Point-Mass Dynamics and Aerodynamic Forces

Frames of reference Velocity and momentum Newton!s laws Introduction to Lift, Drag, and Thrust Simplied longitudinal equations of motion

Newtonian Frame of Reference

Newtonian (Inertial) Frame of Reference
Unaccelerated Cartesian frame whose origin is referenced to an inertial (non-moving) frame Right-hand rule Origin can translate at constant linear velocity Frame cannot be rotating with respect to inertial origin

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331, 2008

Position: 3 dimensions What is a non-moving frame?

" x% $ ' r = $ y' $z' # &

Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Translation = Linear motion

Approximations to Inertial Frame of Reference Depend Upon the Application

Velocity and Momentum

Velocity of a particle

"x% "v x % dx $ ' $ ' v= = x = $y' = $v y ' dt $ ' $ ' # z & #v z &
Linear momentum of a particle

"v x % $ ' p = mv = m$v y ' $ ' #v z & where m = mass of particle

Newtons Laws of Motion: Dynamics of a Particle

First Law
If no force acts on a particle, it remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line at constant velocity, as observed in an inertial reference frame -- Momentum is conserved

Equations of Motion for a Point Mass: Position and Velocity

"v x % " x% dr $ ' $ ' = r = $y' = v = $v y ' dt $v z ' $z' # & # &
"v x % "1/m 0 0 %" f x % dv $ ' 1 $ '$ ' ! = v = $v y ' = F = $ 0 1/m 0 '$ f y ' dt m $v z ' $ '# & 0 1/m&$ f z ' # 0 # &

d (mv) = 0 ; mv t1 = mv t2 dt

Second Law
A particle of xed mass acted upon by a force changes velocity with an d dv acceleration proportional to and! the in direction of the force, as observed in an dt ( mv) = m dt = F inertial reference frame; The ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of the particle: F = m a

" fx% $ ' ; F = $ fy' $ fz' # &

Third Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

"1/m 0 0 %" f x % dv 1 1 $ '$ ' = F = I3F = $ 0 1/m 0 '$ f y ' dt m m $ 0 1/m'$ f z & # 0 &# '

Equations of Motion for a Point Mass

Written as a single equation

Combined Equations for a Point Mass

" x % " v x % "0 $ ' $ ' $ $ y ' $ v y ' $0 $ z ' $ v z ' $0 $ '=$ '=$ $v x ' $ f x /m' $0 $v y ' $ f y /m' $0 $ ' $ ' $ #v z & # f z /m& #0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0%" x % " 0 0 0 % '$ ' $ ' 0'$ y ' $ 0 0 0 ' " fx% 1'$ z ' $ 0 0 0 '$ ' '$ ' + $ ' fy 0'$v x ' $1/m 0 0 '$ ' $f ' # & 0'$v y ' $ 0 1/m 0 ' z '$ ' $ ' 0&#v z & # 0 0 1/m&

x (t) =

dx(t) = f[x(t),F] dt

With

#x& % ( %y( #r & % z ( x "% (=% ( $v' %v x ( %v y ( % ( $v z '

" fx% $ ' FI = $ f y ' = [Fgravity + Faerodynamics + Fthrust ] I $ fz' # &I

Gravitational Force: Flat-Earth Approximation

Aerodynamic Force
Inertial Frame Body-Axis Frame Velocity-Axis Frame

g is gravitational acceleration mg is gravitational force Independent of position z measured down

"X % "CX % $ ' $ ' 1 FI = $Y ' = $CY ' (V 2 S 2 $ ' $ ' # Z &I #CZ &I "CX % $ ' = $CY ' q S $ ' #CZ &I
Referenced to the Earth not the aircraft

"CX % $ ' FB = $CY ' q S $CZ 'B # &

"CD % $ ' FV = $CY ' q S $CL ' # &

"0% $ ' u = mg f = m $ 0 ' ; go = 9.807 m /s2 $go ' # &

Aligned with the aircraft axes

Aligned with and perpendicular to the direction of motion

Angles Between Reference Frames

Velocity Orientation in Inertial Frame Body Orientation in Inertial Frame Velocity Orientation in Body Frame

Angles Projected on the Unit Sphere

Origin is airplane!s center of mass

" : angle of attack # : sideslip angle $ : vertical flight path angle % : horizontal flight path angle & : yaw angle ' : pitch angle ( : roll angle (about body x ) axis) : bank angle (about velocity vector)

Angles Related to an Aircraft

V, !, "

Lift and Drag are Oriented to the Velocity Vector

Lift = CL

& 1 $C ) 1 "V 2 S # (CL0 + L % + "V 2 S ' 2 $% * 2

Lift components sum to produce total lift

Pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces Wing Fuselage Horizontal tail

1 2 1 Drag = CD "V 2 S # CD0 + $CL "V 2 S 2 2

V, #, $

Drag components sum to produce total drag

Skin friction Base pressure differential Shock-induced pressure differential (M > 1)

Aerodynamic Lift
Lift = CL & 1 1 $C ) 1 "V 2 S # CLw + CL f + CLht "V 2 S # (CL0 + L %+ "V 2 S ' 2 2 $% * 2

Inward-Outward Flow

Tip Vortices

2D vs. 3D Lift

Streamlines

!
Identical Chord Sections Innite vs. Finite Span Chord Section

Fast ow over top + slow ow over bottom = Mean ow + Circulation Speed difference proportional to angle of attack Kutta condition (stagnation points at leading and trailing edges)

Inward ow over upper surface Outward ow over lower surface Bound vorticity of wing produces tip vortices

Aerodynamic Drag
1 1 2 1 Drag = CD "V 2 S # CD p + CDi + CDw "V 2 S # CD0 + $CL "V 2 S 2 2 2

Thrust and Specic Impulse

Drag components
Parasite drag (friction, interference, base pressure differential) Induced drag (drag due to lift generation) Wave drag (shock-induced pressure differential)

Thrust = m propellantVexhaust + Aexit ( pexit " pambient ) # m c eff Thrust c eff = = Effective exhaust velocity m m # Mass flow rate of on " board propellant

In steady, subsonic ight

Parasite (form) drag increases as V2 Induced drag proportional to 1/V2 Total drag minimized at one particular airspeed

Thrust c eff m /s = , Units = =s m go go m /s2 go " Gravitational acceleration at earth' s surface Isp =

Reciprocating Engines

Jet Engines

Linear motion of pistons converted to rotary motion to drive propeller

Thrust produced directly by exhaust gas

Turboprop Engines

Thrust Coefcient
Thrust " CT 1 #V 2 S 2

Non-dimensional thrust coefcient, CT

CT is a function of power/throttle setting, fuel ow rate, blade angle, Mach number, ...

!
Exhaust gas drives a propeller to produce thrust

Reference area, S, may be aircraft wing area, propeller disk area, or jet exhaust area

Thrust
Nominal Thrust = TN " CTN 1 #VN 2 S 2
(.) N = Nominal (or reference) value

Power
Assuming thrust is aligned with velocity

Power = P = Thrust " Velocity # CT

If thrust is independent of velocity (= constant) ! "T "CT 1 ! 2

=0= #VN S + CTN #VN S "V "V 2 "CT = $CTN /VN "V

1 $V 3 S 2

If power is independent of velocity (= constant)

Velocity-independent thrust is typical of a turbojet

!

"P "C 1 3 3 2 = 0 = T #VN S + CTN #VN S "V "V 2 2 "CT = $3CTN /VN "V
Velocity-independent power is typical of propeller-driven propulsion (with constant RPM or variable-pitch prop)

2-D Equations of Motion for a Point Mass

Restrict motions to a vertical plane (i.e., motions in y direction = 0)

Transform Velocity from Cartesian to Polar Coordinates

2 2% " 2 2 % " "x% "v x % " V cos ( % "V % $ x + z ' $ v x + v z ' +v . $ '=$ '=$ ' * $ '=$ )1+ z . = # z & #v z & #)V sin ( & # ( & )sin - 0' $)sin)1- z 0' , V /& $ # , V /' # &

" x % " vx % "0 $ ' $ ' $ $ z ' = $ vz ' = $0 $vx ' $ fx / m' $0 $' $ ' $ # vz & # fz / m& #0

0 1 0%" x % " 0 0 % '$ ' $ ' 0 0 1'$ z ' $ 0 0 '" fx % + $ ' 0 0 0'$ vx ' $1/ m 0 '# fz & '$ ' $ ' 0 0 0&# vz & # 0 1/ m&

2 2& 2 2& # d # #V & d % v x + v z ( % dt v x + v z ( =% % (= % )1* v -( * -( $ " ' dt %)sin , z /( %) d sin)1, v z /( + V .' $ dt $ + V .'

!
!

Longitudinal Point-Mass Equations of Motion

Assuming thrust is aligned with the velocity vector

Flight of a Paper Airplane

Example 1.3-1, Flight Dynamics
Equations of motion integrated numerically to estimate the ight path

1 2 Thrust " Drag " mg sin # (t) (CT " CD ) 2 $V (t) S " mg sin # (t) (t) = V = m m 1 CL $V (t) 2 S " mgcos # (t) Lift " mgcos # (t) 2 # (t) = = mV (t) mV (t) h (t) = "(t) = "v = V (t)sin # (t) z
z

r(t) = x (t) = v x = V (t)cos # (t)

When airplane is in steady, level ight, CT = CD
V = velocity " = flight path angle h = height (altitude) r = range

Red: Equilibrium ight path Black: Initial ight path angle = 0 Blue: plus increased initial airspeed Green: loop

Flight of a Paper Airplane

Example 1.3-1, Flight Dynamics

Red: Equilibrium ight path Black: Initial ight path angle = 0 Blue: plus increased initial airspeed Green: loop

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