novelty of the incident or by the styleof composition ; ifany idea of instruction such as that of teaching morality is present at it all, is, and must be, quite subsidiary. Though such works are written under a form to some extent
" "

included alltales, novels, less imaginary. or more

similarto that of history,the writer is perfectlyfree as to material He can choose his own facts and weave and treatment. them together as he likes; he may treat them seriouslyor humorously;

PROSE
he
can

AND

POETRY

337

Hence a include incident, description, and argument. great opportunityis offered in this class of work to the writer's imagination. Works of fiction may be subdivided as follows: (1)Supernatural or Legendary Romances. These deal with events which are impossible,or at least improbable. Thus we
"

the wonderful collection of Legends of the Greeks and Romans dealing with the adventures of their gods and early heroes. The value of national legends in illuminating the early historyand customs of a people is a qualityquite apart from their as charm and interest tales.
have

Under thishead may be included Fairy Tales, of which " Alice in Wonderland" and Kingsley's "Water-Babies" are good modern representatives. (2)Allegorical Eomances. These usually treat of events of life, common such as might actually occur, and probably have occurred often enough. Behind the tale there is, however, a hidden meaning which the casual reader may not troubleto perceive. Examples are found in the Fables of ^Esop and others, " ments Progress," the Parables of the Old and New Testathe Pilgrim's

" (see 374).

of (3)Novels, forming by far the largestproportio'n fictional
more experiencesof everyday life, works, deal with the common less idealised. Their merit depends mainly on (a) plot, or delineation character, brilliancy style. This branch of of (c) (b) i of literature s of comparatively recent growth.

As representatives of the past the names of Defoe, Richardson, Fielding,JaneAusten, Thackeray, Dickens, and R. L. Stevenson may be are numerous and merit varied. mentioned ; in the present day names

In these, incidents of history form a sort of peg on which to hang the plot of the story. Events are often entirely turned and twisted to suit the tale; characters, f scenes, and conversationswhich have no historicaloundation introduced. In this class of Fiction, Sir Walter Scott's are Waverley Novels easily take the first place ; the names of Bulwer Lytton and Harrison Ainsworth may also be mentioned. V. Humour and Satire. Fiction of all kinds abounds in
Historical (4) Novels.
humour
Y

; and satire there are, however, certain works which have

338

HIGHER

ENGLISH

no practically plot,and which are written almost entirelywith the of object displayingeither wit or satireor both combined, and these need to be placed in a class by themselves.

peculiar way of looking at persons and things so that they provoke mirth, is exemplified by Sterne's "Tristram Shandy" and the "Sentimental Journey," comedies the " of Goldsmith and Sheridan, Dickens' Pickwick Papers," and at
Humour,
a

which is

the present by the works of Mark Twain and JeromeK. Jerome. from humour in that it is intended to Satire, which differs provoke

ridicule, is emplif and so bring contempt on an object, exTale of a Tub" by the works of Swift, e" "The branches of the Christian Faith), the different (satirising and " " the Battle of the Books (dealing the controversy between with

Classical and Modern

VI. Reflection.

Literature).
Under

this heading may be included all works which deal with thought rather than with fact. Works on philosophy, religion, politics,education, criticism in so far as they are not merely technical in their aim or mode of belong to this class. In such works much depends treatment on the writer's style; it must be forcible and clear to be be beautiful must convincing; the language and illustrations and appropriate to evoke interest One of the most important
"
"

types of this class is the Essay.

" Reflections on the French of Reflective works are Burke's " EcclesiasticalPolity," Milton's " Areopagitica," Revolution," Hooker's " My Study the Essays of Bacon. Dryden, Macaulay, Carlyle ; Lowell's " " " Windows The English Poets," Browne's Religio Medici," and The Spectator collections. excellent contemporary papers, and many

Examples

394.

the very varied literary productions day, there are many which, as has been reof the present marked do not exactlyfit any of these classes, and many also which

JOURNALISM"

Amid

cover

the scope of several. We may instance one very important department of the latternature, viz.Journalism.here we find T History of the past in biographiesand in allusions and references,
"

finds a place in articles of the present everywhere. Description on scenery or customs at home and abroad. The leading articles of a newspaper, and many
of the articles f o
a

magazine,

are

Essays

PROSE

AND

POETRY

339

treating of reflective avowed or disguised, of subjects all types. Certain periodicalsdeal almost entirely with Humour and Satire fiction finds its place in magazines and in short (e.g. Punch), storiesin many journals.
Technicalwork has its Nature, Engineering, own special organs (e.g. The Lancet\ and also finds a place in both newspaper and h and magazine. The prose drama often containsfiction,istory,

humour.

Up to the present our consideration of the English language has been based except where otherwise by the best authors of the language. specified on prosewritten Prose necessarilyforms the standard by which a language must be regulated, since poetry is not only governed by special rules but also admits of many irregularities often included under the
" "
"

395. POETRY

"poetic licence." Before proceeding, therefore, to a of classification poetry, it will be convenient to consider what it are the special of characteristics poetry which distinguish from prose, and by what laws itis governed.
term

At the outset we may divide the characteristics peculiar to poetry into two main classes,according as they pertain to (1)Form the outward appearance and arrangement of poetry. Diction itswords, constructions,and manner. (2)
"
"

"

We

shalldeal with Form

first.

isthat part of our which deals with the subject rules governing the form of poetry. The beauty of poetry as a work of art, apart from its matter, depends on the music, harmony, or Rhythm of itslanguage. It may
396. PROSODY

be noted that the excellence of the prose of on the ear. isdue, to some extent, to itseffect
not

our

greatestwriters Hence rhythm is

to confined entirely poetry. In poetry, however, the rhythm must be regular. This is of pauses and of effectedin English poetry by the recurrence intervals. at emphatic or accented syllables regular Metre is the mechanical arrangement of the accents and pauses in poetry. It has been called "rhythm reduced to law." We

"hall now

examine the metre

of various forms of poetrv.

340

HIGHER

ENGLISH

OF A POEM" 397. PARTS Verse or Line. Every poem is divided into verses (commonly (1) A w calledlines). verse consists of a combination of syllables hich to occurs regularly be recognised as a separate element. sufficiently Such verses are written or printedin separate lines, each beginning " letter hence the second name line." with a capital
"

poems such verses are arranged in regular These are sets of from two to fourteen lineseach, called stanzas. " verses," often popularly known as
Stanza. (2)

In

some

The

commonest

stanzas

are

the couplet and the quatrain,

containing two and four lines respectively. into a certainnumber Foot. Every line is furtherdivisible (3) and of feet, each foot into syllables. The number of feet in a

it line depends on the number of accented syllables contains; the rule being that each foot contains one and only one accented
together with syllable,
398. KINDS
one
or
more

unaccented syllables.

metrical foot admits of variation according to the relativepositions of the accented various kinds of feet are and unaccented syllables. The

OF

FEET"

The

named

of Classical Prosody, and marked after the manner although the latteris based on quantity, not on accent. The following are the feet used in English poetry, in the order of their importance : Iambus an unaccented syllable followed by an accented
"
"

( syllable
"

). Examples
of
an

Trochee

"

the

reverse

delight,reduce, apart. iambus (, Examples: beauty,

:

w).

happy, notice. two unaccented syllablesfollowed by Anapaest

"

an

accented

("",). Examples
Dactyl
"

an

reappoint,interrupt. accented followed by two unaccented

:

syllables

(
a
"ts

).

Examples
"

Amphibrach

an (rare) ( ). Examples syllables

"

separate, happily, accented between

:

two

unaccented

"

appointment, revision,

of the *he sake Of ciearness we have made each foot correspond on scens"?r^ ^ is not the at)0ve examples ; but this of course of a newsk

PROSE
necessary. Thus to the forms two trochees.
sea

AND
forms
an

POETRY
anapaest; whilstretn

341

|bution

399. KINDS feet; usually

A linemay consist of any number of kind. these feet are of the same not (but always) ischosen, generally Further,whatever kind (iambic, trochaic,

OF LINE

"

etc.)
. . .

prevailsthroughout the whole poem. seven According as a line contains one, two dimeter, trimeter,tetrameter, called a monometer,
heptameter.

feet, it is

pentameter Of these the pentameter, tetrameter hexameter or and trimeter are the most important in English poetry. It isnot necessary that allthe lines in a particular poem should : thus be of the same kind (i.e. contain the same number of feet) we may have a quatrainconsisting of linesof four and three feet

alternately.
400. EXAMPLES
metres
are

OF

the commonest

METRES" IAMBIC in English poetry we

As

the iambic

give examples of

these first all. of

Monometer:

Excuse My
muse.

Dimeter

Our spoil |is won

|isdone. Trimeter : Then 111 |your al |tars strew Wi'th ro |ses sweet |and.new. Tetrameter : The Chief |in s'i lence strode | before | And reached |that tor |rent's sound |ing shore. Pentameter i Hope springs |eter |nal in |the hum |an breast Man ney |er is |but al |ways to |be blest. Hexameter : They love |and dote |on : call |him boun |teous Buck |ingham. Heptameter : Attend |all |who list to hear |our no |ble ye | Eng |land'spraise.
Our task

342
Examples

HIGHER
of other metres.
:

ENGLISH

Anapaestic Dimeter

From

itssourc

|es

which well

In the tarn Trochaic Trimeter

:

|on

the fell.

Onward

|Christian|soldiers Marching |as to |war.

:
vw*
w
w

Anapaestic Tetrameter
v v *

vv*

But the ang

And he Dactylic Tetrameter Sorely thy

|el of death |spread his wings |o'er the blast breathed |on the face |of the foe |as he passed.
:

o |littlene |drags by

thee

|ba'refooted.

Aniphi braohic Tetrameter

and Trimeter.

Ah Chloris |'tisime to t

And lay by

|disarm your |bright eyes |those terri|ble glances.

may also be regarded as an amphibrachic measure an syllable missing in the first unaccented anapaestic with foot of each line and an additional unaccented syllable at the end of the second lino thus : NOTE.
"

The above
measure

"

Ah Chlor
And

to |is 'tistimej disarm J your bright la'y |by those tcr |nble glanc(es.)

eye*

401. IRREGULARITY"

Lines

are

often irregular. This may

be due to
The (i)

two

causes

:
"

be mixed, i.e. may feet: e.g.anapaests and iambuses occur

linesmay When

kinds of contain different

in :
"

the rock
mar

|was

hid

|by

the surg

|e's

swell

The

|iners heard |the morn

|ing bell,

or omitted. may contain extra syllables have syllables Such linesare called Hypermetric and Catalectic respectively. Examples :

(a)They

"

All (a) that |glisters is not |gold | Often |have you |heard that |told
"

This is a Catalectic Trochaic Tetrameter.

PROSE
'T (b) has done those
t

AND

POETRY

343

But

|upon |the prem |ises |but just ice | | that sought | it I | could wish | more
v

Christ |ians.
This is a Hypermetric Iambic Pentameter. is When the odd syllable accentedas in (a), line iscatalectic the ; it in (b\ is hypermetric. when unaccented as read a line of poetry" one which contains four feet or more, our voice often especially makes a natural pause. This pause is called the Caesura ; it often corresponds with the grammatical pause as marked by full stop, or colon. Its position in the line varies; a comma, a long line sometimes contains no even Caesura at alL
"

402. THE

CAESURA

As

we

Example

:
"

I have done nothingllbutin care Of thee, my dear one,||thee my

of thee,

daughter.Hwhp

The

knowing Art ignorant of what thou art.Hnought I am more I better Of whence that am,||nor Than Prospero,|]mastera full poor cell, of And thy no greater father. second line in this passage appears to contain a second

caesura

after daughter.

is the process of dividinglinesinto feet and and describing the marking the accents and caesura syllables, Some lines,especially those which contain lines thus marked. than one way with slightly amphibrachs, may be scanned in more different the method " any doubt exists, effect(see 400).When best suitthe accompanying depend on what will must of division
403. SCANSION

lines.

Examples

:
"

(i)Cromwell |I charge |thee \fling|away |ambi |tion.

An iambic pentameter Trochee.
:

hypermetric, and with the firstfoot

(a)For

men

|may
on

come

But I

|go

|for ev

|and |er.
and

men

|may

go

Alternate iambic tetrameter

trimeter

metric). (thelatter hyper-

344

HIGHER

ENGLISH

(3)Would

itmight

|tarry like |his,|the |beautiful |build

ing of

|mine |keys in |raiseI

a

This which my

|crowd |pressed

and im

portuned to

Dactylic hexameter ; thirdand sixth feetcatalectic, In addition to metre, an essential factor, devices are frequentlyemployed in poetry. certain other artistic The chief of these is rhyme (more correctly rime) which is the lines recurrence of the same sound at the ends of two or more
404. RHYME
"

necessarilyconsecutive. In order that two syllablesmay rhyme the sounds of the vowel and consonants followingmust be the same, but the consonants preceding each vowel sound must be different thus tellrhymes with sell(same ; ; foe vowels) with But grow does not rhyme with brow, glow (same vowel
not

sound).

because the vowel sound is different and send does not rhyme ; with ascend^ because the consonants preceding are of the same foe,low : are calledsingle g sell: sound. The above examples tell,
masculine rhymes. In a double or feminine rhyme, the lastsyllables of identical are nature, and it is the lastbut one which rhymes : eg. clearest nd a
nearest, meeting and
or

fleeting.
when

The rhyme may even be thrown back one syllable more, itis calleda triplerhyme : eg. wandering,pondering.

405. VERSIFICATION Poems which are built in stanzas up of any kind almost invariably rhyme. A frequentform of the rhymed couplet isthe iambic pentameter. This is known as the Heroic Couplet. Example : Hope springseternalin the human breast
"

Man never is,but always to be blest. A frequentform of quatrain is the alternateiambic tetrameter and trimeter, with alternate rhymes. This isknown as Common Mete*

PROSE
Example
:
"

AND

POETRY

345

: Once more the gate behind me falls Once more before my face I see the moulder'd abbey walls That stand within the chase. Mention may here be made of The Sonnet, a curiouslittle iambic poem consistingof a single stanza of 14 lines(usually with pentameters),only four or fiverhymes. As an example we will consider Milton's " Sonnet on his Blindness."

When I consider how my light is spent Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, And that one talent which is death to hide, Lodged with me useless,though my soul more bent To serve therewith my Maker, and present My true account, lest He returning chide ; " Doth God exact day-labour, light denied ? I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent " That murmur, God doth not need soon replies: Either man's or His own work, gifts; who best Bear His mild yoke, they serve Him best : His state Is kingly ; thousands at His bidding speed, And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; They also serve who only stand and wait."

b b
a a

6 6
a
c

d
e

d
e

look at the different note that the rhyme-sounds we scheme of rhymes of the above is a b b a |abba |c d e |cde. There are other types of Sonnet in which the rhymes are arranged
we

If

differently.
Unrhymed
Poetry is known
as

Blank

Verse.
"

The

term

is

to appliedespecially unrhymed iambic pentameters in which the works of Shakspeare and Milton are for the most part written.

Example

:"

The quality of mercy is not strained : It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the earth beneath ; it is twice blessed ; It blesseth him that gives and him that takes.

effect somewhat opposite to in that of rhyme is obtained by Alliteration, which consists the recurrence sound at the beginning of two or more of the same line The device formed the accented syllablesin the same
"

406. ALLITERATION

An

346

HIGHER

ENGLISH
occurred
to
a

main basis of Old English poetry, and extent in Middle English.

Example
:
"

largt

In a fomer I Mope me

seson when soft was in sAroudes, a sAepe

the
as

sonne,

were.

letter in the firstline is st in the second sh. alliterative Shakspeare and Milton use it occasionally,nd it is sometimes, a found even in modern poetry. though rarely, The
Examples
:
"

(a)Fierce fierywarriors /ought upon the clouds. (b)Of Cambalu, seat of Cathaian Can. (t)The sly slow hours shall not ^terminate
The dateless limit of thy rfear exile. is (d) Full many a /lower born to Mush unseen.

and d are imperfect.

c

examples

; of Double Alliteration

is somewhat

407.

that whatever nature, are in prose; but there are in the themes appropriate limitations
to

SUBJECT all subjects of

MATTER

OF

POETRY"

It is obvious suitablefor treatment

poetry. An engineeringdrawing may be, in itsway, a work of art, yet it is not the sort of a subject painterwould use for his brush. So it is with poetry. A treatise on science or other technical work in poetry would be absurd
we then, certain commonplace subjects callthem prosaic which make no appeal to the imagination ; and these for an artistic treatment are not fitted such as poetry should give. Attempts at poetic treatment may be found of prosaic are,
"

There
"

subjects

poet of the present day; and of any fifth-rate even great poets have occasionallylapsed into the ridiculous by such attempts. Thus Dryden solemnly describes in poetry in the works the symptoms
poets
was

artistically)
Thorn."

of small-pox ; and even Wordsworth (whoof all most successfulin dealing with the simplest subjects descends to bathos in "The Idiot Boy" and " The

Certain mnemonic

lineslike Thirty days hath September, April,June, and November, etc.,

"

cannot

be justly called poetry

at

all.

PROSE
408.

AND
"

POETRY

347
of subject-matter

POETIC

DICTION

Just as

the

worth poetry is of a special nature, so is itwith the diction, Wordsindeed at first statedthat there should not be any difference between the language of prose and poetry; but he certainly

did not illustrate he principle in the majority his poems, t of and he was afterwards forced through outside criticism to modify his doctrine. It is perfectlytrue that to use a stilted diction,and to say a thing in a roundabout way and artificial of the merely to produce an extraordinary effect as some eighteenth century writers did is but to exchange good prose for bad poetry. between the diction of There are, however, certain differences w prose and of the poetry of the greatest.riters in our language.
"

"

These may be classified follows: as (1)The elimination from the domain of poetry of certain feels to be more or ear words and phrases which the artistic less prosaic or inartistic, either because of their sound or Thus a poet hardly ever because of their meaning. uses technical terms of any description, and he substitutesswine
"

for pig"wroth for angry, etc, The use of archaic or uncommon (2)
even

words.
as :
"

Thus

we

find

in modern

poetry such archaisms

=

helm and casque (=helmet),ight (= person),ooth s (= sword), w peradventure, haply ( truth),aitiff ( villain: originally, captive), c (= perhaps), ( again, after), reft ( deprived eft asunder ( in two), of), foughten ( fought), brake ( broke), sware (= swore), clomb ( climbed), thou, twain ( two), rathe (= early).
brand
=
= = =
=

the following are examples words frequently found in poetry :

And

of

uncommon

and coined

"

marge,

= deep (= sea), tarn, swain, steep ( hill), gore, fane, sire, damsel, liege, quest, vernal, sylvan, gelid, rapt, comely, unfriende zephyr, disedge. Nearly all these examples are from Tennyson.

mere,

Man v of the rules of grammar laid down for prose composition are not strictly observed in poetry ; indeed, several of the examples given for correctionin previous chapters have been chosen from standard poetry. For a poet to

(3)Grammatical

Licence.

say

There let him

l*y "

lie) (for is

rather beyond

the limits

348
even

HIGHER
"

ENGLISH
of
some

of poetic licence ; in the following,examples

common
"

of

the
are

liberties considered permissible of standard poets illustrated : (a)Use of one Part of Speech for another, particularly
"

for Adjective Adverb

:
"

(1) Thereat she suddenly laughed and shrill. (2)The firmconnected bulwark seems to grow. honourable. them couldst not die more (3)Young man,
Past (t) Tense for Past Participle :
"

Then,

Brutus,

I have much

mistook your passion.

Use (f)

of the Reflexive Pronoun

me

for Personal

or

vice versa

:"

(1)Where I will heal (2)To call it freedom

Peculiar uses (it)

of my grievous wound when themselves are free,

:
"

of the Dative

(1)He plucked me ope his doublet. (2)When and where likes me best
Pleonasm (g)
:
"

(i) I sit me down Those friends (a)1

: (/)Ellipsis
"

a pensive hour to spend thou hast, and their adoption tried. Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel.

precious thing, one worthy A note, Should then be lost. (a)Now man A to man, and steel A'to steel, A chieftain'svengeance thou shalt feel.
a

(i)Surely

For artistic effect,for emphasis, and also to suit the metre, the order of words in poetry may be provided that ambiguity does not varied almost indefinitely,

(4)Change

in Order.

result
Examples
s"

(1) Then (2) Rose

stormy sunlight smiled Geraint. of ninety years. (3) His eyes he opened and beheld a field. " (4) Deafer," said the blameless king, " Gawain, and blinder unto holy things Hope not to make thyself by idle vows.** like
a

nurse

Further examples willbe found in Chapter xvi. (5) Use of Figures of Speech. These are used with much

PROSE

AND

POETRY

349

Several examples greater freedom in poetry than in prose. from poetry have already been given (Chapter

xxx.).

The whole art of poetry, setting aside the formal rules of metre which govern it, consistsin the beauty " as of the word-painting," we may styleit.
of Ornament.
We have considered in what PROSE" from prose. We may now ask, is there respects poetry differs There any form of composition that liesbetween the two? increasing amount of certainly is a considerable and ever prosaic poetry which might well be consigned to the flames. The answer But is there such a thing as poetical prose? is in the affirmative. We have already said that much of the best This is of our prose is rhythmical to a certain extent ("

Use (6)

409. POETICAL

396).

with certain truly literary translationsof especially the case poetry. Certain parts of the Bible, e.g. The Psalms, portions of Isaiah,the song of Deborah, the Song of Solomon, are truly although translatedin the form of prose, poetical, It would be posPOETRY" sible headings as were adopted to classify poetry under the same for the classification f prose. Owing, however, to the different o nature of poetry, it will be found more convenient to group
410. CLASSIFICATION

OF

poems as: I. Epic, II. Drama,

"

V. Lyric, VI. III. Narrative,IV. Satire, VIII. Elegy, VII. Descriptive(including Pastoral), Miscellaneous. I. The Epic ranks with the Drama as the highest of all forms

of of poetry. The subject the Epic must be a great and complex or historical legendary. The heroes must be great persons action, be correand the style of the poem must spondingl with high ideals,

dignified. The poem, which isusuallyof great length, isdeveloped by a mixture of the dramatic and narrative elements. English possessesvery few epics. One of the very earliestof English poems, Beowulf, is an Epic ; but by far the greatest in
" the language is Milton's Paradise Lost" is a form of poetry dealing with action. In it II. The Drama sort is worked out by means * story of some of a seriesof COD-

350

HIGHER

ENGLISH

versations,intended to be accompanied by appropriateactions, for which stage directions are sometimes given. The chiefkinds of English Drama are :
"

the incidentsare of a serious and often nature, culminating in the destruction and death of the terrible
characters. principal
" Othello," " Macbeth," " Hamlet Shakspeare's King Lear and are the four greatest tragedies in our literature. Mention may also be " Dr Faustus," Webster's " Duchess of Malfi made of" Marlowe's and Broken Heart." Ford's
"
" "

(1)Tragedy, in which

"

in which the incidents are of a lighter nature, t giving scope for jest,ricks, and humour, and also for love. Though events of a serious nature are not precluded, the end is generallysatisfactory allconcerned. Shakspeare's Comedies to " " take the first rank ; to them may be added Jonson'sEpicene and " Every Man in his Humour." Large portionsof comedy, sometimes

(2)Comedy^

writtenin prose. When a comedy degenerates into a mere displayof sparkling humour without much plot, it becomes a Farce. Shakspeare's " " a Comedy of Errors is practically Farce.
even

the whole,

are

(3)Tragi-comedy.
of wit
nor

play has neither the great amount the light badinage of a comedy, but possesses some
a

When

a situationshich, though they might well end tragically,ctually w do not, itis often termed a Tragi-comedy.
" " Merchant Measure for Measure," Shakspeare's of Venice and though usually classed as Comedies, are of this nature. be placed what are sometimes known Here also may Romances, as
"

plays of much
"

Tempest/'

"

the same nature as an ordinary novel " Winter's Tale," and Cymbeline."
-,

e.g.Shakspeare's

(4)History

characters are as plays may be comic and tragic opportunity offers.

"

in which the plot is based upon, and the principal drawn from, history. Frequently, of course, such

The most notable examples are : Shakspeare's Roman and English historical plays, Jonson's Cataline and Sejanus," Marlowe's " Edward " II.." Tennyson's Becket."

This class of poetry corresponds very nearly to the fiction class of prose ("393). It includes :
"

The

Narrative.

PROSE
Historical poems, (1)
"Annus
44

AND
such
as

POETRY
"Lays"
"

351

Drayton's "Barons' Wars, "Dryden's

Macaulay's Mirabilis,"

and

"Armada,"

Gray's

Bard." (2)Tales, such

as

Chaucer's

Canterbury Tales," Tennyson's

Arden," Byron's " Childe "Idylls of the King" and "Enoch "Ancient Mariner." Harolde," Scott's" Mamiion," Coleridge's " Langland's (3)Allegories,such as Spenser's Faerie Queene," " Piers Plowman."
IV. The Satire

Absalom and Ahitophel " and " Hind and Panther," Byron's " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." Under thisheading, too, may be included what are sometimes poems"written as though they were romances, called mock-heroic " but fullof satire and humour : e.g.Pope's Rape of the Lock." implies,was a piece originally, V. The Lyric, as its name in early times, accompanied by the music of the lyre. Hence Dryden's
"

Examples " (see393).

are :

Butler's" Hudibras,"

lyricai poems

fresh and spontaneous They are short poems dealing for the most part with utterances. A collection of the most Religion,Love, Patriotism, and War.
are

of the nature

of songs

"

beautifullyricsin the language will be found in

Treasury."

"

The

Golden

Of Religious Lyrics may be mentioned the poems of Herbert (called The Temple), Crashaw, and of Keble (calledhe Christian Year). t of Many hymns, too, are of this nature. Of Love Lyrics the most exquisite in the language are probably those beautiful of Herrick ; many of his contemporaries, also, produced some iove-songs. Patriotic Lyrics are exemplified by many Sonnets, of Wordsworth's the poems of Burns and Scott, and some of those of Tennyson and Rudyard Kipling.

Elegy, in its simplest form, is a poem mourning the itself,owever, frequently h loss of some friend. The subject to which the poet gives suggests further solemn reflections

VL

The

expression.
Chief among the English Elegies are Mil toil's Lycidas," Shelley's " " In Memoriam," Gray's " Elegy in a Country Adonais," Tennyson's Much of the oldest English poetry is elegiac in nature. Churchyard."
"

VIL Descriptive and Pastoral Poetry. has been written concerning nature and

Much
man

beautiful poetry influenced by as

352
nature.

HIGHER

ENGLISH
a

Sometimes this takes the form of a descriptionof j shepherd'slife and feelings itis then calledPastoral poetry.
Of general Descriptive poetry examples Hill," and many of the poems of Wordsworth Spenser's " Shepherd's Calendar," poems, Pastorals.*
are

" Denham's Cooper's Burns ; of Pastoral and " Browne's Britannia's

VIII. There
to

any

many poems which do not appear to belong of the foregoing classes. Some are purely poems of
are

reflection and imagination,as Wordsworth's Odes to Immortality and Duty, and much of Shelley's and Keats' poetry. Some, as in those of Browning, are dramatic in spirit,arrative form. We n can term only include such poems under the rather unsatisfactory miscellaneous. 411. In conclusion,let us ask ourselveswherein liesthe difference between the masterpieces of English Literature and the composition of the average educated man ? Apart from allrules
of grammar and composition, there is a subtle difference which be felt anyone who has wandered through even the borderby can land
of English literature a differencemore explained or analysed. Briefly,it depends
"

easily felt than

on

Simplicity and yet not but not pedantry, grace without correctness without affectation, insipidity, force ornament and music without artificiality, but not harshness,humour without the appearance of foolishness these
sense.
"

broadest

Style in its childishness,dignity

are

greatestauthors. And above all, and over all,is the presiding spirit genius, of helping its fortunate possessor to attain these which besides qualities,ndows him with a wider, deeper, broader aspect of e

some

of the qualitiesf o

our

The earnest student who reads more and more life and nature. even of the best, will obtain at last a glimpse of perfection, though he may not see it face to face with allitsfeaturesclearly outlined. His composition willbe graduallybut surelyillumined

glory of the greatmasterpiecesof with something of the reflected literatureand, fullyconscious of allhe owes to his masters and ; of his own shortcomings, he may turn to his work and echo with
proud humilitythe words of Touchstone lord, but mine own."
a
:
"

A poor thing, my

APPENDIX
ON
THE

STYLE

AND

PERIODS CHIEFLY
ENGLISH

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH FOR SCOTCH THE

PUPIL TEACHERS'

OF THE DIFFERENT LITERATURE, SUITABLE LEAVING CERTIFICATE AND

PRELIMINARY

EXAMINATIONS, MATRICULATION A
GIVEN
IN
"

MORE

CERTIFICATE AND LONDON ALSO FOR THE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION TIONS. REGULANEW UNDER THE TREATMENT DETAILED OF THIS SUBJECT IS
LITERATURE
"

ENGLISH

BY

THE

SAME

AUTHOR.

of a few pages no attempt can be made to indicate the individual style and characteristicsf even the o ment masters of our literature. A general idea of the gradual developof English Prose and Poetry may, however, be given, with
412. In the
course

typicalof the age in special reference to such authors as seem of the greatestauthors which they lived,together with the names in each period,and a selectionof such of their works as seem most useful for the student to read. A few representativepecimens s periods willbe added. It must be clearly of the different the only true method of understanding understood that, afterall,
the spirit any period or the characteristics any author, is to of of tions, read the best work of that period or author ; dogmatic generalisaacquaintance with the actual writings, without first-hand or at best, a very restricted serve and vague only to give a false, of, notion of their qualities. Excellent criticisms and selections from, the best poets and prose writers in our language are to be " " found in Ward's " English Poets (4 and vols.) Craik's English Prose " (5 which should be consulted,if accessible to the

vols.),

student. 413. EARLY

The earliestEnglish literature ENGLISH" up to 1350 needs but a brief notice,since the language in which it
Z
353

354

HIGHER

ENGLISH

is written is far removed from modern English in grammar, of vocabulary,and style. See "" 7, 8, 15. The majority prose from the classics, religious or works are translationsor adaptations homilies. The scheme of versification the poetry which is of frequently of a religious nd elegiacnature" is based on alliteraa tion
"

("406).
ENGLISH. With Chaucer, who is typical of this period, English, as we know it, may be said to begin. His vocabulary contains many words now obsolete,and the grammar is not entirelyfreed from
414. MIDDLE

inflection; yet modern methods of construction are already of apparent, and the literature that period may be read without b great difficultyy the student. The methods and general framework of the poetry POETRY romances are largelyinfluencedby the French and Italian of the is, day, yet the subject as a rule, drawn from contemporary English life. Narrative poetry,often intermingledwith allegory,
"

is the favouriteform of composition. The style is simple and ingenuous ; and the references to nature in her sunniest moods the May morning, the birds, the flowers which permeate the poetry of Chaucer, are as fresh and unaffectedas are his character sketches of medieval life. Rhyme studies and his descriptive the takes the place of alliteration, favouritelinebeing the iambic pentameter. By the beauty and melody of his verse, Chaucei English tongue could be as a showed how effectivethe new
"
"

vehicle for poetry and art. Gower, Occleve, Lydgate and other English poets followed Chaucer's methods, but are as a rule much inferior to the master; the Scotch poets James I., Henryson, Dunbar, and Douglas are, however, worthy disciples.
Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, Works : Chaucer's recommended his shorter poems ; and, if accessible, The Knight's Tale, and some of James I. s The King's Quatr, and Dunbar's The Thrissilland the Roir or The Goldyn Targe.

415. PROSE

"

The

unimportant ; itwas level with little no individuality. to a monotonous or however, when poetry had nearly died out, A century later,

prose of Chaucer's time is comparatively usually modelled on Latin prose, and tended
a

APPENDIX
new era

355

" Morte d' Arthur " was one of opened with Malory, whose books to be printed. His prose may be considered the earliest as the complement of the poetry of Chaucer. His imagination, is steeped in the realms of medieval chivalry, perfectlymatched

by his style" simple yet effective, with a command of rhythm and euphony almost Elizabethan. His words are carefully chosen, and many of his own phrases now form part of the idiom of the
language.
Lord Berners' translationf Froissart marks the highest point o in English prose. His style, like that of Malory, is yet reached simple,yet fullof unconscious art and grace, and his blending of the Teutonic and Romanic elements of our language isone of his finestcharacteristics. ledge With his scholarlylearning and his know-

he of court and society,

was

in perfect sympathy with his

original. Sir Thomas More, whose " Utopia " was written in Latin,ranks, by his " History of Edward V.," as a master of English prose. His styleis simple and comparatively modern ; though occasionally a little cumbrous owing to Latin constructions,it combines,
part,his Latin scholarship with hisidiomatic almost conversational English. for the most
"
"

Works recommended: part of Malory's Morte Berners' Froissart (if and accessible), More's History

of

d'Arthur; part of Edward V.

416. ELIZABETHAN

ENGLISH.
"

to the poets indeed are common qualities in to all the writers of this age : learning,particularly literature, ancient and modern, due to the Renaissance and to the spread of of recent printing; a wider knowledge of the world, the outcome the resultof the good discoveries and travels; a nationalfeeling,

POETRY

"

Many
"

government

and settlement under the Tudors ; freedom and instances the best aspects of Puritanism, liberty, and in some romance mainly products largely of the Reformation; a new derived from the courtly chivalry of the age ; a wealth of ness imagination and a spirit inquiryj purityof dictionand sweetof
The poetry of the age is not a sudden of versification. forms the experiment; new growth but the result of much
"

356

HIGHER
"

ENGLISH

Lyric,the Sonnet, the Pastoral, the Epic, the Masque, the Ode time ; new appear for the first and, greatest of all,the Drama Blank Verse and the Spenserian stanza, are used. The metres, e.g. of the poetry is nearly always Man as influenced inwardly

subject
In

by his passions and outwardly by Nature. Spenser is the greatestpoet (excluding the
age.
a sense,

dramatists) of his

typical, entirely since his dictionis somewhat archaic a conscious imitation of medieval English, o particularly f Chaucer. He sometimes overdoes alliteration ; he deliberatelyses obsolete words ; he takes liberties u with the Yet in spirit parts of speech and with constructions. and power he is entirely Elizabethan and his works had a lastinginfluence
"

he is not

on

his successors.

His favourite metre

"

rhyming consistsof nine iambic lines, being pentameters, the last a hexameter ; and he handles eight becomes monotonous. this metre with such skillthat it never The charm of his poetry liesin the vividnessof his descriptions, the graceful beauty of his imagery, the perfect harmony and ornament of his expression,and a tone of purityand delicacynot altogether general in his age,
Shakspeare, the type of allthat is greatestin English,ifnot in the world's poetry, stands head and shoulders above many writers No adequate descriptioncan here of high rank in the Drama.

the Spenserian stanza"4 a b a b b c d c d, the first

be given of one whose work ought to be familiar all. Mention to into of Blank Verse (introduced may be made of his perfection " to by Marlowe); his wonderful ability hold the the Drama nature and the mirror up to nature"; his insighr into human
consequent life-like presentations of heroes and heroines of all classes,and the development of their characters in ever-varying ; and noble ; moods and situations his love of all that is beautiful his humour ledge and breadth of his knowand pathos ; the diversity ; his development of the techniqueof the Drama ; and, most of all,his unique command of language and versification. Milton, though in date a little later, belongs in spiritto the

is the creator of the English Epic, and the He master, as far as pure poetry is concerned, of Blank Verse. also handled the Elegy, Ode, Sonnet, and Masque in a manner

Elizabethans. He

APPENDIX
hitherto unknown.
"

357

is in every respect a great artist; his almost sublime is eminently suited to his subject. style stately, His language is always polished and dignified though he some; times direct from Latin, they coins words and constructions in keeping with the generally seem rhythm of his verse. majestic Probably as a resultof his deep Puritanism,he is lackingin the humour and broad-mindedness of Shakspeare ; yet in imagination and grace he is his equal, and in purity of thought and tone he is superior even to Spenser. His scholarship represents the in zenith of the Renaissance spirit English literature. Herrick is a type of the lyrical poets of the latterpart of this graceful love-songs,written period. His poems are chieflylight,
He
"

in all kinds of metre, without much depth of thought, but with infinite an charm, sometimes gay, sometimes pathetic,that has They show given them a place among the gems of our literature. to some extent the influence, without, as a rule, the worst
features, Euphuism. of
in Drama Shakspeare's JuliusCasar : Works (as recommended Roman Henry English V. or Richard II. (for a type of Histories), Night The Histories), Merchant of Venice and As You Like It or Twelfth Hamlet lowe's or Macbeth ; (for Tragedies) if possible, MarComedies), (for before Shakspeare), Dr Faustus (asthe best example of Drama Ben Jonson's Epicene or Every Man in his Humour (ascontemporary later, and showing signs of Webster's Duchess Malfi(as Drama),

of

decadence).
hi other poetry : Spenser's Faerie Queene, Works recommended Sidney's and Shakspeare's Sonnets ; Milton's Paradise Book I. ; some of Lycidas or Comus ; some the lyrical poetry Lost (one of book)and of Herrick and his school, such as may be found in The Golden Treasury.

The prose of this period is mainly tentative 417. PROSE and imperfect; there are, however, two marked tendencies in opposite directions. The (i) Latinic Style. Ascham wrote correct but featureless
"

he says, easier to write Latin than English, and, as a consequence, his English is very much like Latin. literally translated

English.

He

found it,as

Hooker

He

is

represents the highest point in this school of prose. ; really great writer his work is deeply thoughtful and

logical, and his style is polished and ornate, rising at times to splendid outburstsof oratory. To modern readers,his sentences

358
are

HIGHER

ENGLISH

often too long and his digressionsfrom the main point tedious; he frequently uses curious constructionsand changes the natural order of words, in the manner of Latin. Style. Lyly, in his Euphues^ invented a (2)The Euphuistic

styleof his own, which had a considerable influence on his contemporar He is essentially cultured court writer, full of a of wit of the and quaintness,with a certain amount affectations He had almost a mania for similes,which he showy type.

d together in lists,rawn from the virtues animals,plants, of strings ; he preciousstones, and uncommon objects employed alliteration tillit became wearisome ; he made frequent use of antithesis, balancing phrases against one another in a very unreal and Yet, putting aside his eccentricities, his manner. artificial English is homely and plain,and some creditis due to him for linein English prose. out a new striking Bacon marks the beginning of a new style, though he thought instrument. His style is well suited little English as a literary of
his shrewd and logical thought. His phraseology is far more ; modern than that of any of his predecessors his sentences are terse, fullof matter, yet seldom obscure. He has some short and
to

of the dignityof the Latinic style and some of the buoyancy of in the Euphuistic,yet the shortcomings of these are never visible his work, unless itbe, perhaps, a fondness for antithesis.
Works : a portion of Lyly's Euphues, one recommended Hooker's EcclesiasticalPolity, a few of Bacon's Essays and Atlantis,Milton's Areopagitica, the Bible. and book of The New

418. THE

RESTORATION
"

PERIOD.

After 1630, the freshness and naturalness of spirit, combined with the fervour and imaginative genius of the great Elizabethans, gradually faded away. In itsplace we find artificial

POETRY

far-fetched ducts conceits, comparisons, and bombastic language prolargelyof the worst features of Euphuism \ and further,a lack of restraint the use of metre. in The consequence of such troduc poetry was a complete reaction. An attempt was made to ininto poetry and to lay a more correct and critical pirit s down certain rules of art. Although the poetry as a result
"

became

more

mechanical, the genius of Dryden

and

Pope

pre-

APPENDIX

359

vented it from becoming merely artificial, showed that greater and finishof versification and conscious polish and ornament could
also changed. Instead of the absorbing interests n man i and his feelings and nature we find a critical introducing such elements as satire, spirit philosophy, politics, of subjects poetry
manner and metaphysics. We may also observe an anti-Puritan less reverent, more morally lax, more comic in its nature influencedto some extent by French manners and ideals. Dryden is one of the greatest of English satirists. His earlier
"

produce The

realwork of art.

"

work consistedmainly of dramas, which bear something of the influence of the French school, and in which we may see the ( gradual development of the heroiccouplet "405)over which he he also uses blank verse and attainedperfect command, although

lyrical measures

full of pungent, times. It is by his satire, sparklingwit, that he ranks as perhaps the greatest poet from He purified he styleof English, t the Restoration to Wordsworth. and polished and reduced to order its verse; he substituted
at

vigour and practical common-sense of his predecessors.

for the aimless meanderings

i.e. Pope wrote chieflydidactic satirehaving behind itan satire, idea of moral instruction. The heroic couplet is his chief form surpassed of verse ; and he brought itto a degree of perfection never to know before or since. He is a true artist he seems ;

by intuition exactly the right words

phrases to employ, the amount of ornamentation necessary and suitable; his skillin are brilliant. rhyme is very great ; and his wit and sarcasm
or
: one of Dryden's longer poems, e.g.,Absalom recommended Essay on Man or and Achitophel, The Hind and the Panther; Pope's ; or The (philosophical) Rape of the Lock (mock heroic)part of Butler's yard Hudibras (humoroussatire) also Gray's Elegy in a Country Church; three not altogether and The Bard ; and Goldsmith's Traveller (these

Works

characteristic of the

419. PROSE

"

The

age). an age is essentially

age of

reason

and

s essentiallyuitedto prose. criticism, subjects Dryden may be termed the Father of Modern English Prose. He first taught the use of prose not merely for didacticpurposes
but
as a

and critical

at the

same

time

an

vehicle of artistic

360
literature. He

HIGHER

ENGLISH

forsook both the Latinic and the Euphuistic style,partly his own, stylesof the past, and introduced a new simply, and partly modelled on the French ; he appeals directly,
to forcibly the reader,preferring the short sentence and using the right word and phrase in the right place ; he is free from any tricksor affectation, and without any conscious attempt at mere

by Dryden was carried to an even greater degree of perfection by Addison, whose natural,almost elegance is well matched by his good sense and his colloquial irony are of the gracefulrather than urbanity. His wit and polite type. His style represents the highest literary the boisterous art to which prose had yet attained; he seems to have consciously
as as that prose may be made just beautiful and artistic realised may be said of Steele. poetry. Much the same Defoe prepared the way for the NOVEL, the real fathers of which are Richardson and Fielding.
: some Works recommended of Drydenvs Essays, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Goldsmith's Vicar (a of Wakefield form of Novel),Swift's Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver's Travels or Tale of a Tub (satire), Papers (Addison and Steele). part of the Spectator

ornamentation. The good work begun

1780 TO 1830. The followers of Pope soon brought poetry into POETRY by stylewithout any poetic fire ridicule writingin a falseartificial or ; real feeling hence their poetry became as unreal in an
"

420. FROM

as opposite direction, that of the poets before the Restoration. A new school of poetry began with Wordsworth and Coleridge, in which nature and the relation man to itbecame the absorbof ing theme. Wordsworth may be taken as the type of one aspect. To him

Nature was a livingpersonality, her relationto mankind the most intimate and loving. The French Revolution and its results awoke in him a spirit of libertyand patriotism which pervades

His styleis simple and his ordinaryand subjects little dealised indeed, in these respects he made as little i very ; difference as possible between prose and poetry, sometimes His a expressing himself in almost too matter-of-fact manner.

his laterwork.

APPENDIX
metre

361

is free and varied, ; and at times very beautiful his language is pure and graceful. Coleridge, with allWordsworth's reverence for nature, viewed it from a slightlydifferent standpoint. He took as his theme the

romantic
"

the uncommon,
man.
on

often idealised unfamiliar, and therefore

aspect of nature and Shelley is supreme

the imaginativeside. He is the poet of the ideal, the unattainable. He looked on nature as the real home of man, the mother to whom man ought always to appeal

and to whom every standard should be referred. His poems breathe a spirit rebellion of againstthe world and against orthodox forms of belief. A wonderful sense of the music of words and a his poetry from all rich colouring of expression, distinguishes others,except perhaps that of Keats. Burns wrote of the manners and sentiments of homely human nature of the poorer classes amongst whom he lived. His love f songs and ballads,ullof passion and often of pathos, recallthose the the beasts of the field, of Herrick : while his love of nature
"

flowers,the
are

His measures reminds us of Wordsworth. poets of the past generation. mainly those of his favourite
seasons
"

some

Ode to Immortality, Michael, Works : Wordsworth's recommended Sonnets; Coleridge's Ancient Mariner and Christabel ,' Shelley's Keats' St Agnes' Eve and Hyperion ; Adonais and Prometheus Unbound; Lay Harold or or Byron's Childe Manfred ; Scott's Marmion of the Poems. Last Minstrel ; some of Burns'

practicallyreached its highest development before this date. There remained for it to be to the endless varietyof adapted in style and manner subjects due, times. We may note a certainloss of stateliness, of modern
421. PROSE
"

Prose

had

style, perhaps, to the gradual development of ^^journalistic which be impressive, must be terse and crisp, often adopts and which, to With thisfeature,however, the earlierwritersare mannerisms. almost untouched. Scott raisedthe novel to a position of supreme importance in to literature. His wonderful fidelity the spiritof historywas

combined with a dramatic power of narrationand the descriptionof the picturesque. His sentences

vividnessin are sometimes

a

362
irregular, even

HIGHER

ENGLISH

"

unmusical ; his paraungrammatical, occasionally graphs haste or carelessness; but these often show signs of infrequent lapses pass almost unnoticed in the general effectof in which everything seems his romances, natural and harmonious to his perfectcomprehension a resultdue, in no small measure,

of,and sympathy with, his subject.

Works of

Jane Austen's
422. SINCE

Novels ; one : three or four of the Waverley recommended bility or novels, e.g.,Pride and Prejudice Sense and SensiNelson ; Lamb's Essays Elia. ; Southey's Life of of

is remarkable for the breadth of range latterisdue and subjects for his human sympathy ; to this His his power of dealing with every phase of emotion in man. tion simple unorthodox faithfelt no opposition but rather confirmain the discoveriesof modern science; and he welcomed

POETRY of his

"

1830. Tennyson

progress and socialreform, beautifyingby his art allthat appears holding fast a sordid and prosaicin life. He is essentially patriot, life. His literary to the best ideals and artistic of English national thorough. His verse is,in consequence, graceful and polished ; itis also almost as ornate and melodious as that of of Keats. In his descriptions natural scenery he is as accurate

training were

and sympathetic as Wordsworth. which he employed with great

The
success,

measures, are
as

lyrical, chiefly varied as his

introducesallsubjects, ancient and modern, into his love, poetry : art, music, learning, paganism, early Christianity, is and war, are found side by side. The chief aim of his poetry to explain the purpose of life. His poetry isdramatic in spirit, f but iscouched in a lyricalorm. His style isat times very rugged are weird and his meaning often obscure. Some of his situations yet not unreal, and many of his metrical attempts are decidedly
Browning
peculiar.
Works Arden, Enoch Memoriam, In Tennyson's Last Ride Rabbi Ben Ezra, The ; Browning's The Boy and the Angel ; also Macaulay's Lays of Ancient

subjects.

recommended: rt of Idylls of the King

gether, and
me.

423. PROSE

"

Among

of the multitudes of prose-writers this

APPENDIX

363

period only four can here be mentioned : two of the greatest topics,and two of the greatestnovelists. writerson intellectual Macaulay, the originatorof the historicalessay, is one of our not by greatest pictorial writers. He deals with the individual, but in himself, with conjunction the times in which he lived. His styleis eloquent, full of energy, fluentand clear. He is fond of antithesis,nd nearly always uses the short sentence, thereby a obtainingvividnessand brilliancy. Carlyle deals with the ethicalconduct of the individual and the life of the community. His style is unfetteredby political Germanic comalmost defiant of any rules: contorted diction, pound introduction or literalranslation foreign t of, of adjectives, letters, ropping of d words, use of capital pronouns, conjunctions, to are eccentricities be found everywhere in his works. and verbs, He has,however, a vigour of style, novelty in the way of regarda ing things,and a grasp of his subject, persons and which mark him as a genius.
" "

Dickens and Thackeray stand out pre-eminently as the greatest of English novelists. The former deals mainly with low and in life a cheery and sympathetic manner ledge ; his knowmiddle-class of the human heart, especially the lower classes, of and his

wonderful fund of humour and his pathos, are to be found nowhere deals mainly with high life his out of Shakspeare. The latter ; is satirical, humour, and even cynical, work without much of the
without the sympathy of Dickens.
Essay on dive or Warren Hast: Macaulay's Works recommended ings ; Carlyle's Heroes and Hero-Worship or Sartor Resartus ; Dickens' Tale David Copperfield, of Two Cities, Vanity and others ; Thackeray's Also the following : Ruskin's Sesame and Lilies ; Fair or Pendennis. R. L. Stevenson's Treasure Island or Kidnapped ; George Eliot's Adam Bede or Felix Holt ; C. Bronte's Jane Eyre or Shirley.

SPECIMENS
424. In
a

OF

PROSE

AND

POETRY

few isolatedpassages it is impossible to show all the characteristics of the individualwriters or even of their following passages have been chosen to illustrate, age ; but the far as possible, the qualities mentioned in the above as paragraphs.

364
CHAUCER
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Prologue to the Canterbury Tales ; The Prioress. Full semely her wimple y-pinched was ; Her nose tretys ; her eyen grey as glass ; Her mouth full small, and thereto soft and red ; But sikerly she had a fair forehead. It was almost a spanne broad, I trow ; For hardily she was not undergrowe. Full fetys was her cloak, as I was ware. Of small coral about her arm she bare A pair of bedes gauded all with green ; And thereto hung a brooch of gold full sheen. On which was firsty-writ a crowned A, And after Amor vincit omnia."
"
"

Morte d'Arthur. MALORY" Then Sir Bedivere took the king upon his back and so went with fast him to the water side. And when they were at the water side, even fair ladies in it,and among hoved a little by the bank, barge, with many a queen, and all they had black hoods and all they wept them all was Now put me into the barge," and shrieked when they saw King Arthur. the king ; and so he did softly. And there received him three said queens with great mourning ; and so they set him down and in one of Ah I their laps King Arthur laid his head, and then that queen said have ye tarried so long from me ? dear brother 1 Why And so they rowed from the land.
" " "

Faery Queene; The Cave of Mammon. Both roof, and floor, and walls, were all of gold, But overgrown with dust and old decay, And hid in darkness, that none could behold The hue thereof ; for view of cheerful day in that house itselfdisplay, Did never But a faint shadow of uncertain light. Such as a lamp, whose lifedoes fade away, Or as the moon, clothed with cloudy night, Does show to him that walks in fear and sad affright. No specimens of Shakspeare or Milton are given, as they are NOTE. doubtless familiar to all. One of Milton's Sonnets will be found on passage from Hooker is given on page 215. page 345. An illustrative

SPENSER

"

"

HERRICK"

ToAnthea. Bid me to live and I will live Thy Protestant to be, Or bid me love and I will give A loving heart to thee. Bid me despair and I'lldespair Under that cypress tree, Or bid me die and I will dare E'en death, to die for thee. Thou art my life, my love, my heart. The very eyes of me ; And hast command of every part To live and die for thee.

APPENDIX
LYLY"

365

Euphues.

as Amulius the cunning painter so portrayed Minerva, that one cast his eye, she always beheld him, so hath which way so ever Cupid so exquisitely drawn the image of Thirsus in my heart, that what I glance, me thinketh he looketh stedfastly upon me. way soever As by basil the scorpion is engendered and by the means (b) of the herb destroyed, so love which by time and fancy is bred in an same idle head, is by time and fancy banished from the heart. Essay on Studies. BACON" Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief for delight is in privateness and retiring : for ornament, use is in is discourse ; and for ability, in the judgmentand dispositionof business. To spend too much time in studies is sloth ; to use them too much for is affectation ; to make judgmentwholly by their rules is the ornament humour of a scholar. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, few to be chewed and digested. Reading maketh a and some full man man a man. ; conference ; and writing an ready exact Histories make men wise ; poets, witty ; the mathematics, subtile ; natural philosophy, deep ; moral, grave ; logic and rhetoric, able to So every defect of the mind may have a specialreceipt. contend. Essay on Man. POPE" Cease then, nor Order imperfection name : Our proper bliss depends on what we blame. Know thy own point ; this kind, this due degree Of blindness, weakness, Heav'n bestows on thee. In this, or any other sphere, Submit. Secure to be as blest as thou canst bear ; Safe in the hand of one disposing Pow'r, Or in the natal, or the mortal hour. to thee ; All Nature is but Art, unknown All Chance, Direction, which thou canst not see ; All Discord, Harmony not understood, All partial Evil, Universal Good : And, spite of Pride, in erring Reason's spite, One truth is clear, whatever is,is Right. Essays. DRYDEN" He (Shakspeare) was the man who of all modern and perhaps ancient had the largest and most comprehensive soul. All the images of poets to him, and he drew them not laboriously but were nature still present than see it,you feel it luckily ; when he describes any thing you more learning, give him the him to have wanted Those who too. accuse ; he was naturally learned : he needed not the greater commendation books to read nature ; he looked inwards, and found her spectacles of there. He is always great, when some great occasion is presented to for had a fit he ever him : no man can say subject his wit, and did " Quantum not then raise himse'lf as high above the rest of poets, lenta solent inter viburna cupressi." No. ADDISON" Spectator, 108. is younger brother to a baronet, and descended of the Will Wimble He is now between forty and fifty; ancient family of the Wimbles. but being bred to no business and born to no estate, he generally lives He hunts a pack with his elder brother as superintendent of his game. in the country, and is very famous for dogs better than any man of
"

(a)For

366

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crafts finding out a hare. He is extremely well versed in all the littlehandihe makes a May-fly to a miracle ; and furnishes idle man : of an the whole country with angle-rods. He carries a tulip root in his pocket from one to another, or exchanges a puppy between a couple of friends These gentlemanthat live perhaps in the opposite sides of the county. like littlehumours, Will the darling make and obliging manufactures of the county.

WORDSWORTH"

Ruth. He told of the Magnolia, spread High as a cloud, high over head ! The cypress and her spire, Of flowers that with one scarlet gleam Cover a hundred leagues, and seem To set the hillson fire.
"

The youth of green savannahs spake, And many an endless, endless lake. With all its fairy crowds Of islands, that together lie As quietly as spots of sky Among the evening clouds.

COLERIDGE"

Christabel. Outside her kennel the mastiff old Lay fast asleep, in moonshine cold. The mastiff old did not awake, did make ! Yet she an angry moan And what can ail the mastiff bitch ? Never tillnow she utter'd yell Beneath the eye of Christabel. Perhaps it is the owlet's scritch : For what can ail the mastiff bitch ?

SHELLEY"

Adonais. There is heard He is made one with Nature. His voice in all her music, from the moan. Of thunder to the song of night's sweet bird. He is a presence to be felt and known In darkness and in light, from herb and stone, Spreading itselfwhere'er that Power may move his being to its own, Which has withdrawn Which wields the world with never-wearied love, Sustains it from beneath, and kindles it above. Cotter'sSaturday Night. The cheerfu' supper done, wi' serious face, They, round the ingle, form a circle wide ; The sire turns o'er, wi' patriarchal grace, The big ha' Bible, ance his father's pride : His bonnet reverently is laid aside, His lyart haffets wearing thin an' bare. Those strains that once did sweet in Zion glide, He wales a portion with judicious care ; " he says, with solemn And " Let us worship God

BURNS"

air.

APPENDIX
SCOTT
"

367

Mannering ; Dominie Sampson. from his cradle, an He was of low birth, but having evinced, even uncommon encouraged seriousness of disposition, the poor " parents were to hope that their bairn, as they expressed it, might wag his pow in a With an ambitious view to such a consummation, they pulpit yet." late, ate dry bread and lay down rose early and pinched and pared, to Abel the means drank cold water, to secure of learning. Meantime, his tall, ungainly figure, his taciturn and grave manners, and some habits of swinging his limbs, and screwing his visage, while grotesque the ridicule of all his school poor Sampson reciting his task, made Guy

companions.
TENNYSON"
rthur. The old order changeth, yielding place to new. himself in many ways, And God fulfils Lest one good custom should corrupt the world. Comfort thyself : what comfort is in me ? I have lived my life, and that which I have done May He within himself make pure ! but thou, face again, see my If thou shouldst never Pray for my soul. More things are wrought by prayer Than this world dreams of. Wherefore, let thy voics Rise like a fountain for me night and day. better than sheep or goats For what are men blind lifewithin the brain, That nourish a If,knowing God, they liftnot hands of prayer Both for themselves and those who call them friend ? For so the whole round earth is every way Bound by gold chains about the feet of God. Rabbi Ben Ezra. BROWNING Ay, note that Potter's wheel, That metaphor ! and feel time spins fast, why passive liesour clay,-" Why fools propound, Thou, to whom the wine makes its round, When " " Since lifefleets,all is change ; the Past gone, seize to-day I
"

The Passing

of A

Fool ! All that is,at all, Lasts ever, past recall ; Earth changes, but thy soul and God stand sure ; What entered into thee, That, was, is,and shall be ; Time's wheel runs back or stops : Potter and clay endure. Trial of Warren Hastings. MACAULAY The avenues were were nor Neither military wanting. civil pomp kept clear by cavalry. The peers, The streets were lined with grenadiers. marshalled by the heralds under Garterrobed in gold and ermine, were in The judges their vestments of state attended to give King-at-Arms. Near a hundred law. and seventy lords, threeadvice on points of House as the Upper House then was, walked in fourths of the Upper to the tribunal. The solemn order from their usual place of assembling baron present led the way, George Elliot, Lord Heathfield. junior
"

368

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defence of Gibraltar against the recently ennobled for his memorable The long procession was closed fleetsand armies of France and Spain. Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal of the realm, by the great dignitaries, by the by the brothers and sons of the King. Last of all came the and Prince of Wales, conspicuous by fine person and noble bearing.

THE

STUDY

OF

PASSAGE

OF

PROSE

OR

POETRY

425. The chief technicalpoints to be noticed in the critical such examination of a passage (omitting considerationsas its
are : value as a piece of literature) aesthetic Its general meaning and the main ideas intended to be 1. (a) The exact meaning of any difficult ; conveyed by the writer (b)
"

phrases or sentences. historical (b) the or references in it: (a) 2. Any allusions to ; to works or character; (c) the age in which he lived. poet'slife, unusual order of words, peculiarities, idiomatic phrases (see foreignor abnormal constructions, " 408). 4. The words contained in it: (a) ; poetical (b) archaic; (c ifuncommon sense ; (d) ; (e)uitability origin, s used in a special " musical effectof (see 408). (/) Any figures of speech: their beauty and appropriateness 5.
3. Any

grammatical

(Chapter xxx.)
6. Ornament:
or

Adj.and

Adverbs, (a) strikingepithets (e.g. Adjectives, Adv. : (b) : whether plain, phrases) suitability (c)

neat,

gracefulor flowery. ifany ("" 7. Metre; rhyme and alliteration, 396-406). to the 8. Style: (a) ; (b) whether suited subject grave or gay, or elevated (sublime) bathetic; (d) pathetic or humorous; (c) graceful

(/)simple or verbose or elliptical; vigorous; (e) dignifiedor affected (fi) bombastic ; (g) ; scholarly or pedantic ; or of any ; (i)arcastic ironical (/) marks characteristic the poet s or his age. be for anv term must full reasons In each case of course,
or

given. 426. EXAMPLES"

I. CRITICISM
A (i)
OF

STYLE,

DICTION,

METRE,

ETC.

A great of heaven. truly interesting son of earth and son hazel eyes, massive shock of rough dusty-dark hair, bright, laughing, comdelicate, of sallow brown yet tno"t aquiline face, most massive

APPENDIX

369

plexion, almost Indian looking ; clothes cynically loose, free and easy ; One of the finest looking men in the world. smokes infinitetobacco.

[CARLYLE
"

on

Tennyson.]

Criticism. The style is abrupt, almost : ejaculatory the words are or apparently thrown together anyhow, without harmony order, yet in such a striking manner to arrest our as attention. Verbs and are omitted throughout, except smokes, and that has no subjects In the first sentence son subject. of earth and son of heaven, and in the second, most massive yet most delicate,are well-balanced antitheses. The epithets are peculiar : dusty-dark is almost paradoxical ; cynically loose is impossible literally, since cynically has reference to a person's manner tobacco is strictly incorrect, being elliptical for an ; infinite tobacco (which then is an example of hyperbole), amount infinite of Shocks and the splintering spear, the hard mail hewn, (ii) Shield-breakings, and the clash of brands, the crash Of battle-axes on shattered helms, and shrieks. is blank verse in iambic pentameters, Criticism. The metre of There is a large the firstfoot (inlines i and 2) is a trochee. which amount of alliteration,e.g., shocks, splintering, spear ; hard, hewn. The dinning effect of the words is very suggestive of the vigorous the fight. The poetical words mail, helms, hewn, and the action of compound shield-breakingsshould also be noticed, And she bent o'er him, and he lay beneath, (iii) Hush'd as a babe upon its mother's breast, Droop'd as the willow when no winds can breathe, Lull'd like the depth of ocean when at rest, Fair as the crowning rose of the whole wreath, Soft as the callow cygnet in its nest : In short, he was a very pretty fellow, had turned him rather yellow. Although his woes in alternate The metre is iambic pentameter Criticism. rhyming last two lines, which themselves rhyme, and each of lines,except the All but the last two lines are graceful ; the which is hypermetric. humorous a decidedly bathetic, producing latter are effect. The breast, frequent, in fact, rather over-done : as a babe are similes breathe, etc. There is slightalliterationthroughout, as the willow babe, breast ; willow, winds, etc. e.g.,
"

"

"

"

II. SIMILARITIES
"

DETAIL. IN DIFFERENCES Rule Britannia" when you've sung you've shouted (a)When God save the Queen When you've finished killingKruger with your mouth tambourine Will you kindly drop a shillingin my little For a gentleman in kharki ordered South ? RUDYARD KIPLING. Rule Britannia rings through hut and hall, (6)When have sung God save the Queen withal ; And men has been whet the keen invective's sword When Against Meridian Afric's tyrant lord ; Spare not your largess for his kin who plies The legionary's task in tan-hued guise.
AND
"
"

"

"

"

OWEN
2 A

SEAMAN.

370
The
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

SIMILARITIES. and most of the details are similar in both : the singing subject God save Rule Britannia the Queen," the cursing of and of to help the soldiers. Kruger, the request for money
" "

DIFFERENCES. The second is, of course, an 1. Style generally. excellent parody first. The first may be said to be written in barrack-room on the it has a good swing such as would catch tavern or style, and thus the popular ear ; some of the words are used in a very unpoetical manner, shouted, mouth, drop,and some e.g., phrases are affected, such as killing with your mouth and gentleman in kharki. The second is a clever burlesque of this, affected, high-flown, bombastic, mock-heroic throughout. in detail. Nothing corresponding to through hut and 2. Diction hall in b is found in a ; killing with your mouth in a becomes in b whet the keen invective's sword ; Kruger in a is termed Meridian AJric's comes tyrant lord in b (tyrant ; giving an additional idea) drop a shilling belargess ; the idea of the tamthe more bourine general spare not your in a is omitted in b ; gentleman in kharki in a is translated into is for the high-flown legionary in tan-hued guise in b ; in a the money in b for his kin ; the fact of his being ordered South in a is the soldier, omitted in b. The first is written in trochaic octometers meters 3. Metre. and hexaalternately the last foot in each line being catalectic. The in second is in iambic pentameters rhymed, i.e. heroic couplets.
"
'"

"

"

"

III. QUESTION. Apply one Graceful, Pedantic, of the terms to each of the following, stating youi Bombastic, Elevated, Bathos in each instance : reasons (a)No 1 rather let the fountain of your valour Spring through each stream of enterprise. Each petty channel of conducive daring, Till the full torrent of your foaming wrath O'erwhelm the flats of sunk hostility ! (6)And like the baseless fabric of this vision, The cloud capped towers, the gorgeous palaces, The solemn temples, the great globe itself, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve. Mark him of shoulders curved, of stature tall, (c) Black hair and vivid eye and meagre cheek, His prominent feature like an eagle's beak. (d)Graced as thou art with all the power of words, So known, so honoured at the House of Lorda. (e)It haunted me, the morning long, With weary sameness in the rhymes, The phantom of a silent song, That went and came a thousand times.
"
" "

"

PAPERS
AT THE

SET

UNIVERSITY

OF

LONDON ON

MATRICULATION
ENGLISH

EXAMINATION

JANUARY
1.

1909.

ESSAY.
one

Choose

of the following

: subjects
"

Old (i) The (ii) The (iii) The (iv) (v)The

Age

Pensions,

Turks Charm
Future

in Europe, of Poetry,
of Scientific Discovery,

Power

and

Responsibilities of the Press.

to be

[N.B.
"

Only

FIVE

Six of the following

questions

are

attempted.]

2.

PARAPHRASE.

(a)Write

prose version

of the following

stanza

"

O Time ! the beautifier of the dead, Adorner of the ruin, comforter the heart hath bled" And only healer when Time ! the corrector where our judgments err, The test of truth, love, sole philosopher,
"

371

372

HIGHER
For all besides
are

ENGLISH
" "

sophists from thy thrift, it doth defer never Which Time, the avenger ! unto thee I lift My hands, and eyes, and heart, and crave of thee a gift. Give a modern rendering of the following passage : (b) In time all learning may be brought into one tongue, and that natural to the inhabitant, so that schooling for tongues may prove needless, fall out that arts never they were once as not needed ; but it can and sciences in their right nature shall be but most necessary for any barbarousness. too much common unto weal that is not given over than to tongues, which do mind them more We do attribute too much honourable to speak finely than to do matter, and esteem it more we reason wisely, where words be but praised for the time, and wisdom wins at length.
loses though
"

EXPRESSIONS. : PROVERBIAL 3. ANALYSIS Write clauses in the following passages, out the subordinate (a) kind they are, and on what word each depends : saying of what Methinks a woman of this valiant spirit Should, if a coward heard her speak these words, Infuse his breath with magnanimity, And make him, naked, foil a man at arms. I speak not this, as doubting any here ; For, did I but suspect a fearful man, He should have leave to go away betimes ; Lest, in our need, he might infect another, And make him of like spiritto himself. If any such be here, as God forbid ! Let him depart before we need his help. uses can Mention as many as you verbial of the following words in pro(6) dog, bird, fire. or other figurative expressions :
" "

SENTENCES. OF faults in the following sentences, and rewrite the passages in correct form : England and Japan. Is France and Russia are allies, as are (i) it impossible to imagine that, in consequence of the growing friendship between the two great peoples on both sides of the Channel, an agreement might not one day be realised between the four powers ? Few candidates knew enough of the nature of discount as to (ii) that the charge for discounting a billis calculated be aware on the period between the date of the transaction and that of the maturity of the bill, The (iii) volunteer does not volunteer to be compelled to suffer long and neglected illnesses,and too often death, yet such South Africa on a vast scale, and is inevitable in war was under the present officialindifference, It (iv) is true that, disagreeing with M. Comte, though I do, in all those fundamental views that are peculiar to him, I agree him in sundry minor views, with (v)From his conversation I should have pronounced him to be fitted to excel in whatever walk of ambition he had chosen
4. CORRECTION Point out the
"

to exert

his abilities.

EXAMINATION
If (vi) you
to the farm, you shown you.

PAPERS

373

should be sufficientlyinterested to pay a personal visit will be welcome and every facilitywill be

5. USES
:
"

OF

WORDS.

illustrative sentences, the different uses of the but, since. most, words Write sentences showing the use of each of the following words : (b) litigious, salient,occult, dissemble, initiate, criterion, redolent. with
more, as,
"

(a)Explain,

6. LITERATURE FICTION. : HISTORICAL Mention the names (a) (with of the authors) standard historical in which any of the following characters are introduced : Mary, novels of Scots ; Queen Elizabeth ; James I. ; Oliver Cromwell ; The Id Pretender ; The Pretender ; Savonarola ; Erasmus Young ; George Washington. in (b)Describe a notable scene from one of the works you name, historical figures which the character of one of the above-mentioned is portrayed.
"

"ueen

or

PASSAGES. : POETICAL j. LITERATURE Complete nine of the following passages (not giving more two in any the poems from which they and name case), When (i) pain and anguish wring the brow G (ii)od made the country
.
.

are

than a line taken :

"

And (iii) fools, who came to scoff None but the brave (iv) (v)To me the meanest flower that blows Where ignorance is bliss (vi) Kind hearts are more than coronets (vii) And coming events cast viii) A (ix) thing of beauty (x)He prayeth best who loveth best Hope springs eternal (xi) die better And how can man (xii)
.
.

JUNE 1909. ESSAY. Choose one of the following : subjects Our Problem (i) of National Defence. The Advantages (ii) of Boarding and Disadvantages The (iii) Novel as an Instrument of Reform, The Attractions of Egypt as a Place to visit. (iv) (v)Should we have a State-supported Theatre ?
1.
"

Schools.

Six [OnlyFIVE of the following questions are

2.

to be

attempted.']

PRECIS.

Supply a title for the following passage as a whole, and a title (i) for each of the paragraphs separately. Give the substance of the passage in about a third or a fourth (ii) of its present length. been one Ancient history has ever of of the chief objects human learning. Men have differed widely therefore of human curiosity and

374

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in their theories and methods of writing and of teaching it, but no human beings above the rank of the lowest savages are ever careless Some sort of about their ancestors or the past annals of their nation. history therefore must exist, and has existed since the dawn of ancient as the medicinecivilisation. But history differs from history as much man from the enlightened physician. First come the floating legends down by oral tradition, embellished with and the simple tale, handed idealised by lofty motives. Then there is a time when wonders and men to know things no longer command dates such assent, when want a rational sequence and generations and of events, and so there springs life and motives, the up beside the rich epic, which pictured human barren chronicle ; instead of varied poetry, men's minds are fed with bald and wretched Then comes the day of prose, or prosy verse. facts recorded but motives not only are narrative, when reasoned and reflections added, and this is the first record that can properly be called history. There is yet a further step, before we reach critical history, which consists in the careful weighing of the evidence for our facts, and consequently for our theories. Thucydides, for example, who is generally He submits present thought a criticalhistorian, is not strictly such. events, it is true, to careful sifting,and rejects altogether any miraculous interference. But to historical scepticism he can lay no claim. In dealing with the legendary history of his country he supplies motives which he thinks suitable to the recorded events, but his whole criticism affects the motives of the heroes, and not the stories alleged concerning Thucydides, in fact, and the Athenian he them. school to which belonged, were so engrossed with politics and with political notions they could attribute any such origin to an alleged fact, that, whenever to them it became not only probable but a matter of history. To interference of the gods, to admit any chivalrous motives allow any in human or any unselfish passion as an efficient cause affairs,above influence politics or change the to believe that any woman could all, by history of a nation, these were the ideas rejected Thucydides and It was his school with scorn. under this theory that he reviewed the I consider the history of Thucydides past history of his country. dotus, extent false,as compared not merely defective but to some with Herois like a mirror, reflecting to us all that he had seen whose work Although the former certainly sifted his materials, and and heard. be called a critical historian, in another he therefore in one sense may cannot lay claim to the title; for he selected his materials with a view to a foregone conclusion ; he made them fit a preconceived theory.
"

3. PARAPHRASE

PROSODY.
"

(a)Write

prose version of : in disgrace with fortune and men's When, I all alone beweep my outcast state,
a

eyes,

And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, And look upon myself, and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featured like him, like him with friends possess'd, Desiring this man's art and that man's scope, With what I most contented least ;

enjoy

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

375

Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee, and then my state, Like to the lark at break of day arising From at heaven's gate ; sullen earth, sings hymns For thy sweet love remember 'd such wealth brings to change my state with kings. That then I scorn is written, pointing out Describe the metre in which the poem (6) that are introduced. any irregularities Describe any other variety of this metrical form. (c) MEANINGS AND WORDS. : USES OF 4. ANALYSIS Write the subordinate out clauses in the following passage, (a) kind they are, and on what word each depends : saying of what Upon this cheek lay I this zealous kiss, As seal to this indenture of my love ; I will no more That to my home return, Till Angiers, and the right thou hast in France, Together with that pale, that white-fac'd shore, foot spurns back the ocean's Whose roaring tides, And coops from other lands her islanders, Even tillthat England, hedg'd in with the main, bulwark stillsecure That water -walled And confident from foreign purposes, corner Even tillthat utmost of the west Salute thee for her king : tillthen, fair boy, Will I not think of home, but follow arms, in the or use the differences of meaning Illustrate in sentences (ft)
"
"

"

; personate mendicity, mendacity; personify, ; notable, notorious, salubrious, salutary to Give the literal meaning (according derivation) any five of (c) following words : soldier, companion, harbour, mile, quarry, of the
:
"

following pairs of words

p presumptive,resumptuous;
"

street, polite. pastor,

SENTENCES. OF 5. CORRECTION Re- write the following faulty sentences in correct form : I will prevent me (i) am sorry that a previous engagement being present on Wednesday evening, The nation had settled the question that it would not have (ii)
"

conscription, looked a picture, being scattered fields and meadows feeding on the green grass, with sheep and cattle So ology, (iv) far as medicine is concerned, I am not sure that physisuch as it was down to the time of Harvey, might as well not have existed, (v)The Diet should leave to the Tsar the initiative of taking be necessary, as may such measures Be this a difference of inertia, of bulk, or of form, matters (vi) not to the argument, than was has done all and more The expected railway (vii) it. of He (viii) will see the alterations that were proposed to be made, but rejected, duty generally consists of being moral, kind, Doing one's (ix)
The (iii) and charitable.

376

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"

Caliban, Jessica, : Hubert, Banquo, Edgar, Horatio, Volumnia, Fluellen, Dogberry. (b)Describe the part taken in the action by any two of the above.
LITERATURE. 7. CONTEMPORARY Name distinguished living English authors three of the most briefly describe the general character of the work of each.

6. SHAKESPEARE CHARACTERS. Name the plays in which the following appear (a)

and

SEPTEMBER
1.

1909.
"

ESSAY. Choose one of the following : subjects The Tyranny Fashion. (i) of C Military Training. (ii)ompulsory The Benefits and Evils of Competition, (Hi) Music as a Taste and as a Profession. (iv) The Great Writers of France. (v)

S [OnlyFIVE of the followingix questions aye to be attempted.'} RENDERING. MODERN Give a modern rendering of the following passage : This promontory fortified as well as in haste they the Athenians thither of their doings drew the Peloponnesians might, and the news They brought not only their land forces, in all haste out of Attica. but all their navy, to recover this piece, which how bad a neighbour it might prove in time they well foresaw, littlefearing the grievous loss Having taken order at hand which they there in few days received. town by sea, they sent part of their fleet to fetch to shut up this new to fortify round about and block up and other stuff wherewith wood the piece on all sides. But in the mean fleet, season the Athenian hearing of their danger that were left at Pylus, returned thither, and did break and sink many with great courage entering the haven of their enemies' vessels, took five, and enforced the residue to run themselves Now the town was secure, aground. and the Spartans abiding in the island as good as lost. Wherefore the magistrates were sent from Sparta and the camp to advise what were best for the public they did perceive that there was no safety, who when other way to their citizens out of the isle than by composition with their rescue enemies, they agreed to entreat with the Athenians about peace, taking truce in the meanwhile The conditions with the captains at Pylus. that the Lacedemonians of the truce were should deliver up all the in the coast, that a certain quantity of bread, wine, ships which were and flesh should be daily carried into the isle, that the Athenians to Athens, there to should carry the Lacedemonian ambassadors treat of peace, and should bring them back, at whose return the truce it were broken in any one point, should end, which if in the meantime should be held utterly void in all,and that when the truce was expired, the Athenians should restore the Peloponnesian ships in as good case as they received them. The ambassadors in coming to Athens were that as they themselves had begun they so the war, opinion might how they pleased. Wherefore they told the Athenians end it when honour it was an for did sue to them that the Lacedemonians great them to make an war peace, advising end of whilst with such reputa2.
"

EXAMINATION
tion they

PAPERS

377

But they found all contrary to their expectation, might. for instead of concluding upon even terms, or desiring of meet recompense for loss sustained, the Athenians demanded certain cities to be restored to them, refusing likewise to continue the treaty of peace in the isle were first rendered unto unless the Spartans which were as Thus them the ambassadors were prisoners. returned without effect.

ALLUSIONS. AND 3. PARAPHRASE (a)Write a prose version of the following : Behind thy pasteboard, on thy battered hack, Thy lean cheek striped with plaster to and fro, Thy long spear levelled at the unseen foe, And doubtful Sancho trudging at thy back, Thou wert a figure strange enough, good lack ! To make wiseacredom, both high and low, Rub purblind eyes, and (having watched thee go) Despatch its Dogberrys upon thy track : Alas ! poor Knight ! Alas ! poor soul possest ! Yet would to-day, when Courtesy grows chill, fine loyalties are turned to jest, And life's Some fire of thine might burn within us still ! Ah ! would but one might lay his lance in rest, And charge in earnest it but a mill. were in the above passage. (6)Explain the allusions
"
"

SYNTHESIS. AND 4. ANALYSIS Write out the subordinate clauses in the following passage, (a) saying of what kind they are, and on what word each depends : The illsthat I have done cannot be safe, But by attempting greater ; and I feel
"

A spirit within me chides my sluggish hands, And says, they have been innocent too long. bred great as Rome Was I a man herself, One formed for all her honours, all her glories, Equal to all her titles; that could stand Close up with Atlas, and sustain her name I, As strong as he doth heaven, and was Of all her brood, marked out for the repulse By her no-voice, when I stood candidate in the Pontic war To be commander ? (b)Re-write the following passage in three sentences, avoiding semicolons and the use of the word and : The siege had gone on for The Greeks had been besieging Troy. in vain. One of the Greeks contrived a device. ten years. It was all to be filledwith armed men. It was The He made a horse of wood. They were to hide behind an Greeks were to pretend to return home. horse would be taken inside the island. It was hoped the wooden The The Trojansfound that the Greeks were Troy. gone. walls of The Trojans dragged the home. Greeks seemed to have returned told it had been left as a horse inside their city. They were wooden They an They were told it was offering to Minerva. peace offering. by one were their priests. The priest said they should of warned to be feared, leave the wooden horse alone. He said the Greeks were
"

378
even

HIGHER

ENGLISH

offering a gift. The Trojansheld a feast that when they were Then to sleep. The they went men night. They armed rejoiced. issued from the horse. The Greeks had returned. The armed men They took the inhabitants the gates. The Greeks entered. opened by surprise. They slew many They possessed themselves of them. the city. of form, with the proper the following stanzas in verse dividing the lines according to the rhymes, punctuation, without changing the order of the words : All (i) I believed is true I am able yet all I want to get by a method dare I trust the same to you. as strange as new A (ii)nd stillin the beautiful city the river of lifeis no duller only a littlestrange as the eighth hour dreamily chimes in the friends and city of echoes ribbons and music and colour lilac and blossoming chestnut willows and whispering limes Forlorn the very word is like a bell to toll me back from thee (iii) to my sole self adieu the fancy cannot so well as she is cheat famed to do deceiving elf adieu adieu thy plaintive anthem fades past the near over the still stream meadows up the hillside and now 'tis buried deep in the next valley glades it a vision or a waking dream fled is that music do I was or sleep wake (b)Explain the metres used. speare's 6. Write out 15 or 20 lines of any famous speech from one of Shakefrom which it is taken. plays, and describe the scene 7. Classify and describe the most important periodical publications of the present day.
"

5. PROSODY. (a)Re-write

JANUARY 1910. ESSAY. Choose one of the following : subjects The possible effects of Aviation on war and commerce, (i) T (ii)he Congo State, The (iii) best poems for children, Socialism, (iv) (v)The advantages and drawbacks of a reformed English spelling.
1.
"

S [OnlyFIVE ofthe followingix

2.

questions

are

to be

attempted.}

PRfedS. Supply a titlefor the following passage. (i) E (ii)xpress the substance of the passage clearly in simple language in about a third or a fourth of its present length. Executive magistracy ought to be constituted in such a manner, that those who compose it should be disposed to love and venerate those whom they are bound to obey. A purposed neglect, or, what is literal but perverse and malignant be the worse, a obedience must In vain will the law attempt to anticipate ruin of the wisest counsels. or to follow such studied To make neglects and fraudulent attentions. men law. Kings, even act zealously is not in the competence such of as are truly kings, may that and ought to bear the freedom of subjects are obnoxious to them. They may too, without derogating from them-

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

379

their the authority of such persons, if it promotes selves, bear even Louis XIII. mortally hated the Cardinal de Richelieu, but service. his support of that minister against his rivals was the source of all the his reign, and the solid foundation his throne itself. of glory of he came to the throne, did not love Cardinal Louis XIV., when When Mazarin, but for his interests he preserved him in power. to him, George II. took Mr Pitt, who was not agreeable certainly into his councils, he did nothing which could humble a wise sovereign. But these ministers, who were chosen by affairs, not by affection, in the name in trust for, kings, and not as their avowed, of, and acted I think it impossible that any constitutional, and ostensible masters. he has recovered his first terrors, can king, when cordially infuse to be dictated by he knows into measures which vivacity and vigour those, who, he must be persuaded, are in the highest degree illaffected to his person. Will any ministers, who serve ever such a king (orwhathe may but a decent appearance of respect, be with called) but the other day, in his cordially obey the orders of those whom, to the Bastile ? Will they obey the orders name they had committed upon exercising despotic justice of those, whom, whilst they were treating with lenity, and for whom, them, they conceived they were in a prison, they thought they had provided an asylum ? If you tions, your other innovations and regeneraexpect such obedience amongst a revolution in nature, and provide a new ought to make you Otherwise, your supreme ment governmind. constitution for the human its executory harmonise flectio (BURKE, Resystem. cannot with on the French Revolution.}
"

EXPRESSIONS. : FIGURATIVE 3. PARAPHRASE Write a prose version of the following passage (a)

:
"

SHAKESPEARE. Thou art free. Others abide our question. Thou smilest and art still, We ask and ask For the loftiesthill, Out-topping knowledge. his to the stars uncrowns Who majesty, Planting his stedfast footsteps in the sea, Making the heaven of heavens his dwelling place, Spares but the cloudy border of his base To the foiled searching of mortality ; know, And thou, who didst the stars and sunbeams honoured, self secure, Self schooled, self scanned, self Didst tread on earth unguessed at. Better so ! All pains the immortal spirit must endure, All weakness which impairs, all griefs which bow, Find their sole speech in that victorious brow. (6)Explain the meaning of the figurative expressions in the following
" "

passages : The (i)

"

docility by vaunting me for my me where everythe very phoenix of physicians. the general into the court, it was Oliver Twist came When (ii) impression that he had been taken redhanded in the burglary, In (iii) all his conduct, a Grandisonian style of magnanimity, both was in substance and manner, visible.

Haji repaid
as

380
At (iv)

HIGHER

ENGLISH
the
veteran

his marriage, the whole community wished his entrance into the band of Benedicks. on joy the financier was (v)After prospering for a season,
maelstrom

ruined

in

of speculation.

4. CORRECTION

SENTENCES. OF Re-write the following faulty sentences in correct form : Between a level piece the junctionf the two tributaries was (i) o on the force encamped, of ground which diversified from the The later years of his life were much (ii) former ones, It (iii) was while receiving a deputation that the bullet of the anarchist struck the President, A (iv) novel is usually criticisedby whether itsplot and characters true to life, are (v)One thing that makes Arnold's poetry so picturesque isbecause he always chooses his epithets with such judgment, I of the orator than by (vi) was rather impressed by the manner his matter, T (vii)he soldiers were too exhausted to take the proper care they ought of their horses, I cannot help but think that the general did not fight so much (viii) by choice as by compulsion. " in (ix) Amen," said Yeo, and many an honest voice joined that honest compact, and kept it too like men.
"

FICTION. IN 5. CHARACTERS Mention the books in which the following characters appear, and describe any two of them (one be taken from each to group): Will Honeycomb, Beau Tibbs, Mrs Malaprop, Mr Hardcastle : (i) Morris, Dick E (ii)lizabeth Bennet, Joseph Sedley, Dinah Swiveller, John Silver.
"

HISTORY. 6. LITERARY Write an account of the friends of Dr Johnson,Lamb.

one

of the following

:
"

Addison,

FORMS. 7. LITERARY Describe the characteristics of any three of the following literary forms, and illustrate your answer by referring to one English example of each : Allegory, Ballad, Burlesque, Sonnet, Tragi-comedy.
"

JUNE 1910. ESSAY. Choose one of the following : subjects Some Great American Authors. (i) The Influence of Puritanism on Literature and the Drama, (ii) What the World owes to the Semitic races, (iii) The Growth the British Navy, (iv) of (v)The Flora and Fauna of the Tropics, The Leading British Industries, (vi) A (vii) Model Second Chamber, The (viii) Best Methods of Studying Foreign Languages.
i.
"

EXAMINATION
SEVEN [OnlyFIVE of the following
2.

PAPERS

381

questions are to be attempted.'] MODERN RENDERING: PRECIS. Give a modern version of the following passage : (i) I find nothing discordant therein, saving only in the sayings of Socrates, wherein I find that my said lord hath left out certain and diverse conclusions touching women. Whereof I marvel that my said lord hath not written them. But I suppose that some fair lady hath desired him to leave it out of his book. Or else he was amorous on some noble lady, for whose sake he would not set it in his book ; or else for the very affection, love, and goodwill that he hath unto all ladies and gentlewomen, he thought that Socrates wrote of women more than truth, which I cannot think that so true a man and so noble Socrates was, a as should write otherwise than truth. philosopher For if he had made fault in writing of women, he ought not be believed in his other sayings. But I apperceive that my said lord knoweth born and dwelling that such defaults be not found in the women verily in these regions of the world. Greek, born in a far Socrates was a country from hence, which country is all of other conditions than this is,and men and women of other nature than they be here in this country. be in Greece, the For I wot well, of what somever condition women be right good, wise, pleasant, humble, discreet, women of this country in speaking and virtuous in sober, true, secret, stedfast, temperate For which causes, be so. so all their works, or at the least should it was not of necessity evident, my said lord, as I suppose, thought But to set in his book the sayings of his author touching women. for so much I had commandment as of my said lord to correct and save that amend where as I should find fault, and other find I none he hath left out these sayings of the women of Greece, therefore in I am for as much as not in certain accomplishing his commandment, in my lord's copy or not, or else peradventure that the it was whether the leaf at the time of translation of his book, wind had blown over I purpose to write these same sayings of that Greek Socrates which Greece and nothing of them of this realm those women wrote of of knew. I suppose he never whom CAXTON (Spelling modernised), Give the substance of the above in about ten lines. (ii)
"

3. PARAPHRASE. Write a prose version of the following : " She stands alone ! ally nor friend has she," her who bore Saith Europe of our England Drake, Blake, and Nelson who wore Warrior-Queen Light's conquering glaive that strikes the conquered free. o'er the sea, Alone ? From Canada comes And from that English coast with coral shore, The old-world cry Europe had heard of yore " " Ready, aye ready we ! : Dover cliffs From " England, " hath forgot my boys !" Europe,"
"
" " "

sai'th how tall,in yonder golden zone Austral skies, my youngest born have grown of (Bearers bayonets now and swords for toys) harmless noise Forgot 'mid boltless thunder " ' England The sons with whom stands alone ! old

Forgot 'Neath

"

"

"

'

382
4. ANALYSIS:

HIGHER
USES
OF

ENGLISH

WORDS.

out the subordinate clauses in the following passage, kind they are, and on what word each depends : saying of what Now I ye know right well your Queen ; what am To whom, to the realm when I was wedded And the realm's laws (the spousal ring whereof, Not ever to be laid aside, I wear Upon this finger), did promise full ye Allegiance and obedience to the death. {b)Illustrate in sentences the differences of meaning or use in the following pairs of words : potent,otential vindication, vindictiven c ss ; ; p
"
" "

(a)Write

; s solicitation,olicitude; credence,credentials;primary, primitive pertinent,

pertinacious.
5. CORRECTION
Re-write
OF

SENTENCES.
"

the following faulty sentences in correct form : Let them agree to differ ; for who knows but what agreeing (i) to differ may not be a form of agreement rather than a form of difference ? The (ii) West Indian atmosphere is not of the limpid brightness and transparent purity such as are found in the sketch " A Street in Kingston." entitled I (iii) then further observed that, China having observed the laws of neutrality, how could he believe in the possibility of an alliance with Russia ? These are men (iv) and women who profess to call themselves Christians, but I judged that they would soon mutually find each other out. (v)When it was my pleasure to address a meeting of over two thousand at the Royal Theatre, the opposition numbered less than seven score, As one those who bear witness to was (vi) of present, I can lecturer, and the emphatic welcome the success it of the received from those who heard it. His (vii) use of alliteration can only in many cases be forgiven by the hero-worshipper, and in spite of the novel harmonies he introduced us to, the swing of his anapaests and dactyls

was (viii) Jeffreys

apt to cloy, an exaggerated example of the acute but vulgar lawyer, of which there have been plenty since criminal his time.
are

6. SHAKESPEARE

CHARACTERS.
"

the plays in which any six of the following appear : Ariel, Benedick, Duncan, Bolingbroke, Edmund, Faulconbridge, Hermione, lago, Laertes, Nerissa, Olivia, Pistol. (b)Describe the part taken in the action by any three of the above. PROSE. 7. ENGLISH the writers and (a)Selecting any six of the following books, name the approximate dates of their composition : (i)Tales of mention a Grandfather, Essays of Elia, Sartor Resartus, Imaginary Conversa"

(a)Name

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

383

tions, Sesame Old Mortality, Henry Esmond The and Lilies ; (ii) Cloister and the Hearth, A Tale of Two Cities, John Inglesant Kidnapped. to (b)Write an account of two of the above-mentioned books (one be taken from each

group).

8. LITERARY FORMS. State the characteristics of any three of the following literary (b) forms : Elegy, Epic, Epigram, Pastoral, Satire. by describing one from English (b)Illustrate your answer example literature of each of the three forms you have selected.
"

SEPTEMBER
1.

1910.
"

ESSAY.
: of the following subjects the character of Edward VII. with that of comparison III. Edward of The Roman Occupation of Britain. British Ballads. Classical legends in English literature. The wild birds of England. The attractions offered to British emigrants by Australia respectively, and Canada The English and the Continental Sunday, (vii) The (viii) good qualities and the defects of the modern daily
one

Choose

A (i)

newspaper.

[OnlyFIVE
2.

out

SEVEN of the following

questions

are

to be

attempted.}

PRECIS. Supply a titlefor the following passage. (i) than Express clearly the substance of the passage in not more (ii) 150 words. in are But although historically we justified saying that the first the first botanist a gardener, the first a ploughman, was geometrician that in this early mineralogist a miner, it may reasonably be objected a field is not a science is hardly a science yet ; that measuring stage that growing cabbages is very far from botany, and that a geometry, This is butcher has no claim to the title of comparative anatomist. true ; yet it is but right that each science should be reminded perfectly humble beginnings, and of the practical requirements of these its more Now, it was although it may originally intended to answer. which seem as if,in the present high state of our society, students were enabled to devote their time to the investigation of the facts and laws of nature, to the contemplation or of the mysteries of the world of thought, any side glance at the practical results of their labours, no without us, unless science and no art have long prospered and flourished among to the practical interests of society. in some they were way subservient It is true that a Lyell collects and arranges, a Faraday weighs and dissects and compares, a Herschell observes and analyses, an Owen marketable results any thought of the immediate calculates, without But there is a general interest which supports and labours. of their enlivens their researches, and that interest depends upon the practical

384

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ENGLISH

that society at large derives from these scientificstudies. advantages that the successive strata of the geologist are a deception Let it be known tables are to the to the miner, that the astronomical useless of no use navigator, that chemistry is but an expensive amusement, the farmer to the manufacturer and and astronomy, chemistry, and As long and astrology. share the fate of alchemy geology would soon instigated the avarice of its patrons by the promise of the as alchemy discovery of gold, it prepared the way to discoveries more valuable. imposition The same not such mere with astrology. Astrology was Even Bacon allows it a place to have been. as it is generally supposed " it had better intelligence that the sciences, although admitting among imagination of man than with his reason." and confederacy with the Luther pronounced against In spite of the strong condemnation which to sway the destinies of Europe, and a hundred it,astrology continued the counsellor of princes and years after Luther, the astrologer was died in poverty and the founder of modern astronomy generals, while despair. In our time the very rudiments of astrology are lost and forgotten. Even real and useful arts, as soon as they cease to be useful, lost beyond die away the hope of and their secrets are sometimes the Reformation our When churches and chapels recovery. after in order to restore in outdivested of their artistic ornaments, were ward appearance also the simplicity and purity of the Christian church, began to fade away, and have never the colours of the painted windows The invention of printing their former depth and harmony. regained the death-blow to the art of ornamental writing and of miniature gave in the illumination of manuscripts ; and the best painting employed artists of the present day despair of rivalling the minuteness, softness, by the humble manufacturer of the mediaeval and brilliancy combined
"

missal.

EXPLANATION. FOR 3. PASSAGES Explain fully the meaning of any -five the following passages : of Heat not the furnace for your foe so hot (i) That it do singe yourself. he doth bestride the narrow Why, man, (ii) world Like a Colossus, and we petty men Walk under his huge legs and peep about To find ourselves dishonourable graves, Trifles light as air (iii) Are to the jealousonfirmations strong c As proofs of holy writ. is the spur that the clear spiritdoth raise Fame (iv) last infirmity of noble (That mind) To scorn delights and live laborious days. (v) What can ennoble sots or slaves or cowards ? Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards, (vi)Philosophy will clip an angel's wings, Tully was not so eloquent as thou, (vii) Thou nameless column with the buried base, Yet (viii) I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose
"
-

runs,

And the thoughts the suns.

of

men

are

widen'd

with

the process of

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

385

: VOCABULARY. 4. ANALYSIS In each of the following sentences state the nature of the (a) ordinate subclause and its relation to the principal sentence : The very day he landed, he came to see me. (i) I leave you to answer the question whether that is a just (ii) decision. Oh, (iii) that it were possible to recall the past ! What (iv) applies to them applies also to you in a greater degree, Much as I had distrusted him, I had never (v) suspected this. (b)Make two lists,each of fifteen nouns ; the first list denoting the various parts of a cathedral, the second denoting the various parts of a steamship.
"

SPEECH: SYNTAX. the following passage into reported speech after a verb of saying in the past tense : I shall have the honour to address to you, In the course of what I propose the following considerations to your serious thought. About the whole body of British citizens may be regarded as pure one-fifth of have the slightest influence. no on can Jacobins, argument whom desire a change ; they will have it,if they can. This minority is They I do not know whether, if I aimed at the total great and formidable. overthrow of a kingdom, I should wish to be encumbered with a larger body of partisans. The of the nation, the other four-fifths, majority is perfectly sound, and of the best possible disposition to the true Such men interests of their country. are naturally disposed to peace. This their enemies are perfectly aware of, and accordingly they raise Why they doing so ? are a continual cry for peace with France. Because they know that, this point gained, the rest will follow of course. On our part, why are allthe rules of prudence to be at this time reversed ? for the first time men think it right to be that now How comes by the counsels of their enemies ? Be not deluded by their governed devices. alone is there Reject peace and choose war, for in this course safety. Compose the prepositions used after the sentences (ii) showing disqualified, impatient, impervious, following : adjectives amenable, responsible.

5. REPORTED
Turn (i)

"

"

LITERATURE. ENGLISH IN 6. CHARACTERS Name the works in which any six of the following characters (i) Faithful, Macduff, appear : Sir Bedivere, Orgoglio, Mr Micawber, Sharp, Sir Peter Teazle, Falstaff, Becky Dr Primrose, Touchstone, Robsart. Amy D (ii)escribe in some detail the contents of any one of these works.
"

POETRY. 7. ENGLISH Write notes on any fourof the following poems :" Samson Agonistes, The Seasons, The Deserted Village, Christabel, Aurora In Memoriam, Warrior, Adonais, Leigh, The Shepherd's Calendar, Saul, The Happy The Giaour, Hesperides. WORDS. MEANING OF three of the following verse-forms :" Blank any heroic couplet, octosyllables, Spenserian stanza, hexameters.
8. PROSODY Describe (i)
2 B
:

verse,

386

HIGHER

ENGLISH

I by reference to three English poems, (ii)llustrate your answer chosen to exemplify each of the forms you have described, and give quotations where possible. Or

(asan

alternative to

(i)nd (ii)), a
"

of any nine of the following words, and write each of which contains one of those you have selected: hygienic, inaugural, internecine, jeremiad, evanescent, aerodrome, mordant, opportunism, orthodox, tantalizing,unsophisticated, Utopian.
sentences,

Explain the meaning

JANUARY
PART I: SUBJECTS

1911.
FOR

ESSAY.

Choose

one of the following : subjects The ideal town. (1) (2)Character as expressed by clothes. (3)The adventures of a diamond. (4)Social lifeas portrayed by Dickens. Qu (5)The Prime Ministers of Queen Victoria's Reign. 6) The future of agriculture in the British Isles. Electricity in the service of man. The scenery of one of the following countries : Scotland, France,
"

or

Switzerland.
PART

II.

[Notmore
i.

than FOUR

S of the followingix

questions

are

to be

attempted.']

SYNTAX. PUNCTUATION: Punctuate the following passage and assign the dialogue to the (a) two speakers : did faithful begin to wonder and stepping to Christian for he now walked all this while by himself he said to him but softly what a brave have we a very excellent got surely this man will make companion this Christian modestly smiled and said this man pilgrim at with whom you are so taken will beguile with this tongue of his twenty of them him then know him yes better than that know him not do you know is talkative he dwelleth in he knows himself pray what is he his name town he is the son of one say well he dwelt in prating row our and notwithstan his fine tongue he is but a sorry fellow. on the construction of the italicisedwords in any nine (b)Comment the following : of The boy was taught grammar. hours. The tide goes out every twenty-two (ii) As (iii) they had lost their horses, the soldiers had to foot it back (iii) to camp. Blow tillthou burst thy wind ! (iv) Better dwell in the midst of alarms (v) Than reign in this horrible place. The wounded man was (vi) about to speak, when he fainted, Those days have passed, never to return. (vii)
"
"

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

387

The (viii) tree fell; I am vexed at its having injured dog. my I (ix) cannot but express astonishment at such folly, my (x)Why dream and wait for him longer ? (xi)What with the weather and the blight, the farmer is

almost

Up (xii)
2.

ruined, with the flag !

OF

MEANING (a)Explain
:
"

the

WORDS: SCANSION. force of the words

italicised in

the

following

passage

Thus was this place A happy rural seat of various view ; * Groves whose rich trees wept odorous gums and balm, Others whose fruit burnished with golden rind Hung amiable, Hesperianfables true ; *If true, here only, and of delicious taste. Betwixt them lawns, or level downs, and flocks Grazing the tender herb, were interposed, *Or palmy hillock, or the flow'ry lap Of some irriguous valley spread her store, Flow'rs of all hue, and without thorn the rose. Another side, umbrageous grots and caves Of cool recess, o'er which the mantling vine Lays forth her purple grape.
the lines marked with an asterisk. Indicate the position in each of these lines. of the caesura Affix three appropriate descriptive to (c) adjectives each of the : citadel, symphony, following nouns prairie,phalanx, canopy, sheikh, galleon. Scan (6)
3. PROSE

STYLE. the following passage and deduce from it the characteristic of the author's style : This," said a philosopher, who had heard him with tokens of great is the present condition of a wise man. The time is impatience, fault. Nothing but by their own are wretched none come already when idle than to inquire after happiness which nature has kindly is more placed within our reach. The way to be happy is to live according to nature, in obedience to that universal and unalterable law with which cept, every heart is originally impressed ; which is not written on it by preby education, but infused but engraven by destiny ; not instilled at our nativity. He that lives according to nature will suffer nothing from the delusions of hope or importunities desire ; he will receive of of and reject with equabilityof temper ; and act or suffer as the reason themselves things shall alternately prescribe. Other men may amuse with subtle definitions or intricate ratiocination. Let them learn to be ; let them observe the hind of the forest and the wise by easier means let them consider the lifeof animals, whose motions linnet of the grove ; Let are regulated by instinct ; they obey their guide, and are happy. to dispute, and learn to live ; throw away us therefore at length cease the encumbrance utter them with so of precepts, which they who us this simple much pride and pomp do not understand, and carry with

(a)Examine
"

"

"

388

HIGHER
:

ENGLISH
nature

maxim and intelligible happiness." (b)Give the meaning

4. SHAKESPEARE. (a)Refer to scenes

that deviation from

is deviation from

of the words italicised.

from the plays of Shakespeare intensity or distinguished, respectively, by emotional characterisation. (b)Describe in detail one of these.

are which humorous

READING. 5. GENERAL (a)Assign any six of the following works to the class of literature Chase, Comus, The Decline and Fall to which each belongs : Chevy Arden, Familiar Studies of Men Empire, Enoch and of the Roman Books, Martin Chuzzlewit, The Mill on the Floss, On Heroes and Hero The Talisman, Utopia, The Virginians. Worship, Sohrab and Rustum, date of composition of each of the works Give the approximate (b) you have selected, and show your acquaintance with one of them. HISTORY. 6. LITERARY describe briefly either the chief writers of the second half Name and of the seventeenth century, or those of the second half of the eighteenth

century.

JUNE
PART
I
:

191

1.

SUBJECTS
"

FOR

ESSAY.

: Choose one of the following subjects On camping out. (1) (2)Photography as an aid to science. during the Rebellion of (3)The adventures of a Scottish Jacobite I745(4)The charm of fairy tales. (5)A Parlia'mentary election in a provincial town. (6)A dialogue between two gentlemen who have just returned from seeing one of Shakespeare's plays acted at the Globe Theatre in 1610. The influence of climate on industrial pursuits. The historic interest of some town than London) in (other Great Britain.

PART

IT: GENERAL

PAPER.
are

Six [FOUR only of the following questions

to be

attempted."]

i. PRECIS. Express the substance of the following passage clearly in simple language in about a fourth of its present length :" One of the leading peculiarities in the works of Montesquieu is the those personal anecdotes, and those trivial details complete rejection of respecting individuals, which belong to biography, but with which, Montesquieu as history has no concern. He perceived clearly saw,

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

389

that though details about the mental habits of the great are very interesting, they are also very unimportant. He knew, what no historian before him had even suspected, that in the great march of human affairs,individual peculiarities count for nothing ; and that, therefore, the historian has no business with them, but should leave them to the biographer, to whose province they properly belong. The consequence is,that not only does he treat the most powerful princes with regard such disas to relate the reigns of six in two lines,but he conemperors stantly in the case of eminent men, enforces the necessity, even of subordinating their special influence to the more general influence of the surrounding society. Thus, many writers had ascribed the ruin Republic to the ambition of Caesar and Pompey, of the Roman and totally particularly to the deep schemes of Caesar. This Montesquieu denies. According to his view of history, no great alteration can be effected, except by virtue of a long train of antecedents, where alone to seek the cause we are of what to a superficial eye is the work of individuals. The republic, therefore, was not by Caesar overthrown, Pompey, but by that state of things that made the success and of Caesar and Pompey possible. It is thus that the events which ordinary historians relate are utterly valueless. Such events, instead of being causes, are merely the occasions on whch the real causes act, and may be called the accidents of history.
ANALYSIS: SYNTHESIS. (a)Write out the principal and dependent clauses in the following passage and state the nature of each dependent clause : Turn over the page, and look into the weaving of the foliage and they are, yet how unsprays against the dark night sky, how near traceable ; see how the moonlight creeps up underneath them, trembling and shivering on the silver boughs above ; note, also, the descending bit of ivy on the left,of which only two leaves are made out, and the rest is confusion, or tells only in the moonlight like faint flakes of
2.
"

snow.

(b)Combine
sentence
:
"

the following detached

sentences

into

one

complex

He was treated temper. of haughty and vehement ally ungraciously by the court. He was supported very enthusiasticvery by the people. He would eagerly take the first opportunity of This might be showing his power and gratifying his resentment. expected.

He

was

man

3. PASSAGES Give, with

EXPLANATION. the sense comments,

FOR

of

fiveonly

of the

following

passages

:
"

(a)

(b)

(c)

That love is merchandized, whose rich esteeming The owner's tongue doth publish everywhere. false and hollow ; though his tongue But all was Dropp'd manna, appear and could make the worse tQ perplex and dash The better reason, Maturest counsels. day's azure Underneath eyes, Ocean's nursling, Venice, lies.

390
(d) ) (g)
(h)
How And He
...

HIGHER

ENGLISH

commentators each dark passage shun, hold their farthing candle to the sun. was not of an age, but for all time. To the sessions of sweet silent thought.

(*)

I summon of things past. up remembrance bear sway. impious men When vice prevails, and The post of honour is a private station. O, for a draught of vintage ! that hath been Cool'd a long age in the deep delved earth, Tasting of Flora and the country green, Dance, and Proven9al song, and sunburnt mirth ! I held it truth, with him who sings To one clear harp in divers tones, That men may rise on stepping stones, Of their dead selves to higher things.

4. SHAKESPEARE.

instances from Shakespeare's plays of characters drawn the following ranks of society : Nobility, clergy, the common people. (b)Describe, with illustrative quotations, one of these characters.

(a)Give

from

READING. 5. GENERAL Write explanatory notes on any five of the following passages (a) History of English Literature from Taine's : When we see his Knight of the Cross combating with a horrible (i) in defence of his beloved lady, Una, we woman-serpent dimly remember that, if we search beyond these two figures, find behind one, Truth, behind the other, Falsehood, we shall Maud Personal memories had furnished the matter of and (ii) Locksley Hall." bound Here is another brother of Childe Harold, Mazeppa, (iii) on a wild horse rushing over the steppes, naked Lycidas," celebrating Already, in the poem which followed, (iv) in the style of Virgil the death of a beloved friend, he suffers Puritan wrath and prepossesions to shine through, a Absalom was His poem of political and Achitophel (v) pamphlet, (vi)From infancy he detested the Whigs ; he insults them even in his Dictionary." C as a whole ; itis a buffoonery (vii)onsider the Rape of the Lock in a noble style, heart-felt of is the most His Cotter's Saturday Night (viii) idylls, virtuous Not only does Chaucer, like Boccaccio, bind his tales into a (ix) he begins with the single history ; but, in addition, his narrators. portrait of all (b)Describe in detail one of the works mentioned in the above passages.
" "
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

...

6. ENGLISH
or

LITERATURE. Write an account of the works historians.

of

one

of the chief English essayists

EXAMINATION
SEPTEMBER PART I: SUBJECTS
"

PAPERS
1911.
FOR

391

ESSAY.

Choose

one : of the following subjects The Influence of Failure and Success (1) upon Character. (2)The English Ideal of a King. (3)A holiday on the Continent. (4)Careers for Girls. (5)The Races of the British Empire. (6)The Romance of Astronomy. Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne. A Dialogue between two visitors from the Colonies on the of the Coronation Ceremony.

subject

PART

II. questions
are

[FOUR

only

Six of the following

to be

attempted.]

i. PRECIS. Express clearly the substance of the following passage in about a fourth of its present length : Then came the clash and confusion of the parties into which the once The predominant old Whig party had been lately rent asunder. difficulties of the situation were" aggravated by the present strange Pitt. In vain he was and sullen seclusion of [theelder] appealed to ; in vain the King made piteous submissions to induce him to return to power ; for while, on the one hand, a new administration seemed impossible without his help, on the other, it was plain that the Grenville ministry was tottering to its final fall. Burke, not unreasonably, in the expected to obtain employment His friends were ignorant that he had attached himself not scramble. to that party among the Whigs which was the most pure and least in the State. Lord Rockingham was at their head : a young powerful fortune and fascinating manners, of princely nobleman who made up for powers of oratory, in which he was wholly deficient,by an inestimable friends, whose character was unart of attracting and securing stained by any of the intrigues of the past ten years, and who had like himself, less noted for their brilliant selected for his associates men With the talents than for their excellent sense and spotless honour. had littlein common. extremer opinions of Lord Temple, these men They had obtained the general repute of a kind of middle constitutional Little compatible was this with present popularity, as Burke party. knew, but he saw beyond the present. To the last he hoped that well Pitt might be moved ; but though believing that without the splendid an admirable talents and boundless popularity of the great commoner, lasting system then be formed, he also believed that and could not sense Rockingham's the only substitute for Pitt's genius was and good faith, and that on this plain foundation could be gradually raised a party which might revive Whig purity and honour, and last when
"

"

"

392

HIGHER
.

ENGLISH
.
.

Seven days after the administration Pitt should be no more. formed, Burke was was appointed private secretary to the Marquis Rockingham, and his great politicallife began. of
GRAMMAR. EXPRESSIONS: FIGURATIVE Explain the following expressions and frame six sentences in (a) to cross the Rubicon each of which one is used : a sop for Cerberus Draconian legislation Arcadian simplicity to take the lion's share
2.
" " " " "

comforter. Job's Construct five (7-)

sentences

each
cause,

illustrating on*e

of dependent and condition.

kinds

clause

of the following purpose, concession, comparison,

3. PARAPHRASE. the substance of the following passage in the form Reproduce style appropriate to a prose narrative : In full blown dignity, see Wolsey stand, Law in his voice and fortune in his hand ; To him the church, the realm, their powers consign, Thro' him the rays of regal bounty shine, Turn'd by his nod the stream of honour flows, His smile alone security bestows ; heights his restless wishes tower, Stillto new Claim leads to claim and power advances power ; Till conquest unresisted ceased to please, to seize. And rights submitted left him none At length his sovereign frowns the train of state Mark the keen glance, and watch the sign to hate. Where'er he turns, he meets a stranger's eye, His suppliants scorn him and his followers fly. With age, with cares, with maladies oppressed, He seeks the refuge of monastic rest ; folly stings, Grief aids disease, remembered And his last sighs reproach the faith of kings.
"
"

and

4. SHAKESPEARE.

(a)Write
from

of the following passages explanatory notes on any five Prof. Raleigh's Shakespeare : (i)His bad kings, Richard the Third and John, are not wholly unlike the villains of melodrama. Night's Dream In the inexplicable whims (ii) the Midsummer to be the work of the and changes of inconstant love seem fairies, sporting, not malevolently, with human weakness, Antonio and Bassanio are pale shadows of men (iii) compared with this gaunt, tragic figure,whose love of his race is as deep as life. " He the crowd at the Coronation ceremony, (iv) stands among by the side of Justice Shallow, whom he has cheated of duped with promises of Royal favour, and despised ; money, he listens to the severe judgment of the King, and when it is ended, watches the retreating procession.
"

EXAMINATION
(v) Shakespeare

PAPERS

393

plainly admires Henry V., and feels towards him none of that resentment which the spectacle of robust energy and easy success produces in weaker tempers, Coriolanus has to choose between the pride of his country (vi) the closest of human and affections, W (vii)hy, it is often asked, did not Cordelia humour her father a ? little It has often been said that Shakespeare dislikes and distrusts (viii)

In (ix)

crowds, the plays of Shakespeare's closing years there is a pervading to bear witness to sense of quiet and happiness which seems a change in the mind of their author.

POETRY Mention instances from English literature of (i)he tale in verse ; t (a) the the poem describing rural the ode ; (iii) reflectivepoem ; (iv) (ii) life. (b)Describe in detail one poem in your list.

5. ENGLISH

NOVELS. 6. HISTORIC historic novels by Scott, Thackeray, and Kingsley, and Name (a) indicate the periods they describe. (b)Write an account of some striking scene or adventure in one oi

these books.

JANUARY
PART I
:

1912.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.

Choose

one
1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

: of the following subjects A week at a seaside resort. The place of pomp and ceremony in modern Stories of adventure at sea. Strikes and how to deal with them. The future of locomotion. The smaller nations of Europe. The Stuart dynasty. The wild flowers of Great Britain.
"

life.

PART

II. questions
are

[FOUR
i.

only

Six of the following

to be

attempted.']

RENDERING. MODERN PUNCTUATION: (a)Compose a passage of eight or ten lines to show your acquaintance Comma, semi-colon, colon, full with the use of the following stops : inverted commas. stop, notes of exclamation and interrogation, from Flono s (b)Give a modern rendering of the following passage translation of Montaigne's Essays : this The very children are acquainted with the story of Croesus to to die, by him condemned purpose : who being taken by Cyrus, and
"

394

HIGHER

ENGLISH

upon the point of his execution cried out aloud : Oh Solon, Solon ! which words of his, being reported to Cyrus, who inquiring what he by them, told him, he now cost verified the advertiseat his own meant ment Solon had before times given him : which was, that no man, fortune showed soever cheerful and blandishing countenance what time as he have passed them, may rightly deem himself happy, till such the last day of his life,by reason of the uncertainty and vicissitude things, which by a very light motive, and slight occasion, of human from one to another clean contrary state and degree." are often changed And therefore Agesilaus answered one that counted the King of Persia happy, because being very young, he had gotten the garland of so mighty and great a dominion : yea but said he, Priam at the same age was not unhappy.
"

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. Write out the subordinate clauses in the following passages, (a) name their kind, and point out the relation of each to the sentence on which it depends :
2.
"

(i)And

then he thinks he knows The Hills where his liferose And the Sea where it goes.
know not where his islands lift Their fronded palms in air.

I (ii)

Where (iii)

Claribel low lieth The breezes pause and die.

matters
man's

(iv)What
A true

cross

where may

stand ?

(v) And

that's your Venus, whence we turn To yonder girlthat fords the burn. into
was

(6)Condense the following statements introducing all the facts given : He is now He gone to his finalreward. These honours were dear to especially They were reasons. gratefully bestowed him to the interests of that school. He school. His whole lifehas been dedicated
"

one

complex

sentence,

fullof years and honours. his heart for the following by his pupils. They bound had been educated in that to its service.

?. ")

SYNTAX. Examine
:
"

the syntax

of the italicised words

in the following

sentences

(i) And sudden paleusurps her cheeks, Death grinned horribly a ghastly smile. (ii) Now this, though it make the unskilful laugh, (iii) make the judicious grieve. (iv)Never harm, nor spell,nor charm
Come
our

cannot

but

lovely lady nigh.

EXAMINATION
(v) Then

PAPERS

395

impatient,mpose,warn. i confide,
4. ENGLISH

the good king gave orders to letblow His horns for hunting on the morrow morn. (b)Construct sentences showing the prepositions used after anxious,

POETRY. (a)Explain fully the meaning of the words and phrases in the following stanza from Campbell's Ode to Winter : *But howling winter fled afar To hillsthat prop the polarstar ; And loves on deer-borne car to ride With barren darkness at his side, *Round the shore where loud Lofoden Whirls to death the roaring whale, Round the hall where Runic Odin Howls his war song to the gale Save when adown the ravaged globe He travels on his native storm, Deflowering Nature's grassy robe And trampling on her faded form ; Till light's returning Lord assume * The that drives him to his northern field, shaft Of power to pierce his raven plume * 'd And crystal-cover shield. lines marked with an asterisk in the above. (6)Scan the
"
"

italicised

5. SHAKESPEARE. Select one of the most generally read plays of Shakespeare, and by considering its plot, characterisation and other features, find reasons for its popularity.
6. MODERN FICTION.
novel, dealing with contemporary society, by Dickens, Bronte or George Eliot, and write an account Charlotte

Choose

one

Jane Austen, of it.

JUNE
PAPER

1912.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAYS.

Choose one of the following (i)National heroes.

: subjects
"

52)

A visit to the theatre. 3) Does the cause of peace progress ? 4) The English in Ireland. (5)The future of India. (6)The politicaldivisions of Africa. (7)The utility of chemistry in modern life. (8)Imagine that you have to address a meeting in support of tht Memorial Theatre. for establishing a Shakespeare scheme think appropriate to the occasion Compose a speech which you

396

HIGHER
PAPER

ENGLISH
II.

[Answer FOUR
If more will be
1.

than FOUR of the following six questions. and not more four questions are attempted, only the first four answers than

marked.]
a

PRECIS.
titlefor the following passage. clearly the substance of it in about
a

(a)Supply (b)Express

third of its present

length. Climate influences labour not only by enervating the labourer or by invigorating him, but also by the effect it produces on the regularity of his habits. Thus we find that no people living in a very northern latitude have ever possessed that steady and unflinching industry for In the which the inhabitants of temperate regions are remarkable. more the severity of the weather, and, at some northern countries the deficiency of light, render it impossible for the people to seasons, The result is that continue their usual out-of-door employments. from their ordinary purbeing compelled to cease the working classes, suits, are rendered more prone to desultory habits, the chain of their broken, and they lose that impetus which longindustry is, as it were, failsto give. Hence there continued and uninterrupted practice never fitfuland capricious than that posarises a national character more sessed by a people whose climate permits the regular exercise of their ordinary industry. Indeed, so powerful is this principle that we perceive its operations even under the most opposite circumstances. It would be difficultto conceive a greater difference in government, laws, religion, and manners, than that which distinguishes Sweden Norway, on the one hand, from Spain and Portugal on the other. and In all of But these four countries have one great point in common. industry is impracticable. In the two them continued agricultural southern countries labour is interrupted by the dryness of the weather and by the consequent state of the soil. In the two northern countries the same ness effectis produced by the severity of the winter and the shortThe consequence is that these four nations, though of the days. for a certain instability so differentin other respects, are allremarkable fickleness of character. and
2.

MEANING
:

(a)Discuss
synonyms

PHRASES. AND meaning of the words in the following group of honest, honourable, equitable, impartial, scrupulous, upright,
OF

WORDS

the

incorruptible. (b)Construct fivesentences, each containing one of the following : sapient, adjectives inimitable, nonchalant, palpable, rejractory,
stringent,superficial. (c)Explain any four of the following figurative expressions: Scylla and Charybdis darkness to be between Egyptian votaries to write Johnsonese. Terpsichore a Quixotic act of
" " " "

3. ANALYSIS: (a)Construct clauses

:
"

SYNTAX. three complex

sentences

consisting of the following

of

Clause

(i)Principal Sentence, as object.

Adverbial

Clause

Condition,

Noun

EXAMINATION
Principal (ii) Clause.
Sentence,

PAPERS
Clause of Concession,

397
Adjectival

Adverbial
Noun

Clause in apposition to the subject, Adverbial Clause of Cause, Adjectival Clause. (b)Give one or more examples of the use of any five the following of
constructions : (1)A collective noun with a plural verb. (2)A transitive verb with a double object. in (3)The subjunctive a principal sentence. The infinitivedependent on an (4) adjective. (5)The nominative absolute used with a present participle. (6)A gerund governing an object. (7)An adverb modifying a preposition.
"

S Principalentence, (iii)

DICTION. prose version of the following : Oh ! knew he but his happiness, of men The happiest he ! who far from public rage Deep in the vale, with a choice few retired, Drinks the pure pleasures of the rural life. Sure peace is his ; a solid life, estranged To disappointment and fallacious hope Rich in content, in Nature's bounty rich, In herbs and fruits ; whatever greens the spring heaven descends in showers or bends the bough, When When summer beams, reddens and when autumn Or in the wintry glebe whatever lies Concealed and fattens with the richest sap : These are not wanting ; nor the milky drove, Luxuriant spread o'er all the lowing vale ; Nor bleating mountains ; nor the chide of streams And hum of bees, inviting sleep sincere Into the guiltlessbreast beneath the shade. of the ways in which (b)From the above passage illustrate some diction of poetry differsfrom that of prose. the
:

4. PARAPHRASE

POETIC

(a)Write

"

"

"

POETRY. 5. ENGLISH by one Write an account of the following of one important poem Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, or Milton, Pope, Wordsworth, authors : its outstanding characteristics. Scott, and indicate NOVELS. 6. HISTORICAL Mention historical novels dealing with events in ancient history before 1660, and describe the experiences of some character to be found in one of them.

or

modern important

398

HIGHER
SEPTEMBER
PAPER

ENGLISH
1912.
FOR

SUBJECTS
"

ESSAY.

Choose

one

: of the following subjects Safety at sea. 2. The scientificresults of exploration. East is East and West is West." 3. 4. Great engineers. 5. The poetry of Robert Browning. 6. The sources of historical knowledge. The ideal school. 7. 8. The use and abuse of advertisements. 9. Ordinary cycling compared with motoring. 10. The Industrial Revolution. 1
.

"

PAPER

II.
to be

[FouR only of the following questions are six

i.

attempted."]

AND LETTER- WRITING PRECIS. Write a letter in the third person, declining an invitation to (a) for your non-acceptance. dinner, and giving a reason (b)Express the substance of the following passage clearly in simple language in about a third of its present length : It is proper to inquire by what peculiarities excellence Shakespeare of Nothing can please has gained and kept the favour of his countrymen. and please long, but justrepresentations of general nature. many, be known to few, and therefore few only can Particular manners can how they are copied. Shakespeare's characters are not nearly judge modified by the customs of particular places, by peculiaritiesof studies or professions, or by the accidents of transient fashions and temporary humanity, such opinions ; they are the genuine progeny of common the world will always supply, and observation always find. In the as writings of other poets a character is too often an individual ; in those It will not easily be imagined a species. of Shakespeare it is commonly how much Shakespeare excels but by comparing him with other authors. The theatre, when it is under any other direction, is peopled by such never seen, conversing in a language which was characters as were heard, upon topics which will never never arise in the commerce of Other dramatists can only gain attention by hyperbolical mankind. or excellence or aggravated characters, by fabulous and unexampled depravity ; and he that should form his expectation of human affairs Shakespeare has no heroes ; from their play or tale would be deceived. his scenes are who act and speak as the reader occupied only by men occathinks that he should himself have spoken or acted on the same sion even the agency is supernatural, the dialogue is level : where that his drama with life. This therefore is the praise of Shakespeare his imagination in following is a mirror of life; he who has mazed here be the phantoms which other writers raise up before him may cured of his delirious ecstasies by reading human sentiments in human from which a hermit may estimate the transactions language, by scenes
"
"

of the world.

"

JOHNSON.

EXAMINATION
2.

PAPERS

399

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. Analyse the following passage into clauses only, showing clearly (a) the nature of each clause, and its relation to the rest of the sentence : If the reader has ever been present in a vast metropolis on the day to his grave, and when some great national idol was carried in pomp has felt powerfully, in the silence and desertion of the streets, the deep interest which at that moment held the heart of man, if all at once he should hear the death-like stillness broken up by the sound of wheels that at no moment was rattling away from the scene, he will be aware his sense the complete suspension and pause in ordinary human of concerns so full and when the suspension affecting as at that moment lifeare suddenly resumed. ceases, the goings-on of human and (b)Combine the following detached statements into not more than three complex sentences : I was A tramp suddenly hi Yorkshire. walking on a wild moor
"
"

"

pocket. language

I went on my way. alone pursued me.

a

I thought

put he might

follow.

Bad"

by any six of the single word the idea conveyed following definitions: The friendly reception of guests or strangers, (i) O (ii)ne who takes a leading part in a struggle, With disordered nerves. (iii) A (iv) foot-soldier who marches in advance of an army, A slender turret on a mosque, (v) like a wave. To (vi) move A belief passed on from one generation to another, (vii) Taking advantage of high position to place the members of (viii) family in office, one's Sprung from the people, (ix) A conclusion following from some previous statement. (x) (b)Construct sentences to illustratethe use of the following words : ; boyish, puerile ; fame, notoriety, reputation ; effeminate, womanly assertive, aggressive, presumptuous. (c)Explain the meaning of any three of the following figurative Mecca of all Shakespearians. expressions : Stratford-on-Avon is the I gave him a Roland a Lilliputian pony. on The child was mounted his party. The Machiavellian for his Oliver. He scorned the shibboleths of downfall. character of his policy led to his SPEECH. OF FIGURES EXPLANATION. FOR 4. PASSAGES the meaning of any three of the following Give in your own words (a) : passages, adding any necessary explanatory notes he tillhis field,and, by knowledge can husbandman The simple (i) it with the fit grain, though the its soil, sow has gained of to him : his little deep rocks and central fires are unknown the firmament over of stars, and sails crop hangs under and through whole untracked celestialspaces, between Aries and and he Libra ; nevertheless, it ripens for him in due season, CARLYLE. his barn. gathers it safe into
"

3. VOCABULARY. (a)Express in

"

"

"

"

400
(ii)

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Westward, by south-west, behold much nearer Where on the Mgc"n shore a city stands Built nobly, pure the air and light the soil, Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts And eloquence, native to famous wits, Or hospitable, in her sweet recess, City or suburban, studious walks and shades.

MILTON,
From (iii) firstto last, while the palaces of the other cities of Italy liftedinto sullen fortitudes of rampart, and fringed with were forked battlements for the javelinnd the bow, the sands of a Venice never tower, and her sank under the weight of a war wreathed roof terraces were with Arabian imagery, of golden globes suspended on the leaves of lilies. RUSKIN.
"

(iv)

Telemachus, This is my son, mine own To whom I leave the sceptre and the isle Well-loved of me, discerning to fulfil This labour, by slow prudence to make mild A rugged people, and through soft degrees Subdue them to the useful and the good.
"

(v)

TENNYSON. In the reproof of chance Lies the true proof of men being smooth, : the sea How bauble boats dare sail many shallow Upon her patient breast, making the way With those of nobler bulk ! But let the ruffian Boreas once enrage The gentle Thetis Where's then the saucy boat Whose weak untimbered now sides but even Co-rivalled greatness ? SHAKESPEARE.
"

(b)Explain, with illustrations,what is meant by any three of the irony, personification. following : anti-climax, epigram, euphemism,
"

5. SHAKESPEARE.
in Shakespeare's plays, each illustrating one of (a)Refer to scenes the following : patriotism, fidelity,ambition, courage. (b)Briefly describe one of the plays from which you have quoted.
"

6. PROSE

FICTION.
"

than twelve characters in standard English not more fiction illustrating the following types : a lawyer, a clergyman, a a schoolmaster, a servant, a clerk ; giving in each case the name soldier, of the story in which the character takes part. (b)Describe in detail one of the characters mentioned in your answer
to

(a)Mention

(a).

JANUARY
PAPER I
:

1913.
FOR
"

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.

Choose
1.
2.

one : of the following subjects A visit to a picture-gallery. The town you know best.

EXAMINATION
3. 4. 5. 6.

PAPERS

401

The qualities most essential to a successful colonist. Water as a motive power. The historical personage whom you would most like to have Christmas in the country. 7. The highways of England. 8. The distribution of seeds. 9. The French Revolution of 1789. 10. Greek myths. PAPER

met,

II.

[Answer FOUR, and not more than FOUR, of the following questions. six If more than fourquestions are attempted, only the first fouranswers will be marked.]
PRECIS. (a)Supply a titlefor the following passage. (b)Express clearly the substance of it in about a third of its present length. Before proceeding to take any particular notice of the poetry of Burns, we must apprise our Southern readers that all his best pieces are written in Scotch, and that it is impossible for them to form any judgment of their merits without a pretty long residence adequate To be able to translate the those who stilluse that language. among is but a small part of the knowledge that is necessary. The words idiom of the language must be familiar ; and the whole genius and characters, and habits, and associations of those who speak it. We beg leave, too, in passing, to observe that this Scotch is not to hj considered as a provincial dialect the vehicle only of rustic vulgarity It is the language of a whole country, long an and rude local humour. independent kingdom, and still separate in laws, character, and manners. It is by no means speech peculiar to the vulgar ; but is the common of its most exalted of the whole nation in early life, and with many individuals throughout their whole existence ; and and accomplished laid aside measure if it be true that, in later times, it has been in some by the more and aspiring of the present generation, it is ambitious by them, as the familiar language of their childhood, stillrecollected, even were those who the earliest objects their love aad of and of Add to all this, that it is the language of a great body of veneration. familiar ; and, in parare ticular, poetry, with which almost all Scotchmen tenderness,, a great multitude of songs, written with more of nature, and feeling, than any other lyric compositions that are extant, and we may perhaps be allowed to say that the Scotch is, in reality, a highly poetical language ; and that it is an ignorant, as well as an illiberal which would confound it with the barbarous dialects prejudice, In composing his Scottish poems, therefore, Devon. of Yorkshire and Burns did not make an instinctive and necessary use of the only dialect He wrote in Scotch because the writings he most he could employ. in that language. (From The composed aspired to imitate were Edinburgh Review, 1809.)
1.
" " "

2.

(a)Show
2

ANALYSIS. by examples that the adverbs when noun, adverbial, or adjectivalclauses.

c

and where may

duce intro-

402
(b)Rewrite

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

each of the following complex sentences as a simple : sentence without altering the sense I heard that my sister was When ill I at once (i) started for the three miles away, nearest station, which was some T (ii)his painter, who was very famous, was born in the littlecottage which stands on the right-hand side of the road as you ascend from the village, I driver, that I might earn my living in (iii)wish I were a caravan air and sunshine, while I listened to the birds that sang on the hedges and the brook that babbled by the road, C (iv.)harles Lamb says that the lines which were so much admired by Hazlitt, and were quoted by him in the lectures that he the Surrey Institute, are gave at not to be found in any translation of Dante.

MEANING WORDS OF AND PHRASES. 3. PUNCTUATION (a)Punctuate the following passage : At length however his civility was so far awakened as to inquire of Elizabeth after the health of her family she answered him in the usual way and after a moment's pause added my eldest sister has been in town have you never these three months to see her there happened he never was had but she wished to see she perfectly sensible that whether he would betray any consciousness of what had passed between the Bingleys and Jane and she thought he looked a littleconfused as he answered that he had never been so fortunate as to meet Miss Bennet. (b)Construct sentences to show the difference in meaning between the following words : diffuse, disseminate, instil censure, ; impugn, i ; example,illustration, nstance. revile (c)Explain the meaning of any four of the following phrases : bacchanalian a Spartan fortitude; revels; to boycott neighbour; the forlorn hope ; to rest on one's laurels ; an Indian summer ; a gargantuan appetite.
"

"

DICTION. 4. STYLE AND Point out the most striking characteristics of each of the following passages, stating what you specially admire in each, and the grounds for your admiration. Lo ! where the rosy-bosomed Hours, (a) Fair Venus' train, appear, Disclose the long-expecting flowers, And wake the purple year ! The Attic warbler pours her throat, Responsive to the cuckoo's note, The untaught harmony of Spring : While, whispering pleasure as they fly, Cool Zephyrs thro' the clear blue sky Their gathered fragrance fling.

(b)

Spring, the sweet Spring, is the year's pleasant king ; Then blooms each thing, then maids dance in a ring, Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do sing Cuckoo, jug jug, pu we, to witta woo.

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

403

The fields breathe sweet, the daisies kiss our feet, lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sit, Young In every street these tunes our ears do greet, Cuckoo, jugjug, pu we, to witta woo.

(c)

Now loud and long, rings the woodland The distance takes a lovelier hue, in yonder living blue And drowned The lark becomes a sightless song. Now dance the lights on lawn and lea, The flocks are whiter down the vale, And milkier every milky sail On winding stream or distant sea.

5. SHAKESPEARE. Show by the consideration of one or more of Shakespeare's plays that or the plot depends on some the development weakness marked of in the character of one of the principal personages. strength
6. PROSE AUTHORS. Mention six of the chief prose works (other than fiction) published during the nineteenth century, and state what you know of the contents of one of them. Or, Refer to the works in which six of the following characters (a) occur, of the author : Tony Lumpkin, giving in each case the name Mr Pecksniff, Lady Psyche, Captain Costigan, Robert Moore, Roderick Fairservice. Leigh, Andrew Dhu, Mrs Norris, Mrs Tulliver, Amyas Describe in detail one of these works. (6)

JUNE
PAPER I
:

1913.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.
"

: Write an essay on one of the following subjects 1. Deserts. 2. Social changes caused by railways. constitutes a good play ? 3. What Constantinople. 4. 5. Heroism in everyday life. 6. The poems of Tennyson. Counties. 7. The fascination of the Home in time of war. 8. Women 9. The preventive, as opposed to the curative, treatment

of disease.

PAPER

II.

s [AnswerFOUR, and not more than FOUR, of the followingix questions. four only If more than fourquestions are attempted, the first answers be will marked."]
i. PRECIS. Express the substance of the following passage clearly in about is third of its present length (which 400 words). a

404

HIGHER

ENGLISH

On the doctrine that the excellence of a composition may be tested by the fact that it is capable easy translation. of

language is justlike another, that This doctrine assumes that one language has all the ideas, turns of thought, delicacies of expressio every figures, associations, points of view, which every other language has. Now, as regards Science, it is true that all languages in this are pretty much alike for the purposes of Science ; but even more are than others, which have to coin words, some suitable respect ideas. But iflanguages or to borrow them, in order to express scientific for those universal to furnish symbols even are not all equally adapted how can they reasonably be expected truths in which Science consists, to be all equally rich, equally forcible, eqrally musical, equally exact, equally happy in expressing the idiosyncratic peculiarities of thought of some original and fertile mind, who has availed himself of one of it, partly them ? A great author takes his native language, masters throws himself into it, partly moulds and adapts it, and pours out his multitude of ideas through the variously ramified and delicately Does minute channels of expression which he has found or framed. forthwith it follow that his personal presence (asit may be called) can be transferred to every other language under the sun ? Then may we reasonably maintain that Beethoven's music is not really beautiful, because it cannot be played on the hurdy-gurdy. According to this doctrine, it seems that a really great author must admit of translation, and that we have a test of his excellence when Then he reads to advantage in a foreignlanguage as well as in his own. be translated into German, Shakespeare is a genius because he can Then and not a genius because he cannot be translated into French.
the multiplication-table is the most gifted of all compositions, because hardly be said to belong to it loses nothing by translation, and can It might, on the contrary, be held that language whatever. one any in proportion as ideas are novel and recondite, they would be difficult to put into words, and that the very fact of their having insinuated themselves into one language would diminish the chance of that happy In the language of savages you accident being repeated in another. idea or act of the intellect at all : is the tongue hardly express any can of the genius of Plato, Dante, of the Hottentot to be made the measure
or

Cervantes ?

J. H.
2.

NEWMAN

Literature.

ANALYSIS

AND

REPORTED

SPEECH.

clauses in the following out the principal and dependent the nature of each of the dependent clauses and their passage, stating relation to one another : Lo 1 as a careful housewife runs to catch

(a)Write

"

One of her feather'd creatures broke away, Sets down her babe and makes all swift despatch In pursuit of the thing she would have stay, Whilst her neglected child holds her in chase. Cries to catch her whose busy care is bent To follow that which fliesbefore her face, Not prizing her poor infant's discontent ;
"

EXAMINATION

PAPERS
. . .

405

from thee, So runn'st them after that which flies Whilst I, thy babe, chase thee afar behind. SHAKESPEARE : Sonnet cxliii. Turn the following passage into reported speech after a verb of (") saying in the past tense : Mr MAYOR, I thank you, and through you the municipal authorities And as it is the first time in my life of this city, for this welcome. since the present phase of politicshas presented itselfin this country, that I have said anything publicly within a region of country where the institution of slavery stillexists, I will take this occasion to say that I think very much that has existed and still of the ill-feeling exists between the people in the section from which I came and the a misunderstanding of one another. people here, is dependent upon I therefore avail myself of this opportunity to assure you, Mr Mayor, had any other than and all the gentlemen present, that I have never kindly feelings to you. I have not any purpose to withhold from you the benefits of the Constitution that I should not feel myself any of constrained to withhold from my own neighbours ; and I hope that we become better acquainted we shall like each other the more. when I thank you for your kind reception. LINCOLN. From a by PRESIDENT
"
"

speech

3. SYNTAX. (a)Frame sentences to illustrate any five the following grammatical of forms : cognate factitive verb, gerundial infinitive object, used adverbially, distributive adjective, gerund governed by a preposition, in apposition. noun nominative absolute, (")Explain the function of any five the italicised words in the of following sentences : As (i) to the swallowing of the sword, the police ought to interfere to prevent it. One of the pleasantest things in the world is going a journey, (ii) Since firstI saw your face I resolved to honour and renown ye. (iii) let us kiss and part, Since there's no help, come, (iv) but a bright lily grow Have you seen (v) hands have touched it ? Before rude I climbed the roofs at break of day, (vi) me Sun-smitten Alps before lay. low, Abou spoke more (vii) But cheerly still.
"

POETRY. in chronological order the names of the following poets, smith, important poem written by each : Rossetti, Goldone and mention Milton, Byron, Chaucer, Cowper, Coleridge, Dryden, and Spenser. (b)Describe the form and contents of any one poem mentioned in to (a). your answer

4. ENGLISH

(a)Arrange

5. SHAKESPEARE. speare Illustrate by reference to and quotation from the plays of Shakehis frequent use of rustic and vulgar characters to afford comic relief.
6. PROSE Compare

LITERATURE. any novel by

Jane Austen

with any

novel by eitherChar-

406
lotte Bronte
or

HIGHER
George

ENGLISH
into consideration

Eliot, taking

(a)plot, (6)

characterisation,

(c) style.

Or" Choose any two of the following works, and from a consideration of their for reasons style, and other qualities, adduce subject-matter, The Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson : their long-continued popularity Crusoe, The De Coverley Essays, Ivanhoe, The Essays of Elia. SEPTEMBER PAPER Write
1. 2.

1913.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.
"

3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

an : essay on one of the following subjects A steamboat journey. Should idle men be treated as diseased ? Shakespeare's plays : are they better read than acted ? Minor poets of the nineteenth century. Boy scouts. Is a minimum wage possible ? Hospitals. The Renaissance in England

9. Switzerland.

PAPER

II.

[Answer FOUR, and not more than FOUR, of the following questions. six If more than fourquestions are attempted, only the first fouranswers will be marked.]
PRECIS. (a)Supply a title for the following passage. (b)Express clearly the substance of it in about a third of its present length (405 words). In reading the history of that noble efflorescence of charity which marked the firstages of Christianity,it is impossible to avoid reflecting upon the strange destiny that has consigned almost all its authors to of those who took any part in sectarian obscurity, while the names history have become household We hear words among mankind. much of martyrs, who sealed their testimony with blood ; of courageous missionaries, who planted the standard of the Cross among savage nations and in pestilentialclimes ; but we hear littleof that heroism of charity which, with no precedent to guide it, and with every early habit to oppose it, confronted the most loathsome forms of suffering, and, for the first time in the history of humanity, made pain and hideous disease the of reverential affection. In the intellectual objects impossible that these things condition of bygone centuries, it was be appreciated as they deserved. Charity was should practised, indeed, nobly and constantly, but it did not strike the imagination, it did not elicit It was regarded by the masses the homage of mankind. as an department of virtue ; and the noblest entirely subordinate far less admiration than the maceraefforts of philanthropy excited tions of an anchorite or the proselytising zeal of a sectarian. Fabiola, lady who seems to have done more that Roman than any other single
i.

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

407

individual in the erection of the firsthospitals ; St Landry, the great Telemachus himself, are all obscure apostle of charity in France ; even in history. The men names of who organized that vast network hospitals that overspread Europe have passed after the Crusades altogether from recollection. It was not tillthe seventeenth century, habits of thought were when modern widely diffused, that St Vincent de Paul arose furnished an example of a saint who is profoundly and to the splendour that reverence and universally revered, and who owes of his charity. But although it is true that during many centuries the philanthropist was placed upon a far lower level than at present, it is one one not the less true that charity was of the earliest,as it was of the noblest creations of Christianity ; and that, independently of the incalculable mass ercised of suffering it has assuaged, the influence it has exin softening and purifying the character, in restraining the it one of mankind, has made passions, and enlarging the sympathies the most important elements of our civilization. of W. E. H. LECKY.
SYNTAX. AND ANALYSIS Write out in full every clause in the following passage, showing (a) clearly the nature of each, and its relation to the rest of the sentence : Not on the vulgar mass Call'd work," must sentence pass, Things done, that took the eye and had the price ; O'er which, from level stand, The low world laid its hand, Found straightway to its mind, could value in a trice ;
2.
"

"

But all, the world's coarse thumb And finger fail'dto plumb, So pass'd in making up the main account ; All instincts immature, All purposes unsure, That weigh'd not as his work, yet swell'd the

man's

amount. BROWNING.
"

(b)Explain the function of the Infinitivein I never (i) prayed for Dryads, to haunt O to dream, O to awake and wander (ii)

each of the following : the woods again.

There, and with delight to take and render, Through the trance of silence, Quietbreath, They look up with their pale and sunken faces, (iii) And their look is dread to see. For some are born to do great deeds, and live (iv) As some are born to be obscured, and die.
VOCABULARY. SPEECH OF 3. FIGURES (a)State what rhetorical devices are used in the following passage, under their respective headings all the examples of and write down that it contains. each And so the Royalty of France is actually fled ? This precious night, And so they rush the shortest of the year, it flies, and drives 1 the wood there, not too impetuously, through of Bondy : over a Rubicon in their own and France's History.
"

...

"

408
we

HIGHER

ENGLISH

If Great ; though the future is all vague ! If we reach Bouillc? do not reach him ? O Louis ! and this all round thee is the great slumbering earth (and overhead, the great watchful Heaven). All slumbers save Berline.1 Loosenew the multiplex rustle of our Herb-merchant, skirted scarecrow of an with his ass and early greens, But the only creature we toilsomely plodding, seems meet. right his gray, brindled, dawn ; ahead the great North-east sends up evermore from dewy branch, birds here and there, with short deep warble, salute Stars fade out, and Galaxies ; street-lamps of the the coming Sun. The Universe, O my brothers, is flinging wide its portals City of God. for the Leve"e of the Great High Thou, King. poor Louis, farest do, towards Orient lands as nevertheless, mortals oj Hope ; and the Tuileries with its Levees, and France, and the Earth itself,is but a larger kind of dog-hutch occasionally growing rabid. CARLYLE.
.
.

"

notes on the words and phrases in italics. to show the signification of the following verbs : acclaim, applaud, approve ; begin, originate, start ; encourage, incite,

(b)Write Write (c)

explanatory

sentences

inspire.
4. SHAKESPEARE. (a)Refer to plays of Shakespeare in which Romance and Farce interwoven, and suggest reasons for this method of construction. (b)Describe, with illustrative quotations, any character in one the plays to which you have referred.
are

of

POETRY. 5. ENGLISH Contrast the work of any two of the following poets from the point by of of view (a) subject-matter, of style, illustrating your answer (b) means Byron, Spenser, Tennyson, of quotation : Pope, Browning, Shelley, Burns, Milton, Wordsworth, Gray, Thomson.
FICTION. Mention four standard novels the scenes (a) of which are laid wholly or in part in any of the following places : Bath, Ashby, Loch Leven, Inveraray, Tunbridge Wells, Edinburgh, Kensington, Florence, Brussels, Yarmouth, Brighton, Ely, Paris, New York, the Inner Temple, Bloomsbury. (b)Describe any scene from one of the novels you have mentioned.
6. PROSE

JANUARY
PAPER I
:

1914.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.
"

Write

an

essay
1. 2.

on

one

of the following

Japan.

: subjects

Earthquakes. 3. The best books for boys. 4. The minor characters of Shakespeare's plays. as philanthropists. 5. Women 6. The People of Germany. 7. Old ballads. 8. English Kings and their favourites. Comfort is the aim of Science." 9.
"

A travelling carriage.

EXAMINATION
PAPER II.

PAPERS

409

[Answer FOUR, and not more than If more than fourquestions are will be marked.]
1.

FOUR,

six of the following questions. attempted, only the first fouranswers

PRECIS. (a)State concisely the topic of the following passage. (b)Express clearly the substance of it in about a third of its present length (419 words). There is perhaps no point on which good men of all parties are more the necessity of restraining and completely agreed than on punishing corruption in the election of members of Parliament. The evils of corruption are doubtless very great ; but it appears to me that those evils which are attributed to corruption may, be tion with equal justice, attributed to intimidation, and that intimidamonstrous produces also some evils with which corruption cannot In both cases breach a reproached. alike the elector commits trust. In both cases he employs for his own an of alike advantage important power which was to him, that it might be used, confided to the best of his judgment, for the general good of the community. Thus far corruption and intimidation operate in the same manner. But there is this difference betwixt the two systems ; corruption operates by giving pleasure, intimidation by giving pain. To give a five pounds causes no poor man pain ; on the contrary, it produces It is in itselfno bad act ; indeed, if the five pounds were pleasure. it given on another occasion, and without a corrupt object, might But to tell a man that you will reduce pass for a benevolent act. him to a situation in which he will miss his former comforts, and in ruption which his family will be forced to beg their bread, is a cruel act. Corhas a sort of illegitimate relationship to benevolence, and There is a feelings of a cordial and friendly nature. engenders some the distribution of the money of the notion of charity connected with in a corrupt manner. The comic writer the needy, even rich among who tells us that the whole system of corruption is to be considered as a commerce of generosity on one side and of gratitude on the other, has rather exaggerated than misrepresented what really takes place is lavished in many of these English constituent bodies where money to conciliate the favour and obtain the suffrages of the people. But The whole feeling in intimidation the whole process is an odious one. is that of shame, degradation, and hatred on the part of the elector The elector is indeed he has given his vote. of the person to whom if he had no vote at all ; for there is placed in a worse situation than pelled not one of us who would not rather be without a vote than be comhe dislikes above all others. to give it to the person whom From a Speechby LORD MACAULAY.

be

ANALYSIS SYNTAX. AND State the nature of the subordinate clauses in the following (i) passages, and their connection with the principal sentences : There is no vice so simple but assumes (a) Some mark of virtue on his outward parts.
2.
"

410
(b)She The (c)

HIGHER
is not bred question
or
so

ENGLISH
dull but she can learn. whether he would persist in his refusal

was

not.

(d)I shall do it whether you approve or not. (e)Do you know whether he came home last night ? C on the syntax of any five the following : of (ii)omment (a)If you would kindly reply by return, I shall be obliged. to the same (b)We came place as we had passed three hours
"

before.
never veiled his worship of that strong character of whom he admired most of all the spiritual concentration upon action. (d)Society, to which he was introduced, thought that they beheld in him a Johnsonredivivus. is too ridiculous to be offered, no pretext too No excuse (e) slight not to be seized upon, ifit will extenuate the offence (/)Hurrying along, the road dropped suddenly towards the river, about half a mile away. (g)His best essay is on the literature of Germany, especially

(c)He

Goethe.
VOCABULARY. Choose any EXPRESSIONS. FIGURATIVE the following five of
:

appropriate

noun

and adjectives, affix each to an fortuitous, eclectic,sinister, retrograde, sententious,

to illustrate the various meanings
:

potential, olympian,solicitous,
C (ii)ompose blast.
sentences
to each of the following words

attached

humour,

assurance,

d despatch,elicate,

Explain any fourof the following figurative expressions : fame (iii) is his lodestar ; my luck is at its zenith ; worry has sapped his energies ; I blamed him for kow-towing to his employer ; he fell a victim to the fascinations of the siren ; the national treasure had been swallowed by the Hydra of war.
the metre of each of the following passages, and lines marked scan the with an asterisk : Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth (a) *Unseen, both when we wake, and when we sleep. (b)Be full ye courts, be great who will. Search for Peace with all your skill, *Open wide the lofty door, Seek her on the marble floor ; In vain you search, she is not there. When (c) Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, The line too labours, and the words move slow ; Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, * Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main, Explain what is meant by any fourof the following terms, and (ii) refer to two instances of each from English literature: essay, sermon, oration, masque, elegy, pastoral.
4.
"

Determine (i)

5. ENGLISH Mention (i)

POETRY. English poems

which deal with any

fourof

the following

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

411

historical personages and events : Napoleon I.,the Battle of Waterloo, Oliver Cromwell, Lord Nelson, the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, Flodden Field, the Young Pretender, Queen Victoria, the Spanish Armada. S (ii)tate briefly the train of thought pursued in one of the poems have mentioned. you
FICTION. Refer to standard English novelists who have been especially (i) successful in depicting children, and quote instances from their works. Describe in detail two of the characters to which you have (ii)
6. PROSE

referred.

JUNE
PAPER I
:

1914.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.
"

Write an essay on one of the following : subjects (1)Gypsies. (2)The Discovery of America. (3)Market-day in a provincial town. (4)Mexico. (5)The Humour of Dickens as exemplified in any with which you are familiar. (6 Winter Sports. (7 Dreams. (8 Instinct in animals. PAPER II.

two

of his books

[Answer FOUR, and not more than FOUR, of the following questions. six four answers If more than fourquestions are attempted, only the first will be marked."}
i. PRECIS. Express clearly the substance of the following passage in about a time turning it third of its present length (390 words), the same at into indirect narration after a verb of writing in the past tense :
"

The Duke

of Wellington

to H.R.H.

the Prince Regent

ofPortugal.

BRUXELLES, i6th April 1815. Highness will have learned that I signed, on the 25th Your Royal March last, with the Plenipotentiaries of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, a as the Plenipotentiary of His Majesty, treaty of alliance and in of the moment co-operation, applicable to the circumstances Europe, occasioned by the return of Buonaparte to France, and of All the the usurpation of the supreme authority in that country. Europe are invited to accede to that treaty ; and I imagine powers of that the Plenipotentiaries of your Royal Highness consider themselves authorised to accede to it on the part of your Royal Highness. The of object the treaty is to put in operation against Buonaparte the largest force which the contracting or acceding parties can bring into the field: and that upon which I wish to trouble your Royal

412

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Highness is the seat to be chosen for the operation of your Royal Highness' troops. The natural seat for the operations would be the frontiers of Spain, but I am very apprehensive that the financial resources of His Catholic in a situation, to enable him to equip a nature, are nor not of Majesty and maintain an army to co-operate actively with that of your Royal Highness ; and yet, without that co-operation, and the assistance which your Royal Highness would expect to derive from the country, it does Highness' army their that your Royal could carry on not appear their accustomed credit in that quarter. operations with it has appeared to me that it would Under these circumstances Highness' Royal to your be expedient, and I have recommended Lisbon, that your Royal to the Regency Ministers to recommend at Highness' troops should be employed with the allied army assembling in Flanders, and destined to act, under my command, against the common enemy. I need not point out to your Royal Highness' penetration the advantages to your Royal Highness' reputation of appearing in the field in this part of Europe ; and, as your troops cannot serve actively in the here with their seat for their operations, and they will serve natural it appears to me that old companions, and under their old commanders, if only as one of military expediency. is to be recommended, this measure having Highness I trust then, that your Royal will approve of my it to your Ministers and to the Regency. recommended
2.

ANALYSIS

AND

SYNTHESIS.

clauses in the following out the principal and dependent passage, stating the nature of each of the dependent clauses and their relation to one another and to the principal sentence : Here, where precipitate Spring with one light bound

(a)Write

"

Into hot Summer's lusty arms expires. And where go forth at morn, at eve, at night Soft airs that want the lute to play with 'em, And softer sighs that know not what they want, Aside a wall, beneath an orange -tree, Whose tallest flowers could tell the lowlier ones Of sights in Fiesole right up above, While I was gazing a few paces off At what they seemed to show rrffe with their nods, Their frequent whispers, and their pointing shoots, down the garden steps. A gentle maid came into one Combine the following simple sentences complex (b) This is not the least part of our : the sense sentence, without altering happiness. We enjoy the remotest products of the north and south. free from the extremities of the weather. At the same are time we Our eyes are refreshed with the green fields of Britain. At the same time our palates are refreshed with tropical fruits.
"

WRITING VOCABULARY. 3. LETTER Write a letter to your tailor or dressmaker, cancelling an appoint(a) ment for fittingand arranging for another. ing (b)Construct sentences to illustrate the use of any/owrof the followpairs of words : appreciative appreciable ; elusive illusive ;
"
"
"

"

EXAMINATION
dominate
"
" " "

PAPERS
"

413

itinerant itinerary ; domineer ; audible auditory ; primitive. negligible negligent ; primary (e)Explain the meaning of any jourof the following expressions : With this Parthian shot he left me ; I dismissed my Jehu with half a
"

the distaff-side of his family ; there is no more in all Bumbledom Street remains silent; ; Downing official pompous they gained only a Pyrrhic victory.
crown

; he resembles

EXPLANATION. FOR 4. PASSAGES Give, with any necessary comments, the sense only of the of five following passages : (a)Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie, Which we ascribe to Heaven. (6)How small, of all that human hearts endure, ! or cure The part which laws or kings can cause (c)When Learning's triumph o'er her barbarous foes First reared the stage, immortal Shakespeare rose ; lifehe drew, Each change of many-coloured Exhausted then imagined new. worlds, and (d)He would live,like a lamp, to the last wink, And crawl upon the utmost verge of life. This is truth the poet sings, (e) is remembering happier things. crown That a sorrow's of sorrows to the view. (/)'Tis distance lends enchantment (g)Be thou the firsttrue merit to befriend ; His praise is lost, who stays till all commend. To all the sensual world proclaim (h) One crowded hour of glorious life Is worth an age without a name.
"

from any play of 5. (a)Quote not fewer than ten consecutive lines are familiar. Shakespeare with which you (6)Describe the part taken in the play by the speaker of the lines you have quoted. dates of any six of the works 6. (a)Give authors and approximate be taken from Group I. and below, three of which must mentioned three from Group II. : Tales, Lyrical Ballads, Childe Harold, The Canterbury I. The Faerie Queene,Geraint and Enid, The Rape of the Lock. tality, II. Essays of Elia, Vanity Fair, The Pilgrim's Progress, Old MorEssays in Criticism, Gulliver's Travels. describe the contents of any one of these books. (6)Briefly
"

SEPTEMBER
PAPER I
:

1914.
FOR

SUBJECTS

ESSAY
"

: Write an essay on one of the following subjects Personal Influence. (a) (6)Canada. (c) Words change as men change." id) The career of a doctor or lawyer.
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414

HIGHER

ENGLISH

National characteristics. famous in history. Women Should military training be degree ? Ruskin. (h)

necessary

qualification for

versity Uni-

PAPER

II.

six [Answer FOUR, and not more than FOUR, of the following questions. fouranswers only the first If more than four questions are attempted, will be marked.']
i.

PRECIS.
a

title for the following passage. clearly the substance of the following passage in about its present length (450 a third of words): days when England was Sir, there were the hope of freedom. other in the world a high aspiration was Wherever entertained, or a noble to England blow was that the eyes of the oppressed struck, it was You talk to me were of the established tradition and always turned. I appeal to an established tradition older, in regard to Turkey. policy wider, nobler far a tradition not which disregards British interests, but which teaches you to seek the promotion of those interestsin obeying And, sir,what is to be the end the dictates of honour and justice. of this ? Are we to dress up the fantastic ideas which some people entertain about this policy and that policy in the garb of British interests,and then, with a new and base idolatry, falldown and worship to look, not at the sentiment, but at the hard them ? Or are we facts of the case, that it is the populations of those countries that will ultimately determine their abiding condition ? It is to this fact, before the world a glorious this law, that we should look. There is now are A portion of those unhappy an stillas yet making people prize. to retrieve what they have lost so long, but have not ceased to effort love and to desire. I speak of those in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Another portion a band of heroes such as the world has rarely seen Another the five stand on the rocks of Montenegro. portion still, down to the ground, hardly millions of Bulgarians, cowed and beaten have to their Father in Heaven, venturing to look upwards, even their hands to you ; they have sent you their petition,they extended have prayed for your help and protection. They have told you that they do not seek alliance with Russia, or with any foreign power, but that they seek to be delivered from an intolerable burden of woe and That burden of woe the greatest that exists on shame. and shame God's earth was is one that we thought about to united Europe is a load of woe But, sir, the removal remove. and shame of that It is a prize well worth competing for. It is great and noble prize. not yet too late to try and win it. It is not yet too late, I say, to become competitors for that prize : but be assured that whether you to claim for yourselves even mean a single leaf in that immortal chaplet or of renown, which will be the reward of true labour in that cause, own whether you turn your backs upon that cause and upon your duty, I believe, for one, that the knell of Turkish tyranny in these in 1877. GLADSTONE provinces has sounded.

(a)Supply (b)Express

"

"

"

"

"

"

EXAMINATION
2.

PAPERS

415

SPEECH ANALYSIS. AND REPORTED Turn into reported speech (oratio (a) after a verb of saying obliqua) in the past tense : Sir, there were the hope of freedom. other days when England was in the world a high aspiration was Wherever entertained or a noble blow was struck, it was to England that the eyes of the oppressed were You talk to me of the established tradition and policy always turned. I appeal to an established tradition older, wider, in regard to Turkey. far a tradition not which disregards British interests, but nobler which teaches you to seek the promotion of those interests in obeying And, sir,what is to be the end of the dictates of honour and justice. to dress up the fantastic ideas which some this ? Are we people entertain about this policy and that policy in the garb of British interests, and base idolatry, falldown and worship them ? and then, with a new Or are we to look, not at the sentiment, but at the hard facts of the case, that it is the populations of those countries that will ultimately determine their abiding condition ? (6)Write out the principal and dependent clauses in the following passage, stating the nature of each of the dependent clauses, and its relation to the clause on which it depends : They say, the tongues of dying men Enforce attention like deep harmony. Where words are scarce, they are seldom spent in vain, For they breathe truth that breathe their words in pain. He that no more must say is listen'd more, Than they whom youth and ease have taught to glose ; More are men's ends mark'd than their lives before. The setting sun, and music at the close, As the last taste of sweets, is sweetest last, Writ in remembrance more than things long past.
" "

"

3. SYNTAX.

(a)Explain the construction of the words in italicsin any following : The sergeant was allowed two pounds for this task. (i) U (ii)nfortunately he overslept himself. His (iii) chief occupation was thieving. This house is to let after Christmas. (iv) (v)The actress did little else than smile. Thither our path lies ; wind we up the height, (vi)
"

o fivef

the

H (vii)e frowned as he turned to leave. Comment on the syntax of any five the following : (b) of I only heard from him yesterday. (i) The question is one (ii) which no ingenuity has hitherto
"

solved

and probably never will, It (iii) is a well-known fact that Northern and Southern speech differs somewhat. (iv) Quitea panic followed the explosion, (v)Hoping to hear from you soon, believe me yours truly, The poetical character of the action in itself, nd the conduct a (vi) it, was the first consideration, of I (vii)t is his intention to finally reply to the inquiry next week.

416
4. METRE.

HIGHER

ENGLISH
"

(a)Determine (i)

"

the metre of the following passages : ! revenge ' the Saxons cried ; Revenge The Gaels' exulting shout replied.

But ere they closed in desperate fight, a knight, Bloody with spurring came * his horse, and, from a crag, Sprung from 'twixt the hosts a milk-white flag. Waved fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, Now (ii) *And all the air a solemn stillness holds, Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. *The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, (iii) The furrow followed free ; *We were the firstthat ever burst Into that silent sea. Cannon to right of them, (iv) to left of them, Cannon Cannon in front of them * Volleyed and thundered. Scan the lines marked above with an asterisk,and show how the (b) is reflected by the versificationand the sound of the vowels and sense consonants used.

5. ENGLISH (a)Mention
with the name (b)Write
a

POETRY.
any six narrative poems written of the author and the approximate descriptive and critical account of

in English, together date of each. one poem in your list.

FICTION. PROSE 6. ENGLISH Mention the books (together of the writers and with the names (a) in which any four of the following characters the approximate dates) Dalgetty, Jeanie appear : Dr Primrose, Elizabeth Bennet, Dugald Esmond, Deans, Mark Tapley, Harold Skimpole, Beatrix Major Dobbin, Everdene. Tom Tulliver, John Ridd, Mrs Proudie, Bathsheba (b)Write a short appreciation of any two of the characters.
"

JANUARY
PAPER Write
an

1915.
FOR

I:

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.
"

essay
"

on

one

of the following

: subjects

(a)Belgium. learning is a dangerous thing." (b) A little The uses of wireless telegraphy. (c) (d)A farmer's life. (e)Mediaeval England. (J) Bees. (g) All empire is no more than power in trust. (h)Great painters. (*) Robert Louis Stevenson.
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EXAMINATION
PAPER

PAPERS
II.

417

[Answer FOUR, and not more than FOUR, of the following questions. six If more than Jourquestions are attempted, the first fouranswers only will be marked.]
PRECIS. (a)Supply a titlefor the following passage. (b)Express the substance of it in clear modern style in about a third of its present length (450 words): They who allow no war at all to be lawful have consulted both nature better than they who think it may be entered into and religion much to comply with the ambition, covetousness, or revenge of the greatest : as if God had only inhibited single princes and monarchs upon earth left mankind to be massacred murders, and according to the humour men, and appetite of unjust and unreasonable of what degree or quality And truly, they who are the cause soever. and authors of any war that can justly to fear that and safely be avoided, have great reason they shall be accountable before the Supreme Judge for all the rapine and devastation, all the ruin and damage, as well as the blood, that is the consequence of that war. War is a licence to kill and slay all that inhabit that land, which is therefore called the enemy's because he who makes the war hath a mind to possess it ; and must there not be cancelled and abolished, many of the laws of God, as well as of man, before a man honestly execute or take such a licence ? What have can the poor inhabitants of that land done that they must be destroyed for cultivating their own born ? land, in the country where they were and can any king believe that the names of those are left out of the done to them shall records of God's creation, and that the injuries is a depopulation, defaces all that art and not be considered ? War industry hath produced, destroys all plantations, burns churches and palaces, and mingles them in the same ashes with the cottages of the the labourer ; it distinguishes not of age, or sex, or dignity, peasant and but exposes all things and persons, sacred and profane, to the same and confusion ; and reduces all that blessed order and contempt harmony, which hath been the product of peace and religion into the firstin ; as if it would contend with the Almighty in unchaos it was creating what He so wonderfully created, and since polished. And is it not a most detestable thing to open a gap to let this wild boar enter tion into the gardens of the Christians, and make all this havoc and devastain countries planted and watered by the equal Redeemer of to the complaints of the meanest ears are person mankind, whose open to say that this universal suffering, who is oppressed ? It is no answer desolation that attends it,are the inevitable consequences even the and however entered into, but rather an and events of war, warrantably be warrantably can entered into, that may argument, that no war produce such intolerable mischiefs. HYDE, EARL OF CLARENDON EDWARD
1.
"

ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS. AND Write out the principal and dependent clauses in the following (a) their passage, stating the nature of each of the dependent clauses and : relation to one another and to the principal sentence
2.
"

418

HIGHER

ENGLISH

Not once or twice in our fair island-story, The path of duty was the way to glory : He, that ever following her commands, On with toil of heart and knees and hands, Thro' the long gorge to the far light has won His path upward, and prevail'd, Shall find the toppling crags of Duty scaled
Are close upon the shining table -lands To which our God himself is moon and sun. Combine each of the two following collections of simple sentences (b) into a complex sentence, without altering the sense : The envoy came to the Greek camp. The envoy delivered to (i) Jason the following message. The King of Troy was astonished. The name of the King was Laomedon. Jasonhad landed in his country without his permission. The envoy ordered Jasonto sailaway at once, (ii) asonturned to his followers. Jason J explained to his followers to the envoy to the following theKing. the commands of Jasonreplied the inhospitable reception of the effect. The Greeks will remember King, This reception was quite undeserved, for the following reasons. The Greeks never intended to injure his country. The Greeks had not hands upon any of his laid violent
"

subjects.

FIGURES OF SPEECH. AND 3. VOCABULARY (a)Construct sentences to show the meaning of any four of the following pairs of words : Punctual disport ; incredulous incredible ; punctilious ; deport averse ; ; official officious sentient childlike; adverse childish ; principal principle. sententious (6)Explain the meaning of any three of the following expressions : He will never fire; That is a Utopian scheme ; on set the Thames It is a case of Hobson's choice ; He is trying to out-Herod Herod ; He has proved himself to be an admirable Crichton ; There is need for much spadework. (c)Explain, with illustrative sentences, what is meant by any three of the following : innuendo, metonymy, litotes, antithesis, euphemism.
"
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

EXPLANATION. FOR Give, with any necessary comments, the sense of any following passages : There is a tide in the affairsof men (a) Which taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; Omitted, all the voyages of their life Is bound in shallows and in miseries. There is some (b) soul of goodness in things evil, Would men observingly distilit out. There still (c) remains to mortify a wit The many-headed monster of the pit. Some to the fascination of a name (d) Surrender judgment hoodwink'd. For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, (t) This pleasing anxious being e'er resigned. Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing lingering look behind ?
"

4. PASSAGES

five of

the

EXAMINATION
(/)
(g)

PAPERS

419

(h)

I warmed both hands before the fireof life; It sinks, and I am ready to depart, 'Tis all a Chequer-board of Nights and Days Where Destiny with Men for Pieces plays ; Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays. And one by one back in the Closet lays, Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting : The soul that rises with us, our life'sstar, Hath had elsewhere its setting And cometh from afar.

READING. 5. GENERAL dates of any six of the Mention the writers and approximate (a) : following works Absalom and Achitophel, The Vicar of Wakefield, The School for The Lady of the Lake, The Heart of Scandal, Pride and Prejudice, The Passing of Arthur, The Midlothian, The Lays of Ancient Rome, The Last Days of Pompeii, Heroes and Hero- Worship, Newcomes, Sesame and Lilies. (b)Describe the contents of any one of the above works.
"

6. LYRICAL

(a)What
literature I

are

POETRY. the chief forms

of lyrical poetry

found

in English

out about metrical structure.

(b)Write

twelve lines from

any lyric and

explain their

JUNE
PAPER

1915.
FOR

I:

SUBJECTS

ESSAY.
"

Write

an

: essay on one of the following subjects Militarism. a) 6) Consistency is the virtue of fools." c) Turkey as a European power d) English business methods. e) Sir Walter Scott. (J) Prehistoric Times. The wonders of plant life. h) The ideals of a teacher. " " i) An author isnot to write allhe can, but only allhe ought.
"

(/)

PAPER

II.

six [Answer FOUR, and not more than FOUR of the following questions. fouranswers only the first If more than four questions are attempted, will be marked.]
PRECIS. Express the substance of the following passage in clear style in about a third of its present length (450 words): I say be assigned to a University course, If then a practical end must Its art is the art of it is that of training good members of society. It neither confines life, and its end is fitness for the world. social hand, nor creates heroes one its views to particular professions on the
i.
"

420
or

HIGHER

ENGLISH

indeed of genius fall under inspires genius on the other. Works heroic minds come no rule ; a University is not a art : under immortal birthplace of poets or of authors, of founders of schools, leaders of colonies, or conquerors of nations. It does not promise a generation of Aristotles or Newtons, of Napoleons or Washingtons, of Raphaels or Shakespeares, though such miracles of nature it has before now contained within its precincts. Nor is it content on the other hand with forming the critic or the experimentalist, the economist or the engineer, though such too it includes within its scope. But a to a great but ordinary University training is the great ordinary means it aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating end ; the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to popular aspiration. It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own a opinions and judgments, truth in developing them, an eloquence in It teaches him to see expressing them and a force in urging them. things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical, and to discard what is irrelevant.
no

It prepares him to fill any post with credit, and to master any subject facility. It shows him how to accommodate himself to others, with how to throw himself into their state of mind, how to bring before them how to influence them, how to come his own, to an understanding with how to bear with them. He is at home in any society, he has them, common ground with every class ; he knows when to speak and when he is able to listen ; he is a pleasant to be silent; he is able to converse, and a comrade companion you can depend upon ; he knows when to be serious and when to trifle,and he has a sure tact which enables him to triflewith gracefulness and to be serious with effect. The art all this, is in the object which tends to make a man which it pursues it is less or the art of health, though as useful as the art of wealth less tangible, less certain, less complete in its susceptible of method, and J. H. NEWMAN. result.

SYNTAX. ANALYSIS AND (a)Write out the principal and dependent clauses in the following passage, stating the nature of the dependent clauses and the relation of each to the clause on which it depends : But, after all, is doomed Is aught so certain as that man To breathe beneath a vault of ignorance ? The natural roof of that dark house in which be known His soul is pent 1 How little can how far we err This is the wise man's sigh ; This is the good man's not infrequent pang ! And they perhaps err least,the lowly class Whom a benign necessity compels To follow reason's least ambitious course ; Such do I mean, who, unperplexed by doubt, And unincited by a wish to look Into high further than they may, objects Pace to and fro, from morn tilleventide, The narrow daily toil avenue of For daily bread.
2.
" "
"

EXAMINATION
(b)Explain
the function of any
:
"

PAPERS
five of
the italicized words
or

421
phrases

in their respective sentences

on this occasion. Whether it is worth knowing is another question, (iv) (v)The nation was waiting for more men to be enrolled. Now, good digestion wait on appetite (vi) And health on both, Granted that the trick were successful, what would be gained (vii) by it ? He directlyhe crossed the bridge. (viii) turned homewards

All (i) night IJag they could hear the engine whistling, E (ii)ven the greatest of poets sometimes nods, Cedric was surprised at his ward (iii) appearingin public

3. LETTER

WRITING

ACCENT

LITERARY

STYLE.

(a)Write a formal letter declining an invitation to dinner. (b)Show where the main accent fallsin each of the following words, and write /our sentences to illustrate the use of any Jour of them :
"

quandary, replica, exoteric, chagrin, pariah, circuitous. (c)Point out the devices which enter into the style of any Jour of the following passages : Life is, at the greatest and the best, but like a froHuman (i) Child, that must be Play'd with and Humor'd a ward littleto keep it quiet till falls asleep, and then the Care it is over, Take then my tears (with that he wiped his eyes), (ii) 'Tis all the aid my present power supplies, The of doves in immemorial (iii) moan elms, bees. And murmuring of innumerable We (iv) got through a matter of ten acres ere the sun between the wheaten shocks broke his light on plumes, then hung his red cloak on the clouds and fellinto a grey slumber, (v)I never knew any man who could not bear another's misfortunes like a Christian, perfectly Sceptre and crown (vi) Must tumble down, And in the dust be equal made With the poor crooked scythe and spade, By (vii) Heavens, methinks it were an easy leap To pluck bright honour from the pale-faced moon.
"

acumen,

RENDERING. Re-write the following passage in modern style and diction : My lord's accustomed enemies in the court about the King had now doubt than they had before his fall,and considering lord in more my the continual favour that the King bare him, thought that at length the King might call him home again ; and if he so did, they supposed that he would rather imagine against them than to remit or forget Wherefore imagined against him. their cruelty, which they most unjustly in their heads that they would either by some they compassed dispatch him by some means sinister accusation of treason or to bring This was their King's indignation by some him into the other ways. having as many daily imagination and study, spials.and as many eyes
4. MODERN
"

422
to attend upon

HIGHER

ENGLISH

his doings as the poets feigned Argus to have, so that he could neither work nor do anything but that his enemies had knowledge thereof shortly after. Now at the last, they espied a time wherein to bring their purpose to pass, thinking therethey caught an occasion by closed disto have of him a great advantage ; for the matter being once as they purposed, they unto the King, in such a vehemency thought the King would be moved against him with great displeasure. And that by them executed and done, the King, upon the information, thought it good that he should come up to stand for his trial ; which he was they liked nothing at all, notwithstanding sent for after this They devised that he should come arrest in ward, which sort. up upon to they knew would so sore grieve him that he might be the weaker into the King's presence tc make answer. come CAVENDISH'S Wolsey. Life

oj

POETRY. 5. ENGLISH of a comedy, a ballad, an epic, an elegy, an ode (a)Give the names and a satire included amongst English poetry. (b)Describe one of the works in your list,adding, if possible, some illustrativequotations. PROSE FICTION. 6. ENGLISH What English novelists have been especially successful in then(a) treatment of humble life? life in their stories and write Refer to characters from humble (b) one the characters you mention. an account of of

JOINT MATRICULATION
SCHOOL
CERTIFICATE
AND

BOARD
EXAMINATION,

MATRICULATION
1921.

JULY
ENGLISH
1.

LITERATURE

(ESSAY PAPER).
"

: Write an Essay on one of the following subjects (a)Life on the sea. (b)How a great man moulded events and was moulded by them. (c)Illustrations of the ways by which the past is made to live in fiction. The shop window as an educator in art. (d) ')The connection between trade and the beginnings of empire. " " in the school of the world. r) Playing the game
'

PRECIS.

Having

statements

the followingassage, p noting the most important is UNESSENTIAL, WHAT write out a clear, and REJECTING and logically connected version occupying about one-third simple, MERE REPRODUCTION OF of the length of the original. AVOID read carefully
WORDS AND

SENTENCES.
"

I do not speak of the bad ones The good book of the hour, then is simply the useful or pleasant talk of some you cannot person whom
2.
"

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

423

Very useful often, telling with, printed for you. otherwise converse to know ; very pleasant often, as a sensible friend's you what you need be. These bright accounts present talk would of travels ; gooddiscussions of questions ; lively or pathetic humoured and witty story-telling in the form of novel ; firm fact-telling by the real agents concerned in the events of passing history ; all these books of the hour, as us more a multiplying among education becomes general, are the present age ; we ought to be entirely thankful peculiar possession of for them, and entirely ashamed of ourselves if we make no good use of But we make the worst possible use if we allow them to usurp them. the place of true books ; for, strictly speaking, they are not books at letters or newspapers in good print. Our friend's all, but merely letter may be delightful, or necessary, to-day ; whether worth keeping The newspaper may be entirely proper at or not, is to be considered. breakfast time, but assuredly it is not reading for all day. So, though bound up in a volume, the long letter which gives you so pleasant an account of the inns, and roads, and weather, last year at such a or story, or gives you the real which tells you that amusing place, events, however valuable for occasional circumstances of such and such " book " at all,nor, reference, may not be, in the real sense of the word, a in the real sense, to be read.
"

MATRICULATION
ENGLISH
i.

EXAMINATION, CERTIFICATE SEPTEMBER 1921.

LITERATURE

(ESSAY PAPER).
"

: Write an Essay on one of the following subjects illustratedby a walk through a city. (a)Municipal government (b)The influence of tradition, as exemplified in a school or some

other social institution. (c)Can a poet affect men's lives by his poetry ? (d)The power of an ideal illustratedby the story of (e)National economy, true and false. (/)Imitation in Nature.
PRECIS.

life.

Having

read carefully

the followingassage, p noting the most

WHAT
is UNESSENTIAL,

important

write out a clear, statements and logically connected version occupying about one-third simple,and MERE REPRODUCTION OF the length of the original. AVOID
REJECTING

of

WORDS

AND

SENTENCES.

is the history of a most excitable mind in an history of Bunyan By most of his biographers he has been treated age of excitement. They have understood in a popular sense all with gross injustice. in a theological those strong terms of self-condemnation which he employed They have, therefore, represented him as an abandoned sense. almost miraculous, or, to use their favourite wretch, reclaimed by means "as Mr Ivimey calls a brand plucked from the burning." metaphor, Surely the wicked Tinker of Elstow. Bunyan him the depraved and to have been too familiar with the bitter accusations Mr Ivimey ought themwhich the most pious people are in the habit of bringing against

The

424

HIGHER

ENGLISH

selves,to understand literallyall the strong expressions which are to be It is quite clear, as Mr Southey most found in the Grace Abounding. He married was a that Bunyan never justly remarks, vicious man. he solemnly declares that he was strictly faithful to very early ; and He owns, his wife. He does not appear to have been a drunkard. boy, he never But a a an indeed, that, when spoke without oath. him of this bad habit for life; and the cure cured single admonition in the army of must have been wrought early ; for at eighteen he was the Parliament ; and, if he had carried the vice of profaneness into that more than an service, he would doubtless have received something from Sergeant Bind-their-kings-in-chains, or Captain Hewadmonition Bell-ringing and playing at hockey Agag-in-pieces-before-the-Lord. Sundays seem to have been the worst vices of this depraved tinker. on It is have passed for virtues with Archbishop They Laud. would a man was that, from a very early age, Bunyan quite clear of strict lifeand of a tender conscience.

UNION

OF

EDUCATIONAL
STAGE,

INSTITUTES
1922.
"

ELEMENTARY
1
"

: Write an essay on one of the following ESSAY. subjects favourite game. (a)Your (b)A garden city. (c)Motor-cars and motor-cycles. (d)A great writer. (e)A steamboat trip. (NOTE. At least one hour should be spent on the essay.)
"

2.

LETTER.
news

him for

Write a letter to a friend in one of the colonies, giving home, telling him that you think of emigrating, and asking of description of lifein the colony.
"
"

3. PARAPHRASE.

Express
THE

in your
OF

own

words
BRIDGE.

the meaning

of the

following

:
"

FALL

THE

Back darted Spurius Lartius ; Herminius darted back ; And, as they passed, beneath their feet They felt the timbers crack. But when they turned their faces, And on the further shore Saw brave Horatius stand alone, They would have crossed once more. But with a crash like thunder Fell every loosened beam, And, like a dam, the mighty wreck Lay right athwart the stream.
Punctuate 4. PUNCTUATION. necessary : Come back jackare you mad all this time spoken one word
" "

the following, adding

shouted amyas followed them

capitals where
had not his foot

but jackwho tillhe caught

EXAMINATION
in

PAPERS

425

a root on which down he went amyas seeing the Spaniards gone did to pursue them but picked up jack not care who staring about cried have I killed nineteen at the least quoth glory be glory be how many
seven

cary and

with

one

back stroke.
"

PREDICATE. Divide each of the following sentences 5. SUBJECT AND into and predicate : subject (a)There goes the postman. (b)Did you not see him ? (c)Go away ! (d)Those boys and girls will have been learning French a year. (e)For three years in succession the boy has gained a prize. (/)Have your friends spoken to the guide ?
"

6. ERRORS.
:
"

"

Re-write

correctly, giving

reasons

for your
on.

corrections

(a)Coming home from the theatre the rain came (b)The man who you saw has gone home. (c)Every boy and girl have brought their books. (d)He neither has nor will go to the opera.

He drove to the inn where he had had dinner in The man was much affected by the sad news.
"

motor-car.

Write in large hand the title of the poem in 7. HANDWRITING. then, in ordinary size, the firsteight lines of the poem. 3, Question and

INTERMEDIATE
1
"

STAGE,

1922.
: subjects
"

Write an essay on one of the following ESSAY. (a)Unemployment. (b)Photography as a hobby. (c)Modern methods of transport. (d)A play of Shakespeare. (e)Your favourite

subject.

PARAPHRASE. following :
2.
"

"

Express

in your

own

words

the meaning

of the

Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, With blossom'd furze unprofitablyay, g There, in his noisy mansion, skill'dto rule, The village master taught his littleschool ; he was, and stern to view ; severe A man I knew him well, and every truant knew ; Well had the boding tremblers learn'd to trace The day's disasters in his morning face ; Full well they laugh'd, with counterfeited glee, for At all his jokes, many a jokehad he ; Full well the busy whisper, circling round, Convey 'd the dismal tidings when he frown'd.

Make up a heading for the following passage, and give 3. PRECIS. than 50 words. the main substance of it in not more Dead Sea. The ground covered by the water sloped I bathed in the
"

426
so

HIGHER

ENGLISH

" " but to walk not only forced to sneak in gradually that I was through the water nearly a quarter of a mile before I could get out of When at last I was my depth. able to attempt to dive, the salts held in solution made my eyes smart so sharply that the pain I thus suffered, joined with the weakness occasioned by want of food, made me giddy faint for some but I soon hand moments, and grew better. I knew beforeimpossibility of sinking in this buoyant water; the but I was surprised to find that I could not swim at my accustomed pace : my legs and feet were lifted so high and dry out of the lake that my stroke was completely baffled, and I found myself kicking against the thin The water air, instead of the dense fluid upon which I was swimming. is perfectly bright and clear ; its taste detestable. After finishing my time in regaining the efforts at swimming and diving, I took some before I began to dress, I found that the sun had already shore ; and, evaporated the water which clung to me, and that my skin was thickly encrusted with salts.

Write out in liststhe Prepositions, Conjunc4. PARTS OF SPEECH. tions, Adverbs in the passage in Question and 3. The same word need than once more as the same not be repeated if it occurs part of speech.
"

Divide up into clauses, stating their kinds and 5. ANALYSIS. to one another : relationship (a)I was surprised to find that I could not swim at my accustomed
"

"

pace. legs and feet were lifted so high that my baffled. (c)Before I began to dress I found that the

(b)My

stroke
sun

was

completely

had

already

evaporated
6. WORD-BUILDING.
"

the water

which

clung to

me.

dark, Adjectives Adverbs from (c)

means Nouns from the of suffixes form (a) from the Nouns holy ; (b)Adjectives gold, day ; Verbs from hard, the Adjectives ; noble, beautiful(d)

By

glory. Explain between the difference in meaning the 7. SYNONYMS. following pairs of words, and make up a sentence for each word, showing its correct use : ; practice council, counsel ; affect effect, ; practise, custom, habit.
"

ADVANCED

STAGE,

1922.
:
"

Write an essay on one of the following 'a)Happiness. 6) The advantages of education. c} The power of public opinion. " d) God made the country, and man
2.

made

the town."

the substance of the following in your own panding words, exfor the purpose of explanation. where necessary, Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them : for they teach not their own use ; but that is a them, and above them, won by observation. wisdom Read without

Express

EXAMINATION

PAPERS

427

not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested ; that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, them by others ; but that would be only in the and extracts made of less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books ; else distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading

maketh

full man,

conference

ready

man,

and writing

an

exact

man.

3. For what purposes are Figures of Speech used ? Explain four of the following figures of speech, and illustrate each by an example : hyperbole, simile, apostrophe, climax. metonymy,

do you understand by the term Idiom " ? Discuss any 4. What do you do ? Jive of the following idiomatic expressions : (a)How The moon He used to do it. (d) bright, (c) He showed the (b) shines for his Oliver. (/) What white feather, (e)He received a Roland is neither here nor there, (g) They drew a red herring across you say He the path, (h) is unlikely to set the Thames on fire.

"

5. Analyse into clauses only, stating their kinds and relations : (a)What thou art we know not ; What is most like thee ? From rainbow clouds there flow not Drops so bright to see, As from thy presence showers a rain of melody. (b)I have often considered these poor souls with an air of great they commiseration when I have heard them asking the first man ? As they lie at news have met with whether there was any stirring they meet, I would earnestly entreat them the mercy of the firstman not to stir out of their chambers tillthey have read this paper.
"

6. Write

your

answer

short account of Style either in prose by quotations and references.

or

in poetry, illustrating

7.

between the following the difference in meaning defect; credible, pairs of words: effect, affect; defection, ; credulous principal,principle. as as Write down remember of : meanings you can many (b) minute, pound, post.

(a)Explain

8. Write a Precis, in about 100 words, of the following passage : And therefore, firstof all,I tell you earnestly and authoritatively (I know I am right in this), must get into the habit of looking intensely you at words, and assuring yourself of their meaning, syllable by syllable, of the opposition nay, letter by letter. For though it is only by reason letters in the function of signs, to sounds in the function of signs, of " literature," and that a man versed that the study of books is called letters instead of a in it is called by the consent of nations, a man of man of books, or of words, you may yet connect with that accidental
"

428
nomenclature
"

HIGHER

ENGLISH

this real fact : that you might read all the books in the British Museum (ifou could live long enough), y and remain an utterly illiterate,"uneducated ; but that if you read ten pages of a person you good book, letter by letter that is to say, with real accuracy in some for evermore The entire measure an are educated person. difference between education and non-education (as regards the merely intellectual part of it)consists in this accuracy. A well-educated know many languages be able to speak may not may not gentleman have read very few books. But whatever may any but his own knows precisely ; whatever word he pronounces, language he knows, he he pronounces rightly ; above all,he is learned in the peerage words ; of knows the words of true descent and ancient blood, at a glance, from marriages, canaille ; remembers all their ancestry, their interwords of modern distant relationships, and the extent to which they were the national noblesse of words admitted, and offices they held, among But an uneducated person may know, time, and in any country. at any languages, and talk them all, and yet truly know not by memory, many An ordinarily clever and a word not a word even of his own. of any be able to make his way ashore at most ports ; yet sensible seaman will for an he has only to speak a sentence of any language to be known turn of expression of a single illiterateperson ; so also the accent or mark a scholar. And this is so strongly felt,so sentence will at once by educated persons, that a false accent or a conclusively admitted is enough, in the Parliament of any civilised nation, mistaken syllable to assign to a man And a certain degree of inferior standing for ever. this is right ; but it is a pity that the accuracy insisted on is not greater, It is right that a false Latin quantity and required to a serious purpose. a smile in the House ; but it is wrong that of Commons should excite frown there. Let the false English meaning a a should not excite be watched accent of words be watched, and closely : let their meaning fewer will do the work. few words well chosen, A more closely still, and and distinguished, will do work that a thousand cannot, when every is acting, equivocally, in the function of another. one
"
" " " "

INDEX
KOTB."
The numbers
refer to pages.

Clearness, of index, vft \ aL figures of speech, 314 ; of composition, 233. Climax, 323.
Coined words, 181. Collectivenouns, 29. Colloquialisms,180. Colon, 159, 160. Comedy, 350. Comma, 158, 159. Commas, inverted, 161. Common gender, 31. Common metre, 344, 345. Common nouns, 29; used
proper,

Cognate object, 44.

as

30.

Common

description object,

of, 242, 243. Comparative degree, 83, 88.

Comparison,

of adjectives, 81-84; of adverbs, 88, 89. Complement, 23, 37, 38, 44. Complete tense, 54. Complex sentences, 119-121. Composition, 203, 204; the sentence, 204-206; the graph, para206-214; reproduction, 219-222 ; expansion, 222, 223; preparations for, 228-234 ; original, 235-260. Compound 94. prepositions, Compound sentences, 109-112. Compound words, 192-194. Conciseness of precis, 293,
"04.

Concord of verb and subject, 57, 137 ; of adjective and 84, 85; of relative noun, and antecedent, 75, 76. Concrete nouns, 28 ; abstract used as, 30, 31. for Concrete subjects essays,
251-256.

Condensation, 213, 278-2801. Conjugation drive, 46-48. of

Conjugations, 58-62.
Conjunction, 17, 18, 100-103. Consonants, 8. Continuative use of relative
74,.75-.

Continuity of precis, 293. Continuous form of tenses, 54. xoo Co-ordinate conjunctions,

Co-ordinatesentence*,

i to.

4*9

430

HIGHER

ENGLISH

INDEX
MASCULINE Material
gender. 31.
nouns,

431

ag ;

no

plurals, 36.

Matriculation papers,
,

371-

May, 50, 65 66. Me, 71, 169. Meaning of words, synonyms, doublets, 189 ; 187-189 ; antonyms, 189; homonyms, 189. 190 ; change in meaning,
100-192.

Mercian,
Metaphor,

4.

Methmks,

190, 315-317. 67.

Metonymy, 321. Metre, 339 345. Middle English,7. 8. Misuse of words. 166, 177. Mixed 50 ; subjunctive, verbs, 59, 60. Modern English, 5, 8. Moods, 49-53.

Multitude,

nouns

of, 29, 138.

Must, 66. My, tnine, 71.

NARRATIVE
84. tiSir, Need, 67.

poetry,

350,

Needs

(adverb),70. 1
183,

Negative, double, 92,

Neither, 77, 102, 138. Neuter gender, 31, 30. New words, 8, 181. No, 91.
Nominative
case,

37.

Normal order, 144-147. Note of exclamation, 161 ; of

interrogation, 161.
Noun, 15, 16; classification, 28 ; abstract, 28 ; common, 29; proper, 19; collective, 29; multitude, 29; material, 29; gender, 31; number, 21 34 ; case, 37 ; equivalent, ; clause, 114, 115. Novel, 337. Number, of nouns, 34-36; of tive pronouns, 71 ; of demonstra85 ; adjectives, of verbs,
56, 57Numerals,
"o.

OBJECT, *3, 43-45case, Objective 37, 38, Objective possessive,39. 40.

Obsolete idioms, 174; verbs, 67 ; words, t8o. 181.

Of, 40.

97.

Officialletters,268, 294-29?. Old English, 3, 4, 7On, 98. One, 76. 79, 80, 139,
77.

432

HIGHER

ENGLISH
39. 50, 51.

Sarcasm, 319, 390. Satire,320, 337, 338, 351. S*V", 96.

Subjectiveossessive, p

VARIETY
XII.

of Kntec-ce,

208

Subjunctive mood,
64.

Scansion, 343, 344. Scope of essay, 249. 250.

Subordinate clause, 110-114. Substitute adverb, 91 ; verb,

Such, 73. Self, 72. Suffixes,193, 194. Semi-auxiliary, 46, 6a. Summary, 273, 280-282. Semi-colon, 159, 160. Semi- proverbial idioms, 168, Superlative, 82 ; double, "4. Synecdoche, 321, 322. 169. Synonyms, 187-189. Sentence, n, 12; complex, Syntax, IT. no, 110-117 ; compound, 117 ; simple, Synthesis, 712, 213 113; elliptical,
12-14, 21-27, 105-109.

Verb, classification,3 ; con4 jugation 58-62 ; concord, 62 \ 57, 58 ; anomalous, plete, auxiliary, 62-66 ; incom45 ; 45, 46 ; intransitive. semi-auxiliary, 46 : mood, 49 ; number, 56, 57 ; 44 ; person, 37
tense
:

Sequence of tenses, 55, 56. Shall and will, 64, 65.

Short

Should

204. 205. Tenses, sequence of, 55, 56. and would, 50, 64, 65. Teutonic, group of languages, Simile,315. 2, 3 ; prefixes and suffixes, Similarform, words of,178,179. "94. Simple sentence, 3*-"7i 12-14, Than, 102, 105-109. That, 73-75, 100, iag. Simplicity,183, i2*. The, 80, 91. Sincerity, 234. There, 91. Slang, 179. To, 98. So, 73, 9"Tragedy, 350. Sonnet, 345. Tragi-comedy, 350. Specialisationof words, 190, Transition in composition,236, 191. 237. Speech, direct and indirect, Transitive verbs, 23, 43-45 ; 197-202. 45. used intransitively, figures of, 314-325. Speech, Trochee, 340. Spelling,8, 9. 231, 232,
sentence.

TABULAR Technical works, 335. Tense, 53-56.

transitive, 43-45 \ 53-56 ; voice,48-49. Verbal noun, 52, 53. Verbosity, 182, 183. analysis, 35, 106. Verse, 340.
Very, 91.

43, objects,

Voice, 48-49. Vowel, 8. Vulgarisms, 179. WEAK What, verbs, 61, 6a.
75. 74-

Will, 64, 65. Would, 50, 64, 65. Wit, 67. With, 98. Without, 96. Wont, 67. Words, foreign, 5-8, iBi, 182

change
192 ;

Standard English, 4.
Stanza, 340. Stops, 156.

Strong verbs, 58-61. Structure of words, 192-154.

i", Subject, si.

UMLAUT, 34. Uniformity of index, 276. Unity of paragraph, 207, 208. Unrhymed poetry, 345. Uses, of adjectives, ; of 79
adverbs, 87 ; of verbs, 43, 62-67; of word*. 177-186.

in meaning, 190 177 misuse, 166, obsolete and archaic, i" forms 181, 347 ; similar 178, 179 ; sling, 179.
and
"*,

YES

"e.

Subject-raatter. 228-431.

Printed in Great by Turnbull""

Britain

Shears, Edinburgh