Sedimentation and Erosion

6.
1 INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of mankind, sedimentation processes have affected water supplies,
irrigation, agricultural practices, flood control, river migration, hydroelectric projects,
navigation, fisheries, and aquatic habitat. In the last few years, sediment also has been
found to play an important role in the transport and fate of pollutants; thus, sedimentation
control has become an important issue in water quality management. Toxic chemicals can
become attached to, or adsorbed by, sediment particles and then be transported to and
deposited in other areas. By studying the quantity, quality, and characteristics of sediment
in rivers and streams, scientists and engineers can determine the sources of the sediment
and evaluate the impact of pollutants on the aquatic environment. In the United States,
sedimentation control is a multibillion-dollar issue. For example, approximately $500 mil-
lion are spent every year to dredge waterways and harbors for navigation purposes. Most
of the dredged sediment is the result of substantial soil erosion in watersheds. Estimates
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture indicate that annual offside costs of sediment
derived from copland erosion are on the order of $2 billion to $6 billion, with an addi-
tional $1 billion arising from loss in compared productivity.
The sediment cycle starts with the process of erosion, where by particles or fragments
are weathered from rock material. Action by water, wind, glaciers, and plant and animal
activities all contribute to the erosion of the earths surface. Fluvial sediment is the term
used to describe the case where water is the key agent for erosion. Natural, or geologic,
erosion takes place slowly, over centuries or millennia. Erosion that occurs as a result of
human activity may take place much faster. It is important to understand the role of each
cause when studying sediment transport.
Any material that can be dislodged is ready to be transported. The transportation
process is initiated on the land surface when raindrops result in sheet erosion. Rills, gul-
lies, streams, and rivers then act as conduits for the movement of sediment. The greater
the discharge, or rate of flow, the higher the capacity for sediment transport.
The final process in the cycle is deposition. When there is not enough energy to transport
the sediment, it comes to rest. Sinks, or depositional areas, can be visible as newly deposit-
ed material on a floodplain, on bars and islands in a channel, and on deltas. Considerable
deposition occurs that may not be apparent, as on lake and river beds. A knowledge of sed-
iment dynamics is an integral part of understanding the aquatic ecosystem.
This chapter presents fundamental aspects of the erosion, transport, and deposition of
sediment in the environment. The emphasis is on the hydraulics of bedload and suspend-
CHAPTER 6
SEDIMENTATION AND
EROSION HYDRAULICS
Marcelo H. Garca
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Urbana, IL
6.1
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Source: HYDRAULIC DESIGN HANDBOOK
ed load transport in rivers, with the goal of establishing the background needed for sedi-
mentation engineering. Because of their relevance, the hydraulics of both reservoir sedi-
mentation and turbidity currents also is considered. Emphasis is placed on noncohesive
sediment transport, where the material involved can be silt, sand, or gravel. When possi-
ble, the behavior of both uniform-sized material and sediment mixtures is analyzed.
Although such topics as cohesive sediment transport, debris and mud flows, alluvial fans,
river meandering, and sediment transport by wave action are not discussed here, it is
hoped that the material covered in this chapter will provide a firm foundation to tackle
problems in those.
For more information on sediment transport and sedimentation engineering, readers
are referred to Allen (1985), Ashworth et al. (1996), Bogardi (1974), Bouvard (1992),
Carling and Dawson (1996), Chang (1988), Coussot (1997), Fredse and Deigaard
(1992), Garde and Ranga Raju (1985), Graf (1971), Jansen et al. (1979), Julien (1992),
Mehta (1986), Mehta et al. (1989a, 1989b), Morris and Fan (1998), Nakato and Ettema
(1996), National Research Council (1996), Nielsen (1992), National Research council
(1996), Parker and Ikeda (1989), Raudkivi (1990, 1993), Renard et al. (1997), Sieben
(1997), Simons and Senturk (1992), Sloff (1997), van Rijn (1997), Yalin (1972, 1992),
Yang (1996), and Wan and Wang (1994).
6.2 HYDRAULICS FOR SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
6.2.1 Flow Velocity Distribution
Consider a steady, turbulent, uniform, open-channel flow having a mean depth H and a
mean flow velocity U (Fig. 6.1). The channel is extremely wide and its bottom has a mean
slope S and a surface roughness that can be characterized by an effective height k
s
(Brownlie, 1981b). When the bottom of the channel is covered with sediment having a
mean size or diameter D, the roughness height k
s
will be proportional to that diameter.
Because of the weight of the water, the flow exerts on the bottom a tangential force per
unit bed area known as the bed shear stress
b
, which can be expressed as:
b
gHS (6.1)
where is the water density and g is the gravitational acceleration. With the help of the
boundary shear stress, it is possible to define the shear velocity u
*
as
6.2 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.1 Definition diagram for open-channel flow over an erodible bed.
SEDIMENTATION AND EROSION HYDRAULICS
u
*
b
/ (6.2)
The shear velocity, and thus the boundary shear stress, provides a direct measure of the
intensity of flow and its ability to entrain and transport sediment particles. The size of the
sediment particles on the bottom determines the surface roughness, which in turn affects
the flow velocity distribution and its sediment transport capacity. Since flow resistance
and sediment transport rates are interrelated, the ability to determine the role played by
the bottom roughness is important.
Research has shown (Schlichting, 1979) that the flow velocity distribution is well rep-
resented by:
u
u
lnz const. (6.3)

where u
is the time-averaged flow velocity at distance z above the bed and is known as
Von Karmans constant and is equal to 0.4. For obvious reasons, the above law is known
as the logarithmic law of the wall. It strictly applies only in a thin layer near the bed. It is
empirically found to apply as a reasonable approximation throughout most of the flow in
many rivers.
If the bottom boundary is sufficiently smooth (a condition rarely satisfied in rivers),
turbulence will be drastically suppressed in an extremely thin layer near the bed. In this
region, a linear velocity profile will hold:
u
u

u
v
*
z
(6.4)
where is the kinematic viscosity of water. This law merges with the logarithmic law near
z
v
, where
v
11.6

u
(6.5)
denotes the height of the viscous sublayer. In the logarithmic region, the constant of inte-
gration introduced above has been evaluated from data to yield
u
u
ln

*
z
,
5.5 (6.6)
Most boundaries in river flow are rough. Let k
s
denote an effective roughness height.
If k
s
/
v
1, then no viscous sublayer will exist. The corresponding logarithmic velocity
profile is given by
u
u
1

ln

k
z
s
,
8.5

1

ln

30

k
z
s
,
(6.7)
As noted above, this relation often holds as a first approximation throughout the flow in a
river. It is by no means exact.
The conditions k
s
/
1 for rough turbulent flow and k

s
/
1 for smooth turbulent

flow can be rewritten to indicate that u
*
k
s
/ should be much larger than 11.6 for turbulent
rough flow and much smaller than 11.6 for turbulent smooth flow. A composite form that
represents both ranges, as well as the transitional range between them, can be written as
u
u
1

ln

k
z
s
,
B
s
(6.8)
with B
s
as a function of Re
*
u
*
k
s
/, which can be estimated with
Sedimentation and Erosion Hydraulics 6.3
B
s
8.5 [2.5 ln(Re
*
) 3]e
0.127[ln(Re
*
)]
2
(6.9)
as proposed by Yalin (1992).
6.2.2 Relations for Channel Resistance
Most river flows are indeed hydraulically rough. Equation (6.7) can be used to obtain an
approximate expression for depth-averaged velocity U that is reasonably accurate for
many flows. Using the following integral:
U
H
1

H
0
u
dz (6.10)
but changing the lower limit slightly to avoid the fact that the logarithmic law is singular
at z 0, the following result is obtained:
u
U
*
H
1

H
k
s
ln
k
z
s
,
8.5
1
1
]
dz (6.11)
or, performing the integration
u
U
*
ln
H
k
s
,
6

ln

11
H
k
s
,
(6.12)
This relation is known as Keulegan's resistance relation for rough flow.
An approximation to Keulegan's relation is the Manning-Strickler power form
u
U
*
H
k
s
,
1/6
(6.13)
Between Eqs. (6.2) and (6.12), a resistance relation can be found for bed shear stress:
b
C
f
U
2
(6.14)
where the friction coefficient C
f
is given by
C
f
ln

11
H
k
s
,
1
1
]
2
(6.15)
If Eq. (6.13) is used instead of Eq. (6.12), the friction coefficient takes the form
C
f
H
k
s
,
1/61
1
]
2
(6.16)
It is useful to show the relationship between the friction coefficient C
f
and the rough-
ness parameters in open-channel flow relations commonly used in practice. Between Eqs.
(6.1) and (6.14), the following form of Chezy's law can be derived:
U C
c
H
1/2
S
1/2
(6.17)
where the Chezy coefficient C
c
is given by the relation
6.4 Chapter Six
C
c

C
g
f
,
1/2
(6.18)
A specific evaluation of Chezy's coefficient can be obtained by substituting Eq. (6.15) into
Eq. (6.18). It is seen that the coefficient is not constant but varies as the logarithm of H/k
s
.
A logarithmic dependence is typically a weak one, partially justifying the common
assumption that Chezy's coefficient in Eq. (6.17) is a constant. Substituting Eq. (6.16) into
Eqs. (6.17) and (6.18), Manning's law is obtained:
U =

1
n

H
2/3
S
1/2
(6.19)
where Manning's n is given by
n =

8
k
g
s
1
1
/6
/2
(6.20)
The above relation is often called the Manning-Strickler form of Manning's n.
6.2.3 Fixed-Bed and Movable-Bed Roughness
It is clear that to use the above relations for channel flow resistance, a criterion for evalu-
ating k
s
is necessary. Nikuradse (1933) proposed the following criterion: Suppose a rough
surface is subjected to a flow. The equivalent roughness k
s
of that surface is equal to the
diameter of sand grains that, when glued uniformly to a completely smooth wall and then
subjected to the same external conditions, yields the same velocity profile. Nikuradse used
sand glued to the inside of pipes to conduct this evaluation. Extending Nikuradse's con-
cept of equivalent grain roughness to the case of rivers and streams, k
s
can be assumed to
be proportional to a representative sediment size D
x
,
k
s
=
s
D
x
(6.21)
Suggested values of
s
, which have appeared in the literature, are listed in Table 6.1 (Yen,
1992). Different sizes of sediment have been suggested for D
x
in Eq. (6.21). Statistically, D
50
(the grain size for which 50% of the bed material is finer) is most readily available and
meaningful. Physically, a representative size larger than D
50
is more meaningful to estimate
TABLE 6.1 Ratio of Nikuradse Equivalent Roughness Size and Sediment Size for Rivers.
Investigator Measure of Sediment Size, D
x

s
= k
s
/D
x
Ackers and White (1973) D
35
1.23
Strickler (1923) D
50
3.3
Keulegan (1938) D
50
1
Meyer-Peter and Muller (1948) D
50
1
Thompson and Campbell (1979) D
50
2.0
Hammond et al. (1984) D
50
6.6
Einstein and Barbarossa (1952) D
65
1
Irmay (1949) D
65
1.5
Engelund and Hansen (1967) D
65
2.0
Lane and Carlson (1953) D
75
3.2
flow resistance because of the dominant effect by large sediment particles.
In flow over a geometrically smooth, fixed boundary, the apparent roughness of the
bed k
s
can be computed using Nikuradse's approach. However, once the transport of bed
material has been instigated, the characteristic grain diameter and the thickness of the vis-
cous sublayer no longer provide the relevant length scales. The characteristic length scale
in this situation is the thickness of the layer where the sediment particles are being trans-
ported by the flow, usually referred to as the bedload layer.
Once the bed shear stress
b
exceeds the critical shear stress for particle motion
c
, the
apparent bed roughness k
a
can be estimated as follows (Smith and McLean, 1997):
k
a
(
(
s
b
)
c
)
g
k
s
(6.22)
where
0
26.3, k
s
is Nikuradse's fixed-bed roughness, and
s
is the bed sediment densi-
ty. This approach is particularly suitable for sand bed rivers.
Under intense sediment transport conditions, bedforms, such as dunes, can develop. In
this situation, the apparent roughness also will be influenced by the form drag caused by
the presence of bedforms. Nikuradse's approach is valid only for grain-induced roughness.
Methods for flow resistance in the presence of both bedforms and grain roughness are pre-
sented later.
6.3 SEDIMENT PROPERTIES
6.3.1 Rock Types
The solid phase of the problem embodied in sediment transport can be any granular sub-
stance. In engineering applications, however, the granular substance in question typically
consists of fragments ultimately derived from rockshence the name sediment transport.
The properties of these rock-derived fragments, taken singly or in groups of many parti-
cles, all play a role in determining the transportability of the grains under fluid action. The
6.6 Chapter Six
TABLE 6.1. (Continued)
Investigator Measure of Sediment Size, D
x
s = k
s
/D
x
Gladki (1979) D
80
2.5
Leopold et al. (1964) D
84
3.9
Limerinos (1970) D
84
2.8
Mahmood (1971) D
84
5.1
Hey (1979), Bray (1979) D
84
3.5
Ikeda (1983) D
84
1.5
Colosimo et al. (1986) D
84
3 6
Whiting and Dietrich (1990) D
84
2.95
Simons and Richardson (1966) D
85
1
Kamphuis (1974) D
90
2.0
van Rijn (1982) D
90
3.0
SOURCE: Adapted from Yen (1992)
important properties of groups of particles include porosity and size distribution. The most
common rock type one is likely to encounter in the river or coastal environment is quartz.
Quartz is a highly resistant rock and can travel long distances or remain in place for long
periods without losing its integrity. Another highly resistant rock type that is often found
together with quartz is feldspar. Other common rock types include limestone, basalt, gran-
ite, and more esoteric types, such as magnetite. Limestone is not a resistant rock; it tends
to abrade to silt rather easily. Silt-sized limestone particles are susceptible to solution
unless the water is buffered sufficiently. As a result, limestone typically is not a major
component of sediments at locations distant from its source. On the other hand, it often
can be the dominant rock type in mountain environments.
Basaltic rocks tend to be heavier than most rocks composing the earths crust and typ-
ically are brought to the surface by volcanic activity. Basaltic gravels are relatively com-
mon in rivers that derive their sediment supply from areas subjected to vulcanism in recent
geologic history. Basaltic sands are much less common. Regions of weathered granite
often provide copious supplies of sediment. Although the particles produced by weather-
ing are often in the granule size, they often break down quickly to sand size.
Sediments in the fluvial or coastal environment in the size range of silt, or coarser, are
generally produced by mechanical means, including fracture or abrasion. The clay miner-
als, on the other hand, are produced by chemical action. As a result, they are fundamen-
tally different from other sediments in many ways. Their ability to absorb water means
that the porosity of clay deposits can vary greatly over time. Clays also display cohesivi-
ty, which renders them more resistant to erosion.
6.3.2 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of sediment is defined as the ratio between the sediment density
s
and the density of water . Some typical specific gravities for various natural and artifi-
cial sediments are listed in Table 6.2.
6.3.3 Size
Herein, the notation D is used to denote sediment size, the typical units of which are
millimeters (mm) for sand and coarser material or microns () for clay and silt.
Another standard way of classifying grain sizes is the sedimentological scale,
according to which
TABLE 6.2 Specific Gravity of Rock Types
and Artificial Material
Rock type or Specific gravity
material
s
/
quartz 2.60 2.70
limestone 2.60 2.80
basalt 2.70 2.90
magnetite 3.20 3.50
plastic 1.00 1.50
coal 1.30 1.50
walnut shells 1.30 1.40
6.8 Chapter Six
D 2
(6.23)
Taking the logarithm of both sides, it is seen that
log2(D)
1
1
n
n
(
(
D
2)
)
(6.24)
Note that the size 0 corresponds to D 1 mm. The usefulness of the scale will
become apparent upon a consideration of grain size distributions. The minus sign has been
inserted in Eq. (6.24) simply as a matter of convenience to sedimentologists, who are more
accustomed to working with material finer than 1 mm than they are with coarser materi-
al. The reader should always recall that larger implies finer material. The scale pro-
vides a simple way of classifying grain sizes into the following size ranges in descending
order: boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand, silt, and clay. (Table 6.3).
Note that the definition of clay according to size (D 2) does not always correspond
to the definition of clay according to mineral. That is, some clay-mineral particles can be
coarser than this limit, and some silt-sized particles produced by grinding can be finer than
that. In general, however, the effect of viscosity makes it difficult to grind up particles in
water to sizes finer than 2.
In practical terms, there are several ways to determine grain size. The most popular
way for grains ranging from 4 to 4 (0.0625 to 16 mm) is with the use of
sieves. Each sieve has a square mesh, the gap size of which corresponds to the diameter
of the largest sphere that would fit through it. Thus, the grain size D so measured corre-
sponds exactly to the diameter only in the case of a sphere. In general, the sieve size D
corresponds to the smallest sieve gap size through which a given grain can be fitted.
For coarser grain sizes, it is customary to approximate the grain as an ellipsoid. Three
lengths can be defined. The length along the major (longest) axis is denoted as a, the
length along the intermediate axis is denoted as b, and the length along the minor (small-
est) axis is denoted as c. These lengths are typically measured with a caliper. The value b
is then equated to grain size D.
For grains in the silt and clay sizes, many methods (hydrometer, sedigraph, and so
forth) are based on the concept of equivalent fall diameter. That is, the terminal fall veloc-
ity v
s
of a grain in water at a standard temperature is measured. The equivalent fall diam-
eter D is the diameter of the sphere having exactly the same fall velocity under the same
conditions. Sediment fall velocity is discussed in more detail below.
A variety of other more recent methods for sizing fine particles rely on blockage of
light beams. The blocked area can be used to determine the diameter of the equivalent cir-
cle: i.e., the projection of the equivalent sphere. It can be seen that all the above methods
can be expected to operate consistently as long as grains shape does not deviate too great-
ly from a sphere. In general, this turns out to be the case. There are some important excep-
tions, however. At the fine end of the spectrum, mica particles tend to be platelike; the
same is true of shale grains at the coarser end. Comparison with a sphere is not necessar-
ily an especially useful way to characterize grain size for such materials.
6.3.4 Size Distribution
Any sample of sediment normally contains a range of sizes. An appropriate way to char-
acterize these samples is by grain size distribution. Consider a large bulk sample of sedi-
ment of given weight. Let p
f
(D)or p
f
()denote the fraction by weight of material in
the sample of material finer than size D(). The customary engineering representation of
T
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0
2
0

0
.
0
0
1
0
2

1
F
i
n
e

c
l
a
y
0
.
0
0
1
0

0
.
0
0
0
5
1

0
.
5
V
e
r
y

f
i
n
e

c
l
a
y
0
.
0
0
0
5

0
.
0
0
0
2
4
0
.
5

0
.
2
4
S
O
U
R
C
E
:
A
d
a
p
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

V
a
n
o
n
i
,
1
9
7
5
.
6.10 Chapter Six
the grain size distribution consists of a plot of p
f
100 (percentage finer) versus log
10
(D):
that is, a semilogarithmic plot is used. The same size distribution plotted in sedimento-
logical form would involve plotting p
f
100 versus on a linear plot.
The size distribution p
f
() and size density p() by weight can be used to extract use-
ful statistics concerning the sediment in question. Let x denote some percentage, say 50%;
the grain size
x
denotes the size such that x percent of the weight of the sample is com-
posed of finer grains. That is,
x
is defined such that
p
f
(
x
)

10
x
0
(6.25)
It follows that the corresponding grain size of equivalent diameter is given by D
x
, where
D
x
2

x
(6.26)
The most commonly used grain sizes of this type are the median size D
50
and the size
D
90
: i.e., 90% of the sample by weight consists of finer grains. The latter size is especial-
ly useful for characterizing bed roughness.
The density p() can be used to extract statistical moments. Of these, the most useful
are the mean size
m
and the standard deviation . These are given by the relations.
m
p()d;
2
(
m
)
2
p()D (6.27a, b)
The corresponding geometric mean diameter D
g
and geometric standard deviation
g
are given as
D
g
2
m
;
g
2
(6,28a,b)
Note that for a perfectly uniform material, 0 and g 1. As a practical matter, a sed-
iment mixture with a value of
g
less than 1.3 is often termed well sorted and can be treat-
ed as a uniform material. When the geometric standard deviation exceeds 1.6, the mater-
ial can be said to be poorly sorted (Diplas and Sutherland, 1988).
In fact, one never has the continuous function p() with which to compute the
moments of Eqs. (6.27a, and b). Instead, one must rely on a discretization. To this end, the
size range covered by a given sample of sediment is discretized using n intervals bound-
ed by n 1 grain sizes
1
,
2
,,
n 1
in ascending order of . The following defini-
tions are made from i 1 to n:
i

1
2
(
i

i1
) (6.29a)
p
i
p
f
(
i
) p
f
(
i1
) (6.29b)
Eqs. (6.27a and b) now discretize to
n
i1
i
p
i

2
n
i1
(
i

m
)
2
p
i
(6.30)
In some cases, especially when the material in question is sand, the size distribution
can be approximated as gaussian on the scale (i.e., log-normal in D). For a perfectly
Gaussian distribution, the mean and median sizes coincide:
m

50

1
2
(
84

16
) (6.31)
Furthermore, it can be demonstrated from a standard table of the Gauss distribution that
the size displaced one standard deviation larger that
m
is accurately given by
84
; by
symmetry, the corresponding size that is one standard deviation smaller than
m
is
16
.
The following relations thus hold:

1
2
(
84

16
) (6.32a)
m

1
2
(
84

16
) (6.32b)
Rearranging the above relations with the aid of Eqs. (6.28a and b) and Eqs. (6.31 and
6.32a),
D
D
8
1
4
6
1/2
(6.33a)
D
g
(D
84
D
16
)
1/2
(6.33b)
It must be emphasized that the above relations are exact only for a gaussian distribution
in . This is not often the case in nature. As a result, it is strongly recommended that D
g
and
g
be computed from the full size distribution via Eqs. (6.30a and b) and (6.28a and
b) rather than the approximate form embodied in the above relations.
6.3.5 Porosity
The porosity
p
quantifies the fraction of a given volume of sediment that is composed of
void space. That is,
If a given mass of sediment of known density is deposited, the volume of the deposit
must be computed, assuming that at least part of it will consist of voids. In the case of
well-sorted sand, the porosity often can take values between 0.3 and 0.4. Gravels tend to
be more poorly sorted. In this case, finer particles can occupy the spaces between coarser
particles, thus reducing the void ratio to as low as 0.2. Because so-called open-work grav-
els are essentially devoid of sand and finer material in their interstices, they may have
porosities similar to sand. Freshly deposited clays are notorious for having high porosi-
ties. As time passes, the clay deposit tends to consolidate under its own weight so that
porosity slowly decreases.
The issue of porosity becomes of practical importance with regard to salmon spawn-
ing grounds in gravel-bed rivers, for example (Diplas and Parker, 1985). The percentage
of sand and silt contained in the sediment is often referred to as the percentage of fines in
the gravel deposit. When this fraction rises above 20 or 26 percent by weight, the deposit
is often rendered unsuitable for spawning. Salmon bury their eggs within the gravel, and
a high fines content implies a low porosity and thus reduced permeability. The flow of
groundwater necessary to carry oxygen to the eggs and remove metabolic waste products
is impeded. In addition, newly hatched fry may encounter difficulty in finding enough
pore space through which to emerge to the surface. All the above factors dictate lowered
survival rates. Chief causes of elevated fines in gravel rivers include road building and
clear-cutting of timber in the basin.
volume of voids
volume of total space

6.3.6 Shape
Grain shape can be classified in a number of ways. One of these, the Zingg classification
scheme, is illustrated here (Vanoni, 1975). According to the definitions introduced earlier,
a simple way to characterize the shape of an irregular clast (stone) is by lengths a, b, and
c of the major, intermediate, and minor axes, respectively. If the three lengths are equal,
the grain can be said to be close to a sphere in shape. If a and b are equal but c is much
larger, the grain should be rodlike. Finally, if c is much smaller than b, which in turn, is
much larger than a, the resulting shape should be bladelike.
6.3.7 Fall Velocity
A fundamental property of sediment particles is their fall velocity. The relation for termi-
nal fall velocity in quiescent fluid v
s
can be presented as
R
f

4
3

C
D
1
(R
p
)
1/2
(6.34)
where
R
f

R
v
s
gD
(6.35a)
R
p

v
s
v
D
(6.35b)
and the functional relation C
D
C
D
(R
p
) denotes the drag curve for spheres. This relation
is not particularly useful because it is not explicit in v
s
; one must compute fall velocity by
trial and error. One can use the equation for C
D
given below
C
D

2
R
4
p
(1 0.152R
p
1
/
2 0.0151R
p
) (6.36)
and the definition
Re
p
Rg
D D
(6.37)
to obtain an explicit relation for fall velocity in the form of R
f
versus Re
p
. In Fig. 6.2, the
ranges for silt, sand, and gravel are plotted for 0.01 cm
2
/s (clear water at 20C) and R
1.65 (quartz). A good summary of relations for terminal fall velocity for the case of
nonspherical (natural) particles can be found in Dietrich (1982), who also proposed the
following useful fit:
R
f
exp{b
1
b
2
ln(Re
p
) b
3
[ln(Re
p
)]
2
b
4
[ln(Re
p
)]
3
b
5
[ln(Re
p
)]
4
} (6.38)
where b
1
2.891394, b
2
0.95296, b
3
0.056835, b
4
0.002892, and b
5
0.000245
6.3.8 Relation Between Size Distribution and Stream Morphology
The study of sediment properties and, in particular, size distribution is most relevant to the
context of stream morphology. The following discussion points out some of the more
interesting issues.
6.12 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
2
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t

f
a
l
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
d
i
a
g
r
a
m
6.14 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.3 Particle size distribution of bed materials in Kankakee River, Illinois.
(Bhowmik et al., 1980)
In Fig. 6.3, several size distributions from the sand-bed Kankakee River in Illinois, are
shown (Bhowmik et al., 1980). The characteristic S shape suggests that these distributions
might be approximated by a gaussian curve. The median size D
50
falls near 0.3 to 0.4 mm.
The distributions are tight, with a near absence of either gravel or silt. For practical pur-
poses, the material can be approximated as uniform.
In Fig. 6.4, several size distributions pertaining to the gravel-bed Oak Creek in Oregon,
are shown (Milhous, 1973). In gravel-bed streams, the surface layer (armor or pave-
ment) tends to be coarser than the substrate (identified as subpavement in the figure).
Whether the surface or substrate is considered, it is apparent that the distribution ranges
over a much wider range of grain sizes than is the case in Fig. 6.3. More specifically, in
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
4
S
i
z
e

d
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n

o
f

b
e
d

m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

s
a
m
p
l
e
s

i
n

O
a
k

C
r
e
e
k
.

O
r
e
g
o
n
.

S
o
u
r
c
e
:
(
M
i
l
h
o
u
s
,
1
9
7
3
)
6.16 Chapter Six
the distributions of the sand-bed Kankakee River, varies from about 0 to about 3, where-
as in Oak Creek, varies from about 8 to about 3. In addition, the distribution of Fig.
6.4 is upward-concave almost everywhere and thus deviates strongly from the gaussian
distribution.
These two examples provide a window toward generalization. A river can be loosely
classified as sand-bed or gravel-bed according to whether the median size D
50
of the sur-
face material or substrate is less than or greater than 2 mm. The size distributions of sand-
bed streams tend to be relatively narrow and also tend to be S shaped. The size distribu-
tions of gravel-bed streams tend to be much broader and to display an upward-concave
shape. Of course, there are many exceptions to this behavior, but it is sufficiently general
to warrant emphasis.
More evidence for this behavior is provided in Fig. 6.5. Here, the grain size distribu-
tions for a variety of stream reaches have been normalized using the median size D
50
.
Four sand-bed reaches are included with three gravel-bed reaches. All the sand-bed
distributions are S shaped, and all have a lower spread than the gravel-bed distributions.
The standard deviation is seen to increase systematically with increasing D
50
(White et al.,
1973).
The three gravel-bed size distributions differ systematically from the sand-bed distrib-
utions in a fashion that accurately reflects Oak Creek (Fig. 6.4). The standard deviation in
all cases is markedly larger than any of the sand-bed distributions, and the distributions
FIGURE 6.5 Dimensionless grain-size distribution for different rivers (White et al., 1973)
are upward-concave except perhaps near the coarsest sizes.
6.4 THRESHOLD CONDITION FOR SEDIMENT MOVEMENT
When a granular bed is subjected to a turbulent flow, virtually no motion of the grains is
observed at some flows, but the bed is mobilized noticeably at other flows. Factors that
affect the mobility of grains subjected to a flow are summarized below:
randomness
grain placement
turbulence
forces on grain
fluid
lift
mean & turbulent
drag
gravity
In the presence of turbulent flow, random fluctuations typically prevent the clear defini-
tion of a critical, or threshold condition for motion: The probability for the movement of
a grain is never precisely zero (Lavelle and Mofjeld, 1987). Nevertheless, it is possible to
define a condition below which movement can be neglected for many practical purposes.
6.4.1 Granular Sediment on a Stream Bed
Figure 6.6 is a diagram showing the forces acting on a grain in a bed of other grains. When
critical conditions exist and the grain is on the verge of moving, the moment caused by
the critical shear stress
c
about the point of support is just equal to that of the weight of
the grain. Equating these moments gives (Vanoni, 1975):
FIGURE 6.6 Forces acting on a sediment particle on an inclined bed
6.18 Chapter Six
c

c
c
1
2
a
a
1
2
(
s
) Dcos (tan tan) (6.39)
in which
s
specific weight of sediment grains, specific weight of water, D diam-
eter of grains, is the slope angle of the stream, the angle of repose of the sediment, c
1
and c
2
are dimensionless constants, and a
1
and a
2
are lengths shown in Fig. 6.6. Any consis-
tent set of units can be used in Eq. (6.39). For a horizontal bed, Eq. (6.39) reduces to
c
c
1
2
a
a
1
2

(
s
)D tan (6.40)
For an adverse slope (i.e., 0),
c
c
1
2
a
a
1
2

(
s
)D cos (tan tan ) (6.41)
Equations (6.39), (6.40), and (6.41) cannot be used to give
c
because the factors c
1
, c
2
,
a
1
, and a
2
are not known. Therefore, the relation between the pertinent quantities is
expressed by dimensional analysis, and the actual relation is determined from experimen-
tal data. Figure 6.7 is such a relation, first presented by Shields (1936) and carries his
name. The curve is expressed by dimensionless combinations of critical shear stress
c
,
sediment and water specific weights
s
and , sediment size D, critical shear velocity u
*c

c
/ and kinematic viscosity of water .
These quantities can be expressed in any consistent set of units. Dimensional analysis
yields,
c
*
(
s

c
)D
u
*
c
D
,
(6.42)
The Shields values of
c
*
are commonly used to denote conditions under which bed
sediments are stable but on the verge of being entrained. Not all workers agree with the
results given by the Shields curve. For example, some workers give
c
*
0.047 for the
dimensionless critical shear stress for values of R
*
u
*
D/ in excess of 500 instead of
0.06, as shown in Fig. 6.7. Taylor and Vanoni (1972) reported that small but finite amounts
of sediment were transported in flows with values of
c
*
given by the Shields curve.
The value of
c
to be used in design depends on the particular case at hand. If the sit-
uation is such that grains that are moved can be replaced by others moving from upstream,
some motion can be tolerated, and the Shields values can be used. On the other hand, if
grains removed cannot be replaced, as on a stream bank, the Shields value of
c
are too
large and should be reduced.
The Shields diagram is not especially useful in the form of Fig. 6.7 because to find
c
,
one must know u
*

c
/ . The relation can be cast in explicit form by plotting
c
*
ver-
sus Re
p
, noting the internal relation
u
*
R
u
*
gD
(*)
1/2
Re
p
(6.43)
where R

is the submerged specific gravity of the sediment. A useful fit is given
by Brownlie (1981a):
*
c
0.22Re
p
0.6
0.06 exp(17.77Re
p
0.06
) (6.44)
RgD D

F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
7
S
h
i
e
l
d
s

d
i
a
g
r
a
m

f
o
r

i
n
i
t
i
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

m
o
t
i
o
n
.

S
o
u
r
c
e

V
a
n
o
n
i

(
1
9
7
5
)
6.20 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.8 Angle of repose of granular material. (Lane,
1955)
With this relation, the value of
c
*
can be computed readily when the properties of the
water and the sediment are given.
The value of bed-shear stress
b
for a wide rectangular channel is given by
b
HS,
as shown earlier. The average bed-shear stress for any channel is given by
b
R
h
S, in
which R
h
the hydraulic radius of the channel cross section.
6.4.2 Granular Sediment on a Bank
A sediment grain on a bank is less stable than one on the bed because the gravity force
tends to move it downward (Ikeda, 1982). The ratio of the critical shear stress
wc
for a par-
ticle on a bank to that for the same particle on the bed
c
is (Lane, 1955)
w
c
c
= cos
1
t
t
a
a
n
n
,
2
(6.45)
where
1
is the slope of the bank and is the angle of repose for the sediment. Values of are
given in Fig. 6.8 after Lane (1955) and also can be found in Simons and Senturk (1976).
6.4.3 Granular Sediment on a Sloping Bed
Equation (6.39) shows that
c
diminishes as the slope angle increases. For extremely
small s,
c
is given by Eq. (6.40). Taking the ratio between Eqs. (6.39) and (6.40) yields
c
c
cos
t
t
a
a
n
n
,
(6.46)
c
is the critical shear stress for sediment on a bed with a slope angle , and
co
is the crit-
ical shear stress for a bed with an extremely small slope. The value of
co
can be found
from the Shields diagram or with Eq. (6.44). Equation (6.46) is for positive , which is
positive for downward sloping beds. For beds with adverse slope, is negative and the
term tan /tan in Eq. (6.46) is positive.
6.4.4 Sediment Mixtures
Several authors have offered empirical or quasi-theoretical extensions of the above rela-
tions to the case of mixtures (e.g., Wilcock, 1988). Let D
i
denote the characteristic grain
size of the ith size range in a mixture. Furthermore, let D
sg
denote the geometric mean size
of the surface (exchange, active) layer. Most of the generalizations can be written in the
following form (Parker, 1990):
*
ci

*
cg
D
D
s
i
g
(6.47)
Here
*
ci

b
g
c
D
i
i
(6.48a)
and
*
cg

b
g
c
D
sg
sg
(6.48b)
where
bci
and
bcsg
denote the values of the dimensioned critical shear stress required to
move sediment of sizes D
i
and D
sg
in the mixture, respectively, and is an exponent tak-
ing a value given below;
0.9 (6.49)
Figure 6.9 shows the similarity between four different published expressions having
the general form given by Eq. (6.47), which is of interest because it includes the effect of
hiding. For uniform material, the critical Shields stress is defined by Eq. (6.44). Consider
two flumes, one with uniform size D
a
and the other with uniform size D
b
. For sufficient-
ly coarse material (u
*
D/ 1 or Re
p
1), the critical Shields stress must be the same for
both sizes (Fig. 6.7). It follows from Eq. (6.42) that where
bca
and
bcb
denote the dimen-
sioned boundary shear stresses for cases a and b respectively,
bcb

bca
D
D
b
a
,
(6.50)
6.22 Chapter Six
For the case of mixtures, on the other hand, it is seen from Eqs. (6.47) and (6.48) that
bci

bcsg
D
D
s
i
g
,
1

bcsg
D
D
s
i
g
,
0.1
(6.51)
Comparing Eqs. (6.50) and (6.51), it is seen that a finer particle (D
b
D
a
, or alternative-
ly, D
i
D
sg
) is more mobile than a coarser particle. For example, suppose that one grain
size is four times coarser than another. If two uniform sediments are being compared, it
follows from Eq. (6.50) that the critical shear stress for the coarser material is four times
that of the finer material. In the case of a mixture, however, the critical shear stress for the
coarser material is only about 4
0.1
, or 1.15 times that for the finer material.
A finer particle in a mixture is thus seen to be only a little more mobile than its coars-
er-sized brethren, where uniform beds of fine material are much more mobile than are uni-
form beds of coarser material. The reason is that finer particles in a mixture are relatively
less exposed to the flow; they tend to hide in the lee of coarser particles. By the same token,
a particle is relatively more exposed to the flow when most of its neighbors are finer.
A method to calculate the critical shear stress for motion of uniform and heterogeneous
sediments was proposed by Wiberg and Smith (1987) on the basis of the fluid mechanics
of initiation of motion, which takes into account both roughness and hiding effects.
6.5 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
FIGURE 6.9 Critical shear stress for sediment mixture (Source: Misri et
al., 1983)
6.5.1 Sediment Transport Modes
The most common modes of sediment transport in rivers are bedload and suspended load.
In the case of bedload, the particles roll, slide, or saltate over each other, never deviating
too far above the bed. In the case of suspended load, the fluid turbulence comes into play
carrying the particles well up into the water column. In both cases, the driving force for
sediment transport is the action of gravity on the fluid phase; this force is transmitted to
the particles via drag.
The same phenomena of bedload and suspended load transport occur in a variety of
other geophysical contexts. Sediment transport is accomplished in the near-shore lake and
oceanic environment by wave action. Turbidity currents carry sediment into lakes, reser-
voirs, and the deep sea.
The phenomenon of sediment transport can sometimes be disguised in rather esoteric
phenomena. When water is supercooled, large quantities of particulate frazil ice can form.
As this water moves under a frozen ice cover, the phenomenon of sediment transport in
rivers is stood on its head. The frazil ice particles float rather than sink and thus tend to
accumulate on the bottom side of the ice cover rather than on the river bed. Turbulence
tends to suspend the particles downward rather than upward.
In the case of a powder snow avalanche, the fluid phase is air and the solid phase con-
sists of snow particles. The dominant mode of transport is suspension. These flows are
close analogies of turbidity currents, insofar as the driving force for the flow is the action
of gravity on the solid phase rather than the fluid phase. That is, if all the particles drop
out of suspension, the flow ceases. In the case of sediment transport in rivers, it is accu-
rate to say that the fluid phase drags the solid phase along. In the case of turbidity currents
and powder snow avalanches, the solid phase drags the fluid phase along.
Desert sand dunes provide an example for which the fluid phase is air, but the domi-
nant mode of transport is saltation rather than suspension. Because air is so much lighter
than water, quartz sand particles saltate in long, high trajectories, relatively unaffected by
the direct action of turbulent fluctuations. The dunes themselves are created by the effect
of the fluid phase acting on the solid phase. They, in turn, affect the fluid phase by chang-
ing the resistance.
Among the most interesting sedimenttransport phenomena are debris flows, slurries,
and hyperconcentrated flows. In all these cases, the solid and fluid phases are present in
similar quantities. A debris flow typically carries a heterogeneous mixture of grain sizes
ranging from boulders to clay. Slurries and hyperconcentrated flows are generally restrict-
ed to finer grain sizes. In most cases, it is useful to think of such flows as consisting of a
single phase, the mechanics of which are highly non-Newtonian.
The study of the movement of grains under the influence of fluid drag and gravity
becomes even more interesting when one considers the link between sediment transport
and morphology. In the laboratory, the phenomenon can be studied in the context of a vari-
ety of containers, such as channel and wave tanks, specified by the experimentalist. In the
field, however, the fluid-sediment mixture constructs its own container. This new degree
of freedom opens up a variety of intriguing possibilities.
Consider the river. Depending on the existence or lack of a viscous sublayer and the
relative importance of bedload versus suspended load, a variety of rhythmic structures can
form on the river bed. These include ripples, dunes, antidunes, and alternate bars. The first
three of these can have a profound effect on the resistance to flow offered by the river bed.
Thus, they act to control river depth. River banks themselves also can be considered to be
a self-formed morphological feature, thus specifying the entire container.
The container itself can deform in plan. Alternate bars cause rivers to erode their banks
in a rhythmic pattern, thus allowing for the onset of meandering. Fully developed river
meandering implies an intricate balance between sediment erosion and deposition. If a
stream is sufficiently wide, it will braid rather than meander, dividing into several inter-
twining channels.
Rivers create morphological structures at much larger scales as well. These include
canyons, alluvial fans, and deltas. Turbidity currents create similar structures in the ocean-
ic environment. In the coastal environment, the beach profile itself is created by the inter-
action of water and sediment. On a larger scale, offshore bars, spits, and capes constitute
rhythmic features created by wave-current-sediment interaction. The boulder levees often
created by debris flows provide another example of a morphologic structure created by a
sediment-bearing flow.
The floodplains of most sand-bed rivers often contain copious amounts of silt and clay
finer than approximately 50 . This material is often called wash load because it moves
through the river system without being present in the bed in significant quantities.
Increased wash load does not cause deposition on the bed, and reduced wash load does
not cause erosion because it is transported well below capacity. This is not meant to imply
that the wash load does not interact with the river system. Wash load in the water column
exchanges with the banks and the floodplain rather than the bed. Greatly increased wash
load, for example, can lead to thickened floodplain deposits, with a consequent increase
in bankfull channel depth.
The emphasis here is the understanding of bedload and suspended load transport in
rivers, with the goal of providing the knowledge needed to do sound sedimentation engi-
neering, particularly with problems involving stream restoration and naturalization.
6.5.2 Shields Regime Diagram
In the context of rivers, it is useful to have a way to determine what kind of sediment-
transport phenomena can be expected for different flow conditions and different charac-
teristics of sediment particles. In Fig. 6.10, the ordinates correspond to bed shear stresses
written in the dimensionless form proposed by Shields
R
b
D

R
H
D
S
(6.52)
and the particle Re
p
, defined by Eq. (6.37) is used for the abscissa values. There are three
curves in the diagram which make it possible to know, for different values of (
*
, Re
p
), if
the given bed sediment will go into motion, and if this is the case whether or not the pre-
vailing mode of transport will be in suspension or as bedload. The diagram also can be used
to predict what kind of bedforms can be expected. For example, ripples will develop in the
presence of a viscous sublayer and fine-grained sediment. If the viscous sublayer is dis-
rupted by coarse sediment particles, then dunes will be the most common type of bedform.
The Shields regime diagram also shows a clear distinction between the conditions
observed in sand-bed rivers and gravel-bed rivers at bankfull stage. If one wanted to mod-
el in the laboratory sediment transport in rivers, the experimental conditions would be dif-
ferent, depending on the river system in question. As could be expected, the diagram also
shows that in gravel-bed rivers, sediment is transported as bedload. In sand-bed rivers, on
the other hand, suspended load and bedload transport coexist most of the time.
The regime diagram is valid for steady, uniform, turbulent flow conditions, where the
bed shear stress
b
can be estimated with Eq. (6.1). The ranges for silt, sand, and gravel
also are included. In the diagram, the critical Shields stress for motion was plotted with
the help of Eq. (6.44). The critical condition for suspension is given by the following ratio:
u
v
*
s
1 (6.53)
6.24 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
1
0
S
h
i
e
l
d
s

r
e
g
i
m
e

d
i
a
g
r
a
m
.

(
S
o
u
r
c
e
:
G
a
r
y

P
a
r
k
e
r
)
6.26 Chapter Six
where u
*
is the shear velocity and v
s
is the sediment fall velocity. Equation (6.53) can be
transformed into
s

R
1
2
f
(6.54)
where
s

gR
u
2
*
D
(6.55)
and R
f
is given by Eq. (6.35a) and can be computed for different values of Re
p
with the
help of Eq. (6.38).
Finally, the critical condition for viscous effects (ripples) was obtained with the help
of Eq. (6.5) as follows:
11.6

u
*
1 (6.56)
which in dimensionless form can be written as
*
v

1
R
1
e
.
p
6
,
2
(6.57)
Relations (6.44), (6.54), and (6.57) are the ones plotted in Fig. 6.10. The Shields regime
diagram should be useful for studies concerning stream restoration and naturalization
because it provides the range of dimensionless shear stresses corresponding to bankfull
flow conditions for both gravel- and sand-bed streams.
6.6 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT
6.6.1 The Bed Load Transport Function
Bedload particles roll, slide, or saltate along the bed. The transport thus occurs tangential
to the bed. In a case where all the transport is directed in the streamwise, or s direction,
the volume bedload-transport rate per unit width (n direction) is given by q; the units are
length
3
/length/per time, or length
2
/time. In general, q is a function of boundary shear stress
b
and other parameters; that is,
q q(
b
, other parameters) (6.58)
In general, bedload transport is vectorial, with components q
s
and q
n
in the s and n direc-
tions, respectively.
6.6.2 Erosion Into and Deposition from Suspension
The volume rate of erosion of bed material into suspension per unit time per unit bed area
is denoted as E. The units of E are length
3
/length
2
/time, or velocity. A dimensionless sed-
iment entrainment rate E
s
can thus be defined with the sediment fall velocity v
s
:
E v
s
E
s
(6.59)
In general, E
s
can be expected to be a function of boundary shear stress
b
and other para-
meters. Erosion into suspension can be taken to be directed upward normal: i.e., in the
positive z direction.
Let c
denote the volume concentration of suspended sediment (m

3
of sediment/m
3
of
sediment-water mixture), averaged over turbulence. The streamwise volume transport rate
of suspended sediment per unit width is given by
q
s

H
0
c
dz (6.60)
In a two-dimensional case, two components, q
Ss
and q
Sn
, result, where
q
Ss

H
0
c
dz (6.61a)
q
Sn

H
0
c
dz (6.61b)
Deposition onto the bed is by means of settling. The rate at which material is fluxed
vertically downward onto the bed (volume/area/time) is given by v
s
c
b
, where c
b
is a near-
bed value of c
. The deposition rate D realized at the bed is obtained by computing the

component of this flux that is actually directed normal to the bed:
D v
s
c
b
(6.62)
6.6.3 The Exner Equation of Sediment Mass Conservation for
Uniform Material
Consider a portion of river bottom, where the bed material is taken to have a (constant)
porosity
p
. Mass balance of sediment requires the following equation to be satisfied:
[mass of bed material] net mass bedload inflow rate

net mass rate of deposition from suspension.
A datum of constant elevation is located well below the bed level, and the elevation of the
bed with respect to such datum is given by . Then, bed level changes as a result of bed-
load transport, sediment entrainment into suspension, and sediment deposition onto the
bed can be predicted with the help of
(1
p
)

q
s
s
q
n
n

v
s
(c
b
E
s
) (6.63)
To solve the Exner equation, it is necessary to have relations to compute bedload transport
(i.e., q
s
and q
n
), near-bed suspended sediment concentration c
b
, and sediment entrainment
into suspension E
s
. The basic form of Eq. (6.63) was first proposed by Exner (1925).
6.6.4 Bedload Transport Relations
A large number of bedload relations can be expressed in the general form
6.28 Chapter Six
q
*
q
*
(
*
, R
ep
, R) (6.64)
Here, q
*
is a dimensionless bedload transport rate known as the Einstein number, first
introduced by H. A. Einstein in 1950 and given by
q
*
Rg
q
D D
(6.65)
The following relations are of interest. In 1972, Ashida and Michiue introduced
q
*
17(
*

*
c
) [(
*
)
1/2
(
c
)
1/2
] (6.66)
and recommend a value of
c
*
of 0.05. It has been verified with uniform material ranging
in size from 0.3 mm to 7 mm. Meyer-Peter and Muller (1948) introduced the following:
q
*
8(
*

*
c
)
3/2
(6.67)
where
*
c
0.047. This formula is empirical in nature and has been verified with data for
uniform gravel.
Engelund and Fredse (1976) proposed,
q
*
18.74(
*

*
c
) [(t
*
)1/2 0.7(
c
)
1/2
] (6.68)
where
*
c
0.05. This formula resembles that of Ashida and Michiue because the deriva-
tion is almost identical.
Fernandez Luque and van Beek (1976) developed the following,
q
*
5.7(
*

*
c
)
3/2
(6.69)
where
c
varies from 0.05 for 0.9 mm material to 0.058 for 3.3. mm material. The relation
is empirical in nature.
Wilson (1966):
q
*
12(
*

c
)
3/2
(6.70)
where
c
was determined from the Shields diagram. This relation is empirical in nature;
most of the data used to fit it pertain to very high rates of bedload transport.
Einstein (1950):
q
*
q
*
(
*
) (6.71)
where the functionality is implicitly defined by the relation
1
(0.143/
*
)
2
(0.413/
*
)
2
e
t
2
dt
1
43
4
.5
3
q
.5
*
q
*
(6.72)
Note that this relation contains no critical stress. It has been used for uniform sand and
gravel.
Yalin (1963):
q
*
0.635s(
*
)
1/2

1n(1
a
2
s
a
2
s)
1
1
]
(6.73)
where
a
2
2.45(R 1)
0.4
(
c
)
1/2
; s
*
c
*
c
(6.74)
1

and
c
is evaluated from a standard Shields curve. Two constants in this formula have been
evaluated with the aid of data quoted by Einstein (1950), pertaining to 0.8 mm and 28.6
mm material.
Parker (1978):
q
*
11.2
(
*
0
*3
.03)
4.5
(6.75)
developed with data sets pertaining to rough mobile-bed flow over gravel.
Several of these relations are plotted in Fig. 6.11. They tend to be rather similar in
nature. Scores of similar relations could be quoted.
To date, only few research groups have attempted complete derivations of the bedload
function in water. They are Wiberg and Smith (1989), Sekine and Kikkawa (1992), Garca
and Nio (1992), Nio and Garca, (1994, 1998), and Nio et al., (1994).
FIGURE 6.11 Bedload transport relations. (Parker, 1990)
6.30 Chapter Six
6.6.5 Bedload Transport Relation for Mixtures.
Relatively few bedload relations have been developed specifically in the context of mix-
tures (e.g., Bridge and Bennett, 1992). One of these is presented below as an example.
The relationship of Parker (1990) applies to gravel-bed streams. The data used to fit
the relation are solely from two natural gravel-bed streams: Oak Creek in Oregon and the
Elbow River in Alberta, Canada. The relation is surface-based; load is specified per unit
of fractional content in the surface layer. The surface layer is divided into N size ranges,
each with a fractional content F
i
by volume, and a mean phi size
i
; D
i
2
i
.
The arith-
metic mean of the surface size on the phi scale and the corresponding arithmetic stan-
dard deviation
are given by
F
i
i
;
2
F
i
(
i
)
2
(6.76a, b)
The corresponding geometric mean size D
sg
and the geometric standard deviation
sg
of
the surface layer are given by
D
sg
2

sg
2
(6.77a, b)
In the Parker relation, the volume bedload transport per unit width of gravel in the ith
size range is given by the product q
i
F
i
(no summation), where q
i
denotes the transport per
unit fraction in the surface layer. The total volume bedload transport rate of gravel per unit
width is q
T
, where
q
T
q
i
F
i
(6.78)
The relation does not apply to sand. Thus, before using the relation for a given surface
distribution, the sand content of the grain-size distribution must be removed and F
i
must
be renormalized so that it sums to unity over all sizes in excess of 2 mm.
If p
i
denotes the fraction volume content of material in the ith size range in the bed-
load, it follows that
p
i

q
q
i
F
i
F
i
i
(6.79)
The parameter q
i
is made dimensionless as follows:
W
*
si

(
b
R
/
g
)
q
3/
i
2
F
i
(6.80)
A dimensionless Shields stress based on the surface geometric mean size is defined as
follows:
*
sg

g
b
D
sg
(6.81)
Let
sgo
denote a normalized value of this Shields stress, given by
sgo

*
*
r
s
s
g
g
o
o
(6.82)
where
*
rsgo
0.0386 (6.83)
corresponds to a near-critical value of Shields stress. The Parker relation can then be
expressed in the form
W
*
si
0.0218 G [
sgo
g
o
(
i
)] (6.84a)
In the above relationship, g
o
denotes a hiding function given by
g
o
(
i
)
0.0951
i
;
i

D
D
s
i
g
(6.84b)
The parameter is given by the relationship
1

(
o
1) (6.84c)
where
o
and
o
are specified as functions of
sgo
in Fig. 6.12. The function G is speci-
fied as
5474(1 0.853/)
4.5
1.65
G[]
exp[14.2( 1) 9.28( 1)
2
] 1 1.65
M
o
1 (6.85)
and is shown in Fig. 6.13. Here, M
o
14.2 and is a dummy variable for the argument
in Eq. (6.84) and is not to be confused with the grain-size scale.
An application of Eq. (6.84) to uniform material with size D results in the relation
q
*
0.0218(
*
)
3/2
G
0.0
3
*
86
,
(6.86)
where
q
*
gR
q
D D
;
*
R
b
D
(6.87)
and q denotes the volumetric sediment transport per unit width. In Fig. 6.11, Eq. (6.86) is
compared to several other relations and selected laboratory data for uniform material. The
figure is adapted from Figs. 6b and 7 in Wiberg and Smith (1989), where reference to the
data and equations can be found. The data pertain to 0.5 mm sand and 28.6 mm gravel.
Equation (6.86) shows a reasonable correspondence with the data and with several other
relations for uniform material.
The Parker relationship (Eq. 6.84) can be used to predict mobile or static armor in
gravel streams. Note that there is no formal critical stress in the formulation; instead for
1, the transport rates become extremely small. For the computation of bedload trans-
port in poorly sorted gravel-bed rivers, the above formulation has been used to implement
a series of programs named ACRONYM (Parker, 1990). The program ACRONYM1
provides an implementation of the surface-based bedload transport equation presented in
Parker (1990). It computes the magnitude and size distribution of bedload transport over
a bed surface of given size distribution, on which a given boundary shear stress is
imposed. The program ACRONYM2 inverts the same bedload transport equation,
allowing for calculation of the size distribution at a given boundary shear stress. The pro-
gram was used to compute mobile and static armor size distributions in Parker (1990) and
Parker and Sutherland (1990).
6.32 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
1
2
P
l
o
t
s

o
f

0
a
n
d
0
v
e
r
s
u
s

s
g
0
,
t
h
e

a
s
y
m
p
t
o
t
e
s

a
r
e

n
o
t
e
d

o
n

t
h
e

p
l
o
t
.

(
P
a
r
k
e
r
,
1
9
9
0
)
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
1
3
P
l
o
t

o
f

G
a
n
d
G
T
v
e
r
s
u
s

5
0
.

(
P
a
r
k
e
r
,
1
9
9
0
)
The program ACRONYM3 allows for the computation of aggradation or degrada-
tion to a specified active or static equilibrium final state. To this end, Parkers method
(1990) is combined with a resistance relation of the Keulegan type. In the program, both
constant width and water discharge are assumed.
The program ACRONYM4 is directed toward the wavelike aggravation of self-sim-
ilar form discussed in Parker (1991a, 1991b). It uses Parkers method and a resistance
relation of the Manning-Strickler type to compute downstream fining and slope concavi-
ty caused by selective sorting and abrasion.
6.7 BEDFORMS
The formation and behavior of sediment waves produced by moving water are, in equal
measure, intellectually intriguing and of great engineering importance. Because of the
central role they play in river hydraulics, fluvial ripples, dunes, and bars have received
extensive attention from engineers for at least the past two centuries, and even more inten-
sive descriptive study from geologists. Such studies can be divided into three categories
according to the approach followed: analytical, empirical, or statistical.
Analytical models for bedforms have been proposed since 1925 (Anderson, 1953;
Blondeaux et al., 1985; Colombini et al., 1987; Engelund, 1970; Exner, 1925; Fredsoe,
1974, 1982; Gill, 1971; Haque and Mahmood, 1985; Hayashi, 1970; Kennedy, 1963,
1969; Parker, 1975; Raudkivi and Witte, 1990; Richards, 1980; Smith, 1970; Tubino and
Seminara, 1990).
Empirical methods include the following works (Coleman and Melville, 1994;
Colombini et al., 1990; Garca and Nio, 1993; Garde and Albertson, 1959; Ikeda, 1984;
Jaeggi, 1984; Kinoshita and Miwa, 1974; Menduni and Paris, 1986: Ranga Raju and Soni,
1976; Raudkivi, 1963; van Rijn, 1984; Yalin, 1964; Yalin and Karahan, 1979).
Statistical models for bedforms have been advanced by the following authors
Annambhotla et al.,1972; Hino, 1968; Jain and Kennedy, 1974; Nakagawa and Tsujimoto,
1984; Nordin and Algert, (1966).
Despite all the research that has been done, there is presently no completely reliable
predictor for the conditions of occurrence and characteristics of the different bed config-
urations (ripples, dunes, flat bed, antidunes).
6.7.1 Dunes, Antidunes, Ripples, and Bars
The ripples, dunes, and antidunes illustrated in Fig. 6.14 are the classic bedforms of
erodible-bed open-channel flow. On the one hand, they are a product of the flow and
sediment transport; on the other hand, they profoundly influence the flow and sediment
transport. In fact, all the bedload formulas quoted previously are strictly invalid in
the presence of bedforms. The adjustments necessary to render them valid are discussed
later.
Ripples, dunes, and antidunes are undular (wavelike) features that have wavelengths
and wave heights that scale no larger than on the order of the flow depth H, as defined
below.
6.7.1.1 Dunes. Well-developed dunes tend to have wave heights D scaling up to about
one-sixth of the depth: i.e.,
6.34 Chapter Six

1
6
(6.88)
Dune wavelengths can vary considerably. A fairly typical range can be quantified as
dimensionless wave number k, where
k

2
(6.89)
This range is
0.25 k 4.0 (6.90)
Dunes invariably migrate downstream. Typically, they are approximately triangular in
shape and usually (but not always) possess a slip face, beyond which the flow is separat-
ed for a certain length. A dune progresses forward as bedload accretes on the slip face.
Generally, little bedload is able to pass beyond the face without depositing on it, whereas
most of the suspended load is not directly affected by it.
Let c denote the wave speed of the dune. The bedload transport rate can be estimated as
the volume of material transported forward per unit bed area per unit time by a migrating
dune. If the dune is approximated as triangular in shape, the following approximation holds:
q

1
2
c(1
p
) (6.91)
Dunes are characteristic of subcritical flow in the Froude sense. In a shallow-water (long
wave) model, the Froude criterion (Fr) dividing subcritical and supercritical flow is
FIGURE 6.14 Schematic of different bedforms. (Vanoni, 1975)
6.36 Chapter Six
Fr 1 (6.92)
where
Fr (6.93)
Dunes, however, do not qualify as long waves because their wavelength is of the order of
the depth. A detailed potential flow analysis over a wavy bed yields the following (wave-
number dependent) criterion for critical flow over a bedform (Kennedy, 1963).
Fr
2

1
k
tanh(k) (6.94)
Note that as k 0( ) tanh(k) k, and condition (6.92) is recovered in the long-
wave limit. For dunes to occur, then, the following condition must be satisfied:
F
2

1
k
tanh (k) (6.95)

Both dunes and antidunes cause the water surface as well as the bed to undulate. In the
case of dunes, the undulation of the water surface is usually of much smaller amplitude
than that of the bed; the two are nearly 180
o
out of phase.
Dunes also can occur in the case of wind-blown sand. Barchan dunes are commonly
observed in the desert. In addition, they can be found in the fluvial environment in the case
of sand (in supply insufficient to cover the bed completely) migrating over an immobile
gravel bed.
6.7.1.2 Antidunes. Antidunes are distinguished from dunes by the fact that the undula-
tions of the water surface are nearly in phase with those of the bed. They are associated
with supercritical flow in the sense that
F
2

1
k
tanh (k) (6.96)

Antidunes may migrate either upstream or downstream. Upstream-migrating antidunes
are usually rather symmetrical in shape and lack a slip face. Downstream-migrating
antidunes are rarer; they have a well-defined slip face and look rather like dunes. The dis-
tinguishing feature is the water surface undulations, which are pronounced in the case of
antidunes.
The potential-flow criterion dividing upstream-migrating antidunes from downstream-
migrating antidunes is
F
2
k tan
1
h (k)
(6.97)
Values lower than the value in Eq. 6.97 are associated with upstream-migrating antidunes.
6.7.1.3 Ripples. Ripples are dunelike features that occur only in the presence of a vis-
cous sublayer. They look much like dunes because they migrate downstream and have a
pronounced slip face. They generally are much more three-dimensional in structure than
are dunes, however, and have little effect on the water surface.
A criterion for the existence of ripples is the existence of a viscous sublayer. Recalling
that the thickness of the viscous sublayer is given by
v
11.6v/u*, it follows that ripples
form when
U
gH
u
*
11.6 (6.98)
6.7.1.4 Bars. Bars are bedforms in rivers that scale the channel width. They include
alternate bars in straight streams, point bars in meandering streams, and pool bars in braid-
ed streams. In straight streams, the minimum channel slope S necessary for alternate-bar
formation is given by
S (6.99)
(Jaeggi, 1984), where B is the channel width, D
g
is the geometric mean size of the bed sed-
iment, as given by Eq. (6.82a), and M is a parameter that varies from 0.34 for uniform-
sized bed material to 0.7 for poorly sorted material.
Scour depth (S
d
) caused by alternate bar formation can be estimated with
S
d
0.76
AB
, (6.100)
where
AB
is the total height of the alternate bar.
6.7.1.5 Progression of bedforms. Various bedforms are associated with various flow
regimes. In the case of a sand-bed stream with a characteristic size less than about 0.5 mm,
a clear progression is evident as flow velocity increases. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.14.
The bed is assumed to be initially flat. At low imposed velocity U, the bed remains flat
because no sediment is moved. As the velocity exceeds the critical value, ripples are
formed first. At higher values, dunes form and coexist with ripples. For even higher veloc-
ities, well-developed dunes form in the absences of ripples.
At some point, the velocity reaches a value near the critical value in the Froude sense:
B
D
B
g
,
0.15
exp
1.07
D
B
g
,
0.15
M
1
1
]
12.9
D
B
g
,
Ripples
Bars
Wavelength less than
approx 1 ft; height less
than approx 0.1 ft.
Lengths comparable to
the channel width.
Height comparable to
mean flow depth.
Roughly triangular in
profile, with gentle,
slightly convex
upstream slopes and
downstream slopes
nearly equal to the
angle of repose.
Generally short-crested
and three-dimensional.
Profile similar to
ripples. Plan form
variable.
Move downstream with
velocity much less than
that of the flow.
Generally do not occur
in sediments coarser
than about 0.6 mm.
Four types of bars are
distinguished: (1)
point, (2) alternating,
(3) transverse, and (4)
tributary. Ripples may
occur on upstream
slopes.
Table 6.4 Summary of Bedform Effects on Flow Configuration
Bed Form or Behavior and
Configuration Dimensions Shape Occurrence
(1) (2) (3) (4)
6.38 Chapter Six
Dunes
Transition
Flat bed
Antidunes
Wavelength and height
greater than ripples but
less than bars.
Vary widely
Wave length 2V
2
/g
(approx)* Height
depends on depth and
velocity of flow.
Similar to ripples.
Vary widely.
Nearly sinusoidal in
profile. Crest length
comparable to
wavelength.
Upstream slopes of
dunes may be covered
with ripples. Dunes
migrate downstream in
manner similar to
ripples.
A configuration
consisting of a
heterogeneous array of
bed forms, primarily
low amplitude ripples
and dunes interspersed
with flat regions.
A bed surface devoid
of bed forms. May not
occur for some ranges
of depth and sand size.
In phase with and
strongly interact with
gravity watersurface
waves. May move
upstream, downstream,
or remain stationary,
depending on properties
of flow and sediment.
Table 6.4 (Continued)
Bed Form or Behavior and
Configuration Dimensions Shape Occurence
(1) (2) (3) (4)
*
Reported by Kennedy (1969).
Source: Vanoni (1975).
i.e., Eq. (6.94). Near this point, the dunes often are suddenly and dramatically washed out.
This results in a flat bed known as an upper-regime (supercritical) flat bed. Further
increases in velocity lead to the formation of antidunes and, finally, to the chute and pool
pattern. The last of these is characterized by a series of hydraulic jumps.
In the case of a bed coarser than 0.5 mm, the ripple regime is replaced by a zone char-
acterized by a lower-regime (subcritical) flat bed. Above this lies the ranges for dunes, the
upper-regime flat bed, and antidunes.
The effect of bedforms on flow resistance is summarized in Table 6.4. As noted earli-
er for equilibrium flows in wide straight channels, the relation for bed resistance can be
expressed in the form
b
C
f
U
2
(6.101)
where C
f
denotes a bed-friction coefficient. If the bed were rigid and the flow were
rough, C
f
would vary only weakly with the flow, according to the logarithmic law
embodied in Eq. (6.12). As a result, the relation between
b
and U is approximately par-
abolic.
The effect of bedforms is to increase the bed shear stress to values often well above
that associated with the skin friction of a rough bed alone. In Fig. 6.15, a plot of
b
versus U is given for the case of an erodible bed. At extremely low values of U, the
parabolic law is followed. As ripples, then dunes are formed, the bed shear stress rises
to a maximum value. At this maximum value, the value of C
f
is seen to be as much
as five times the value without dunes. It is clear that dunes play an important role
regarding bed resistance. The increased resistance results from form drag in the lee of
the dune.
As the flow velocity increases further, dune wavelength gradually increases and dune
height diminishes, leading to a gradual reduction in resistance. At some point, the dunes
are washed out, and the parabolic law is again satisfied. At even higher velocities, the
form drag associated with antidunes appears; it is usually not as pronounced as that of
dunes.
6.7.2 Dimensionless Characterization of Bedform Regime
Based on the above arguments, it is possible to identify at least three parameters govern-
ing bedforms at equilibrium flow. These are Shields stress
*
, shear Reynolds number Re
u
*
D/, and Fr. A characteristic feature of sediment transport is the proliferation of
dimensionless parameters. This feature notwithstanding, Parker and Anderson (1977)
showed that equilibrium relations of sediment transport for uniform material in a straight
channel can be expressed with just two dimensionless hydraulic parameters, along with a
particle Re (e.g., Re
p
or Re) and a measure of the denstiy difference (e.g., R).
FIGURE 6.15 Variations of bed shear stress
b
and Darcy-Weisbach friction fac-
tor f with mean velocity U in flow over a fine sand bed. (Raudkivi, 1990)
6.40 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.16 Bedform predictor proposed by Simons and
Richardson (1966).
In the case of bedforms, then, the following classification can be proposed:
bedform type function (
1
,
2
; Re
p
, R) (6.102)
Here, any independent pair of hydraulic variables
1
,
2
applicable to the problem can be
specified because any one pair can be transformed into any other independent pair. For
example, the pair
*
and Fr might be used or, alternatively, S and H/D.
One popular discriminator of bedform type is not expressed in dimensionless form at
all. It is the diagram proposed by Simons and Richardson (1966), (Fig. 6.16). In the dia-
gram, regimes for ripples and dunes, transition to the upper-regime plane bed, and upper-
regime plane bed and antidunes are shown. The two hydraulic parameters are abbreviated
to a single one, stream power
b
U, and the particle Re is replaced by grain size D. The dia-
gram is applicable only for sand-bed streams of relatively small scale.
Lius discriminator (1957), shown in Fig. 6.17, uses one dimensionless hydraulic para-
FIGURE 6.17 Criteria for bedforms proposed by Liu (1957)
FIGURE 6.18 Bedform classification. (after Chabert and Chauvin,
1963)
6.42 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.19a Bed-form chart for R
g
= 4.510 (D
50
= 0.12 mm0.200 mm)
FIGURE 6.19b Bed-form chart for R
g
= 4.510 (D
50
= 0.12
mm0.200 mm)
meter u
*
/v
s
(a surrogate for
*
) and the particle Re
p
. The diagram is of interest because it
covers sizes much coarser than those of Simons and Richardson. It is seen that the vari-
ous regimes become compressed as grain size increases. In the case of extremely coarse
material, the flow must be supercritical for any motion to occur. As a result, neither rip-
ples or dunes are expected.
In fact, dunes can occur over a limited range in the case of coarse material. This is
illustrated in Fig. 6.18. The diagram shows that Re must be less than approximately 10(
v
D) for ripples to form. Recalling that
Re

u
*
(
*
)
1/2
R g
D D
(6.103)
and using a critical value of
*
of approximately 0.03, it is seen from Eq. (6.101) and the
conditions R 1.65, 0.01 cm
2
/s that the condition Re 10 corresponds to a value of
D of approximately 0.6 mm.
For coarser grain sizes, the dune regime is preceded by a fairly wide range consisting
of a lower-regime flat bed. Many gravel-bed rivers never leave this lower-regime flat bed
FIGURE 6.19d Bed-form chart for R
g
= 1626 (D
50
= 0.228 mm0.45 mm)
FIGURE 6.19e Bed-form chart for R
g
= 2448 (D
50
= 0.4
mm0.57 mm)
FIGURE 6.19c Bed-form chart for R
g
= 4.510 (D
50
= 0.15 mm0.32 mm)
6.44 Chapter Six
region, even at bankfull flow. The diagram in Fig. 6.18 is not suited to the description of
upper-regime flow.
A complete set of diagrams for the case of sand is shown in Fig. 6.19a to f, (Vanoni,
1974). The two hydraulic parameters are Fr and H/D; the particle Re used in the plot is
equal to Re
p
/R, and constant R is set at 1.65. Note how the transition to upper regime
FIGURE 6.20 Bedform classification (after van Rijin, 1984)
FIGURE 6.19f Bedform chart. A, B, C, D, E, F (after Vanoni, 1974)
occurs at progressively lower values of Fr for relatively deeper flow (in the sense that H/D
becomes large).
A bedform classification scheme that includes both the lower and the upper regime
was proposed by Van Rijn (1984). The scheme is based on a dimensionless particle diam-
eter D
*
and the transport-stage parameter T defined, respectively, as
D
*
D
50
g
2
,
1/3
R
2/3
ep (6.104)
and
T
*
s

*
c
*
c
(6.105)
where
s
*
is the bed shear stress caused by skin or grain friction, and
c
*
is the critical shear
stress for motion from the Shields diagram.
Van Rijn (1984) suggested that ripples form when both D
*
10 and T 3, as shown
in Fig. 6.20. Dunes are present elsewhere when T 15, dunes wash out when 15 T
25, and upper flow regime starts when T 25.
In the lower regime, the geometry of bedforms refers to representative dune height
and wavelength as a function of the average flow depth H, median bed particle diame-
ter D
50
, and other flow parameters such as the transport-stage parameter T, and the grain
shear Reynolds number Re. The bedform height and steepness predictors proposed by van
Rijn (1984) are
FIGURE 6.21a,b Bedform height and steepness (after van Rijn,
1984)
6.46 Chapter Six
0.11

D
H
50
,
0.3
(1 e
0.5T
)(25 T) (6.106)
and
0.015

D
H
50
,
0.3
(1 e
0.5T
) (25 T) (6.107)
The bedform length obtained from dividing these two equations, 7.3H, is close
to the theoretical value 2H, derived by Yalin (1964). The agreement with labora-
tory data is good, as shown in Fig. 6.21a and b, but both curves tend to underestimate the
bedform height and steepness of field data (Julien, 1995; Julien and Klaasen, 1995). For
instance, lower-regime bedforms are observed in the Mississippi River at values of T well
beyond 25. Large dunes on alluvial rivers often display small dunes moving along their
stoss face (Amsler and Garca, 1997; Klaasen et al., 1986), resulting in additional form
drag that is not accounted for in relations derived from laboratory observations. What is
needed is a predictor for bedforms in large alluvial rivers based on field
observations,
6.7.3 Effect of Bedforms on River Stage
The presence or absence of bedforms on the bed of a river can lead to some curious effects
on a rivers stage. According to a standard Manning-type relation for an nonerodible bed,
the following should hold:
U

1
n
H
2/3
S
1/2
(6.108)
FIGURE 6.22 Flow velocity versus hydraulic radius for
the Rio Grande (after Nordin, 1964)
Here, the channel is assumed to be wide enough to allow the hydraulic radius to be
replaced with the depth H. According to Eq. (6.108), if the energy slope remains relative-
ly constant, depth should increase monotonically with increasing velocity. This would
indeed be the case for a rigid bed. In a sand-bed stream, however, resistance decreases as
U increases over a wide range of conditions.
At equilibrium,
b
C
f
U
2
gHS (6.109)
This decrease in resistance implies that depth does not increase as rapidly in U as it would
for a rigid-bed open channel. In fact, as transition to upper regime is approached, the bed-
forms can be wiped out suddenly, resulting in a dramatic decrease in resistance. The result
can be an actual decrease in depth as velocity increases (Fig. 6.22).
It is often found that the discharge at which the dunes are obliterated is a little below
bankfull in sand-bed streams. As a result, flooding is not as severe as it would be other-
wise. The precise point of transition is generally different, depending on whether the dis-
charge is increasing or decreasing. This can lead to double-valued stage-discharge rela-
tions, (Fig. 6.22).
6.8 EFFECT OF BEDFORMS ON FLOW AND
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
6.8.1 Form Drag and Skin Friction
As was seen in Sec. 6.7.3, bedforms can have a profound influence on the flow resistance
and thus on the sediment transport in an alluvial channel. To characterize the importance
of bedforms in this regard, it is of value to consider the forces that contribute to the drag
force on the bed.
Consider, for example, the case of normal flow in a wide rectangular channel. In the
presence of bedforms, Eq. (6.1) must be amended to

b
gHS (6.110)
where
b
is an effective boundary shear stress, where the overbear denotes averaging over
the bedforms and can be defined as the streamwise drag force per unit area, where H now
represents the depth averaged over the bedforms.
In most cases of interest, the two major sources of the effective boundary shear stress
b
are skin friction, which is associated with the shear stresses, and the form drag, which
is associated with the pressure. That is,
b

bs

bf
(6.111)
where
bs
is the shear stress caused by skin friction and
bf
is the shear stress caused by
form drag.
The important thing to realize is that form drag results from a net pressure distribution
over an entire bedform. At any given point along the surface of the bedform, the pressure
force acts normal to the body. For this reason, form drag is ineffective in either moving
bedload sediment or entraining sediment into suspension. In the case of dunes in rivers,
because the flow usually separates in the lee of the crest, the form drag is often substan-
tial. The part of the effective shear stress that governs sediment transport is thus seen to
6.48 Chapter Six
be the skin friction.
To render any of the bedload formulas presented in Sec. 6.6.4 valid in the presence of
bedforms, it is necessary to replace the Shields stress
*
by the Shields stress
*
s
associat-
ed with skin friction only:
*
s

b
g
s
D
(6.112)
The fact that the form drag needs to be excluded to compute sediment transport does
not by any means imply that it is unimportant. It is often the dominant source of bound-
ary resistance and thus plays a crucial role in determining the depth of flow. This will be
considered in more detail below.
6.8.2 Shear Stress Partitions
6.8.2.1 Einstein partition. Einstein (1950) was among the first to recognize the neces-
sity to distinguish between skin friction and form drag. He proposed the following simple
scheme to partition the two. Equation (6.101) is amended to represent an effective bound-
ary shear stress averaged over bedforms:
b
C
f
U
2
(6.113)
where C
f
now represents a resistance coefficient that includes both skin friction and form
drag. For a given flow velocity U, Einstein computed the skin friction as follows:
bs
C
fs
U
2
(6.l14)
where C
fs
is the frictional resistance coefficient that would result if bedforms were absent.
For example, in the case of rough turbulent flow, Eq. (6.15) may be used:
C
fs

1
1n
11

H
k
s
s
,
1
1
]
2
(6.115)
(In fact, Einstein presented a slightly different formula, which allows for turbulent smooth
and transitional flow as well.) The parameter H
s
denotes the depth that would result in the
absence of bedforms (but with U held constant). This depth is per force less than H
because the resistance is less in the absence of bedforms.
The remaining problem is how to calculate H
s
. Einstein restricted his arguments to the
case of normal flow. In this case, Eq. (6.15) holds: that is,

b
C
f
U
2
gHS (6.116a)
and
bs
C
fs
U
2
gH
s
S (6.116b)
Now, between Eqs. (6.113) and (6.116b), the following relation is obtained for H
s
:
H
s

U
gS
2
1
1n(11

H
k
s
s
)
1
1
]
2
(6.117)
For given values of U, k
s
, and S (averaged over bedforms), Eq. (6.117) is easily solved
iteratively for H
s
. Once H
s
is known, it is not difficult to complete the partition. From Eq.
(6.109), it follows that
bf

b

bs
. (6.118)
In analogy to Eqs. (6.111), (6.112), and (6.114), the following definitions are made:
bf
C
ff
U
2
gH
f
S (6.119)
from which it follows that
C
f
C
fs
C
ff
(6.120a)
and
H H
s
H
f
(6.120b)
Here, C
ff
denotes the resistance coefficient associated with form drag and H
s
denotes the
extra depth (compared to the case of skin friction alone) that results from form drag.
Up to this point, it is assumed the U, S, and k
s
are given. If, for example, H also is
known,
b
can be calculated from Eq. (6.110). After H
s
, C
fs
, and
bs
are computed from
Eqs. (6.113) to (6.115), it is possible to compute
bf
, H
f
, and C
ff
from Eqs. (6.116) and
(6.118).
6.8.2.2 Example of the Einstein partition. Consider a sand-bed stream at a given cross
section with a slope of 0.0004, a mean depth of 2.9 m, a value of median bed sediment
size of 0.35 mm, and a discharge per unit width of 4.4 m
2
/s. Assume that the flow is at
near-normal conditions. Compute values of
bs
,
bf
, C
fs
, C
ff
, H
s
, and H
f
.
Solution: U 4.4/2.9 1.52 m/s. An appropriate estimate of k
s
for a sand-bed stream is
k
s
2.5D
50
(6.121)
Solving Eq. (6.115) by successive approximation, it is found the H
s
1.047 m. The
following values then hold:
bs
4.11 newtons/m
2
(
*
s
0.725)
bf
7.27 newtons/m
2
(
*
f
1.283)
b
11.38 newtons/m
2
(
*
2.008)
C
fs
0.00178
C
ff
0.00315
C
f
0.00493 (C
f
1/2
14.5)
H
s
1.047 m
H
f
1.842 m
H 2.9 m
In the above relations,
*
f

g
bf
D
(6.122)
denotes a form Shield stress. In the above case, only some 30% of the total Shields stress
(skin form) contributes to moving sediment.
The Einstein method provides a way of partitioning the boundary shear stress if the
flow is known. It does not provide a direct means of computing form drag. A method pro-
posed by Nelson and Smith (1989) overcomes this difficulty.
6.8.2.3 Nelson-Smith partition. Nelson and Smith considered flow over a dune; the
flow is taken to separate in the lee of the dune. On the basis of experimental observations,
they use the following relation for form drag:
D
f
B

1
2
c
D
U
2
r
(6.123)
Here, D
f
denotes that portion of the streamwise drag force D
fs
that is caused by form drag,
B is the channel width, and U
r
denotes a reference velocity to be defined below. They eval-
uate the drag coefficient c
D
as
c
D
0.21 (6.124)
It follows that
bf

1
2
c
D

U
2
r

B
D
(6.125)
The reference velocity U
r
is defined to be the mean velocity that would prevail between
z k
s
and z if the bedforms were not there. From the logarithmic profile represent-
ed by Eq. (6.7), this is found to be given by
r
s
/
[ln(30
) 1] (6.126)
It is now assumed that a rough logarithmic law with roughness k
s
prevails from z k
s
to
z D, and a different rough logarithmic law with roughness k
c
prevails from z D to z
H. Here k
c
represents a composite roughness length, including the effects of both skin
friction and form drag. The two laws are thus
(
b
z
s
)
/

ln
30

k
z
s
, k
s
z (6.127a)
and

ln
30

k
z
c
, z H (6.127b)
Nelson and Smith (1989) matched the above two laws at the level z . After some
manipulation, it is found that
bs
bs
bf
l
l
n
n
(
(
3
3
0
0
/
/
k
k
c
s
)
2
(6.128)
The partition requires a prior knowledge of total boundary shear stress
b

bs

bf
as
well as roughness height k
s
, dune height , and dune wavelength . Between Eqs. (6.123)
and (6.124),
bs/f

b

bs
1
2
c
D

ln
30

k
bs
(6.129)
This equation can be solved for
bs
, and thus
bf
. The value of k
c
is then obtained from Eq.
(6.128).
6.8.2.4 Example of the Nelson-Smith Partition. The example is chosen to be rather
u
(z)
(
bs

b
f
)/
6.50 Chapter Six
similar to the previous one: H 2.9 m, S 0.0004, k
s
2.5 D
50
, D
50
0.35 mm,
0.4 m, and 15 m. The technique, which requires no iteration, yields the following
results:
bs
4.45 newtons/m
2
(
*
s
0.785)
bf
6.93 newtons/m
2
(
*
f
1.223)
b
11.38 newtons/m
2
(
*
2.008)
k
c
0.0311 m
C
fs
0.00130
C
ff
0.00203
C
f
0.00333 (C
1/2
f
17.3)
H
s
1.134 m
H
f
1.766 m
H 2.9 m
In computing friction coefficients, the following relationship was used for the depth-aver-
aged flow velocity:
(
bs
U

bf
) /

1
1n

11

H
k
c
,
(6.130)
The Nelson-Smith method does not require the assumption of quasi-normal flow.
6.8.3 Empirical Formulas for Stage-Discharge Relations
To use either the Einstein or Nelson-Smith partitions, it is necessary to know in advance
the total effective boundary shear stress
b
. In general, this is not known. As a result, the
relations in themselves cannot be used to predict the boundary shear stress (as well as the
contributions from skin friction and form drag), and thus depth H, for a flow of, say, giv-
en slope S and discharge per unit width q
w
.
A number of empirical techniques have been proposed to accomplish this. Only three
are presented here; they are known to perform well for sand-bed streams with dune
resistance.
6.8.3.1 Einstein-Barbarossa Method. The method of Einstein and Barbarossa (1952) is
applicable for the case of dune resistance in a sand-bed stream. It assumes an empirical
relation of the following form:
C
ff
fn
*
s35
_
,
(6.131)
Here,
*
s35

g
b
D
s
35
(6.132)
The Einstein-Barbarossa plot is shown in Fig. 6.23. Note that it implies that C
ff
declines
for increasing
*
s35
. That is, the relation applies in the range for which increased intensity
of flow causes a decrease in form drag.
In the Einstein-Barbarossa method, C
fs
is computed from a relation similar to Eq.
(6.113). That relation is used here to illustrate the method, which uses the Einstein parti-
tion for skin friction and form drag.
6.8.3.2 Application of the Einstein-Barbarossa Method. The Einstein-Barbarossa
method is now used to synthesize a depth-discharge relation: that is, a relation between H
and water discharge Q is obtained. It is assumed that the river slope S and the sizes D
50
and D
35
are known. The river is taken to be wide enough so that the hydraulic radius R
h

H; otherwise, R
h
should be used in place of H. In addition, the cross-sectional shape is
known, allowing for specification of the following geometric relation:
B B(H) (6.133)
(It also is assumed that auxiliary relations for area A, wetted perimeter P and R
h
as func-
tions of H are known.)
A range of values of H
s
is arbitrarily assumed, ranging from an extremely shallow
depth to nearly bankfull depth (recall that H
s
H). For each value of H
s
, the calculation
proceeds as follows:
H
s
C
fs
Eq. (6.115)
C
fs
, H
s
U Eq. (6.116b)
H
s

bs

*
s35
Eq. (6.116b), (6.132)
*
s35
C
ff
Eq. (6.131); use the diagram
C
ff
, U H
f
Eq. (6.119)
6.52 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.23 Flow resistance due to bedforms. [after Einstein et al. (1952).]
H H
s
H
f
Eq. (6.120b)
Q UH B(H) Eq. (6.133)
The result can be plotted in terms of H versus Q.
The analysis can be continued for bedload transport rates. That is, the parameter
bs
can
be computed from
*
s

g
b
D
s
50
(6.134)
and this parameter can be substituted into an appropriate bedload transport equation to
obtain q. The volume bedload transport rate Q
b
is then computed as
Q
b
qB (6.135)
6.8.3.3 Engelund-Hansen Method. The method of Engelund and Hansen (1967) also
applies specifically for sand-bed streams. It is generally more accurate than the method of
Einstein and Barbarossa, to which it is closely allied. The method assumes quasi-uniform
material; it is necessary to know only a single grain size D. Roughness height k
s
is com-
puted from Eq. (6.121).
The method uses the Einstein partition. Skin friction is computed using Eq. (6.112).
Form drag is computed from the following empirical relation:
*
s
f(
*
) (6.136)
where
g
b
D
;
*
s

b
g
s
D
(6.137a, b)
Equation (6.134) is shown graphically in Fig. 6.24. It has two branches, each correspond-
ing to lower-regime and upper-regime flows. The two do not meet smoothly, implying the
possibility of a sudden transition. The point of transition is not specified, which suggests
the possibility of double-valued rating curves. The lower-regime branch of Eq. (6.136) is
given by
*
s
0.06 0.4(
*
)
2
(6.138)
The upper branch satisfies the relation
s

*
(6.139)
over a range; this implies an upper-regime plane bed. For higher values of Shields stress,
*
again exceeds
*
s
implying antidune resistance.
6.8.3.4 Application of the Engelund-Hansen Method. The procedure parallels that of
Einstein-Barbarossa relatively closely. It is assumed that the values of S and D as well as
the cross-sectional geometry are known. Values of H
s
are selected, ranging from a low val-
ue to near bankfull. The calculation then proceeds as follows:
H
s
C
fs
U Eq. (6.115) and (6.116b)
H
s

bs

*
s
Eq. (6,116b), (6.137b)
6.54 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
2
4
R
e
l
a
t
i
o
n

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

g
r
a
i
n

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

a
n
d

t
o
t
a
l

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
a
f
t
e
r

E
n
g
e
l
u
n
d

a
n
d

H
a
n
s
e
n
,
1
9
7
6
)
*
s

*
Eq. (6.134); use Equation (6.136) or plot
*

b
H Eq. (6.137b) and (6.116a)
Q = UH B(H) Eq. (6.133)
The value of
*
s
can then be used to calculate bedload transport rates in a fashion that is
completely analogous to the procedure outlined for the Einstein-Barbarossa method.
6.8.3.5 Brownlie method. There are almost as many empirical resistance predictors for
rivers as there are sediment transport relations. A fairly comprehensive summary of the
older methods can be found in ASCE Manual No. 54 (Vanoni, 1975). A recent empirical
method offered by Brownlie (1981a) has proved to be relatively accurate. It does not
involve a decomposition of bed shear stress; instead it gives a direct predictor of depth-
discharge relations.
The complete method can be found in Brownlie (1981a), where the relation is
presented for the case of lower-regime dune resistance in a sand-bed stream. It takes
the form
D
H
5
S
0
0.3724( qS)
0.6539
S
0.09188
0.1050
g
(6.140)
where
g
denotes the geometric standard deviation of the bed material, and q denotes a
dimensionless water discharge per unit width, given by
q
Rg
q
D
w
50
D
50
(6.141)
For known S, D
50
, and
g
, q
w
, and thus Q q
w
B is computed directly as a function of
depth H.
6.9 SUSPENDED LOAD
6.9.1 Mass Conservation of Suspended Sediment
Suspended sediment differs from bedload sediment in that it can be diffused throughout
the vertical column of fluid via turbulence. Here, the local mean volume concentration of
suspended sediment is denoted as c
. As long as the suspended sediment under considera-

tion is coarse enough not to undergo Brownian motion (i.e., silt or coarser), molecular
effects can be neglected. Suspended particles are transported solely by convective fluxes.
For an arbitrary volume of sediment-water mixture in the water column, the equation
of mass balance of suspended sediment can be written in words as
[mass in volume] [net mass inflow rate] (6.142)

Insofar as the choice of volume V is entirely arbitrary, the following sediment conserva-
tion equation, averaged over turbulence-induced fluctuations about the mean, can be
obtained:
6.56 Chapter Six
n
c
(w
v
s
)

u
s
c
v
n
c

z
c
(6.143)
where u
, v
, and w
are the mean flow velocities in the s, n, and z directions, respectively,

and the terms u c, v c, and wc are sediment fluxes caused by turbulence, also known
as Reynolds fluxes. The simplest closure assumption for these terms is
uc D
d

(6.144a)
vc D
d

n
c
(6.144b)
and
w c D
d

(6.144c)
where the kinematic eddy diffusivity D
d
is assumed to be a scalar quantity. To solve Eq.
(6.143), boundary conditions are needed.
6.9.2 Boundary Conditions
Equation (6.143), when closed with a Fickian assumption, such as Eq. (6.144a, b, and c),
represents an advection-diffusion equation for suspended sediment. The condition of van-
ishing flux of suspended sediment across (normal to) the water surface defines the upper
boundary condition.
If uniform steady flow over a flat (when averaged over bedforms) bed is considered,
the surface boundary condition for the net vertical flux of sediment reduces to
F
sz
z H
0 (6.145)
where
F
sz
v
s
c
w c (6.146)
is the net vertical flux of sediment.
The boundary condition at the bed differs from the one at the water surface because it
must account for entrainment of sediment into the flow from the bed and for deposition
from the flow onto the bed. The mean flux of suspended sediment onto the bed is given
by D, where
D v
s
c
b
(6.147)
denotes the volume rate of deposition of suspended sediment per unit time per unit bed
area. Here c
b
denotes a near-bed value of c
.
The component of the Reynolds flux of suspended sediment near the bed that is direct-
ed upward normal to the bed may be termed the rate of erosion, or more accurately,
entrainment of bed sediment into suspension per unit bed area per unit time. The entrain-
ment rate E is thus given by
E w c (6.148)
where w and c denote turbulent fluctuations around both the mean vertical fluid veloci-
ty and the mean sediment concentration, respectively. The overbar denotes averaging
over turbulence. The term near bed used to avoid possible singular behavior at the bed
(located at z 0).
It is seen from the above equations that the net upward normal flux of suspended sed-
iment at (or rather just above) the bed is given by
F
sz
near bed
v
s
(E
s
c
b
) (6.149a)
where
E
s

v
E
s
(6.149b)
denotes a dimensionless rate of entrainment of bed sediment into suspension. The required
bed boundary condition, then, is a specification of E
s
. Typically, a relation of the follow-
ing form is assumed:
E
s
E
s
(
bs
, other parameters) (6.150a)
where
bs
denotes the boundary shear stress caused by skin friction.
Furthermore, it is assumed that an equilibrium steady, uniform suspension has been
achieved. It follows that there should be neither net deposition on (F
sz
0) nor erosion
from (F
sz
0) the bed. That is, F
sz
0, yielding
E
s
c
b
(6.150b)
This relation simply states that the entrainment rate equals the deposition rate; thus,
there is no net normal flux of suspended sediment at the bed.
6.9.3 Equilibrium Suspension in a Wide Rectangular Channel
Consider normal flow in a wide, rectangular open channel. The bed is assumed to be
FIGURE 6.25 Definition diagram for sediment entrainment and deposition
6.58 Chapter Six
erodible and has no curvature when averaged over bedforms. The z-coordinate is quasi-
vertical, implying low channel slope S. Similarly, the suspension is assumed to be in equi-
librium. That is, c
is a function of z alone (Fig. 6.25). The flow and suspension are uni-
form in s and n and steady in time; thus, Eq. (6.143) reduces to
w c v
s
c
0 (6.151)
It is appropriate to close this equation with the assumption of an eddy diffusivity, as in Eq.
(6.144c); thus, Eq. (6.151) becomes
D
d

d
d
c
v
s
c
0 (6.152)
Equation (6.152) has a simple physical interpretation. The term v
s
c
represents the
rate of sedimentation of suspended sediment under the influence of gravity; it is always
directed downward. If all the sediment is not to settle out, there must be an upward flux
that balances this term. The upward flux is provided by the effect of turbulence, acting to
yield a Reynolds flux. According to Eq. (6.144c), this flux will be directed upward as long
as dc
/dz 0. It follows that the equilibrium suspended-sediment concentration decreases

for increasing z: therefore, turbulence diffuses sediment from zones of high concentration
(near the bed) to zones of low concentration (near the water surface).
6.9.4 Eddy Diffusivity
Further progress requires an assumption for the kinematic eddy diffusivity D
d
. The simple
approach taken here is that of Rouse (1957), which involves the use of the Prandtl analo-
gy. The argument is as follows: Fluid mass, heat, momentum, and so on should all diffuse
at the same kinematic rate because of turbulence and thus have the same kinematic eddy
diffusivity because each is a property of the fluid particles, and the fluid particles are what
is being transported by Reynolds fluxes.
Although the Prandtl analogy is by no means exact, it has proved to be a reasonable
approximation for many turbulent flows. Its application to sediment is more of a problem.
Inertial effects might cause the sediment particles to lag behind the fluid, resulting in a
lower eddy diffusivity for sediment than for the fluid. Furthermore, the mean fall veloci-
ty of sediment grains should reduce their time of residence in any given eddy, again reduc-
ing the diffusive effect. If the particles are not too large, however, it may be possible to
equate the vertical diffusivity of the sediment with the vertical eddy viscosity (eddy dif-
fusivity of momentum) of the fluid as the first approximation. This is done here.
The velocity profile is approximated as logarithmic throughout the depth. To account
for the possible existence of bedforms, the turbulent rough law embodied in Eq. (6.127b)
is used:
u
(z
*
)
1
ln

30

k
z
c
,
(6.153)
Here k
c
is a composite roughness chosen to include the effect of bedforms, as outlined in
Sec. 6.8.2.3. Furthermore, according to Eq. (6.2), the bed shear stress is given by
u
2
*

b
(6.154)
where b is chosen to be close to the bed: i.e.,
H
b
1 (6.155)
Now the kinematic eddy viscosity D
d
is defined as
D
d

d
d
u
(6.156)
where the distribution of fluid shear stresses is given by

b
1

H
z
,
(6.157)
From the above equations, it is quickly found that
D
d
u
*
z
1

H
z
,
(6.158)
where 0.4 is Von Karmans constant.
The above relation is the Rousean relation for the vertical kinematic eddy viscosity.
The form predicted is parabolic in shape. Although strictly applying to the turbulent dif-
fusion of fluid momentum, it is equated to the eddy diffusivity of suspended sediment
mass below. If D
d
is averaged in the vertical, the following result is obtained:
D
d

u
*
H 0.0667 u
*
H (6.159)
FIGURE 6.26 Vertical suspended sediment distribution (after Vanoni, 1961).
6.60 Chapter Six
This relation is useful to estimate the longitudinal dispersion of fine-grained sediment
in rivers and streams.
6.9.5 Rousean Distribution of Suspended Sediment
The nominal near bed elevation in applying the bottom boundary condition is taken to
be z b, where b is a distance taken to be extremely close to the bed: i.e., satisfying con-
dition Eq. (6.155). In the Rousean analysis, this value cannot be taken as z 0 because
Eq. (6.153) is singular there.
Equation (6.158) is now substituted into Eq. (6.152), which is then integrated from the
nominal bed level to distance z above the bed in z. The resulting form can be cast as
z
b
d
c
Z

z
b
z(H
Hd
z
z)
ln

H
z
z
,
Z1
1
]
z
b
(6.160)
where Z denotes the Rouse number, a dimensionless number given by
Z

v
u
s
*
(6.161)
Further reduction yields the following profile:
c
c
b
(
(
H
H
b
z)
)
/
/
z
b
1
1
]
Z
(6.162)
Some sample profiles of suspended sediment plotted in Rousean form are provided in
Fig. 6.26.
Note that from Eq. (6.150b), c
b
is equal to the dimensionless sediment entrainment rate
E
s
in the case of the present equilibrium suspension. This provides an empirical means to
evaluate E
s
as a function of
bs
and other parameters, as will be shown.
6.9.6 Vertically Averaged Concentrations: Suspended Load
Assuming that a value of near-bed elevation b is chosen approximately, Eq. (6.162) can be
used to evaluate a depth-averaged volume suspended-sediment concentration C, defined by
C

H
1

H
b
c
(z)dz (6.163)
Using Eq. (6.162), then
C c
b
I
1
(Z,
b
) (6.164a)
where
I
l

z
(
(
1
1
)
b
)
/
/
Z
d;
b

H
b
(6.164b, c)
In the above relation, z/H; the integral is evaluated easily by means of numerical tech-
niques. Einstein (1950) represented I
1
in the form
I
l
(0.216)
1
b
I
l
(6.165)
FIGURE 6.27a Function I
1
in terms of
b
= b/H for values of Z:
6.62 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.27b Function I
2
in terms of
b
= b/H for values of Z:
where I
1
is given in tabular form in the attached Fig. 6.27a.
The streamwise suspended load q
s
was seen in Eq. (6.61a) to be given by the relation
q
s

H
b
c
(z)u
(z)dz (6.166)
Reducing with the aid of Eqs. (6.153) and (6.162), we find that
q
s

1
c
b
u
*
H
I
l
ln

30

H
k
c
,
I
2
(6.167)
Here,
I
2
(Z,
b
)

1
(
(
1
1
b
)
)
/
/
Z
1n()d. (6.168)
The integral I
2
is again evaluated easily numerically: Einstein provides the relation
I
2
(0.216)
1
b
I
2
(6.169)
where I
2
is given in tabular form in Fig. 6.27b. Brooks (1963) also proposed an interest-
ing way to calculate suspended load discharge from velocity and concentration parameters.
It is apparent that further progress is predicated on a method for evaluating the refer-
ence concentration c
b
, or equivalently (for the case of equilibrium suspensions) the
sediment entrainment rate E
s
Such a relation is necessary to model transport of suspend-
ed sediment (e.g., Celik and Rodi, 1988).
6.9.7 Relation for Sediment Entrainment
A number of relations are available in the literature for estimating the entrainment rate of
sediment into suspension E
s
(and thus the reference concentration c
b
for the case of equi-
librium). Table 6.5 summarizes all the relations that are available. Garca and Parker
(1991) performed a detailed comparison of eight such relations against data. The relations
were checked against a carefully selected set of data pertaining to equilibrium suspensions
of uniform sand. In this case, it is possible to measure c
b
directly at some near-bed eleva-
tion z b, and to equate the result to E
s
according to Eq. (6.150b)
The data consisted of some 64 sets from 10 different sources, all pertaining to labora-
tory suspensions of uniform sand with a submerged specific gravity R near 1.65.
Information about the bedforms was typically not sufficient to allow for a partition of
boundary shear stress in accordance with Nelson and Smith (1989). As a result, the shear
stress caused by skin friction alone
bs
and the associated shear velocity caused by skin
friction u
*s
, given by
bs
u
2
*s
(6.170)
were computed using Eq. (6.114) and the following relation for k
s
,
k
s
2 D (6.171)
or a similar method.
6.64 Chapter Six
E
i
n
s
t
e
i
n
(
1
9
5
0
)
E
n
g
e
l
u
n
d

a
n
d
F
r
e
d
s
o
e

(
1
9
7
6
;
1
9
8
2
)
S
m
i
t
h

a
n
d
M
c
L
e
a
n

(
1
9
7
7
)
I
t
a
k
u
r
a

a
n
d

K
i
s
h
i
(
1
9
8
0
)
V
a
n

R
i
j
n

(
1
9
8
4
)
C
e
l
i
k

a
n
d

R
o
d
i
(
1
9
8
4
)
A
k
i
y
a
m
a

a
n
d
F
u
k
u
s
h
i
m
a
(
1
9
8
6
)
G
a
r
c
a

a
n
d
P
a
r
k
e
r

(
1
9
9
1
)
Z
y
s
e
r
m
a
n

a
n
d
F
r
e
d
s
o
e

(
1
9
9
4
)
b
2
D
s
b
2
D
s
b
* s
D
s
k
s
o
=

2
6
.
3
b
0
.
0
5
H
b

2
b
i
f
b
k
n
o
w
n
e
l
s
e
b
k
s
*
b
m
i
n
0
.
0
1
H
b
0
.
0
5
H
b
0
.
0
5
H
b
0
.
0
5
H
b
2
D
s
c
b
2
3
.
2
q
*
s *
0
.
5
c
b
(
1
0
.
6
5
b
1
)
3
c
b
1 0
.
6
5

o 0
T T
c
b
k
1
k
2
u v
* s
c
b
0
.
0
1
5
D
b
s
D T
1 * 0
. . 5 3
c
b
k
0
C I
m
E
s
0
;
Z
Z
c
E
s

1
0
1
2
Z
1
0
Z
Z
c
;
Z
c
Z
m
E
s
0
.
3
;
Z
Z
m
E
s
c
b
0
.
3
3
1
(
'
0
.
0
4
5
)
1
.
7
5
0
0
.
3 .
4
3
6
1
'

0
.
0
4
5
)
1
.
7
5
A
Z
5 u
0
A
.
3

Z
5 u
0
.
5
;
p
1

+

0
.
2
5
;
1
.
0
T

* s

* c
* c
2
.
4
1
0
k
* 3

k
4
+
1
;
A
o
=
k
* 3
k
4
;
k
1
0
.
0
0
8
;
k
2
0
.
1
4
;
k
3
0
.
1
4
3

;

k
4
2
.
0
D
*
D
s
g
v
R
2
1
/
3
;
b
i
s

t
h
e

m
e
a
n

d
u
n
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
C
m
0
.
0
3
4
H k
s
0
.
0
6
g
R u
2 * H
U
v
s m
;
I
=
1 0
.
0
5
b
b
v
s
/
0
.
4
u
*
d
z
/
H
;
0
.
0
5
;
k
o
1
.
1
3
Z
u v
* s
R
p 0
.
5
;
Z
c
5
;
Z
m
1
3
.
2
Z
u
u
v
*
s
s
R
n p
;
u
*
s
g
C
0
. ' 5
U
m
;
C
'
1
8
l
o
g
1
3
2
D
R
s
b
;
n
0
.
6
;
A
1
.
3
1
0
-
7
'
R (
u
g
*
D s
)
2
s
e
x
p
(
A
2
o
)
A
o
e
x
p
(
2
)
d

6

* s
0
.
0
6
* s
0
.
0
6

p 6
0
.
0
2
7
(
R
1
)
* s
T
A
B
L
E

6
.
5
E
x
i
s
t
i
n
g

f
o
r
m
u
l
a
s

t
o

e
s
t
i
m
a
t
e

s
e
d
i
m
e
n
t

e
n
t
r
a
i
n
m
e
n
t

o
r

n
e
a
r
-
b
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

u
n
d
e
r

e
q
u
i
l
i
b
r
i
u
m

c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
.
A
u
t
h
o
r
F
o
r
m
u
l
a
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

H
e
i
g
h
t
The data covered the following ranges:
E
s
: 0.0002 0.06
u
*s
/v
s
: 0.70 7.50
H/D: 240 2400
Re
p
3.50 37.00
The range of values of Re
p
corresponds to a grain size ranging from 0.09 mm to 0.44
mm. Except for the relatively small values of H/D, the values cover a range that includes
typical field sand-bed streams.
Three of the relations for E
s
performed particularly well and are presented here. The
first is the relation of Garca and Parker (1991). The reference level is taken to be 5 per-
cent of the depth: that is,
H
b

b
0.05. (6.172)
FIGURE 6.28 Sediment entrainment function (after
Garca and Parker, 1991).
E
s
Z
u
6.66 Chapter Six
The good performance of this relation is not overly surprising because the relation was fit-
ted to the data. The relation takes the form
E
s
(6.173a)
where
A 1.3 10
7
(6.173b)
and
Z
u

u
v
*
s
s
Re
p
0.6
(6.173c)
Equation (6.173a) is compared against the data in Fig. 6.28. Predicted values of E
s
are
compared with observed values in Fig. 6.29.
A second relation that performed well is that of Van Rijn (1984), which takes the form
E
s
0.015

D
b
(
*
s
/
*
c
1)
1.5
Re
p
0.2
(6.174)
where
*
s
denotes the Shields stress caused by skin friction, given by Eq. (6.112). For the
purposes of the present comparison, b was again set equal to 5 percent of the depth: i.e.,
Eq. (6.172) was used. Van Rijn computed
bs
from relations that are similar to Eqs. (6.115)
and (6.116b). Van Rijn's relations are
C
fs

ln
12

H
k
s
2
(6.175a)
AZ
5
u
1

0
A
.3
Z
5
u
FIGURE 6.29 Comparison of predicted and observed near-bed concentration for
Garca-Parker function
FIGURE 6.31 Comparison of predicted and observed
near-bed concentration for Smith-McLean function.
FIGURE 6.30 Comparison of predicted and observed
near-bed concentration for van Rijn function
where, for uniform material,
k
s
3 D (6.175b)
Note that in Eq. (6.175), the total depth His used, in contrast to Eq. (6.115) where H
s
is used.
In performing the comparison, Garca and Parker (1991) estimated
*
s
from a fit to the
Shields curve due to Brownlie (1981a). This fit is given by Eq. (6.44). Predicted and
observed values of E
s
are presented in Fig. 6.30.
A third relation that performs well is that of Smith and McLean (1977) which can be
expressed as
E
s
0.65 (6.176a)
where
o
0.0024 (6.176b)
The value b at which E is to be evaluated is given by the following relation:
b 26.3(
*
s
/
*
c
1)D k
s
(6.176c)
where k
s
denotes the equivalent roughness height for a fixed bed.
For the purpose of comparison, Garca and Parker used Eq. (6.171) to evaluate k
s
and
used Eq. (6.115) to evaluate
bs
. Critical Shields stress was evaluated with Eq. (6.44).
Predicted and observed values of E
s
are shown in Fig. 6.31.
6.9.8 Entrainment Relation for Sediment Mixtures
Garca and Parker (1991) provided a generalized treatment for the entrainment rate in the
case of mixtures. Let the grain-size range of bed material be divided into N subranges,
each with mean size
j
on the phi scale and geometric mean diameter D
j
2
j
where j
1...N. Let F
j
denote the volume fraction of material in the surface layer of the bed in the
jth grain range. In analogy to Eq. (6.148), it is assumed that
E
j
v
sj
F
j
E(Z
uj
) (6.177a)
where E
j
denotes the volume entrainment rate for the jth subrange and the functional rela-
tion between E
s
and Z
uj
is given by Eq. (6.173a). The parameter Z
uj
is specified as
Z
uj

m

u
v
*
sj
s
Re
pj
0.6
D
D
5
j
0
0.2
(6.177b)
In the above relations, v
sj
denotes the fall velocity of grain size D
j
in quiescent water, D
50
denotes the median size of the surface material in the bed
Re
pj
(6.177c)
and the parameter
m
is given by
m
1 0.288
(6.177d)
Here,
denotes the arithmetic standard deviation of the bed surface material on the phi
scale, given by Eq. (6.30).
The Garca-Parker relation for mixtures reduces smoothly to the relation for uniform
material in the limit as
0. It was developed and tested with three sets of data from

two rivers: the Rio Grande and the Niobrara River. Recently, the Garca-Parker formula-
tion also has been used to interpret observations of sediment entrainment into suspension
by bottom density currents (Garca and Parker, 1993).
RgD
j
D
j
o
(
*
s
/
*
c
1)
1
o
(
*
s
/
*
c
1)
6.68 Chapter Six
6.9.9 Example of Computation of Sediment Load and Rating Curve. Consider the
example of a stream in Sec. 6.8.2. For this stream, S 0.0004 and D 0.35 mm (uni-
form material). At bankfull flow, the stream width is 75 m. For flows below bankfull, the
following relation holds:
B
B
bf
Q
Q
bf

0.1
where the subscript bf denotes bankfull. Assume that the stream is wide enough to equate
the hydraulic radius R
h
with the cross-sectionally averaged depth H.
Compute the depth-discharge relations for flows up to bankfull (lower regime only)
using the Engelund-Hansen method. Plot H versus Q. Use the results of the Engelund-
Hansen method to compute values of
s
*
as well.
Use the values of
s
*
to compute the bedload discharge Q
b
q
b
B using the Ashida-
Michiue formulation. For each value of H and U, back-calculate the composite roughness
k
c
. Then compute the suspended load Q
s
q
s
B from the Einstein formulation and the
relation for E
s
by Garca and Parker. Plot Q
b
, Q
s
, and Q
T
Q
b
Q
s
as functions of water
discharge Q.
Solution: In this example, the flow depth, bedload discharge, and suspended load dis-
charge are computed as a function of flow discharge for a stream with the following prop-
erties:
S = 0.0004
D
s
= 0.35 mm = 3.5 10
-4
m
R = 1.65
B = 75 m at bankfull
H = 2.9 m at bankfull
The calculations are performed for flows up to bankfull. For flows below bankfull, the
following relation is used to calculate the stream width:
B
B
bf
Q
Q
bf
0.1
U
Q
H
b
B
f
0.1
(i)
where the subscript bf indicates bankfull values. Solving for the stream width B,
B
B
bf
U
Q
H
bf
0.1
1/0.9
(ii)
The methods used to determine Q, Q
b
, Q
s
, and Q
bf
are described below. A computer
program can be written, or a spreadsheet can be used, to perform the necessary calcula-
tions. All computations and results are summarized in Table 6.6.
6.9.9.1 Depth-discharge calculations. The depth-discharge relation is computed using
the Engelund-Hansen method. The calculations are performed by assuming a value for H
s
(the flow depth that would be expected in the absence of bedforms), then calculating the
actual flow depth (H) and the flow discharge (Q). H
s
is varied between 0.22 m and the
bankfull value of 2.9 m. The first step in calculating the depth-discharge relation is to
compute the resistance coefficient caused by skin drag (C
fs
) from H
s
:
C
fs

1n
11

H
k
s
s
2
(iii)
H
s
C
f
s
U
*
s
*
F
l
o
w

W
i
d
t
h
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
q
*
b
q
b
Q
b
k
c
Z
u
E
s
u
*
R
o
u
s
e
I
1
2
I
2
q
s
Q
s
Q
t
(
m
/
s
)
D
e
p
t
h

H
(
m
)
B

(
m
)
(
m
3
/
s
)

Q
N
o
.
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.
0
0
6
1
6
3
1
0
.
3
9
0
1
0
.
0
1
4
9
5
7
0
.
0
9
7
3
1
1
.
4
3
7
6
7
7
1
9
2
0
.
2
4
0
.
5
3
5
0
.
0
0
3
4
8
4
0
.
2
5
0
0
9
2
0
.
2
8
1
3
1
9
3
1
.
8
0
0
.
0
0
1
5
9
2
.
1
0
7
1
.
2
4
7
1
.
7
2
2
2
.
4
9
7
2
.
3
0
3
7
8
.
7
8
1
8
.
1
6
7
3
9
0
.
0
0
0
4
7
9
0
.
0
3
4
6
0
2
6
0
.
0
0
5
3
9
8
1
0
.
6
9
1
3
0
.
0
1
7
1
2
3
0
.
0
9
8
7
8
1
.
4
1
6
2
2
4
5
1
3
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
4
5
0
.
0
0
4
4
7
5
0
.
3
2
3
5
6
9
0
.
3
5
8
1
7
1
1
1
.
9
0
0
.
0
0
1
5
7
2
.
1
7
6
1
.
3
1
6
1
.
7
7
2
2
.
5
6
7
2
.
7
9
4
0
5
.
2
4
1
9
.
8
7
7
3
7
0
.
0
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5
2
4
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.
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3
8
1
1
6
1
0
.
0
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4
7
4
6
1
0
.
9
8
4
3
0
.
0
1
9
4
4
1
0
.
1
0
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1
9
1
.
3
9
6
2
8
2
5
4
1
0
.
2
6
0
.
5
6
0
.
0
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5
6
5
1
0
.
4
1
1
3
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7
0
.
4
4
9
4
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3
1
2
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6
2
.
2
4
4
1
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3
8
5
1
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8
2
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2
.
6
3
7
3
.
2
6
4
3
2
.
0
1
2
1
.
6
4
1
3
6
0
.
0
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7
0
.
0
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1
7
6
4
9
0
.
0
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4
1
9
1
1
.
2
6
9
7
0
.
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0
6
0
.
1
0
1
5
5
1
.
3
7
7
6
6
9
9
6
4
0
.
2
6
5
0
.
5
7
0
.
0
0
6
8
9
6
0
.
5
0
5
1
5
5
0
.
5
4
6
9
2
0
0
2
.
1
0
0
.
0
0
1
5
4
2
.
3
1
1
1
.
4
5
5
1
.
8
6
7
2
.
7
0
7
3
.
7
0
4
5
9
.
0
7
2
3
.
4
5
7
9
5
0
.
0
0
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6
1
8
0
.
0
4
5
5
4
6
5
0
.
0
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7
1
1
1
1
.
5
4
8
0
.
0
2
4
5
1
6
0
.
1
0
2
8
5
1
.
3
6
0
2
3
5
3
1
4
0
.
2
6
0
.
5
7
0
.
0
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7
9
7
4
0
.
5
8
7
7
2
1
0
.
6
3
3
2
6
7
3
2
.
2
0
0
.
0
0
1
5
3
2
.
3
7
6
1
.
5
2
4
1
.
9
1
3
2
.
7
6
7
4
.
1
3
4
8
6
.
4
0
2
5
.
3
2
5
8
5
0
.
0
0
0
6
6
7
0
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9
4
5
8
5
0
.
0
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3
2
9
8
1
1
.
8
1
9
7
0
.
0
2
7
2
6
5
0
.
1
0
4
1
1
.
3
4
3
8
5
0
8
5
6
0
.
2
7
0
.
5
8
0
.
0
0
9
7
7
9
0
.
7
2
4
8
9
2
0
.
7
7
4
3
5
1
0
2
.
3
0
0
.
0
0
1
5
2
2
.
4
4
0
1
.
5
9
3
1
.
9
5
8
2
.
8
3
7
4
.
5
4
5
1
4
.
0
0
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7
.
2
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3
8
6
0
.
0
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1
8
0
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0
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3
4
9
8
7
0
.
0
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2
9
4
1
2
.
0
8
5
4
0
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0
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1
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3
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3
2
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9
4
3
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2
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9
0
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0
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1
3
3
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0
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8
4
4
9
5
9
0
.
8
9
8
4
5
7
9
2
.
4
0
0
.
0
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1
5
0
2
.
5
0
2
1
.
6
6
2
2
.
0
0
1
2
.
8
9
7
4
.
9
4
5
4
1
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8
7
2
9
.
2
1
0
8
3
0
.
0
0
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7
7
0
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0
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7
6
6
4
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0
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6
2
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1
2
.
3
4
5
3
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3
1
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8
0
.
1
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4
8
1
.
3
1
3
8
1
3
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5
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0
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2
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5
9
0
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0
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3
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1
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0
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7
7
8
2
1
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8
5
4
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7
2
2
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4
1
6
0
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0
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.
5
1
2
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6
7
3
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0
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2
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9
0
7
5
.
0
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5
4
6
.
3
5
2
9
.
5
3
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
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7
7
8
0
.
0
5
8
3
4
2
9
0
.
0
0
2
5
8
3
1
2
.
3
8
6
4
0
.
0
3
3
6
5
1
0
.
1
0
6
6
7
1
.
3
1
1
5
5
1
5
3
8
0
.
2
8
0
.
5
9
0
.
0
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4
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2
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1
.
0
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2
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0
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1
.
1
1
0
3
4
9
6
T
A
B
L
E

6
.
6
C
o
m
p
u
t
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

T
o
t
a
l

S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t

L
o
a
d
.
6.70
where is the von Karman constant (0.4) and k
s
is given by
k
s
2.5 D
s
2.5(3.5 10
4
) 8.75 10
4
m (iv)
The depth-averaged flow velocity (U) can be found from C
fs
and H
s
:
U
C
H
f
s
s
S
(v)
The Shields stress caused by skin friction (
s
*
) is given by
*
s

R
bs
D
s

R
H
D
s
S
s
(vi)
According to Engelund-Hansen, the total Shields stress for the lower regime can be found
from the following relation:
.4
0
.0
(vii)
The flow depth can be calculated from the Shields stress as follows:
H
*
R
S
D
s
(viii)
Finally, the discharge can be calculated from the results of Eqs. (v) and (viii):
Q UHB (ix)
where B must be adjusted according to Eq. (ii) for flows less than bankfull. A plot of the
depth-discharge relation is shown in Fig. 6.32.
6.9.9.2 Bedload discharge calculations. The dimensionless bedload transport rate (q
*
)
is found from the Ashida-Michiue formulation:
q
*
17(
*
s

*
c
)[(
s
)
0.5
(
*
c
)
0.5
] (x)
where
s
*
is calculated in Eq. (vi) and
c
*
is taken to be 0.05. The bedload transport rate
per unit width (q
b
) is given by
q
b
q
*
gRD
s
D
s
(xi)
Therefore, the bedload transport rate (in m
3
/s) is given by
Q
b
q
b
B (xii)
Again, B must be adjusted according to Eq. (ii) for flows less than bankfull.
6.9.9.3 Sediment load discharge calculations. The Einstein formulation is used to
compute the suspended load transport rate per unit width (q
s
):
q
s

c
b
u
*
H
I
1
ln
30

H
k
c
I
2
(xiii)
6.72 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
2
E
x
a
m
p
l
e

o
f

f
l
o
w

d
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

r
a
t
i
n
g

c
u
r
v
e
where
u
*
g HS (xiv)
If the suspension is assumed to be at equilibrium, c
b
E
s
. The dimensionless rate of
entrainment (E
s
) is calculated with the relation of Garca and Parker (1991):
E
s
(xv)
where A is equal to 1.3 10
-7
and
Z
u

u
v
*
s
s
Re
p
0.6
(xvi)
u
*s
g H
s
S (xvii)
and
Re
p

Rg
D
s
D
s
(xviii)
Notice that for the entrainment formulation, the shear velocity associated with skin
friction u
*s
must be used. The temperature is assumed to be about 20C; therefore, the
kinematic viscosity is about 10
6
m
2
/s. An iterative method, or Eq. (6.38), is used to
calculate the terminal fall velocity of the sediment particles v
s
, which is found to be 5.596
10
2
m/s. The composite roughness (k
c
) is calculated according to the following
relation:
k
c
11 H exp
u
U
*
(xix)
The parameters I
1
and I
2
are found by numerical integration of the following equations:
I
1
1
b
1
b
Z
d (xx)
and
I
2
1
b
Z
ln()d (xxi)
where
b
is taken to be 0.05 and
Z

v
u
s
*
(xxii)
The numerical integrations can be performed with Numerical Recipes subroutines
(Press et al., 1986) or can be obtained from Figs. 6.27a and b. The suspended load trans-
port rate per unit width calculated according to Eq. (xiii) is used to compute the suspend-
ed load transport rate (in m
3
/s):
Q
s
q
s
B (xxiii)
AZ
5
u
1

0
A
.3
Z
5
u
For flows less than bankfull, B must be adjusted according to Eq. (ii).
6.9.9.4 Determination of bankfull flow discharge (Q
bf
). The flow discharge at bankfull
(Q
bf
) is determined by assuming that up to bankfull flow, lower regime conditions exist.
The bankfull flow depth for this stream is assumed to be 2.9 m. Then, for bankfull flow,
the total shear stress
*
is

R
H
D
S
s
1.6
2
5
.9
3
.5
.0
00
1
4
0
4
2.01 (xxiv)
From Engelund-Hansen,
*
s
0.06 0.4(
*
)
2
0.06 0.4 (2.01)
2
1.67 (xxv)
Hs
*
s
R
S
D
s
2.42 m (xxvi)
C
fs

ln
11
H
k
s
s
0
1
.4
ln
11
8.75
2
.42
10
4
2
1.5 10
3
(xxvii)
U
C
H
f
s
s
S
.8
1
1
5
2
0
0
.
3
0
2.51 m/s (xxviii)

and
Q
b
UHB 2.51 2.9 75 546.35 m
3
/s (xxix)
A plot of Q
b
, Q
s
, and Q
T
Q
b
Q
s
as functions of water discharge are shown in Fig.
6.33. For flows up to 100 m
3
/s, the bedload discharge is larger than the suspended load
discharge. As the flow discharge increases, the suspended load is much larger than the
bedload all the way up to bankfull flow conditions.
Also notice that the composite roughness k
c
increases first with flow discharge for low
flows but, from then on, decreases monotonically as the bedforms begin to be washed out
by the flow. For bankfull conditions, the bedforms have a small effect on flow resistance
in this particular problem.
6.10 DIMENSIONLESS RELATIONS FOR TOTAL BED
MATERIAL LOAD IN SAND-BED STREAMS
6.10.1 Form of the Relations
In the analysis presented in previous sections, the guiding principle has been the develop-
ment of mechanistically accurate models of the bedload and suspended load components
1.67 1.65 (3.5 10
4
)
0.0004
6.74 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
3
E
x
a
m
p
l
e

s
e
d
i
m
e
n
t

d
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

r
a
t
i
n
g

c
u
r
v
e
s

f
o
r

b
e
d
l
o
a
d
,
s
u
s
p
e
n
d
e
d

l
o
a
d
,
a
n
d

t
o
t
a
l

l
o
a
d
6.76 Chapter Six
of bed material load. The total bed material load is then computed as the sum of the two.
That is, where q denotes the volume bedload transport rate per unit width and q
S
denotes
the volume suspended load transport rate per unit width (bed material only), the total vol-
ume transport rate of bed material per unit width is given by
q
t
q q
s
(6.178)
Another simpler approach is to ignore the details of the physics of the problem and
instead use empirical techniques, such as regression analysis, to correlate dimensionless
parameters involving q
t
to dimensionless flow parameters inferred to be important for sed-
iment transport. This can be implemented in the strict sense only for equilibrium or qua-
si-equilibrium flows: i.e., for near-normal conditions. The resulting relations are no better
than the choice of dimensionless parameters to be correlated. They also are less versatile
than physically based relations because their application to nonsteady, nonuniform flow
fields is not obvious. On the other hand, they have the advantage of being relatively sim-
ple to use and of having been calibrated to sets of both laboratory and field data often
deemed to be trustworthy.
Here, four such relations are presented, those of Engelund and Hansen (1967),
Brownlie (1981a), Yang (1973), and Ackers and White (1973). They apply only to sand-
bed streams with relatively uniform bed sediment. The first two relations are the most
complete because each is presented as a pair of relations for total load and hydraulic resis-
tance. The latter two are presented as relations for total load only. In most cases, it will be
necessary for the user to specify a relation for hydraulic resistance as well to perform actu-
al calculations; the latter relations for load give no guidelines for this.
The importance of using transport and hydraulic resistance relations as pairs cannot be
overemphasized. Consider, for example, the simplest generalization beyond the assump-
tion of normal flow: i.e., the case of quasi-steady, gradually varied, one-dimensional flow.
The governing equations for a wide rectangular channel can be written as
d
d
s
2
V
g
2
H
_
,
S S
f
(6.179a)
UH q
w
(6.179b)
where the friction slope S
f
is given as
S
f

g
b
H
C
f

g
U
H
2
(6.180)
A slightly more general form for nonrectangular channels is
d
d
s
1
2

g
Q
A
2
2

b
S S
f
(6.181a)
UA Q (6.181b)
where A is the channel cross-sectional area and the friction slope S
f
is given as
S
f

R
b
h
C
f

g
U
R
2
h
(6.182)
In the above equations, R
h
denotes the hydraulic radius and
b
denotes the water surface
elevation above the deepest point in the channel.
Note that in the case of normal flow, the momentum equations reduce to S
f
S, or
b
gHS for the wide rectangular case and
b
gR
h
S for the nonrectangular case.
However, in the case of gradually varied flow, S
f
S; in this case, the bed slope S cannot
be used as a basis for calculating sediment transport. The appropriate choice is S
f
, so that
from Eq. (6.182), for example,
b
gR
h
S
f
(6.183)
For the case of gradually varying flow, then, it should be apparent that the friction slope
necessary to perform sediment transport calculations must be obtained from a predictor of
hydraulic resistance.
A few parameters are introduced here. Let Q denote the total water discharge and Q
st
denote the total volume bed material sediment discharge. Furthermore, let B
a
denote the
active width of the river over which bed material is free to move. In general, B
a
is usu-
ally less than water-surface width B as a result of the common tendency for the banks to
be cohesive, vegetated, or both. Thus, it follows that
Q Bq
w
(6.184a)
and
Q
st
B
a
q
t
(6.184b)
One dimensionless form for dimensionless total bed material transport is q
t
*:
q
*
t
(6.185)
where D is a grain size usually equated to D
50
. Another commonly used measure is con-
centration by weight in parts per million, here called C
s
, which can be given as
C
s
10
6
s
Q
st
s
Q
st
(6.186)
6.10.2 Engelund-Hansen Relations
6.10.2.1 Sediment transport. This relation is among the simplest to use for sediment
transport and also among the most accurate. It was determined for a relatively small set of
laboratory data, but it also performs well as a field predictor. It takes the form
C
f
q
t
*
0.05 (
*
)
5/2
(6.187)
where C
f
is the total resistance coefficient (skin friction plus form drag) and
*
denotes the
total (skin friction plus form drag) Shields stress based on the size D
50
.
6.10.2.2 Hydraulic resistance. The hydraulic resistance relation of Engelund and
Hansen (1967) has already been introduced; it must be written in several parts. The key
relation for skin friction is
C
1/2
fs

g
U
R
hs
S
2.5 1n
11

R
k
h
s
s
(6.188a)
where k
s
(2 2.5) D
50
. Here, R
hs
denotes the hydraulic radius caused by skin friction,
which often can be approximated by H
s
. The relation for form drag can be written in the fol-
lowing form:
q
t
RgD D
*
s
f(
*
) (6.188b)
where for lower regime,
*
s
0.06 0.4 (
*
)
2
(6.188c)
and for upper regime,
*
1
*
s

[0.298 0.702 (
*
)
1.8
]
(1/1.8)
*
1
(6.188d)
An approximate condition for the transition between lower and upper regime is
*
s
0.55 (6.188e)
Computational procedure for normal flow. The water discharge Q, slope S, and grain
size D
50
must be known. In addition, channel geometry must be known so that B, B
a
, A,
H, P, and R
h
are all known functions of stage (water-surface elevation) . The procedure
is best outlined assuming that R
hs
is known and that Q is to be calculated, rather than vice
verse. For any given value of R
hs
(or H
s
), U can be computed from Eq. (6.188a). Noting
that
s
*
R
hs
S/(RD
50
) and
*
R
h
S/(RD
50
),
*
, and thus R
h
can be computed from Eq.
(6.188b-e). The plot of R
h
versus is used to determine , which is then used to determine
B, B
a
, H, A, P, and so on. Discharge Q is then given by Q UBH. In actual implementa-
tion, this process is reversed (Q is given and R
hs
and so forth are computed). This requires
an iterative technique; Newton-Raphson is not difficult to implement.
Once the calculation of hydraulic resistance is complete, it is possible to proceed to the
computation of total bed material load Q
st
. The friction coefficient C
f
is given by
(gR
h
S)/U
2
. Putting the known values of C
f
and
*
into (6.187), q
t
*
, and thus q
t
can be com-
puted. It follows that Q
st
q
t
B
a
.
Computational procedure for gradually varied flow. To implement the method for
gradually varied flow, it is necessary to recast the above formulation into an algorithm for
friction slope S
f
, which replaces S everywhere in the formulation of Eqs. (6.188a-e). The
formulation is then solved in conjunction with Eqs. (6.179a and b) or Eqs. (6.181a and b)
to determine the appropriate backwater curve. Once C
f
and
b
are known everywhere, the
sediment transport rate can be calculated from Eq. (6.187).
6.10.3 Brownlie Relations
6.10.3.1 Sediment transport. The Brownlie relations are based on regressions of more
than 1000 data points pertaining to experimental and field data. For normal or quasi-nor-
mal flow, the transport relation takes the form
C
s
7115c
f
(F
g
F
go
)
1.978
S
0.6601
D
R
5
h
0
0.3301
(6.189a)
where
F
g

R
U
gD
50
(6.189b)
6.78 Chapter Six
F
go
4.596(
*
c
)
0.5293
S
0.1045
g
0.1606
(6.189c)
c
0.22Y 0.06 10
7.7Y
(6.189d)
and
Y Re
p
0.6
(6.189e)
In Eq. (6.189a), c
f
1 for laboratory flumes and 1.268 for field channels. The para-
meters
c
and Re
p
are the ones previously introduced in this chapter.
6.10.3.2 Hydraulic resistance. The Brownlie relations for hydraulic resistance were
determined by regression from the same set of data used to determine the relation for sed-
iment transport. The relation for lower regime flow is
D
R
5
h
0
S 0.3724( qS)
0.6539
S
0.09188
g
0.1050
(6.190a)
The corresponding relation for upper regime flow is
D
R
5
h
0
S 0.2836( qS)
0.6248
S
0.08750
g
0.08013
(6.190b)
q (6.190c)
The distinction between lower and upper regime is made as follows. For S 0.006, the
flow is always assumed to be in upper regime. For S 0.006, the largest value of F
g
at
which lower regime can be maintained is taken to be
F
g
0.8F
g
(6.190d)
and the smallest value of F
g
for which upper regime can be maintained is taken to be
F
g
1.25F
g
(6.190e)
F
g
1.74S
1/3
(6.190f)
6.10.3.3 Computational procedure for normal flow. It is necessary to know Q, S, D
50
,
g
, and cross-sectional geometry as a function of stage. The computation is explicit,
although trial and error may be required to determine the flow regime. Hydraulic radius
is computed from Eq. (6.190a) or Eq. (6.190b), and the result can be substituted into Eq.
(6.189a) to determine the concentration C
s
in parts per million by weight. The transport
rate Q
st
is then computed from Eq. (6.186).
6.10.3.4 Computational procedure for gradually varied flow The Brownlie relation is
not presented in a form which obviously allows for extension to gradually varied flow. The
most unambiguous procedure, however, is to replace S with S
f
in the resistance relation,
and couple it with a backwater calculation on order to determine S
f
. The friction slope is
then substituted into Eq. (6.189a) in place of the bed slope in order to determine the sed-
iment transport rate.
q
w
gD
50
D
50
6.80 Chapter Six
6.10.4 The AckersWhite Relation Like the Brownlie relation for sediment transport,
this relation is based on a massive regression. Several years after is was presented, a cor-
responding relation for hydraulic resistance was also presented. The relation for hydraulic
resistance, however, does not appear to be among the best predictors. As a result, only the
load equation is presented here. I
t
takes the form
C
s
10
6
s

D
R
5
h
0

u
U
*
A
F
a
g
w
r
m
(6.191a)
where
F
gr
; U
*

(6.191b,c)
The parameters n, and A
aw
are determined as a functions of D
gr
, where
D
gr
R
ep
2/3
(6.191d)
in the following fashion. If D
gr
60, then
n 0; m 1.5 (6.191e and f)
and
A
aw
0.17; c 0.025 (6.191g and h)
If 1 D
gr
60, then
n 1 0.56log(D
gr
); m

9
D
.6
g
6
r
1.34 (6.191i and j)

A
aw

0.
D
23
gr
0.14 (6.191k)
log(c) 2.86log(D
gr
) [log(D
gr
)]
2
3.53 (6.191)
Note that all logarithms here are base 10, and u
*
retains its previously introduced mean-
ing as shear velocity.
6.10.5 Yang Relation
This relation also was determined by regression. Its form is
log(C
s
) a
1
a
2
log
U
v
s
S

U
v
c
s
S
(6.192a)
where
a
1
5.435 0.286 log
v
s
D
50
0.457 log
u
v
*
s
(6.192b)
U
32 log
10

D
R
5
h
0
U
*
n
U
*
1n
RgD
50

F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
a
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

E
n
g
e
l
u
n
d

a
n
d

H
a
n
s
e
n

(
1
9
6
7
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
-
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

f
i
e
l
d

d
a
t
a
.
6.82 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
b
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

E
n
g
e
l
u
n
d

a
n
d

H
a
n
s
e
n

(
1
9
6
7
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

l
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y

d
a
t
a
.
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
c
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

B
r
o
w
n
l
i
e

(
1
9
8
1
b
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

l
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y

d
a
t
a
.
6.84 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
d
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

B
r
o
w
n
l
i
e

(
1
9
8
1
b
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

f
i
e
l
d

d
a
t
a
.
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
e
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

A
c
k
e
r
s

a
n
d

W
h
i
t
e

(
1
9
7
3
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
-
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

l
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y

d
a
t
a
.
6.86 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
f
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

A
c
k
e
r
s

a
n
d

W
h
i
t
e

(
1
9
7
3
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
-
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

f
i
e
l
d

d
a
t
a
.
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
g
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

Y
a
n
g

(
1
9
7
3
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

l
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y

d
a
t
a
.
6.88 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
3
4
h
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

Y
a
n
g

(
1
9
7
3
)

t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e

t
o

o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

a
s

a

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

o
f
o
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
f
o
r

f
i
e
l
d

d
a
t
a
.
a
1
1.799 0.409 log
v
s
D
50
0.314l og
u
v
*
s
(6.192c)
and U
c
denotes a critical flow velocity given by
2.05 if
u
*
D
50
70
U
v
s
c
if 1.2
u
*
D
50
70. (6.192d)
Not that the logarithms are all base 10 and that v
S
retains its previous meaning as fall
velocity.
6.10.6 Comparison of the Relations Against Data
In the following eight diagrams (Fig. 6.34a-h) taken from Brownlie (1981b) all four rela-
tions are compared against first laboratory, then field data. The plots are in terms of the
ratio of calculated versus observed concentration as a function of observed concentration
C
s
in parts per million by weight. In the case of a perfect fit, all the data would fall on the
line corresponding to a ratio of unity. The middle dotted line on each diagram shows the
median value of this ratio; the upper and lower dotted lines correspond to the 84th per-
centile and the 16th percentile. The closer the median value is to unity and the smaller the
spread is between the two dotted lines, the better is the predictor.
The Engelund-Hansen relation is seen to be a good predictor of both laboratory and
field data despite its simplicity. The Brownlie relation gives the best fit of both the labo-
ratory and field data shown. This is partly to be expected because the relation was deter-
mined by regressing against the data shown in the figures. The Ackers-White relation pre-
dicts the laboratory data essentially as well as the Brownlie relation does, but its predic-
tions of field data are relatively low. The Yang equation does a good job with the labora-
tory data but a rather poor job with the field data.
6.11 HYDRAULICS OF RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
6.11.1 Introduction
The construction of reservoirs allows for the controlled storage of water.To develop a suc-
cessful reservoir, the characteristics of the sites sediment transport must be considered. As
a matter of course, water backed up behind a dam will experience a marked decrease in
sediment-carrying capacity. As a result, if site characteristics are correct, large quantities
of sediment will be deposited within the reservoir basin. Over time, the reservoir will, in
effect, fill with sediment, greatly decreasing its storage capacity. In 1988, Morris and Fan
published an excellent handbook on reservoir sedimentation.
When designing a reservoir, it is important to predict the progress of sedimentation. In
practice, these predictions are often carried out using empirical and semiempirical meth-
ods that have been developed through observation and measurements of operating reser-
voirs. Although these methods do provide helpful design information, the drawback is that
2.5
log
u
*
D
50
0.06
they are not firmly rooted in the physics of sediment transport. Instead, they provide a pre-
diction based on a synthesis of past observations. As a result, an engineer conducting these
calculations easily loses touch with the basic mechanisms governing reservoir sedimenta-
tion. Sedimentation is treated as a bulk process, and the relative role of bed-load versus
suspended-load transport is not always fully understood.
The following exercise presents a view of reservoir sedimentation based on theoretical
relations. A gorgelike reservoir is considered to allow for a 1-D model (Hotchkiss and
Parker, 1991). The following conditions are given: the flow per unit width q
w
1.427 m
2
/s
is taken as constant. The stream has an initial slope S 0.0003. The sediments mean
diameter and fall velocity are D
s
0.3 mm and v
s
4.25 cm/s respectively. Suppose a
reservoir is placed at some point on the river so that the water surface is raised and held
at an elevation equal to 10 m above the elevation of the initial bed at the dam site.
Obviously, the dam will generate a backwater effect, which in turn will reduce the flows
ability to transport sediment through the reservoir. The quasi-steady state approximation
will be used to develop a model of reservoir sedimentation based on the governing equa-
tions of conservation of momentum, bedload and suspended-load relations, and the Exner
equation. The model will be used to predict the level of reservoir sedimentation and delta
progression for time intervals of 2, 5, 10, 20, and 30 years. First, the model will be run
considering bed-load transport only; second, suspended load also will be included to help
identify the relative roles these two forms of transport play.
The flow discharge per unit width q
w
used herein is equivalent to the dominant water
discharge which, if continued constant for an entire year, would yield the mean annual
sediment discharge.
Of course, it is impractical to assume that a model as simple as the one presented here
could replace the empirical methods of predicting reservoir sedimentation. After all, a
steady flow, 1-D, constant reservoir-elevation model seriously limits the models applica-
tion, and transport relations are not easily transposed from site to site. Still, the following
provides an understanding of the physical mechanisms causing reservoir sedimentation.
An ideal reservoir-sedimentation model would be based in sediment transport physics
while respecting (and matching) the vast quantity of empirical observations available.
6.11.2 Theoretical Considerations
As in any sediment transport study, it is first necessary to identify the appropriate resis-
tance and bedload transport relations that hold for the site under consideration. For this
model, the following relations have been chosen:
q
*
b
11.2
*1,5
*
*
c
4.5
(6.193)
and
C
f
1/2
8.1
k
h
s
1/6

u
U
*
(6.194)
where
*
is the Shields Stress;
c
*
is the critical Shields stress, which is taken to have a val-
ue of 0.03; h stands for the flow depth; and k
s
is the roughness height. C
f
is the resistance
coefficient, and q
b
*
is the Einstein dimensionless bedload transport defined below:
q
*
b

gR
q
b
D D
(6.195)
where q
b
is the volumetric bedload transport per unit width having the dimensions of m
2
/s,
6.90 Chapter Six
where q
b
is the volumetric bedload transport per unit width having the dimensions of m
2
/s,
R is the submerged specific gravity (taken as 1.65 for quartz), and D is the mean diame-
ter of the sediment particles.
The following conservation relation can be used for suspended-load sediment routing:
dU
d
h
x
C
q
w

d
d
C
x
v
s
(E
s
r
o
C) (6.196)
where x is the coordinate in the streamwise direction, q
w
Uh, C is the average volu-
metric suspended sediment concentration, and r
o
C c
b
near-bed sediment concentra-
tion. The shape factor r
o
is given by the approximate relationship (Parker et al., 1987):
r
o
1 31.5
u
v
*
s
1.46
(6.197)
Therefore, the suspended load transport (volume per unit width per unit time) through a
section can be evaluated as the product of the average sediment concentration and the flow
discharge per unit width:
q
s
q
w
C (6.198)
All that remains is to evaluate E
s
, the sediment-entrainment coefficient. This is accom-
plished with the Garca-Parker relation:
E
s
(6.199a)
where
A 1.3 10
7
(6.199b)
and
Z
u

u
v
*
s
Re
p
0.6
(6.199c)
With the above equations and the assumption of a rectangular cross section (q
w
Uh),
one can calculate the normal flow and equilibrium transport conditions for the river. These
calculations, shown next, will serve as the initial conditions for the sedimentation study.
6.11.3 Computation of Normal Flow Conditions
From the Manning-Strickler relation (Eq. 6.194),
q
h
w
U 8.1
k
h
s
1/6
(ghS)
1/2
where k
s
2.5 D
s
and
h

0.6
0.987m
Now, q
b
can be computed:

R
h
D
S
s

0.
1
9
.
8
6
7
5
m
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
0
0
3
03
0.5982
1.427m
2
/s (2.5 0.0003)
1/6
8.19.8 0 .0 003
q
w
(2.5D
s
)
1/6
8.1gS
AZ
5
u
1

0
A
.3
Z
5
u
6.92 Chapter Six
Then
q
b
*
11.2
*1.5
*
*
c
4.5
q
b
11.2(0.5982)
1.5
0
0
.5
.0
9
3
82
4.5
4.108
q
b
*
q
b
*
RgD
s
D
s
4.1081 .6 5 9 .8 m/s
2
0.0 003 0.0003
q
b
8.58 10
5
m
2
/s
Estimation of C, E
s
and r
o
:
u
*s

*
s
R gD 0 .5 98 1 .6 5 9 .8 m/s
2
0.0 003m 0.0538 m/s
Re
p
R gD D/
.8
/s
.6
.0
1
0.0
1
0
0
0
3
6
m
m
2
/s
Re
p
20.98
Z
u

u
v
*
s
s
Re
p
0.6
0.
4
0
.
5
2
3
5
8m
/s
1
(
0
2
0
2
.
m
89
/s
)
0.6
7.841
r
o
1 31.6

u
v
*
s
1.46
1 31.5
4.2
0
5
.0
53
1
8
0
m
/
2
s
m/s
1.46
r
o
23.33.
Then
E
s
3.8 10
3
For equilibrium conditions, entrainment and deposition rates are the same thus, with the
help of Eq. (6.196),
C

E
r
o
s
3.8
2
3.3
1
3
0
3
1.63 10
5
and, finally, q
s
can be computed as
q
s
UCH q
w
C 1.427m
2
/s 1.63 10
5
q
s
2.33 10
4
m
2
/s
6.11.4 Governing Equations
1.3 10
7
(7.841)
5
1.3
0.3
10
7
(7.841)
5
Next, it is necessary to identify the governing equations. Raising the water surface through
a control structure results in the development of backwater effects. The backwater profile
can be calculated using the standard 1-D St. Venant equation expressed in terms above
parameters, with U being the flow velocity in x, the streamwise direction. The symbol
stands for the elevation of the bed above the datum:
U
t
U
x
x
h)
C
f

U
h
2
. (6.200)
The backwater change in the water depth will cause a change in the transport of sedi-
ment. This phenomenon can be captured using the Exner equation with
p
being the poros-
ity of the bed sediment (taken at 0.3):
(1
1
p
)
(q
b
q
s
) (6.201)
Notice that a time differential appears in both of the above equations; this reflects the
fact that both hydraulic and transport conditions change continuously in time. The two
equations are coupled through , the bed elevation. Of course, a simultaneous solution of
both equations, including the time derivative, is difficult.
To simplify the model and expedite a solution, the quasi-steady-state approximation
can be used. Not surprisingly, analysis has shown, that the time scale for sedimentologi-
cal changes is much larger than that for changes in flow condition. Simply put, if the time
changes of hydraulic conditions are driven by changes in sediment transport, they will
occur slowly. Within an appropriate time step, the flow conditions can be considered to be
steady. In this way, it is possible to drop the time differential in the St. Venant equation:
U

d
d
U
x
d(
d
x
h)
C
f

U
h
2
(6.202)
Equations (6.201) and (6.202), in conjunction with continuity (q
w
Uh), provide the
theoretical basis for the following analysis. In the quasi-steady-state analysis, the back-
water curve resulting from a forced raise in water elevation is calculated first, (Eq. 6.202).
The new water depths for the time step are used to calculate a new bed position (Eq.
6.201), and these values are used in the next time step to determine a new backwater pro-
file. The procedure repeats for each time step.
6.11.5 Discussion of Method
As discussed in a previous section, initial normal flow conditions can be calculated
through consideration of the resistance and transport relations. Far away from the dam,
where backwater effects are negligible, normal flow and equilibrium transport conditions
will exist.
A numeric scheme and computational grid must be chosen to evaluate the quasi-
steady-state governing equations as they relate to reservoir sedimentation. First, it is nec-
essary to develop a spatial computational grid. The grid used in this numerical experiment
begins 40 km upstream of the front near the dam face. The length is divided into reaches
of 200 m, resulting in 201 nodes to be evaluated. This length allows for initial backwater
computation to very nearly reach the normal depth at the upstream end.
Using this grid, it is possible to develop a numerical scheme for solving the governing
equations. To begin the simulation, a backwater calculation starting at the downstream end
of the grid must be conducted. Combining the momentum equation (Eq. 6.202) and water
6.94 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.35 Water surface elevation before and after reservoir construction
continuity (q
w
Uh) yields:
d
d
H
x
S
f
(6.203)
where
H

2
q
g
2
h
w
2
h (6.204)
and the friction slope S
f
is given by
S
f

C
g
f
h
q
3
w
2
(6.205)
If the value of h (and thus H) is known at node i 1, its value at node i (upstream) can
be calculated using the following finite difference scheme:
H
i
H
i1

1
2
(S
f,i 1
S
f,i
)x (6.206)
The above expression can be expanded and written as a function of h
i
:
D(h
i
)
2
q
g
w
h
2
i
2
h
i
i
H
i 1
1
2
S
f,i 1
x

1
2

xC
f

g
q
h
w
2
i
3
0 (6.207)
Now, a Newton-Raphson method can be used to evaluate h
i
. In this method, an arbi-
trary guess at h
i
can be refined by h
i
using the expression
h
i

D
D
(
(
h
h
i
i
)
)
(6.208)
FIGURE 6.36 Development of delta for bedload only.
FIGURE 6.37 Development of delta for both bedload and suspended load
6.96 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.38a Delta location and height after 30 years; (A) bedload only.
where
D(h
i
)
d
d
D
h
i
1 F
r,i
2
3
2

x

S
h
f
i
,i
(6.209)
The computation begins at the downstream end of the problem, where the initial bed
elevation must be specified according to the normal flow conditions that existed before
raising the water surface by 10 m. The first jump is x 200 m, and each subsequent
jump is from node, to node with x 200 m. Once the computation has progressed to the
final node, the hydraulic conditions for the initial bed condition are known. Variables such
as U, q
b
, and q
s
can be calculated easily for each node once the water depth is known.
Knowing the hydraulic conditions, the next necessary step is to evaluate the corre-
sponding change in bed elevation. This is accomplished with the Exner equation written
in the backward finite difference form
i,j1

i,j
x(1
p
)
[(q
b,i1
q
s,i1
) (q
b,i
q
s,i
)] (6.210)
where j is the current time step, j 1 is the next time step, and i 1 is the node imme-
diately upstream of the node being calculated. The calculation proceeds in the down-
stream direction. For the first node, the same technique is used, and the initial normal
bedload and suspended-load transport feed rate are used for the upstream values. It is
crucial to choose a time step that upholds the assumptions inherent to the quasi-steady-
state approximation. Here, for bedload transport only, a time step of 0.01 year (3.65
days) is used, and for runs with both suspended and bedload transport, a time step of
0.001 year (365 days) is used. These time steps are small enough to maintain theoreti-
cal integrity and numeric stability. The calculated elevations are fed into the next time
step for the adjustment of hydraulic conditions. The above procedure is continued for
each time step.
To complete the numerous computations necessary for this procedure, a computer pro-
FIGURE 6.39 Turbidity current flowing into a laboratory reservoir. (Bell, 1942)
FIGURE 6.38b Delta location and height after 30 years.
gram must be written to facilitate the numerical computations.
6.11.6 Results
The initial conditions for the water surface profile and bed elevation are shown in Fig.
6.35. Changes in river profile with time under the consideration of bedload transport only
are shown in Fig. 6.36. The initial condition and the conditions after 2, 5, 10, 20, and 30
years are plotted. Figure 6.37 presents the same data, taking into account both bed and
suspended sediment transport. Not surprisingly, the delta formation is accelerated consid-
erably when total load (bed and suspended) is considered.
Both the heights and lengths of deltas are greater for total load calculations for all time
steps. Of course, varying delta formations result in a variation in backwater effects. When
both bedload and suspended-load are considered, the backwater effects are more dramatic.
The delta formed after 30 years are shown in Fig. 6.38A and B. After 30 years, the total
load condition produces a delta reaching a length of approximately 36 km. Considering only
6.98 Chapter Six
bedload results in a prediction of a delta only 28.2 km long. Holding the downstream eleva-
tion constant results in a considerable backwater effect driven by sedimentation. Although
this elevation assumption is not wholly realistic, the results serve to illustrate the threat of
flooding associated with reservoir sedimentation. As the reservoir silts in, it will be unable
to hold the same amount of water without producing a commensurate increase in water stage.
If one is interested in estimating the amount of time necessary to fill a reservoir, it is
possible to simply divide the reservoirs filling volume per unit width by the normal sed-
iment inflow at the upstream end. To determine the filling volume, it is necessary to con-
sider the initial bed condition and the full bed conditions. The filling volume per unit width
is estimated at 360,000 m
3
/m. Assuming bedload only and dividing the filling volume by
the normal bedload inflow results in an approximate filling time of approximately 130
years. If total load is considered, an approximate filling time of 35 years is determined. This
agrees well with the results of the model; Fig. 6.38b shows that the total-load model pre-
dicts that the reservoir will be approximately full around 40 years. Neither the above cal-
culation nor the developed computer model considers the effect of sediment compaction,
which may play an important role in increasing the time required to fill a reservoir.
In general, the above results clearly indicate that suspended load plays a major role in
reservoir sedimentation. Not considering suspended-load results in a considerable under-
estimation of the progress and effects of reservoir sedimentation. If the suspended load of
the incoming flows is high, plunging may occur and turbidity currents will develop.
Turbidity flows can transport fine-grained sediment for long distances, hence having a
profound effect on reservoir sedimentation and water quality.
6.12 HYDRAULICS OF TURBIDITY CURRENTS
6.12.1 Introduction
Turbidity currents are currents of water laden with sediment that move downslope in oth-
erwise still bodies of water. Consider the situation illustration in Fig. 6.39. After plunging,
a turbidity current moves along the bed of a laboratory reservoir (Bell, 1942). It is seen
that when the flow goes from the sloping portion onto the flat portion, there is a two-fold
increase in current thickness, indicating a change in flow regime through a hydraulic
jump. There are a number of field situations where a similar slope-induced hydraulic jump
can take place (Garca, 1993, Garca, and Parker, 1989).
An important engineering aspect of turbidity currents concerns the impact these flows
have on the water quality and sedimentation in lakes and reservoirs. Turbidity flows were
observed in lakes and man-made reservoirs long before their occurrence in the ocean
became apparent. This situation usually occurs during flood periods, when rivers carry a
large amount of sediment in suspension. In China, where the suspended load in most
rivers is extremely large, the venting of turbidity currents through bottom outlets to reduce
the siltation of reservoirs has become common practice. Even though the bed slopes of
lakes and reservoirs are orders of magnitude smaller than those in the ocean, turbidity cur-
rents are still capable of traveling long distances without losing their identities: e.g., more
than 100 km in Lake Mead. An excellent account of numerical methods to model turbid-
ity currents in reservoirs can be found in Sloff (1997).
The ability of turbidity currents to transport sediment also has been put to use for the
disposal of mining tailings (Normark and Dickson, 1976) and ash from power station boil-
ers. Environmental concern has reduced waste disposal into lakes, but in the ocean, the
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
4
0
T
u
r
b
i
d
i
t
y

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

f
l
o
w
i
n
g

d
o
w
n
s
l
o
p
e

t
h
r
o
u
g
h

a

q
u
i
e
s
c
e
n
t

b
o
d
y

o
f

w
a
t
e
r
.

(
a
f
t
e
r

G
a
r
c
a
,
1
9
9
4
)
6.100 Chapter Six
dumping of mining tailing continues (Hay, 1987a, 1987b).
6.12.2 Governing Equations
A detailed derivation of the governing equations for two-dimensional turbidity currents
can be found in Parker et al. (1986). Here, the equations of motion are presented in layer-
averaged form. The situation described in Fig. 6.40 is considered. A steady, continuous
turbidity current is flowing downslope through a quiescent body of water, which is
assumed to be infinitely deep and unstratified except for the turbidity current itself. The
cross section is taken to be rectangular, with a width many times longer than the under-
flow thickness; therefore, variation in the lateral direction can be neglected. The bed has
a constant small slope S and is covered with uniform sediment of geometric mean diam-
eter D
sg
and fall velocity v
s
; the x coordinate is directed downslope tangential to the bed,
and the z coordinate is directed upward normal to the bed. The submerged specific grav-
ity of the sediment is denoted by R (
s
/ 1), where
s
is the density of the sediment
and is the density of the clear water. Local mean downstream-flow velocity and volu-
metric sediment concentration are denoted as u and c, respectively. The suspension is
dilute, hence c 1 and Rc 1 are assumed to hold everywhere. The parameters u and c
are assumed to maintain similar profiles as the current develops in the downslope direc-
tion. The layer-averaged current velocity U and volumetric concentration C and the layer
thickness h are defined via a set of moments (Parker et al., 1986):
Uh
0
udz (6.211a)
U
2
h
0
u
2
dz (6.211b)
UCh
0
ucdz (6.211c)
The equation of fluid mass balance integrates in the upward normal direction to yield
d
d
U
x
h
e
w
U (6.212)
where e
w
is the coefficient of entrainment of water from the quiescent water above the cur-
rent. The equation of sediment conservation takes the layer-averaged form
dU
d
C
x
H
v
s
(E
s
c
b
) (6.213)
where c
b
is the near-bed concentration of suspended sediment evaluated at z 0.05h and
E
s
is a dimensionless coefficient of bed sediment entrainment into suspension. The inte-
gral momentum balance equation takes the form
dU
dx
2
h
gRChS

1
2
gR

d
d
x
(Ch
2
) u
2
*
(6.214)
where u
*
denotes the bed-shear velocity. The equations of sediment mass, fluid mass, and
flow momentum balance must be closed appropriately with algebraic laws for e
w
, u
*
, E
s
,
and c
b
. The water entrainment coefficient e
w
is known to be a function of the bulk
Richardson number (Ri), which can be defined as
Ri
gR
U
C
2
h
(6.215)
FIGURE 6.41 Water entrainment coefficient as a function of Richardson number
(After Parker et al., 1987)
6.102 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
4
2
P
l
o
t

o
f

b
e
d

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

c
D
v
e
r
s
u
s

R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s

n
u
m
b
e
r
.

(
a
f
t
e
r

P
a
r
k
e
r

e
t

a
l
.
,
1
9
8
7
)
FIGURE 6.43 Plot of shape factor ro versus u*/V
s
. (after
Parker et al., 1987)
FIGURE 6.44 Plot of the sediment entrainment coefficient Es
for both open-channel suspensions and density currents. (after
Garca and Parker, 1993)
6.104 Chapter Six
FIGURE 6.45 Plot of plunging flow depth versus (q
2
/g)
1/3
, includ-
ing field and laboratory data Garca (1996)
and is equal to one over the square of the densimetric Fr U/(gRCh)
1/2
, often used in
stratified flow studies. A useful equation for the water entrainment coefficient plotted in
Fig. 6.41 is the following (Parker et al., 1987):
e
w

(1
0
7
.
1
0
8
7
R
5
i
2.4
)
0.5
(6.216)
It is customary to take the bed shear stress to be proportional to the square of the flow
velocity so that u
*
2
C
D
U
2
, where C
D
is a bed friction coefficient. Values of C
D
for tur-
bidity currents have been found to vary between 0.002 and 0.05, as shown in Fig. 6.42
(Parker et al., 1987). The near-bed concentration c
b
can be related to the layer-averaged
concentration C by a shape factor r
o
c
b
/C, which is approximately equal to 2 for sedi-
ment-laden underflows, as shown in Fig. 6.43 (Parker et al., 1987). The sediment entrain-
ment coefficient E
s
is known to be a function of bed shear stress and sediment character-
istics (Garca and Parker, 1991). The formulation of Garca and Parker (Eq. 6.173a) is
plotted in Fig. 6.44, where data on sediment entrainment by sediment-laden density cur-
rents also are included (Garca and Parker, 1993).
6.12.3 Plunging Flow
The necessary conditions for plunging to occur in a reservoir may vary as a function of
the physical parameters that produce flow stratification. These parameters are sometimes
known in advance from measurements in the field. Akiyama and Stefan (1984) general-
ized several expressions that were derived from laboratory experiments, field measure-
ments, or theoretical analysis as a function of the parameters involved in plunging:
h
p

F
1
r
2
p
g
q
R
2
w
C
1/3
(6.217)
where h
p
flow depth at plunging, q
w
flow discharge per unit width, and Fr
p
densi-
metric Fr at plunging defined by
Fr
p

(gRC
U
h
p
)
1/2
(6.218)
The value of Fr
p
has been found to range from 0.2 to 0.8 (Morris and Fan, 1998). If there
is not enough suspended sediment, plunging will not occur and a turbidity current will not
develop. Figure 6.45 shows field and laboratory data for the flow depth at plunging as a
function of the inflow parameters (Garca, 1996).
6.12.4 Internal Hydraulic Jump
The bulk Ri, given by Eq. (6.215), is an important parameter governing the behavior of
stratified slender flows, such as turbidity currents (Turner, 1973). This parameter has a crit-
ical value Ri
c
near unity so that the range Ri Ri
c
corresponds to a high-velocity super-
critical turbid flow regime, and the range Ri Ri
c
corresponds to a low-velocity subcriti-
cal turbid flow regime. The change from supercritical flow to subcritical flow is accom-
plished via an internal hydraulic jump, as illustrated in Fig. 6.39. Therein, a turbidity cur-
rent undergoes a hydraulic jump induced by a change in bed slope in the proximity of a lab-
oratory reservoir. Conservation of momentum gives the following relation (Garca, 1993):
h
h
2
1

1
2
1 8 Ri
1
1
1
1
1
]
(6.219)
which is analogous to Belangers equation for open-channel flow hydraulic jumps. For a
known prejump Ri
1
, Eq. (6.219) gives the ratio of the sequent current thickness h
2
to the
initial current thickness h
1
. The subcritical flow, forced by some type of control acting far-
ther downstream, will influence the location of the jump and thus the length of the water-
entraining supercritical flow upstream of the jump. In laboratory experiments, the down-
stream boundary conditions are usually imposed by the experimenter (e.g., weir, sluice
gate, outfall) because of the finite length of experimental facilities. In the ocean or lakes,
where a current may travel several hundred kilometers without losing its identity, the con-
trol of the flow will operate through deposition of sediment and bed friction.
6.12.5 Application: Turbidity Current in Lake Superior
As an example, the case of turbidity currents produced by the discharge of taconite tail-
ings by the Reserve Mining Company into Lake Superior at Silver Bay, Minnesota, is con-
sidered. Over a period of 20 years, the man-made turbidity currents formed a delta with a
steep front followed by a depositional fan. Normark and Dickson (1976) used field obser-
vations to infer that the transition from the delta slope to the fan slope took place through
a hydraulic jump, whereas Akiyama and Stefan (1985) used numerical modeling to show
a clear tendency by the flow to become supercritical shortly after reaching the fan region.
However, the lack of knowledge about the role played by the hydraulic jump has made
6.106 Chapter Six
F
I
G
U
R
E

6
.
4
6
S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
u
r
b
i
d
i
t
y

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

u
n
d
e
r
g
o
i
n
g

a

h
y
d
r
a
u
l
i
c

j
u
m
p

i
n

L
a
k
e

S
u
p
e
r
i
o
r
,
M
i
n
n
e
s
o
t
a
.

(
a
f
t
e
r

G
a
r
c
a
,
1
9
9
3
)
flow computations along the subcritical region practically impossible. Such computations
can now be simplified through the knowledge gained in laboratory experiments (Garca,
1994). This is illustrated by the following numerical experiment.
The lake bed topography at Silver Bay in Lake Superior is modeled in a one-dimen-
sional configuration, as illustrated in Fig. 6.46. The delta slop angle is 17, and the fan
slope is 1.5. The delta-fan slope transition takes place between 600 m to 900 m from the
shore. The equations of motion (6.212), (6.213), and (6.214) are solved using a simple
standard step method (Garca and Parker, 1986). The water entrainment e
w
and sediment
entrainment E
s
coefficients are estimated with relationships proposed by Parker et al.
(1987) and Garca and Parker (1991; 1993), respectively. A constant bed friction coeffi-
cient C
D
0.02 and a shape factor r
o
2 are used. Initial flow conditions at the tailings
discharge point similar to those used by Akiyama and Fukushima (1986) are used: i.e., U
o
0.6 m/s, h
o
1 m,
o
0.1 m
2
/s, and Ri
o
0.5. The tailings have a mean particle size
D
sg
40 mm and a submerged specific gravity R 2.1. Particle fall velocity is estimat-
ed to be v
s
0.14 cm/s. Lateral spreading of the flows is ignored. The computations
march downslope starting at the head of the delta, and at approximately 0.6 km from the
tailings discharge point, the flow starts to slow down because of the slope transition. If
the current depth at the end of the fan region could be known, the jump location could be
determined with a simple backwater computation. Because this information is not avail-
able, the hydraulic jump is assumed to take place at 0.9 km from the inlet. According to
the laboratory observations, water entrainment from above, as well as bed sediment
entrainment into suspension, can be neglected after the jump. Under these assumptions,
Eq. (6.213) can be integrated with the help of Eq. (6.212), and an expression for the spa-
tial variation of the volumetric layer-averaged sediment concentration C is obtained,
C C
j
e

v
s
q
r
o
w
x
(6.220)
where C is the value of C
j
at the hydraulic jump and x is distance measured from the
jumps location. Since the flow discharge per unit width q
w
is constant in the subcritical
flow region (e
w
0), Eq. (6.220) can be used to compute the volumetric sediment trans-
port rate per unit width CUh, at any location after the jump. The variation in current thick-
ness between the jumps location and a point located 2.2 km from the inlet is shown in
Fig. 6.46. The profile is obtained by first computing the value of C at 2.2 km with the help
of Eq. (6.220), then by doing a backwater computation in an iterative manner until the
computed current thickness at 0.9 km coincides with the current thickness obtained with
the supercritical flow computation and the hydraulic jump Eq. (6.219). The flow discharge
per unit width computed at the jumps location is q
w
48 m
2
/s. For such flow discharge,
Eq. (6.220) predicts that the turbidity current, after experiencing a hydraulic jump, will
travel approximately 80 km before dying out as a result of deposition of sediment.
REFERENCES
Akiyama and Fukushima, 1986, Entrainment of noncohesive sediment into suspension. 3
rd
Int.Symp. on River Sedimentation, S. Y. Wang, H. W. Shen, and L. Z. Ding, eds., Univ. of
Mississipi, 804813.
Akiyama and Stefan, 1984, Plunging Flow into a Reservior: Theory, (American Society of Civil
Engineer. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering) 110(4), 484499
Akiyama and Stefan, 1985, Turbidity Current with Erosion and Deposition, (American Society of
Civil Engineering), Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 111(12), 14731496.
Ackers, P., and W. R. White, Sediment Transport: New Approach and Analysis, Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineer 99:20412060, 1973.
Allen, J. R. L., Physical Processes of Sedimentation, Elsevier, New York, 1970.
Amsler, M. L., and M. H. Garca, Discussion of Sand-Dune Geometry of Large Rivers During
Floods, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineer 123:582584,
1997.
Anderson, A. G., The Characteristics of Sediment Waves Formed by Flow in Open Channels,
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6.

lnz const. (6.3)

1 for rough turbulent flow and k

1 for smooth turbulent

volume of total space

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

denote the volume concentration of suspended sediment (m

. The deposition rate D realized at the bed is obtained by computing the

[mass of bed material] net mass bedload inflow rate

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

tanh (k) (6.95)

tanh (k) (6.96)

. As long as the suspended sediment under considera-

[mass in volume] [net mass inflow rate] (6.142)

are the mean flow velocities in the s, n, and z directions, respectively,

/dz 0. It follows that the equilibrium suspended-sediment concentration decreases

0. It was developed and tested with three sets of data from

2.51 m/s (xxviii)

1.34 (6.191i and j)

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

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