Aerodynamics of a Transport Aircraft December 20, 2012 Chris Carr CSUN Aeronautics California State University, Northridge AE 480

A Documentation of the basic aerodynamic forces acting on a transport aircraft during multiple mission phases, showing the eects of environmental temperature, density, and pressure changes due to the elevation of the aircraft.

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Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 An Aircrafts Environment 1.3 Basic Forces . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Weight . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Lift . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Drag . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Thrust . . . . . . . 1.4 Basic Flight Maneuvers: . 1.4.1 Take-O: . . . . . 1.4.2 Climb: . . . . . . . 1.4.3 Cruise: . . . . . . . 1.4.4 Landing: . . . . . . 2 Analysis 2.1 Aircraft Environment . 2.2 Thrust Modeling . . . 2.3 Aerodynamic Modeling 2.4 Flight Envelope . . . . 2.5 Range . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Climb . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Takeo and Landing . 3 Results 3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Flight Enviorment . . 3.3 Thrust Modeling . . . 3.4 Aerodynamic Modeling 3.5 Flight Envelope . . . . 3.6 Range . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Climb . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Takeo/Landing . . . . 8 8 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 20 20 23 27 29 31 33 35 39 40 41

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Appendix A Flight Environment A.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix B Thrust Modeling B.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix C Aerodynamic Modeling C.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix D Flight Envelope D.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix E Range E.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix F Climb F.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix G Take-O and Landing G.1 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43 43 44 47 47 49 51 51 52 54 54 55 57 57 59 60 60 62

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

Name nT nS R g TSL PSL SL Density @ Sea Level [slugs/ft3] Density @ 10,000ft [slugs/ft3] Density @ 20,000ft [slugs/ft3] Density @ 30,000 ft [slugs/ft3] aSL rE CDo e T/WSL AR W/S MCR qMax Clmax Wf/Wcraft Tsfc Sl Start Elev (m) Induced Drag Correction Factor, k

Value units 1.235 none 0.972 none 287.03 kJ/*(kmol*K) 1.4 none 9.807 m/s2 15 oC 101.325 kPa 1.225 kg/m3 0.00238 lb/ft3 0.0018 lb/ft3 0.00127 lb/ft3 0.00089 lb/ft3 340 m/s 6,371 km 0.0155 0.84 0.33 10.1 110 0.85 650 1.2 0.38 0.65 9448.8 0.0375

lbf/ft2

Table 1: Input Parameters and Initial Values

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.19 3.20 3.18 Sir George Cayley [7] . . . . . . . . The 7 Layer Atmospheric Mode [9]l Weight of the Aircraft [5] . . . . . . Airfoil Lift [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . VTOL Takeo: Harrier [12] . . . . Typical Aircraft Flight Plan . . . . C-17 Take O [8] . . . . . . . . . . Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thrust vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . Pressure vs. Elevation . . . . . . . Density vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . Thrust vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . Thrust Specic Fuel Consumption . Mach vs. Thrust to Weight . . . . True Air Speed Analysis . . . . . . CL vs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parabolic Drag Polar . . . . . . . . Aerodynamic Eciency . . . . . . . Drag to Weight . . . . . . . . . . . Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . Load Factor [?] . . . . . . . . . . . Flight Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . W/S vs. Percent Throttle . . . . . Rate of Climb vs. Flight Speed . . 3 Versions of Climb . . . . . . . . . Take-O Distance . . . . . . . . . . Thrust To Weight Ratio Vs Percent Example of Aircraft Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9 10 10 11 12 12 13 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 36 41 42 42 44 45 46

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Throttle . . . . .

A.1 Thrust vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Pressure vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.3 Density vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1 Thrust vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Tsfc vs. Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3 Mach vs.Thrust Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

C.1 Parabolic Drag Polar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Aerodynamic Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3 Coe. Lift vs AoA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1 Drag to Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.1 Flight Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.2 W/S vs. Percent Throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.1 R/C vs. Flight Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.1 Take-O Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.2 Thrust To Weight Ratio Vs Percent Throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49 49 50 52 53 55 56 59 62 63

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

List of Tables
1 3.1 3.2 Input Parameters and Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 33 34 40 43 44 47 48 48 51 52 54 55 57 58 58 59 60 61 61 62

A.1 Flight Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1 Thrust at Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Varying Mach against Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.1 Coecient of Lift Varies to Determine Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Coecient of Lift Varies to Determine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3 Varied Coe. Lift to Find Aerodynamic Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1 Induced Drag as it varies with Flight Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Sample Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.1 Brequet and FAA Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.2 FAA Stepped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.1 F.2 F.3 F.4 Analysis of Sea Level Rate of Climb R/C Analysis 10,000FT . . . . . . R/C Analysis at 20,000Ft . . . . . R/C Analysis at 30,000Ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

G.1 Sea Level Take-O Distance at Diering Thrust Ratios and Wing Loading G.2 5000ft Elevation Take-O Distance at Diering Thrust Ratios and Wing Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.3 Landing Distance At Sea Level With Varied Wing Loading . . . . . . . . G.4 Landing Distance At 5000ft With Varied Wing Loading . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 History

Aerospace engineering began in the late 1800s to the mid 1900s. Huge strides were made by people like Wilbur wright but many attribute the origin of aerospace engineering to Sir George Cayley. Cayley is considered one of the most important people in aerospace engineering being the rst person to separate the forces of Lift and drag which are the most important variables when it comes to ight. Most knowledge on aircraft during the time of Cayley is mostly empirical evidence. Many concepts of early aerospace engineering were taken and hybridized from multiple other engineering disciplines. Engineers understood uid dynamics and began designing aircraft. After the Wright brothers and World War I, aircraft were seen to be the way o the future in the military as well as in the civilian sectors. It took a while for aerospace engineering to be considered a major discipline it wasnt until 1958 that the rst department of aerospace engineering came to be The National AeroFigure 1.1: Sir George Cayley [7] nautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created mostly to compete with the threat of war with Russia launching their rst satellite in January of 1958 in response to the launch of Sputnik. Aircraft are subjected to many dierent conditions produced by changes in atmospheric pressure, temperature, and structural loads applied on parts of the aircraft. Every Aerospace project has multiple dierent disciplines involved in the project. These disciplines include aerodynamics, propulsion, avionics, materials science, 8

structural analysis, and nally manufacturing. These disciplines interact with each other as a system to create a functioning aircraft. The development and manufacturing of a modern ight vehicle is an extremely complex process and demands careful balance and compromise between abilities, design, available technology and costs. Aerospace engineers design, test, and supervise the manufacture of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. Aerospace engineers develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and space.

1.2

An Aircrafts Environment

The standard atmospheric model is known as the 7 layer model. This model divides earths atmosphere into seven dierent layers according to major temperature changes. Typical ight occurs between sea level and 32km, the pressure in these layers is concentrated by gravity pushing down on the air. The rst layer is called the troposphere it consists of the rst 12km of the atmosphere. This is the area where weather typically occurs at and as height increases the temperature of the atmosphere decreases. (Approximately 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer.) Next there is the tropopause, this is the top of the troposphere, and this Figure 1.2: The 7 Layer Atmospheric Mode location separates the troposphere from [9]l the stratosphere. The tropopause is the location of a jet stream; this jet stream typically blows eastward. The third layer is called the stratosphere which is between 12 to 50km. In this layer there is quite a bit of ultraviolet radiation, the radiation is kept at bay by the Ozone layer which is also located at the stratosphere. The temperature from 12km to 20km stays constant but in the upper part of this layer temperature begins to increase as altitude increases. Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere which is between 50 to 80km. this is the coldest atmospheric layer (-100 Celsius). In this layer meteoroids burn up and evaporate protecting the planet below from constant meteor impacts. The 5th layer is the Thermosphere, in basic terms this layer is the rest of the atmosphere. The temperature is extremely high in this area approximately 2000 degrees Celsius this is because the ultraviolet radiation is converted into heat in this layer. This layer contains the more layers within itself, the ionosphere, exosphere, and the magnetosphere. The ionosphere is the lower part of the thermosphere. This is in-between 80 and 550km. this area reects radio waves back to the earth which helps with radio communications. The gases in this ionosphere absorb a large portion of the ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun. Radio communications will be interfered with if the sun has a solar are and the gases absorb too much of this radiation charging the ions of the layer. The exosphere is the upper part of the thermosphere 550km to

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

1000km this is where the satellites and international space station orbit the earth. For Aircraft its environment is the most important part about its ight. For typical transport ight, aircraft stick to the Stratosphere. This is because the stratosphere is above the Tropopause, the Troposphere is where most weather typically occurs, and staying above this elevation aircraft can avoid most turbulence and environmental eects that could be detrimental to the aircraft and its payload.

1.3
1.3.1

Basic Forces
Weight

Weight is a force always directed to the center of the earth. For aircraft the weight depends on the sum of the aircrafts parts, fuel, and payload on board. This weight is distributed throughout the aircraft creating the center of gravity needed for the aircraft. This center of gravity is what the aircraft rotates about. To y well, two things must be overcome The control of the aircraft in ight, as well as overcoming the weight of the aircraft with an opposing force. The aircraft will also constantly change in weight due to the consumption of fuel. Thus requiring the controls of the aircraft must constantly be adjusted to account for this loss of weight.

Figure 1.3: Weight of the Aircraft [5]

1.3.2

Lift

To overcome the vertically down force of weight caused by gravity, aircraft generate another force called lift. The force of lift is in the vertically upward direction opposing gravity, once enough lift is generated to overcome the force of gravity on the plane then the aircraft will begin to take o. The magnitude of the force of lift is generated by several dierent factors including the size of the aircraft, shape of the wing, and the velocity generated by the propulsion system. The majority of the lift of an airFigure 1.4: Airfoil Lift [6] craft is generated by the force of lift created by the wings of the aircraft. Most aircraft wings are designed in a shape of an Airfoil this airfoil causes a pressure distribution over the wings. The airfoil is thus shapes to cause the air traveling over the top of the wings to move at a much higher speed than Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 10

that of the air traveling under the wings. This pressure dierence makes the pressure under the wings much higher than the pressure above the wings. The pressure causes the upward lifting force over the wings.

1.3.3

Drag

Air has volume as well as mass, any object traveling through air would have to move that air in order to continue on its path. The force caused by moving this air is called Drag. Drag is a force opposite of the direction of ight. Just like lift there are many factors that increase or decrease the magnitude of drag on an aircraft. These factors include the shape of the aircraft, the viscosity of the uid medium and the velocity of the aircraft. Drag is a unwanted but inevitable force during ight, thus during the design of the aircraft drag is something that is closely watched and minimized as much as possible during the design process.

1.3.4

Thrust

To overcome the forces of drag aircraft have a propulsion system to propel the aircraft in a horizontal direction. This force generated by a propulsion system is known as Thrust. The direction is not always horizontal, this depends on the aerodynamics of the plane needed to have a good eciency, and sometimes the engines will face ever so slightly upward. Some aircraft have been specically designed to be able to take o vertically with their propulsion system then mechanically adjust the direction the engines face to move forward, such as the harrier. Something that should be noted about thrust in relation to aircraft, thrust does not generate lift. The thrust Figure 1.5: VTOL Takeo: Harrier [12] of an aircraft merely overcomes the forces of drag and the weight of the aircraft. Lift and Thrust help overcome Drag and Weight but they do not generate each other, and vice versa.

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

11

1.4

Basic Flight Maneuvers:

Figure 1.6: Typical Aircraft Flight Plan

1.4.1

Take-O:

Takeo is the point of ight in which the aircraft beings takeo procedures. After the ight has been planned and the aircraft has been taxied into position the aircraft will begin takeo procedures. Before takeo engines are usually tested several times by sending power through them but not moving forward. This is to make sure no engine failures will occur during the actual takeo. After this is done the breaks are disengaged and the aircraft begins to move forward on the runway until the takeo speed is achieved for the aircraft. The takeo speed for an aircraft requires a lot of dierent variables such as air density, aircraft weight, aircraft conguration, elevation, and air temperature.

Figure 1.7: C-17 Take O [8]

1.4.2

Climb:

After takeo the climb phase begins. Each specic aircraft has a typical predened cruise altitude that it wants to achieve. This altitude is achieved using the safest and most economical way possible. A climb is carried out by increasing the lift of the aircraft until the force of lift exceeds the force of weight. Thrust aids the increase in lift by increasing the velocity forcing air against the wing at a faster rate while the aircraft uses its control surfaces to change the angle of attack of the wing. These working together force the aircraft to climb. A typical transport aircraft will climb to approximately 30,000ft before leveling o for cruise ight.

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

12

1.4.3

Cruise:

Cruise follows the climbing phase of an aircrafts ight plan. Cruise is dened as level ight. This portion of ight is where an aircraft is most fuel ecient as well as the longest part of ight occurs. The only part of the aircrafts heading that typically changes in an aircrafts ight during the cruise is the heading of the aircraft, keeping constant speed and altitude. Although cruise ight is the most ecient period of the aircrafts ight, it is also the most fuel consuming part of an aircrafts ight. Every aircraft has a optimum cruising altitude that is the most ecient for an aircraft. There are many conditions that are needed to come together to achieve this optimum performance for example weight, center of gravity, air temperature, humidity, speed, fuel consumption rate, drag, etc.

1.4.4

Landing:

Landing is the nal part of a aircrafts ight plan. Aircraft typically land on runways that are generally constructed of asphalt, concrete, or densely packed grounds. Landing is accomplished by a very slow gradual descent to the runway. Transport aircraft need be especially concerned with runway length due to the time needed to reduce the aircraft to a stop is much higher than other aircraft types.

Figure 1.8: Landing

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

13

Chapter 2 Analysis
2.1 Aircraft Environment

Flight Environment: The following analysis is performed from 0 meters to 32 km. The temperature, pressure, density, and airspeed were calculated from the following equations. The resulting data is expected to conrm the 1962 Standard Atmosphere Data. For the Troposphere and Upper stratosphere the following equations were used. T2 n1 g =1 (h2 h1 ) T1 n RT1
(n P2 n1 g = [1 (h2 h1 )] (n1) P1 n RT1 (n n1 g 2 = [1 (h2 h1 )] (n1) 1 n RT1

(2.1) (2.2) (2.3)

The next equations are used when the temperature is isothermal conditions in elevation
g P2 = e RT (h2 h1 ) P1

(2.4) (2.5)

P RT The acoustic airspeed was calculated using the following equation = a = (RT ).5

(2.6)

2.2

Thrust Modeling

Based on previous calculations in the area of temperature, density, pressure, and acoustic airspeed, the following equations were used: Equation(1) is the computation of the Thrust Ratio as it relates to density and since density has direct correlation to elevation Equation(1) was used to plot The Thrust Ratio vs. Elevation. The exponent of Equation

14

(1) is .7 up to the Tropopause, once the Tropopause is reached the exponent of Equation (1) changes to 1. T e l = ( ).7 Tsl s l el T = ( )1 Tsl sl (2.7) (2.8)

Equation(2) is the application of the fuel air consumption of the airplane, like Equation(1) this equation was used to plot the Thrust Fuel Air Consumption versus the elevation of the aircraft. This equation is valid up to the Tropopause, once reach it becomes invalid without a modication to the equation. The exponent of the equation changes to -.1 due to the lack of air at the elevation of the aircraft. Tsf c el = ( ).2 Tsf csl sl (2.9)

Equation (3) and (4) are used to plot Mach Number versus The Static Thrust. First the TAS is found using Equation (3) then TAS is used as V to calculate the thrust of the aircraft. T ASM CR = a M CR T Tstatic = 1 103 V + 106 V)2 (2.10) (2.11)

Equation (5) is used to calculate the true airspeed with a known indicated airspeed of the aircraft. T ASIAS = IAS ( sl el (2.12)

Equation(6) is the calculation of the stall speed with a known wing loading of 90 flb2 t and a coecient of lift of 1.2. Stall speed was analyzed in its relation to elevation. Vs tall = W/S g .5CL maxelev (2.13)

2.3

Aerodynamic Modeling

A model of the aerodynamics of an aircraft can be modeled in multiple ways, the procedure used for the alaysis of this transport aircraft was by varying the Coecient of lift from 0 to 1.2 with aspect ratios of 3, 6, and 10. The aircraft was given a sweep of 35 degrees for the analysis. Firstly the angle of attack was developed using the below equation. The angle of attack is the aircrafts relationship with the horizontal plane as the lift increases due to diering factors in this analysis AR. This equation outputs an angle in radians of an aircraft, with AR being the main driver of the equation. Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 15

 = CL (1 + (1 + (

2 AR )1/2 /(AR) (2 Cos(Sweep)

(2.14)

This equation outputs the drag of the equation, as the coecient of lift increases it is expected that the drag will increase. This is because as you increase the angle of attack of the aircraft the frontal area of the aircraft in relation to the y axis increases thus leaving more area to be eected by forces countering the thrust of the aircraft
2 CDo = Cdo + kCL

(2.15)

E=

CL C2 Cd o + k L

(2.16)

The above equation will be used to calculate the the aerodynamic eciency of the aircraft as the coecient of lift increases. The eciency can be then related to the maximum aerodynamic eciency the aircraft can accomplish then showing its eciency. The below equation uses the Drag equation to attain the maximum lift that an aircraft can attain at at the angle of attack of the wing. CLE max = ( Cd o k (2.17)

The previous equation which incorperated all previous aerodynamic equations to conclude with the maximum aerodynamic eciency of the aircraft this can be compared with the aircraft at dierent levels of ight to optimally choose proper angles of ight that produce the best eciencies of the aircraft. Emax = 1 (4k) Cdo (2.18)

2.4

Flight Envelope

For Flight Envelope analysis Thrust is varied among dierent ight speeds under to calculate the drag to weight ratio of the aircraft. This is specically driven by ight speed. While at low ight speeds the drag is expected to be low, but as the ight speed increases the drag will increase in a parabolic fashion. D 1 Cdo W/S = elev V 2 ( )+k1 W 2 W/S V2 2 elev (2.19)

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The Trust to Weight ratio of an aircraft is directly driven by the aircrafts elevation during ight changing as the air becomes less dense with an increase in elevation. For this analysis T/W was tun at 85 T el 0.7 = T /Wsl 0.85 W elev sl (2.20)

The following two equations are driven specically by the T/W of the aircraft diering only by a change in sign, both these equations show the highest velocity and the lowest velocity of the aircraft possible based on the thrust level of the aircraft. Vhigh = (1 + (1 (4 (k)) Cdo) 1/2 (W/S T /W ) Cdo elev ((T /W 2 )))1/2 )) (2.21)

Vlow =

W/S T /W (1 (1 (4 (k))Cdo) 1/2 Cdo) elev T /W 2 )))1/2

(2.22)

The Stall equation will result in a velocity of the aircraft that enduces stall, meaning that the aircraft will be unable to continue ight and will begin to fall. Vstall == (2 (W/S) CLmax1/2 elev ) (2.23)

This equation outputs the optimal cruise velocity of the aircraft, this speed is where most of the aircrafts fuel will be used. Vcruise = M CR a 3.28084 (2.24)

The Vqmax equation depicts a limiting constraint on Vhigh as will be discussed later Vqmax = 2 qM ax 1/2 elev (2.25)

this equation is used to show how a Airspeed of 250mph will operate withing the ight envelope. 1.225 1/2 V250 == IAS( ) (2.26) elev

2.5

Range
C1 = tsf crelev T sf cSl (2.27)

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Range is the most important concept when it comes to transport aircraft, there are three main ways to calculate the range of an aircraft The Brequet equation is a linear representation of ight through a constant climb for an aircraft yielding the highest results for range Breguet = VE Log(1 W ratio) C (2.28)

The FAA Range results in the most conservative range of an aircraft keeping a constant elevation throughout ight RangeF AA = 2Emax V Atn((Wratio E) C 2 Emax (1 k CL E W ratio (2.29)

The FAA Stepped is the commonly used for most commercial aircraft ight. This uses a elevation step function to create trac lanes as well as the bridge the Brequet and FAA Equations to result in a mot realistic range for aircraft. F AAS teppedW eighF uelF raction == 1 2 1 (2.30)

The Trust Specic fuel consumption Equations as it changes due to density changes with elevation. This has signicant eects in the Troposphere and changes from positive benets to negative benets after crossing the Tropopause tsf cR = elev .2 sl (2.31)

tsf cR =

elev 0.1 trop

(2.32)

2.6

Climb

Equation representing the rate of climb of an aircraft. For this analysis the rate of climb was analyzed at sea level,10, 20, and 30 thousand feet. The best rate of climb, the max velocity during climb, and the best rate of climb were calculated for each elevation chosen. This equation results in the curve of an aircrafts rate of climb as it varies with velocity R/C = T D V 60 W W (2.33)

Change in wing loading as density changes with elevation W/Selev == W/S 2 1 (2.34) 18

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

the maximum velocity at the best climb angle Vmax 2 W/S10k Cos(Climb) 1/2 == ((k/CDo )1/4 20k (2.35)

best rate of climb based on the best climb angle and maximum velocity R/C == Vmax Sin(Climb) 60 (2.36)

2.7

Takeo and Landing

The Equation for the take o perameter directly needed to assess the takeo runway distance 1 sl 1 T akeOf f P arameterT.O.P = W/S ( CLM AXto ) ) ( T /W ) / elev / Equation calculating the minnimum take o distance for the aircraft Stop = 20.9 T.O.P + 87 (T.O.P T /W.25)1/2 Equation determining the parameter for landing distance LandingP arameterL.P = W/S 1 (CLM AXland )( sl elev (2.39) (2.38) (2.37)

equation using the landing parameter to calculate landing distance for the aircraft LandingDistance = 118 LP + 400 (2.40)

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Chapter 3 Results
3.1
xxx

Basics

3.2

Flight Enviorment

Figure 3.1: Thrust vs. Elevation Figure 3.1: Temperature varies at dierent elevations based on may dierent factors each major change occurs when a new layer of the atmosphere is achieved. From Figure 3.1 you can see that as an aircraft climbs temperature is linearly decreasing, but when 20

the Tropopause is crossed the aircraft is subjected to a constant temperature for almost 15000ft and then begins to linearly increase. This continues throughout an aircrafts climb depicted in gure 3.1. Most Transport aircraft travel in the troposphere but there are some that y above this.

Figure 3.2: Pressure vs. Elevation Figure 3.2: Aircraft performance is typically considered with a combination of lift and thrust. Thrust is generated by the an engine but with elevation the performance of an aircrafts engine decreases with an increases in the ambient temperature of the surrounding environment and also decreases while the air pressure decreases.

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

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Figure 3.3: Density vs. Elevation Figure 3.3: When it comes to aircraft performance Altitude Density is the single most important factor. As an Aircrafts altitude increases the air becomes less dense. When air becomes less dense. When it comes to aircraft will have decreased engine performance at higher altitudes due to density, when the engine in not performing optimally the aircraft will have a more dicult time taking o as well as a more dicult time in the climbing phase of its mission. Conclusion: Aircrafts Performance can be broken down into its fundamental elements and these elements would be Pressure, Density, and Temperature. Performance in this case must be optimized to operate the aircraft in question at peak performance. Which will mean tradeos between multiple dierent subsystems of the aircraft. For example propulsions thrust to weight ratio, Wing Surface Area and Runway Length are directly related to the aircrafts environments. When planning an aircrafts ight all of these must be considered constantly to have the best performance of your aircraft. The Following sections will address the constraints on an aircraft due to the enviorment that it will be placed in due to atmospheric conditions

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3.3

Thrust Modeling

Figure 3.4: Thrust vs. Elevation This graph represents the Thrust ratio with its relationship with elevation. As elevation increases the thrust required to push a hypothetical aircraft becomes less and less, which is expected due to the relationship between density and elevation. When thrust crosses the Tropopause there is a small but noticeable increase in the required thrust to push an aircraft. In the grand scope of things this slight change should not be overlooked regardless. The Performance of the aircraft is the key to aerodynamic performance.

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Figure 3.5: Thrust Specic Fuel Consumption Here shows the Thrust fuel consumption rate of a Transport aircraft compared to elevation. Unlike the Thrust versus elevation linear curve as elevation is increased the amount of fuel consumed to produce the equivalent thrust is increased. This is because the engine does not need to work as hard to push the aircraft, thus saving fuel and allowing for longer ight. With the Tropopause due to the lack of oxygen the engine must push harder and thus requires much more fuel to push the aircraft. This concept is very important when it comes to transport aircraft. This shows that if an aircraft pays attention to its elevation and fuel consumption it could eectively y longer than it would typically at sea level and other elevations. This increases the overall performance eciency of the aircraft.

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Figure 3.6: Mach vs. Thrust to Weight This graph represents the thrust ratio versus the Mach number at sea level, 5000ft and 10000ft. As can be seen in the graph at rst Mach number tends to reduce the thrust ratio, but as the Mach number increase the Thrust ratio tends to increase at a signicant rate for all levels of elevation. Elevation seems to have a fairly insignicant eect onto the thrust ratio vs Mach number.

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Figure 3.7: True Air Speed Analysis Above represents three things. The color green represents the stall velocity of plane with a wing loading of 110 flb2 and a maximum coecient of 1.2, the color blue rept resents the Indicated Air Speed of a plane traveling at 250 MPH, and lastly red represents the True Air Speed of a plane with constant Mach number of .85. The Stall Velocity as well as the True Air Speed of the constant velocity plane both has the same trend. Elevation reduces air density which in turn allows the planes to travel faster in higher elevations. The Mach number is directly aected by density and since density is aected by temperature as well it boils down to following the trend line of polytrophic and isothermal regions. Notice that the True Airspeed crossed the stall velocity curve; this indicates that the aircraft will stall at approximately 19 km if that airspeed it kept at that elevation. This occurrence must be avoided at all costs in ight. Conclusion: It is found that the increase in elevation directly aects the Thrust, Stall and TAS of aircraft. Typically in the Troposphere Thrust requirements and are greatly reduced with increase in elevation, but one the Tropopause is passed the requirements begin to signicantly increase. Elevations eect on airspeed is signicant as well. As elevation increases so does airspeed, but with each step in elevation the amount of velocity increase is less with each Step. All these values are extremely signicant when designing an aircraft. During the design of an aircraft these are extremly important to watch, as was seen with the true airspeed at Mach .85

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

26

3.4

Aerodynamic Modeling

Figure 3.8: CL vs. Figure 3.8: is the coecient of lift as it varies with angle of attack. It can be seen that Angle of attack is linearly related to the Coecient of Lift. The Coecient of lift increases as the aircraft adjust its angle of attack. The aspect ratio was varied between 3, 6, and 10 to show how the aspect ratio as eects the lift that an aircraft will generate. With an Aircraft with High Aspect ratios such as C-130 Hercules (Aspect Ratio 10.1) you will receive added lift which in turn will allow for a lower thrust to propel the aircraft forward. This is highly benecial for transport aircraft. Due to long ights over large distances, a transport will need these benets.

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

27

Figure 3.9: Parabolic Drag Polar Figure 3.9: is the parabolic drag polar of the aircraft. This drag is caused by viscous shear eects caused by the aircrafts increase in lift. This drag is called pressure drag, pressure this is caused by the coecient of lift. As you increase the aspect ratio drag becomes less and less of an issue to the plane by decreasing the tip vortices, but if you adjust the angle of attack above or below 0 degrees you begin to create induced drag, this can be devastating to the plane if the critical angle of attack is achieved by the plane causing stall and forcing the pilot to perform maneuvers to regain control of the aircraft.

Figure 3.10: Aerodynamic Eciency Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 28

Figure 3.10: represents the Aerodynamic eciency of the three variations that are being discussed. Each aspect ratio is plotting Aerodynamic eciency versus the coecient of lift. As aspect ratio increases it can be seen that the maximum aerodynamic eciency increases drastically as the coecient of lift increases, which shows that it is better for eciency to have a transport aircraft that has a larger aspect ratio. Lower aspect ratio aircraft have a much more dicult time with eciency in this area. Conclusion: Coecient of lift has its pro and cons, if an engineer does his job perfectly right an aircraft can act perfectly in the air but unfortunately this is impossible. It is found that higher aspect ratios are important for all aircraft. Higher aspect ratio aircraft can y at higher angles of attack, have much lower parabolic drag, and have a much higher aerodynamic eciency. In this case an aspect ratio of 10 had an Aerodynamic eciency of 20.63 the highest of the three variation analyzed, it also had higher angle of attack capabilities, and the least amount of drag. It is recommended that transport aircraft have high aspect ratios for this reason.

3.5

Flight Envelope

Figure 3.11: Drag to Weight Figure 3.11 represents the drag to weight ratio and the thrust to weight ratio. Drag varies signicantly as the true airspeed of the aircraft changes. The rst several data points on the Drag to weight are due to pressure drag. As the true air speed increases the induced drag decreases signicantly. After the Induced drag bottoms out, the parasitic drag begins to increase which causes the total drag to increase. This can be seen in the Drag curve of Figure 1 Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 29

Figure 3.12: Flight Envelope Figure 3.12: is the ight envelope. This represents the constraints on the aircraft. Velocity on the low end is what the plane would need to gain ight. When the stall velocity in ight is above the minimum ight velocity it forces the aircraft above minimum ight velocity. To achieve the best eciency of ight the best ight speed would be Vcruise which is kept under Vlow. If the cruise speed goes beyond Vmin the efciency of the aircraft will drop significantly. The maximum ight altitude is 53,000 feet. The Transport aircraft is considered to be 250,000 lbs with a wing loading of 110 W/S. The aircraft cannot operate over the Velocity on the high end without systems failure. Conclusion:

Figure 3.13: Load Factor [?]

The Transport aircraft with a wing loading of 110 W , 250,000 lbs aircraft, an Oswalds eciency factor of .85 and a Cdo S of .0155 will y properly. The aircraft must y a mean velocity of approximately 500 fst and below 1500 fst . The cruise velocity of approximately 800 fst . Beyond these conditions you lose eciency or the aircraft is un-yable. This aircraft will operate best at a cruise altitude of 57,000 ft. Under 57,000 ft the aircraft will not be operating at maximum cruise eciency. To illustrate the importance of this information consider gure 3.13. This represent information similar to that of gure 3.12. The aircrafts structural Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 30

capabilities will be strained if taken beyond Vno, and failure will occur at Vne and above specic load factors. The aircraft thus has a very specic area it is permitted y known as the Flight Envelope. If an aircraft is not ying within in permitted envelope it is being pushed far beyond what it is capable of and failure is quite possibly imminent. These areas of failure are extremely important and must be continuously watched during the planning of the ight to be sure that the aircraft does not enter its failure velocity.

3.6

Range

Figure 3.14: Flight Prole Figure 3.14:: In this ight prole a transport aircraft was analyzed. One tool used was the Breguet equation to calculate the maximum range of the aircraft. This system takes into account. The maximum range of this aircraft was calculated to be 7965 Miles using the Breguet tool. Breguet gives more range than FAA but is not easy to follow when it comes to actual ight. The FAA has a tool to calculate the maximum range and is much more conservative than the Breguet Equation. The FAA maximum range for this aircraft is approximately 7214 Miles. This system requires the aircraft to y at a constant elevation and is fairly simple to follow. Thirdly there is the FAA step altitude system for an aircraft maximum range. This system has the aircraft increase in ight altitude periodically to increase the maximum range of the aircraft and to y more eciently. The system attempts to follow the Breguet Equation by steps to reduce the number of times that altitude changes for the aircraft. The benets of this are that the FAA can create trac lanes for aircraft, as well as increase the maximum range of the aircraft. In this calculation the maximum range of the aircraft using the FAA Altitude steps is 7622 Miles. Of the three methods the Step method is the best plausible method to use. The FAA method is not as ecient, and the Breguet method is too optimistic.

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

31

Figure 3.15: W/S vs. Percent Throttle Figure 3.15: As can be seen in this graph, as the aircraft follows its ight path the wing loading of the aircraft decreases. This phenomenon is because the aircraft is burning fuel as it ies its desired path. The model uses the step function and this function takes the current fuel and wing loading at that step and makes it constant for the duration of the step and is recalculated at the end of the step. Conclusion: Of the Three Flight Models it appears that the Breguet Model with a maximum ight plan of approximately 9279 Miles is too optimistic and very dicult to follow during ight, and the FAA model with a maximum range of 8058 Miles is too conservative and wastes fuel keeping a constant elevation, lastly The Stepped Model with a maximum range of 8777 Miles is the most optimal ight plan for aircraft, it gives the FAA the ability to control ight as well as give time between ight maneuvers. In regards to aircraft wing loading it is necessary to be sure that the plane is carrying the proper amount of fuel for the ight but it must also take into account that during ight the current engine may not be taxed over 100

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

32

3.7

Climb

Figure 3.16: Rate of Climb vs. Flight Speed f raclbf f t2 f raclbf f t2 f raclbf f t2 f raclbf f t2 degrees degrees degrees degrees ft/min ft/min ft/min ft/min ft/min ft/min ft/min ft/min

Wing Loading SL Wing Loading 10k Wing Loading 20k Wing Loading 30k c, Max @SL [degrees] c, Max @10k ft c, Max @20k ft c, Max @30k ft Vc, Max @SL Vc, Max @10k ft Vc, Max @20k ft Vc, Max @30k ft R/Cc, Max @SL R/Cc, Max @10k ft R/Cc, Max @20k ft R/Cc, Max @30k ft

110 81.03 58.15 40.85 16.37 12.65 9.46 6.74 379.23 379.04 445.56 377.92 6411.32 4978.92 4394.32 2662.07

Table 3.1: Turning Figure 3.16: depicts rate of climb at various elevations varying ight speed. As can be seen there is a parabolic trend in the graph at each designated elevation. In this graph the elevations tested were: sea level, 10, 20, and 30 thousand feet. The graph conrms that as elevation increases the maximum rate of climb decreases. This based on the evaluation is understandable due to the variations of density as elevation increases. The maximum rate of climb as well as the steepest angle at noted at on each curve. These points indicate that as the velocity increase further the rate of climb at the specied elevation will eectively reduce the rate of climb to the point of stall. As noted in table 1 as elevation increases the aircraft maximum climb angle decreases, but the velocity required to achieve these Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 33

climb angles increases with elevation. This is because the aircraft needs to make up or the changes in atmospheric characteristics. Elevation 2438.40 2743.20 3048.00 3352.80 3657.60 3962.40 4267.20 4572.00 4876.80 5181.60 5486.40 ft 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 rho 0.00187 0.00181 0.00176 0.00170 0.00165 0.00160 0.00155 0.00150 0.00145 0.00140 0.00135 Vf t TW elev 135.29 0.26 137.52 0.25 139.46 0.25 141.89 0.24 144.03 0.23 146.26 0.23 148.60 0.22 151.06 0.22 153.64 0.21 156.36 0.21 159.23 0.20 Nft 1.59 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.51 1.49 1.47 1.45 1.43 1.40 1.39 phi 56.66 55.76 54.33 53.27 52.03 50.69 49.26 47.69 46.00 44.14 42.79 R 461.05 484.51 511.70 540.14 569.14 601.17 636.52 676.15 720.43 770.74 818.42

Table 3.2: Turning Table 2 is the loiter calculations based on the changes in elevation. Expected results for a transport aircraft is a bank angle of approximately 60 degrees. As seen here based on the aircraft characteristics the max bank angle is achieved at 8000ft of 56 degrees. As the Thrust to Weight changes the aircrafts required bank angle decreases. This decrease of bank angle increases the required radius to achieve a turn due to the force in the direction of turn is consistently less as bank angle decreases. Using a smaller bank angle is safer for most transport aircraft and is typically used. Transport aircraft use small bank angles to achieve a smaller load factor. Load factor represents the stresses and strains on the plane, the smaller this number is the better for the aircraft.

Figure 3.17: 3 Versions of Climb

Conclusions: Based on the calculations the pilot of the aircraft will need to properly attenuate the plane during ight to be sure that fuel is not wasted. The best rate of climb for the aircraft must be recalculated based on the elevation that the aircraft is currently at. If take o is desired then the climb angle at sea level is the most important aspect, obstacles at the end of the runway must be able to be avoided. Once take o is completed then the climb angle must vary at certain points of elevation to keep the aircraft operating at the Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft 34

best eciency possible. Thus one constant angle may not be used for all elevations The aircraft during loiter should be well watched to avoid high load factors, stalling by going beyond the allowed bank angle, and using the incorrect radii. These characteristics are directly related to the thrust to weight ratio of the aircraft and the elevation of the aircaft. If a safe load factor is desired for precious cargo then the higher you are the easier the turn will go for the aircraft, if time is key then lower elevation turns are desired. Overall recommendations for an aircraft with these characteristics should take o under the given max climb angle at sea level then periodically adjust the climb angle at approximately 5000 foot intervals, unless restricted by the FAA then keep to the 2000 foot interval. Once Cruise is achieved keep at that elevation until arriving at the destination. Loiter above the airport at a safe elevation to where the load factor and bank angle are safe for the transport.

3.8

Takeo/Landing

Figure 3.19: Take-O Distance

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

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Figure 3.20: Thrust To Weight Ratio Vs Percent Throttle Runway distance is linearly proportional to the wing loading of the aircraft. As wing loading increases the required amount of takeo distance needed for the aircraft to achieve ight is increasing as well. Though there is a dierence between sea level and a takeo of 5000ft. From the graph there is athe slope of the line for a runway at 5000ft is much greater than that of a runway at sea level. this is due to many factors mainly the changes in air density at the elevation of the runway. For landing an aircraft the equations are not similar but the results are the similar. An aircrafts needed distance Figure 3.18: Example of Aircraft Turning to land is linearly proportional to the wing loading of the aircraft, and as elevation changes so does the slope of the required landing distance. Thus showing that the higher you are the less runway distance you will need to land and takeo. Conclusions: Aircraft must land and takeo on the proper runways allowed, not doing this could result in a loss of the aircraft or severe structural damage due to overshoot or overrun.

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

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Bibliography
[1] AE480 1-7 [2] http://www.latex-project.org/ [3] Design of Aircraft, Thomas C. Corke [4] Introduction to Flight, John Anderson [5] http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/forces.html [6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift(force) [7] http://www.adsadvance.co.uk/sir-george-cayley-s-notebooks-featured-on-antiquesroadshow.html [8] http://www.wallsfeed.com/aircraft-c-17-globemaster/ [9] http://mail.colonial.net/ hkaiter/LayersoftheAtmosphere.html [10] http://www.answers.com/topic/ight-envelope [11] http://www.langleyyingschool.com/Pages/Aerodynamics [12] http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/planes/q0042.shtml

37

Appendices

38

39

Appendix A Flight Environment

A.1 Tables
(kg/m3) 1.23 1.11 1.01 0.91 0.82 0.74 0.66 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 a2 (m/s) 340.00 336.33 332.42 328.47 324.47 320.42 316.31 312.16 307.94 303.67 299.34 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.06 295.73 296.40 297.06 297.73 298.39 299.05 299.71 300.37 301.03 301.69 302.34 Elevation (m) 0.00 1000.16 2000.63 3001.41 4002.51 5003.93 6005.66 7007.70 8010.06 9012.73 10015.72 11019.03 12022.65 13026.58 14030.83 15035.40 16040.28 17045.48 18051.00 19056.83 20062.98 21069.45 22076.23 23083.33 24090.75 25098.49 26106.54 27114.91 28123.60 29132.61 30141.93 4031151.58 32161.54

Elev(m) Elev(ft) n T2 (K) T2 (oC) P2 (kPa) 2 0.00 0.00 1.24 288.00 14.85 101.33 1 3280.84 1.24 281.50 8.35 89.87 2 6561.68 1.24 275.00 1.85 79.48 3 9842.52 1.24 268.50 -4.65 70.09 4 13123.36 1.24 261.99 -11.16 61.62 5 16404.20 1.24 255.49 -17.66 54.00 6 19685.04 1.24 248.99 -24.16 47.16 7 22965.88 1.24 242.49 -30.66 41.03 8 26246.72 1.24 235.99 -37.16 35.57 9 29527.56 1.24 229.49 -43.66 30.72 10 32808.40 1.24 222.99 -50.16 26.41 11 36089.24 216.65 -56.50 22.56 12 39370.08 216.65 -56.50 19.27 13 42650.92 216.65 -56.50 16.45 14 45931.76 216.65 -56.50 14.05 15 49212.60 216.65 -56.50 12.00 16 52493.44 216.65 -56.50 10.25 17 55774.28 216.65 -56.50 8.76 18 59055.12 216.65 -56.50 7.48 19 62335.96 216.65 -56.50 6.39 20 65616.80 216.65 -56.50 5.46 21 68897.64 0.97 216.65 -56.50 4.66 22 72178.48 0.97 217.63 -55.52 3.99 23 75459.32 0.97 218.62 -54.53 3.41 24 78740.16 0.97 219.60 -53.55 2.92 25 82021.00 0.97 220.59 -52.56 2.50 26 85301.84 0.97 221.57 -51.58 2.14 27 88582.68 0.97 222.56 -50.59 1.84 28 91863.52 0.97 223.54 -49.61 1.58 29 95144.36 0.97 224.52 -48.63 1.36 30 98425.20 0.97 225.51 -47.64 1.17 Chris Carr: 101706.04 0.97 226.49 Fundamental Aerodynamics -46.66 of Transport Aircraft 31 1.00 32 104986.88 0.97 227.48 -45.67 0.86 Table A.1: Flight Environment

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A.2

Graphs

Figure A.1: Thrust vs. Elevation

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

41

Figure A.2: Pressure vs. Elevation

Figure A.3: Density vs. Elevation

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

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Appendix B Thrust Modeling

B.1
Elev 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000

Tables
1.225 1.112 1.007 0.909 0.819 0.736 0.660 0.590 0.525 0.466 0.413 0.364 0.311 0.265 0.227 0.194 0.165 0.141 0.121 0.103 0.088 a 340.328 336.468 332.563 328.611 324.612 320.562 316.461 312.306 308.095 303.826 299.495 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 295.101 T T ASM CR:.85 288.160 289.279 281.660 285.998 275.160 282.678 268.660 279.320 262.161 275.920 255.661 272.478 249.161 268.992 242.661 265.460 236.161 261.881 229.661 258.252 223.161 254.571 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 216.660 250.835 TAS 111.760 117.319 123.294 129.727 136.666 144.165 152.285 161.095 170.675 181.117 192.525 205.052 221.870 240.068 259.759 281.065 304.118 329.062 356.052 385.255 416.883 Vstall T/Tsl Tsfc/Tsfcsl 76.582 1.000 1.000 80.392 0.934 0.981 84.486 0.872 0.961 88.894 0.812 0.942 93.649 0.755 0.923 98.788 0.700 0.903 104.352 0.648 0.884 110.389 0.599 0.864 116.953 0.553 0.844 124.108 0.509 0.824 131.926 0.467 0.804 140.510 0.428 0.784 152.034 0.399 0.797 164.504 0.341 0.810 177.997 0.291 0.822 192.596 0.249 0.836 208.393 0.212 0.849 225.486 0.181 0.862 243.981 0.155 0.876 263.992 0.132 0.890 285.665 0.113 0.904

Table B.1: Thrust at Elevation

43

MCR 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40

SL V 0.000 111.656 223.312 334.968 446.624 558.281 669.937 781.593 893.249 1004.905 1116.561 1228.217 1339.873 1451.529 1563.185

5kft V 10kft Voo T(V)/Tst(SL) T(V)/Tst(5kft) T(V)/Tst(10kft) 0.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 109.751 105.154 0.901 0.902 0.906 219.502 210.308 0.827 0.829 0.834 329.253 315.462 0.777 0.779 0.784 439.004 420.615 0.753 0.754 0.756 548.755 525.769 0.753 0.752 0.751 658.506 630.923 0.779 0.775 0.767 768.257 736.077 0.829 0.822 0.806 878.008 841.231 0.905 0.893 0.866 987.759 946.385 1.005 0.988 0.949 1097.510 1051.539 1.130 1.107 1.054 1207.261 1156.693 1.280 1.250 1.181 1317.012 1261.846 1.455 1.418 1.330 1426.763 1367.000 1.655 1.609 1.502 1536.514 1472.154 1.880 1.824 1.695 Table B.2: Varying Mach against Thrust

B.2

Graphs

Figure B.1: Thrust vs. Elevation

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Figure B.2: Tsfc vs. Elevation

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Figure B.3: Mach vs.Thrust Ratio

Chris Carr: Fundamental Aerodynamics of Transport Aircraft

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Appendix C Aerodynamic Modeling

C.1 Tables
3-2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 3 0.016 0.017248311 0.020993244 0.027234798 0.035972974 0.047207772 0.060939192 0.077167233 0.095891896 0.117113181 0.140831088 0.167045616 0.195756767 6 0.016 0.016624155 0.018496622 0.021617399 0.025986487 0.031603886 0.038469596 0.046583617 0.055945948 0.066556591 0.078415544 0.091522808 0.105878383 10 0.016 0.016374493 0.017497973 0.019370439 0.021991892 0.025362332 0.029481757 0.03435017 0.039967569 0.046333954 0.053449326 0.061313685 0.06992703

Table C.1: Coecient of Lift Varies to Determine Drag

47

3-1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2

3 0 0.031172102 0.062344203 0.093516305 0.124688406 0.155860508 0.18703261 0.218204711 0.249376813 0.280548915 0.311721016 0.342893118 0.374065219

6 0 0.023699187 0.047398374 0.071097561 0.094796748 0.118495936 0.142195123 0.16589431 0.189593497 0.213292684 0.236991871 0.260691058 0.284390245

10 0 0.021080695 0.04216139 0.063242085 0.08432278 0.105403475 0.12648417 0.147564864 0.168645559 0.189726254 0.210806949 0.231887644 0.252968339

Table C.2: Coecient of Lift Varies to Determine 3-3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 CLEmax Emax 3 0 5.970751362 9.75931408 11.22133038 11.27619013 10.70485657 9.927333301 9.130367327 8.38645662 7.717823925 7.126004756 6.604797075 6.145753721 0.350295575 11.29985726 6 0 6.201875216 11.11319684 14.20629504 15.69459139 16.0751618 15.80211711 15.18978007 14.4284664 13.62468138 12.83440953 12.08488314 11.38753473 0.495392753 15.9804114 10 0 6.299413678 11.76610878 15.89788102 18.61166974 20.11074457 20.70267823 20.67936443 20.2698069 19.63609757 18.88598153 18.08803399 17.28433436 0.639549294 20.6306224

Table C.3: Varied Coe. Lift to Find Aerodynamic Eciency

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C.2

Graphs

Figure C.1: Parabolic Drag Polar

Figure C.2: Aerodynamic Eciency

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Figure C.3: Coe. Lift vs AoA

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Appendix D Flight Envelope

D.1 Tables
Vtrue ft/s 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 T/W 60100 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 0.15997 T/W 0.15997 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 0.19996 T/W 0.19996 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 0.23995 D/W 0.23995 0.47158 0.39021 0.32841 0.28040 0.24240 0.21183 0.18690 0.16632 0.14918 0.13475 0.12253 0.11211 0.10316 0.09545 0.08878 0.08298 0.07794 0.07353 0.06969 0.06633 0.06339

Table D.1: Induced Drag as it varies with Flight Speed

51

Elev. ft 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

T/W 850 0.2746 0.2690 0.2634 0.2580 0.2526 0.2473 0.2420 0.2368 0.2317 0.2267

VHigh VLow Vstall VCruise Vqmax V250 0.2803 1288.73 111.70 277.68 949.08 739.42 421.95 1294.21 114.54 281.78 945.81 750.35 428.19 1299.74 117.48 285.98 942.53 761.53 434.57 1305.33 120.51 290.27 939.24 772.95 441.08 1310.97 123.64 294.65 935.94 784.62 447.74 1316.67 126.88 299.13 932.62 796.55 454.55 1322.42 130.23 303.71 929.30 808.75 461.52 1328.22 133.69 308.40 925.96 821.23 468.64 1334.08 137.27 313.19 922.61 834.00 475.92 1339.99 140.98 318.10 919.25 847.06 483.38 1345.96 144.82 323.12 915.87 860.42 491.00 Table D.2: Sample Flight Envelope

D.2

Graphs

Figure D.1: Drag to Weight

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Figure D.2: Flight Envelope

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Appendix E Range
E.1 Tables
rho1 rho2 Wf/W1 a1 V1 (mph) V1 (ft/s) W/S1 CL1 CD1 E1 T/W aval T/W req Start Range (max) Range Hrs. Final Eleve (m) Final Eleve (ft) Brequet 0.44174075 0.273879265 0.38 301.889946 574.0029773 841.8729467 110 0.369835425 0.020631913 17.92540632 FAA 0.44174075 0.273879265 0.38 301.889946 574.0029773 841.8729467 110 0.369835425 0.020631913 17.92540632

0 0 9279.486551 8058.780019 9279.486551 8058.780019 16.16626902 14.03961362 13155.56331 43161.29696

Table E.1: Brequet and FAA Ranges

54

FAA Stepped 31000 9448.8 0.530053407 0.44174075 0.409814586 0.07227353 301.889946 574.0029773 841.8729467 110 0.369835425 0.020631913 17.92540632 0.118999547 0.055786741 0.468797929 0 1428.152147 1428.152147 2.488057037

33000 10058.4 0.522160024 0.409814586 0.379684329 0.07352168 299.240584 568.965573 841.8729467 101.9126152 0.369337854 0.020618114 17.91327091 0.110399029 0.055824534 0.505661457 1428.152147 2889.388119 1461.235972 2.568232668

35000 10668 0.514245703 0.379684329 0.348316807 0.08261474 296.567555 563.8831693 841.8729467 93.49313101 0.365712933 0.020518142 17.82388189 0.102282307 0.056104501 0.548525963 2889.388119 4536.612816 1647.224698 2.921216286

37000 11277.6 0.652851069 0.348316807 0.316398436 0.091636034 295.1005284 561.0938162 841.8729467 84.92579131 0.36211662 0.020419933 17.73348715 0.093832281 0.056390488 0.600971092 4536.612816 5964.011329 1427.398513 2.543956949

39000 11887.2 0.659155879 0.316398436 0.287404939 0.091636034 295.1005284 561.0938162 841.8729467 77.14352864 0.36211662 0.020419933 17.73348715 0.085233863 0.056390488 0.661597239 5964.011329 7377.75681 1413.745481 2.519624063

41000 12496.8 0.665521577 0.287404939 0.26106829 0.091636034 295.1005284 561.0938162 841.8729467 70.07440165 0.36211662 0.020419933 17.73348715 0.07742337 0.056390488 0.72833937 7377.75681 8777.97985 1400.22304 2.49552392

Table E.2: FAA Stepped

E.2

Graphs

Figure E.1: Flight Prole

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Figure E.2: W/S vs. Percent Throttle

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Appendix F Climb
F.1
V [ft/s] 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Tables
(T/W)ignoring FSE 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.330 (T/W) Dynamic Pressure, q (D/W) R/C [ft/min] 0.300 11.9 0.348 -110.9 0.277 47.6 0.093 2839.1 0.261 107.1 0.054 4974.7 0.251 190.4 0.049 6755.9 0.248 297.5 0.056 8226.2 0.251 428.4 0.070 9360.0 0.261 583.1 0.089 10111.8 0.277 761.6 0.113 10428.7 0.300 963.9 0.140 10254.4 0.330 1190.0 0.171 9531.0 0.366 1439.9 0.206 8199.8 0.409 1713.6 0.244 6201.3 0.459 2011.1 0.285 3476.1 0.515 2332.4 0.330 -35.8 0.578 2677.5 0.379 -4394.3

Table F.1: Analysis of Sea Level Rate of Climb

57

V [ft/s] 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

(T/W)ignoring FSE 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267

(T/W) Dynamic Pressure, q (D/W) R/C [ft/min] 0.243 8.8 0.348 -485.9 0.224 35.1 0.093 2085.9 0.211 79.0 0.054 3844.0 0.203 140.4 0.049 5247.6 0.200 219.4 0.056 6340.1 0.203 315.9 0.070 7095.9 0.211 430.0 0.089 7469.3 0.224 561.6 0.113 7407.4 0.243 710.7 0.140 6853.8 0.267 877.5 0.171 5750.5 0.297 1061.7 0.206 4038.9 0.331 1263.5 0.244 1659.3 0.371 1482.9 0.286 -1447.7 0.417 1719.8 0.331 -5342.3 0.468 1974.3 0.379 -10084.3

Table F.2: R/C Analysis 10,000FT

V [ft/s] 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 100

(T/W)ignoring FSE 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.213 0.166

(T/W) Dynamic Pressure, q (D/W) R/C [ft/min] 0.193 6.4 0.345 -795.9 0.179 25.4 0.093 1439.3 0.168 57.2 0.053 2865.5 0.162 101.6 0.049 3937.2 0.159 158.8 0.056 4696.4 0.162 228.6 0.070 5116.5 0.168 311.2 0.090 5151.4 0.179 406.4 0.114 4747.5 0.193 514.4 0.141 3848.0 0.213 635.0 0.173 2394.3 0.236 768.4 0.208 327.0 0.264 914.4 0.246 -2413.6 0.296 1073.2 0.288 -5887.9 0.332 1244.6 0.334 -10156.2 0.372 1428.8 0.382 -15279.1 0.151 4.4 0.346 -1085.2

Table F.3: R/C Analysis at 20,000Ft

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V [ft/s] 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

(T/W)ignoring FSE 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166

(T/W) Dynamic Pressure, q (D/W) R/C [ft/min] 0.151 4.4 0.346 -1085.2 0.139 17.8 0.093 872.2 0.131 40.0 0.053 2018.5 0.126 71.1 0.049 2810.3 0.124 111.1 0.056 3290.2 0.126 160.0 0.070 3432.1 0.131 217.8 0.090 3190.0 0.139 284.5 0.113 2510.5 0.151 360.0 0.141 1337.1 0.166 444.5 0.172 -388.5 0.184 537.8 0.207 -2725.4 0.205 640.1 0.245 -5733.4 0.230 751.2 0.287 -9472.3 0.258 871.2 0.332 -14002.5 0.290 1000.1 0.381 -19384.2

Table F.4: R/C Analysis at 30,000Ft

F.2

Graphs

Figure F.1: R/C vs. Flight Speed

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Appendix G Take-O and Landing

G.1 Tables
STOP @ T/W .25 T.O.P. ft 2267.90 63.49 2525.00 71.43 2780.75 79.37 3035.36 87.30 3288.96 95.24 3541.69 103.17 3793.65 111.11 4044.92 119.05 4295.56 126.98 4545.63 134.92 4795.18 142.86 5044.26 150.79 5292.90 158.73 5541.14 166.67 5789.00 174.60 6036.51 182.54 6283.69 190.48 STOP @ T/W .35 T.O.P. ft 1737.11 49.38 1927.86 55.56 2117.26 61.73 2305.51 67.90 2492.77 74.07 2679.15 80.25 2864.76 86.42 3049.68 92.59 3233.97 98.77 3417.69 104.94 3600.90 111.11 3783.63 117.28 3965.92 123.46 4147.81 129.63 4329.32 135.80 4510.47 141.98 4691.30 148.15 STOP @ T/W .45 ft 1442.22 1596.11 1748.65 1900.05 2050.44 2199.97 2348.71 2496.77 2644.20 2791.06 2937.41 3083.27 3228.71 3373.73 3518.38 3662.68 3806.65

W/S T.O.P. lbf/ft2 40 88.89 45 100.00 50 111.11 55 122.22 60 133.33 65 144.44 70 155.56 75 166.67 80 177.78 85 188.89 90 200.00 95 211.11 100 222.22 105 233.33 110 244.44 115 255.56 120 266.67

Table G.1: Sea Level Take-O Distance at Diering Thrust Ratios and Wing Loading

60

W/S T.O.P. lbf/ft2 40 114.48 45 128.80 50 143.11 55 157.42 60 171.73 65 186.04 70 200.35 75 214.66 80 228.97 85 243.28 90 257.59 95 271.90 100 286.21 105 300.52 110 314.83 115 329.14 120 343.45

STOP @ T/W .25 T.O.P. ft 2834.54 81.77 3160.43 92.00 3484.87 102.22 3808.07 112.44 4130.19 122.66 4451.38 132.88 4771.73 143.11 5091.33 153.33 5410.27 163.55 5728.59 173.77 6046.35 183.99 6363.60 194.21 6680.38 204.44 6996.72 214.66 7312.66 224.88 7628.21 235.10 7943.42 245.32

STOP @ T/W .35 T.O.P. ft 2150.90 63.60 2391.34 71.55 2630.32 79.50 2868.07 87.45 3104.74 95.40 3340.47 103.35 3575.37 111.30 3809.52 119.25 4042.99 127.20 4275.86 135.16 4508.17 143.11 4739.96 151.06 4971.29 159.01 5202.18 166.96 5432.66 174.91 5662.76 182.86 5892.51 190.81

STOP @ T/W .45 ft 1771.10 1964.06 2155.57 2345.85 2535.04 2723.30 2910.72 3097.40 3283.40 3468.79 3653.62 3837.94 4021.79 4205.21 4388.21 4570.84 4753.11

Table G.2: 5000ft Elevation Take-O Distance at Diering Thrust Ratios and Wing Loading

W/S lbf/ft2 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

LP 13.33 15.00 16.67 18.33 20.00 21.67 23.33 25.00 26.67 28.33 30.00

s - Landing ft 1973.33 2170.00 2366.67 2563.33 2760.00 2956.67 3153.33 3350.00 3546.67 3743.33 3940.00

Table G.3: Landing Distance At Sea Level With Varied Wing Loading

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W/S lbf/ft2 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

LP 15.47 17.41 19.34 21.28 23.21 25.14 27.08 29.01 30.95 32.88 34.82

s - Landing ft 2225.86 2454.09 2682.32 2910.56 3138.79 3367.02 3595.25 3823.49 4051.72 4279.95 4508.18

Table G.4: Landing Distance At 5000ft With Varied Wing Loading

G.2

Graphs

Figure G.1: Take-O Distance

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Figure G.2: Thrust To Weight Ratio Vs Percent Throttle

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