Conguration Aerodynamics

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics MAE 331, 2008 Conguration variables Longitudinal aerodynamic force and moment coefcients
Effects of conguration variables Angle of Attack Mach number
Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Reference Characteristics

Conguration Variables
Aspect Ratio

Medium to High Aspect Ratio Congurations

Cessna 337 DeLaurier Ornithopter Schweizer 2-32

AR =

b rectangular wing c b " b b2 = = any wing c "b S

Taper Ratio

"=

c tip c root
b 2

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

c= 1 # c 2dy S "b 2 $ 2 ' 1+ * + *2 =& ) c root % 3 ( 1+ *
from Raymer

Typical for subsonic aircraft

Boeing 777-300

Low Aspect Ratio Congurations

A-5A Vigilante

Variable Aspect Ratio Congurations

F-111 B-1

Typical for supersonic aircraft

F-104 Starghter

Aerodynamic efciency at high and low speeds

Reconnaissance Aircraft
U-2 (ER-2) SR-71

Biplane
Compared to monoplane
Structurally stiff (guy wires) Twice the wing area for the same span Lower aspect ratio than a single wing with same area and chord Mutual interference Lower maximum lift Higher drag (interference, wires)

Interference effects of two wings

Gap Aspect ratio Relative areas and spans Stagger

Subsonic, high-altitude ight

Supersonic, high-altitude ight

Longitudinal Aerodynamic Forces and Moment

Non-dimensional force coefcients are dimensionalized by dynamic pressure and reference area Non-dimensional moment coefcients are dimensionalized by dynamic pressure, reference area, and reference length
Typical subsonic lift, drag, and pitching moment variations with angle of attack

Circulation and Lift

Bernoulli!s equation (inviscid, incompressible ow)

Vorticity

1 pstatic + "V 2 = constant along streamline = pstagnation 2

Vupper (x) = V" + #V (x) 2 Vlower (x) = V" $ #V (x) 2

" (x) =
c

#V (x) #z(x)
!

Circulation

"=

$ # (x)dx
0

Lift = CL q S Drag = CD q S Pitching Moment = Cm q Sc

2-D Lift (inviscid, incompressible ow)

Lift = "#V#$ 1 2 = "#V# c (2%& ) 2 + "#V#$camber

[ thin, symmetric airfoil]

!
!

For Small Angles, Lift is Proportional to Angle of Attack

Lift = CL & 1 $C ) 1 1 "V 2 S # (CL0 + L % + "V 2 S , [CL0 + CL% % ] "V 2 S ' *2 2 $% 2 where CL% = lift slope coefficient

Effect of Aspect Ratio on Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

High Aspect Ratio (> 5) Wing

2-D lift slope coefcient: inviscid, incompressible ow, unswept wing (referenced to chord length rather than wing area)

CL" =

2#AR AR + 2

All Aspect Ratios (Helmbold equation)

CL" = 2#
2-D lift slope coefcient: inviscid, incompressible ow, swept wing

CL" =

Low Aspect Ratio (< 2) Wing

CL" =

#AR 2
!

#AR * $ '2 ,1+ 1+ & AR ) / % 2 ( / , + .

CL" = 2# cos $
!

All wings at M = 1

Air Compressibility Effects on Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

Subsonic, 3-D wing, with sweep effect
CL" =

Flow Separation Produces Stall

Decreased lift Increased drag

#AR
, / % (2 .1+ 1+ ' AR * 1+ M 2 cos $ 1 1 4 )1 ' 2cos $ * ( . 14) & 0
!

"1 4 = sweep angle of quarter chord

Supersonic delta (triangular) wing

Supersonic leading edge 4 CL" = M 2 #1
CL" =

Subsonic leading edge

2# 2 cot $ (# + % ) m = cot $ LE cot '

where % = m(0.38 + 2.26m & 0.86m 2 )

!
!
!

" LE = sweep angle of leading edge

Large Angle Variations in Subsonic Lift Coefcient (0 < ! < 90)

Lift = CL
All lift coefcients have at least one ! maximum (stall condition) All lift coefcients are essentially Newtonian at high ! Newtonian ow: TBD

Flap Effects on Aerodynamic Lift

1 "V 2 S 2

Camber modication Trailing-edge ap deection shifts CL up and down Leading-edge ap deection increases stall ! Same effect applies for other control surfaces
Elevator (horizontal tail) Ailerons (wing) Rudder (vertical tail)

Wing-Fuselage Interference Effects

Wing lift induces
Upwash in front of the wing Downwash behind the wing Local angles of attack over canard and tail surface are modied, affecting net lift and pitching moment

Aerodynamic Drag
1 2 1 Drag = CD "V 2 S # CD0 + $CL "V 2 S 2 2

Flow around fuselage induces upwash on the wing, canard, and tail

from Etkin

Parasitic Drag
Parasitic Drag = CD0 1 "V 2 S 2

Reynolds Number, Skin Friction, and Boundary Layer

Reynolds Number = Re = where

"Vl Vl = #

Pressure differential, viscous shear stress, and separation

" = air density V = true airspeed l = characteristic length = absolute (dynamic) viscosity # = kinematic viscosity

Skin friction coefcient

Cf =

Friction Drag q Swet where Swet = wetted area

C f " 1.33Re#1/ 2

[ laminar flow] #2.58 " 0.46(log10 Re) [ turbulent

flow ]

Typical Effect of Reynolds Number on Drag

Flow may stay attached farther at high Re, reducing the drag
from Werle*

Effect of Streamlining on Drag

* See Van Dyke, M., An Album of Fluid Motion, Parabolic Press, Stanford, 1982

Induced Drag
Lift produces downwash (angle proportional to lift) Downwash rotates velocity vector Lift is perpendicular to velocity vector Axial component of lift induces drag
Spitre

Spanwise Lift Distribution of 3-D Wings

Straight Wings (@ 1/4 chord) (McCormick) Straight and Swept Wings (NASA SP-367)

CDi = CLi sin " i # (CL0 + CL" " ) sin " i # (CL0 + CL" " )" i $ %CL 2 $ C (1+ ' ) CL 2 = L &eAR &AR
2
TR = taper ratio, "

where e = Oswald efficiency factor ' = departure from ideal elliptical lift distribution

Wing does not have to have an elliptical planform to have a nearly elliptical lift distribution

Oswald Efciency and Induced Drag Factors

Approximation for e (Pamadi, p. 390)

P-51 Mustang

Graph for # (McCormick, p. 172)

e"

1.1CL# RCL# + (1$ R)%AR

3+

Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

2

where R = 0.0004& AR ' &= cos ( LE $ 0.008& + 0.05& + 0.86

Higher AR

Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 ) Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3,465 kg) Maximum Power = 1,720 hp (1,282 kW ) CDo = 0.0163 AR = 5.83 " = 0.5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustang

CDi =

CL "eAR

CDi =

CL (1+ " ) #AR

!
!
!

P-51 Mustang Example

Drag Due to Pressure Differential

Blunt base pressure drag
CDbase = C pressure base Sbase S " 0.29 Sbase C < 2 $ Sbase ' & ) #M 2 % S (
friction

Swet

( M < 1) [ Hoerner]

( M > 2, # = specific heat ratio)

* $ '2 ,1+ 1+ & AR ) / % 2 ( / , + . e = 0.947 0 = 0.0557 1 = 0.0576

CL" =

#AR

Prandtl factor
CDwave " CDincompressible 1# M 2 CDcompressible M 2 #1 CD M " 2 M 2 #1

= 4.49 per rad (wing only)

( M < 1) ( M > 1) ( M > 1)

CDi = "CL

C (1+ $ ) C 2 = L = L #eAR #AR

" "

Shock Waves in Supersonic Flow

Air Compressibility Effect

Drag Coefcient vs. Mach Number

Critical Mach number
Mach number at which local ow rst becomes sonic Onset of drag-divergence Mcrit ~ 0.7 to 0.85

Drag rises due to pressure increase across a shock wave Subsonic ow

Local airspeed is less than sonic (i.e., speed of sound) everywhere

Transonic ow
Airspeed is less than sonic at some points, greater than sonic elsewhere
Supersonic Transonic Subsonic

M critswept =

M crit unswept cos "

Supersonic ow
Local airspeed is greater than sonic virtually everywhere
Incompressible
Sweep Angle Effect on Wing Drag

Transonic Drag Rise and the Area Rule

Richard Whitcomb (NASA Langley) and Wallace Hayes (Princeton) YF-102A (left) could not break the speed of sound in level ight; F-102A (right) could

Supercritical Wing

Thinner chord sections lead to higher Mcrit Richard Whitcomb!s supercritical airfoil
Wing upper surface attened to increase Mcrit Wing thickness can be restored
Important for structural efciency, fuel storage, etc.

()

(+)

Pressure distribution on Supercritical Airfoil

Large Angle Variations in Subsonic Drag Coefcient (0 < ! < 90)

!

Newtonian Flow
" Mass flow rate % Normal Force = $ '(Change in velocity )( Projected Area)( Angle between plate and velocity ) # Unit area &

No circulation Cookie-cutter ow Equal pressure across bottom of the at plate

N = ( "V )(V )( S sin # )(sin # ) = ( "V 2 )( S sin 2 # ) $1 ' = (2sin 2 # )& "V 2 ) S %2 ( $1 2' * CN & "V )S = CN q S %2 (

All drag coefcients converge to Newtonian-like values at high angle of attack Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing

Lift = N cos"
!

Drag = N sin " CD = 2sin 3 "

CL = (2sin " ) cos "

2

Application of Newtonian Flow

Hypersonic ow (M ~> 5)
Shock wave close to surface (thin shock layer), merging with the boundary layer Flow is ~ parallel to the surface Separated upper surface ow
Space Shuttle in Supersonic Flow

Lift vs. Drag for Large Variation in Angle-of-Attack (0 < ! < 90)
Subsonic Lift-Drag Polar

All Mach numbers at high angle of attack

Separated ow on upper (leeward) surfaces

High-Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle (F-18)

Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing, but less lift as well High-AR wing has the best overall L/D

Lift/Drag vs. Angle of Attack

L/D is an important performance metric for aircraft

Stagger Effect on Biplane CL vs. CD and CL vs. L/D

L CL q S CL = = D CD q S CD

!
NACA TN-70

Low-AR wing has best L/D at intermediate angle of attack

Biplane wing with no stagger has the best L/D

Pitching Moment
Pressure and shear stress differentials times moment arms integrate over the surface to produce a net pitching moment Center of mass establishes the moment arm center

Pitching Moment
Distributed effects can be aggregated to local centers of pressure

Body " Axis Pitching Moment = M B = "

surface

$$ (#p

+ #sz ) xdxdy +

surface

$$ (#p

+ #sx )#px zdydz

!
I I

M B " #$ Z i x1 + $ X i z1 + Interference Effects + Pure Couples

i=1 i=1

Pure Couple
Net force = 0 Net moment " 0
Rockets Cambered Lifting Surface

Net Center of Pressure and Static Margin

Local centers of pressure can be aggregated at a net center of pressure (or neutral point)

x cp net =

[( x

cp

Cn ) wing + ( x cp Cn ) fuselage + ( x cp Cn ) tail + ... CN total

Static margin reects the distance between the center of mass and the net center of pressure

Static Margin = SM =
Fuselage

100( x cm " x cp net ) c

,%

# 100( hcm " hcp net )%

Effect of Static Margin on Pitching Moment

Pitch-Moment Coefcient Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

For small angle of attack and no control deection

For small angle of attack and no control deection

M B = Cm q Sc " (Cm o + Cm# # )q Sc

M B = Cm q Sc " Cm o # CN$ ( hcm # hcp net )$ q Sc " Cm o # CL$ ( hcm # hcp net )$ q Sc & %C ) " (Cm o + m $ +q Sc = (Cm o + Cm$ $ )q Sc ' %$ * = 0 in trimmed (equilibrium) flight
Typically, static margin is positive and ! Cm/! ! is negative for static pitch stability

Cm" # $CN"

net

(h

cm

$ hcp net ) # $CL"

net

(h

cm

% x cm $ x cp wing ( % x cm $ x cp ht ( % lwing ( % lht ( = $CL" wing ' * $ CL" ht ' * = $CL" wing ' * $ CL" ht ' * &c ) c c & c ) & ) & ) = Cm" wing + Cm" ht

% x $ x cp net ( $ hcp net ) = $CL" ' cm * net c & )

referenced to wing area, S

Horizontal Tail Lift Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

Effects of Static Margin and Elevator Deection on Pitching Coefcient

Zero crossing determines trim angle of attack Negative slope required for static stability Slope, ! Cm/! !, varies with static margin Control deection affects Cmo and trim angle of attack
M B = (Cm o + Cm" " + Cm#E #E )q Sc

(C )
L" ht

aircraft

# Vtail & 2 # *+ & # Sht & =% ( %1) (,elas% ( CL" ht $ S' $ VN ' $ *" '

ht

VTail = Airspeed at vertical tail; scrubbing lowers VTail, propeller slipstream increases VTail

$ = Wing downwash angle at the tail %elas = Aeroelastic correction factor

Subsonic Pitching Coefcient vs. Angle of Attack (0 < ! < 90)

Pitch Up and Deep Stall

Possibility of 2 stable equilibrium (trim) points with same control setting

Low ! High !

High-angle trim is called deep stall

Low lift High drag

Large control moment required to regain low-angle trim

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