Professional Documents
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Introduction
Radio broadcasting is an audio broadcasting service, broadcast through the air as radio waves from a transmitter to a radio antenna and, thus, to a receiver. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common radio programs, either in broadcast syndication, simulcast or sub channels. Broadcasting by radio takes several forms. These include AM and FM stations. There are several subtypes, namely commercial broadcasting, non-commercial educational public broadcasting and non-profit varieties as well as community radio, student-run campus radio stations and hospital radio stations can be found throughout the world. Many stations broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles. AM broadcasting is the process of radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation. AM was the first method of impressing sound on a radio signal and is still widely used today. Commercial and public AM broadcasting is carried out in the medium wave band worldwide. Once AM was the only commercially important method for broadcast signal modulation. Am stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitude modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted. The AM range is 535 - 1605 KHz stations are assigned between 540 and 1600 KHz every 10 KHz.AM transmissions cannot be ionospherically propagated during the day due to strong absorption in the D-layer of the ionosphere. During the night, this absorption largely disappears and permits signals to travel to much more distant locations via ionosphere reflections. AM radio transmitters can transmit audio frequencies up to 10 kHz, and only capable of reproducing frequencies up to 5 kHz. AM stations are never assigned adjacent channels in the same service area. This prevents the sideband power generated by two stations from interfering with each other. FM broadcasting is a broadcasting technology pioneered by Edwin Howard Armstrong which uses frequency modulation to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio. In FM the instantaneous frequency of a carrier is varied, the instantaneous changes of the amplitude of broadband signal. The FM range is 88 - 108 MHz (with broadcast frequencies, or stations, assigned between 88.1 and 107.9MHz every 0.2 MHz).
The broadcast of a program from source to listener involves use of studios, microphones, announcer console, switching console, telephone lines / STL and Transmitter. Normally the programmers originate from a studio centre located inside the city/town for the convenience of artists. The program could be either live or recorded. In some cases, the program can be from OB spot, such as commentary of cricket match etc. Programs that are to be relayed from other Radio Stations are received in a receiving centre and then sent to the studio centre or directly received at the studio centre through RN terminal/telephone line. All these programs are then selected and routed from studio to transmitting centre through broadcast quality telephone lines or studio transmitter microwave/VHF links. The broadcasting of program from source to destination the use of involves the use of Studios Microphones Announcer console Switching console Telephone lines / STL and Transmitter
The above equipments can be used for the following purpose For recording of programs originating from any studio. For recording of programs available in the switching consoles in control room. For dubbing of programs available on cassette tape. For editing of programs For mixing and recording of program
Facility for aural monitoring to check the quality of sound production and sound meters to indicate the intensity (VU meters). For routing of programs from various studios/OB spots to a central control room, we require a facility to further mix/select the programs. The Control Console in t h e control room performs this function. It is also called switching consol.
Before feeding the programs to the transmitter, the response of the program should be made flat by compensating HF and LF losses using equalized line amplifiers.(This is applicable in case of telephone lines only) Visual signaling facility between studio announcer booth and control room should also be provided. If the programs from various studios are to be fed to more than one transmitter, a master switching facility is also required.
1.4 MIXING
As already mentioned, various equipments are available in a studio to generate program as given below: Microphone, which normally provides a level of 70 dBm. Turntable which provides an output of 0 dBm. Tape decks which may provide a level of 0 dBm. CD and R-DAT will also provide a level of 0 dBm.
The first and foremost requirement is that we should be able to select the output of any of these equipments at any moment and at the same time should be able to mix output of two or more equipments. However, as we see, the level from microphone is quite low and need to be amplified, so as to bring it to the levels of tape recorder/ tape decks. Audio mixing is done in following two ways: Required equipments are selected and then outputs are mixed before feeding to an amplifier. This is called low level mixing (Fig. 2). This is not commonly used now days. Low-level output of each equipment is pre-amplified and then mixed. This is called high level mixing.
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High level mixing system requires one pre-amplifier in each of the low level channels but ensures a S/N of better than 50 dB. All India Radio employs high level mixing.
2.2 AUDIO CONSOLE This is where all the sound sources are mixed before being sent to the transmitter. Each slider, sometimes knowns as a "pot" on older boards, c o n t r o l s t h e v o l u m e o f o n e s o u n d source: microphone, CD player, digital recorder, network feed, etc. Each slider channel has an on/off switch at the bottom and various switches at the top which can divert to more than one destination.
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A VU meter, such as the square box-like area toward the top of the console with the two green horizontal lines (center top), shows the operator the level of sound output. The top horizontal line is the left channel and the bottom line is the right channel. The audio console converts analog audio (voice via microphone) and phone calls to a digital output. It also allows for the mixing of digital audio from CDs, computers, and other digital sources with the analog audio.
2.3 MICROPHONE Most radio stations have an assortment of microphones. Some microphones are especially designed for voice and on-air work. Often, these microphones will also have wind-screens over them, as this one does. The wind-screen keeps extraneous noise to a minimum such as the sound of breath blowing into the microphone or the sound of a "popping" "P". (Popping Ps occurs when a person pronounces a word with a hard "P" in it and in the process, expels a pocket of air that hits the microphone creating undesired noise.
Figure2.2: Microphone
This is another example of a high-end professional microphone. Most mikes of this caliber easily cost hundreds of dollars.
Figure2.3: Microphone This microphone does not have an external windscreen. It is also on an adjustable mike stand and in this case is usually used for studio guests. M o s t r ad i o s t a t i o n s h a v e e n t e r e d t h e d i g i t a l a g e w h e r e n o t o n l y i s a l l t h e m u s i c , commercials, and other sound elements stored digitally on hard drives, but sophisticated software is also used to either automatically run the station when a human can't be there or to help in assisting a live DJ or personality in running the station.
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2.3.1 WORKING OF A MICROPHONE Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which converts energy from one form to another. Microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical energy (the audio signal).Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy but they all share one thing in common: The diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminum) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone.
Figure2.4: Location of Microphone Diaphragm W h e n t h e d i a p h r a gm v i b r a t e s , i t c a u s e s o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e m i c r o p h o n e t o vibrate. These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the audio sign.
S o m e m i c s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r g e n e r a l u s e a n d c a n b e u se d e f f e c t i v e l y i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t situations. Others are very specialized and are only really useful for their intended purpose. Characteristics to look for include directional properties, frequency response and impedance (more on these later).
The audio signal is fed to a power amplifier - a specialized amp which boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers.
There are various types of software designed to do this and it usually displays directly in front of the audio console where it clearly seen by the person on-air. This screen is displaying each element that has played and will play over the next 20minutes or so. It is a digital version of the station's log. 2.4 OTHER EQUIPMENT OF STUDIO 2.4.1 Head phones Radio personalities and deejays wear headphones to avoid feedback. When a microphone is turned on in a radio studio, the monitors (speakers) automatically mute. T h i s w a y , t h e s o u n d f r o m t h e m o n i t o r s w o n ' t r e - e n t e r t h e m i c r o p h o n e , c a u s i n g a feedback loop. If you've ever heard someone talking on a P.A. system at an event when it feedback, you know how annoying that noise can be.
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Figure2.7: sound proofing Sound proofing is designed to take the bounce of the voice's s o u n d w a v e w h e n i t h i t s the walls. Soundproofing flattens the sound wave. It does this by creating a special texture on the radio studios walls. Cloth and other designs on the wall are usually employed to flatten out the sound.
2.4.3 Radio Station Studio Phone Interface A key piece of equipment in most radio studios is the phone interface. It's a vital tool which allows the on-air personality to easily answer incoming phone calls, whether for on-air or off-air reasons. Phone interfaces come in various sizes and capacities but share the abilities. They allow for answering calls quietly and almost always have the capability of joining one or more calls together in conference mode which is especially useful for some talk shows.
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Figure3.1: Radio signal analogy with ripples on a pond 3.1 Speed of a radio signal
Another feature which can be noted about an electromagnetic wave is its speed. As it is the s a m e a s a l i g h t w a v e i t h a s t h e s a m e s p e e d . N o r m a l l y t h i s i s t a k e n t o b e 3 x 1 0 ^ 8 meters a second but a more exact figure is 299 792 500 meters a second in a vacuum.
point on the next. One of the most obvious points to choose as a reference is the peak as this can be easily identified although any point is equally valid provided the same point on each wave is taken. The frequency can be explained using the pond analogy. It is the number of times the wave goes up and down in a given time and at a particular point in the pond.
The unit used for f r e q u e n c y i s t h e H e r t z a n d t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o o n e c y c l e o r w a v e p e r s e c o n d . A s frequencies which are encountered can be very high the standard prefixes of kilo (kilohertz, k H z ) f o r a t h o u s a n d H e r t z , M e g a ( M e g a h e r t z , M H z ) f o r a m i l l i o n H e r t z , a n d G i g a (Gigahertz, GHz) for a thousand million Hertz are commonly used.
Radio waves are one form of electromagnetic radiation. They have the l o w e s t frequency, and hence the longest wavelengths. Above the radio spectrum, other forms of radiation can be found. These include infra red radiation, light, ultraviolet and a number of other forms of radiation. Although they have different names, and they are often thought of as d i f f e r e n t e n t i t i e s , t h e y a r e a l l f o r m s of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e . T h e o n l y f u n d a m e n t a l difference is the wavelength / frequency. As a result of this difference they act in slightly different ways, and they may be used for different purposes. For example infra-red radiation may be used for heating, while light is used for illuminating areas and visibly seeing things. Nevertheless they are all fundamentally the same.
While the whole of the electromagnetic wave spectrum covers a h u g e r a n g e o f frequencies, radio waves themselves extend over a very large range as well. Again it is useful t o b e a b l e t o e a s i l y r e f e r t o d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e spectrum. To achieve this different designations are given to different a r e a s . T h e f r e q u e n c i e s t h a t a r e c o v e r e d a r e s p l i t i n t o sections that vary by a factor of ten, e.g. from 3 MHz to 30 MHz Each section is allocated a name such as high
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frequency and these areas are abbreviated to give terms like HF, VHF and so forth that are often used. Often talk is heard of VHF FM, or UHF television. The VHF and UHF refer to the areas of the radio spectrum where these transmissions take place.
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I n t h e u l t r a h ig h f r e q u e n c y o r U H F p a r t o f t h e s p e c t r u m m o s t o f t h e t e r r e s t r i a l television stations are located. In addition to these there are more mobile users including the increasingly popular cellular telephones. Above this in the super high frequency or SHF and extremely high frequency or EHF portions of the spectrum there are many uses for the radio spectrum. They are being used increasingly for commercial satellite and point to point communications.
to the satellite from the ground and b a c k d o w n a g a i n . T y p i c a l l y t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e f r o m e l e m e n t s s u c h a s t h e atmosphere, etc. Ground wave propagation: When signals travel via the ground wave they are modified by the ground or terrain over which they travel. They also tend to follow the Earths curvature. Signals heard on the medium wave band during the day use this form of radio propagation. Ionospheric propagation: Here the radio signals are modified and influenced by a region high in the earth's atmosphere known as the ionosphere. This form of radio propagation is used by radio communications systems that transmit on the HF or short wave bands. Using this form of propagation, stations may be heard from the other side of the globe dependent upon many factors including the radio frequencies used, the time of day, and a variety of other factors. Tropospheric propagation: Here the signals are influenced by the variations of refractive index in the troposphere just above the earth's surface. Tropospheric radio propagation is often the means by which signals at VHF and above are heard over extended distances.
In addition to these categories, many short range wireless or radio communications systems have radio propagation scenarios that do not fit neatly into these categories. Wi-Fi systems, for example, may be considered to have a form of free space radio propagation, but there will be will be very heavily modified because of multiple reflections, refractions and diffractions. Despite these complications it is still possible to generate rough guidelines and models for these radio propagation scenarios. There are many radio propagation scenarios in real life. Often signals may travel by several means, radio waves travelling using one type of propagation interacting with another. However to build up an understanding of how a radio signal reaches a receiver, it is necessary t o h a v e a g o o d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a l l t h e p o s s i b l e m e t h o d s o f r a d i o p r o p a g a t i o n . B y understanding these, the interactions can be better understood along with the performance of any radio communications systems that are used.
engineer named Reginald Fessenden. He took a continuous spark transmission and placed a carbon microphone in the antenna lead. The sound waves impacting on the microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the intensity of the transmission. Although very crude, signals were audible over a distance of a few hundred meters, although there was a rasping sound caused by the spark. W i t h t h e introduction of continuous sine wave signals, transmissions improved significantly, and AM soon became the standard for voice transmissions. N o w a d a y s , amplitude modulation, AM is used for audio broadc asting on the long medium and shortwave bands, and for two way radio communicati on at VHF for aircraft. However as there now are more efficient and convenient methods of modulating a signal, its use is declining, although it will still be very many years before it is no longer used.
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If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that encountered with speech of music, these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with frequencies over a band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier, these spectra are seen above and below the carrier.
Figure3.5: Amplitude Modulation, AM It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz, then the top spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words the bandwidth occupied by the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to modulated the carrier, i.e. it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be carried.
Amplitude demodulation
Amplitude modulation, AM, is one of the most straight forward ways of modulating a radio signal or carrier. The process of demodulation, where the audio signal is removed from the radio carrier in the receiver is also quite simple as well. The easiest method of achieving amplitude demodulation is to use a simple diode detector. This consists of just a handful of components:- a diode, resistor and a capacitor.
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AM has advantages of simplicity, but it is not the most efficient mode to use, both in terms of the amount of space or spectrum it takes up, and the way in which it uses the power t h a t i s t r a n s m i t t e d . T h i s i s t h e r e a s o n w h y i t i s n o t w i d e l y u s e d t h e s e d a y s b o t h f o r broadcasting and for two way radio communication. Even the long, medium and short wave broadcasts will ultimately change because of the fact that amplitude modulation, AM, is subject to much higher levels of noise than are other modes. For the moment, its simplicity, and its wide usage, means that it will be difficult to change quickly, and it will be in use for many years to come. While changing the amplitude of a radio signal is the most obvious method to modulate it, it is by no means the only way. It is also possible to change the frequency of a signal to give frequency modulation or FM. Frequency modulation is widely used on frequencies above 30 MHz, and it is particularly well known for its use for VHF FM broadcasting. Although it may not be quite as straightforward as amplitude modulation, neverthelessf r e q u e n c y m o d u l a t i o n , F M , o f f e r s s o m e d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e s . I t i s a b l e t o p r o v i d e n e a r interference free reception, and it was for this reason that it was adopted for the VHF sound broadcasts. These transmissions could offer high fidelity audio, and for this reason, frequency modulation is far more popular than the older transmissions on the long, medium and shortwave bands. In addition to its widespread use for high quality audio broadcasts, FM is also sued for a v a r i e t y o f t w o w a y r a d i o c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s . W h e t h e r f o r f i x e d o r m o b i l e r a d i o communication systems, or for use in portable applications, FM is widely used at VHF and above.
f o r e a c h w i d e - b a n d F M transmission. For communications purposes l e s s b a n d w i d t h i s u s e d . N a r r o w b a n d F M (NBFM) often uses deviation figures of around 3 kHz. It is narrow band FM that is typically used for two-way radio communication applications. Having a narrower band it is not able to provide the high quality of the wideband transmissions, but this is not needed for applications such as mobile radio communication.
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Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of the transmitter : Another advantage of frequency modulation is associated with the transmitters. It is possible to apply the modulation to a low power stage of the transmitter, and it is not necessary to use a linear form of amplification to increase the power l e v e l o f t h e signal to its final value. It is possible to use efficient RF amplifiers with frequency modulated signals: It is possible to use non-linear RF amplifiers to amplify FM signals in a transmitter and these are more efficient than the linear ones required for signals with a n y amplitude variations (e.g. AM and SSB). This means that for a given p o w e r output, less battery power is required and this makes the use of FM more viable for portable two-way radio applications.
Frequency modulation is widely used in many areas of radio technolo g y i n c l u d i n g broadcasting and areas of two way radio communication. In these applications its particular advantages can be used to good effect. For the future, other forms of digital modulation are becoming more widely used - DAB for radio broadcasting and a number of other formats such as TETRA for two-way radio communication systems. Despite these changes, FM will remain in use for many years to come as there are many advantages of frequency modulation for the areas in which it has gained a significant foothold in recent years. As the name implies, wideband FM (WFM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission: hence the term "FM radio"( a l t h o u g h f o r m a n y y e a r s t h e B B C c a l l e d i t " V H F r a d i o " , b e c a u s e c o m m e r c i a l F M broadcasting uses a well-known part of the VHF bandthe FM broadcast band). FM receivers employ a special detector for FM signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. Problematically however, frequency drift or lack of s e l e c t i v i t y m a y c a u s e o n e s t a t i o n o r s i g n a l t o b e s u d d e n l y o v e r t a k e n b y a n o t h e r o n a n adjacent channel. Frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate selectivity may plague any tuner. An FM signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal: see FM stereo. However, this is done by using multiplexing and de-multiplexing before and after the FM process. The rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and de-multiplexing process used in "stereo FM",
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and concentrates on the FM modulation and demodulation process , which is identical in stereo and mono processes. A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constant-amplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a l i n e a r a m p l i f i e r . T h i s g i v e s F M a n o t h e r a d v a n t a g e o v e r o t h e r m o d u l a t i o n s c h e m e s t h a t require linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM. FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech. Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio s e t t i n g s . I n b r o a d c a s t services, where audio fidelity is important, wideband FM is generally used. In two-way radio, n a r r o w b a n d F M ( N B F M ) i s u s e d t o c o n s e r v e b a n d w i d t h f o r l a n d m o b i l e r a d i o s t a t i o n s , marine mobile, and many other radio services.
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Some of these terms have been explained briefly in the following paragraphs
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4.2.4 Gain:
The gain of an amplifier of unequal input and output impedance is given as
Where E1 is the voltage at the input E2 is the voltage across the output load terminations Z1 is the input impedance Z 2 is the output load impedance .
Pre-Amplifier
Pre-amplifier is the first amplifier in the broadcast chain. The output from a microphone or a pickup which is at very low level (-70 dBm) is fed to its input. The a m p l i f i e d s i g n a l s obtained from this amplifier are given to the programme amplifier through a fader box or through a mixing console. The normal gain of this amplifier is about 50 dB.
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Programme Amplifier
Programme amplifier provides second stage of amplification. The output obtained from the fader box or mixing console is fed to the input of this amplifier. The normal input level to this amplifier varies from -45to 20 dBm. This amplifier gives a maximum output of +27d B m . I t h a s a g a i n o f 7 0 d B w h i c h i s v a r i a b l e f r o m 0 t o 7 0 d B . T h e i n p u t a n d o u t p u t impedance are usually 600 ohm.
Monitoring Amplifier:
The output available from the programme amplifier is however, not e n o u g h t o d r i v e loudspeaker. Therefore, monitoring amplifiers are provided to boost these signals further. A part of the output signal from the programme amplifier is given to the monitoring amplifier. The output of the monitoring amplifier is usually fed to a monitoring bus for further feeding to the loudspeakers. A separate monitoring amplifier is used for a group of loudspeakers which are located in studios, control room, duty room and other selected places. Monitoring amplifiers of different wattage ratings are used in AIR. But 8 watt monitoring amplifier is very common.
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5.1 RF SECTION
RF section consists of crystal oscillator, buffer, intermediate power Amplifier, and Exciter and power amplifier.
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5.1.3 EXCITER
This stage is operated as a class - C amplifier, employing air cooled tetrode type and drives P.A. stage. Screen supply is taken from plate supply. The output is a tuned circuit consists of a fixed capacitor C and coil. L3 is having a flipper, through it, fine tuning can be made. This stage is modulated about 10 to 20%. A small secondary tap from the modulation transformer supplies the necessary audio and super-imposes on the DC Plate supply. When the triodes are anode modulated, the grid must be overdriven in the carrier condition in order that the drive level will be adequate to sustain the peak anode current at 100% modulation. Alternatively the drive must be modulated. Hence the 10 to 20% modulation. With tetrode the same effect is achieved by modulating the screen enabling the anode current peaks to be attained with the same drive level as that required for the carrier only condition. To some extent this ceases the grid dissipation limit. .
5.2 AF CIRCUITS
The audio frequency amplifier consists of two voltage amplifiers, a cathode follower which serves as a driver to the modulator and the modulator is a class B push pull power Amplifier .
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Modulator amplifier
This is the final stage audio frequency power amplifier which supplies t h e R F p o w e r amplifier, the required modulating power. The HT and the superimposed audio signals are connected to the plate of the PA valves. It may be noted that the negative feedback Network is connected in the primary of the modulation transformer. Low tension 3 p h a s e 2 2 0 V A C i s s t e p p e d u p t o 3 p h a s e 5 2 0 V A C u s i n g a D e l t a / S t a r c o n n e c t e d transformer. It is rectified using silicon diodes and filtered using L C components. It gives DC voltage to the following.
Bias 3 phase 400 V AC is stepped up to 3 phase 470 V using Delta/Star connected transformer and rectified using silicon diodes in two sets SE 2 and SE3 and filtered using L -C components. SE 2 output supply is connected to the cathode Bias of sub modulator. The output of SE 3 is connected to control grid of Exciter and Grid of P.A.
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High tension 3 phase 400 V AC is stepped up to 2300 V 3 phase and rectified using s i l i c o n d i o d e s assembly SE4 and filtered using L-C components. Full HT is supplied to plate of modulator and PA valves. The filtered DC from the star point of the HT transformer is connected to the plate of 2nd AF and plate and screen grid of Exciter.
The AF stage supply the audio power required to amplitude modulates the final RF stage. Theo u t p u t o f t h e A F s t a g e i s s u p e r i m p o s e d u p o n t h e D C v o l t a g e t o t h e R F P A t u b e v i a modulation transformer. An Auxiliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides the AF voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists of two CQK-25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration. The drive stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized.
5.2.2.2 AF Pre-amplifier
The output of the High Pass Filter is fed to the AF Pre-amplifier, one for each balanced audio line. Signal from the negative feedback network from the secondary of the modulation transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to this unit .
5.2.2.3 AF Pre-corrector
Pre- amplifier output is fed to the AF Pre-correctors. As the final modulator valve in the AF is operating as Class B, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of AF signal. That is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high level AF input because of the operating characteristics of the Vacuum tubes. Hence to compensate for the non linear gain of the modulator. The Pre-corrector amplifies the low level signal highly and high level signal with low gain. Hum compensator is used to have a better signal to noise ratio. 5.2.2.4 AF Driver 2 AF drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides the necessary DC Bias voltage and also AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%. The output of AF driver stage is formed by four transistors in series as it works with a high voltage of about -400V.The transistors are protected with diodes and Zener diodes against high voltages that may result due to internal tube flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can be avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceed. 5.2.3 AF FINAL STAGE AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes CQK -25. Filament current of this tube is about 210 Amps. at 10V. The filament transformers are of special leakage reactance type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2 to 3 times the normal load current. Hence the filament surge current at the time of switching on will not exceed the maximum limit. A varistor at the screen or spark gaps across the grid are to prevent over voltages. As the modulator valve is condensed vapor cooled tetrodes, de ionized water is used for cooling. The valve required about 11.5 liters/min. of water. Two water flows switches WF1 and WF2in the water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow. Thermostats WT1 and WT2 in each water line provide pro tection against excessive w a t e r t e m p . b y tripping the transmitter up to stand-by if the temperature of the water exceeds 70 degrees centigrade.
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Modulation condenser and modulation choke have been dispensed with due to the special design of the modulation transformer. Special high power varistor is provided across the secondary winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over voltages.
Earthing switch operated by a handle from the front of the rack has been provided in the filter tank. The main HT terminal and also the live ends of the filter condensers C201 to C210 have been brought to the earthing switch. In addition all the MT voltage (- 650, 800,1070, 1900) are also brought to the earthing switch. The 11 kV point is discharged initially through a resistor R - 543 before it is grounded. The earthing switch is interlocked to the main transmitter by micro switches S 302, S 303 and S 304. In addition, a key interlock system is provided to prevent accidental contact with high voltages.
MW antennas are installed vertically close to the ground. However vertical wire antenna, inverted 'L' type antenna, top loaded. Antenna and umbrella antenna are at a few All India Radio stations. Directional antenna systems also exist in many All India Radio stations
6.1.1 Ventilation
All the transmitters handle large amount of power. Basically the transmitters convert power from AC main's to Radio Frequency and Audio F r e q u e n c y . The conversion process always results in some loss. The loss in energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a suitable medium to keep the raise in temperature of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure that the heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as it is generated the ventilation equipment need to be switched on first. Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could be classified on the following lines: Cooling for the tube filaments. Cooling for the tube Anodes. General cooling of the cubics. Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc
The cooling equipments comprise of blowers, pumps and heat exchangers. Another important consideration is that during the switching off sequence the cooling equipments should run a little longer to carry away the heat generated in the equipments. This is ensured by providing a time delay for the switch off of the cooling equipment. Normal time delay is of the order of 3 to 6 Minutes. The water flow and the air flow provided by the cooling equipments to t h e v a r i o u s equipments are monitored by means of air flow and water flow switches. In case of failure of water or air flow, these switches provide necessary commands for tripping the transmitter.
6.1.2 Filaments
All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final stages of RF amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of AF amplifiers. After ventilation equipments are
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switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament of the t u b e s can be switched on. While switching on filament of the tube, the c o n t r o l a n d interlocking circuits have to take care of the following points. The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament voltage in one strike would result in enormous filament current and may damage the tube f i l a m e n t . H e n c e , i t b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o a p p l y t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e i n s t e p s . V a r i o u s methods adopted are: Use of step starter resistance: Here the filament voltages of the t u b e s a r e g i v e n through a series resistance (called step starter resistance). The series resistance which limits the initial filament current is shorted and after a time interval by the use of a timer switch. Use of special filament transformer which allows slow build up of the f i l a m e n t voltage. Application of filament voltage in 3 or 4 steps
The emission from the tubes depends upon the temperature of the filament. Generally it takes some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched on. Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended till the filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is taken care of by providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament switching on and the next sequence namely bias switching on.
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6.1.4 Connection of load (Antenna/Dummy load): A f t e r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v e n t i l a t i o n , filament and bias the anode voltage can be switched on. But before the anode voltage can be increased the interlocking circuit is to ensure that the load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy load is connected to the transmitter. The tuning processes of the various RF stages are complete and none of the tuning motors are moving Application of screen voltage I n t h e c a s e o f t e t r o d e t u b e s , t h e s c r e e n v o l t a g e t o t h e t u b e should not be applied before the application of anode voltage to keep the screen current and screen dissipation within limits. This is taken care of by an interlocking provision that the screen voltage is applied only after the anode voltage reaches a certain predetermined value well above the normal screen voltage. Release of Audio frequency The application of AF signal to the AF stage in the absence of c a r r i e r p o w e r w o u l d r e s u l t i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m o d u l a t i o n t r a n s f o r m e r w i t h n o l o a d connect ed. This is not desirable. Therefore, the AF signal should be applied to the Audio frequency stages only when the RF power amplifier is delivering the n o m i n a l p o w e r . Normally AF frequency signal to the AF stage is released only when the carrier power is approximately 80% of the normal power.
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7. FM TRANSMITTER 7.1 INTRODUCTION There is too much over-crowding in the AM broadcast bands and shrinkage in the night-time service area due to fading, interference, etc. FM broadcasting offers several advantages over AM such as uniform day and night coverage, good quality listening and suppression of noise, interference, etc. 7.2 SALIENT FEATURE OF FM TRANSMITTER
Simplified block diagram of a Modern FM Transmitter is given in the figure below. The left
and right channels of audio signal are fed to stereo coder for stereo encoding. This stereo encoded signal or mono signal (either left or right channel audio) is fed to VHF oscillator and modulator. The FM modulated output is amplified by a wide band power amplifier and then fed to Antenna for transmission. Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used as VHF oscillator and modulator. To stabilize its frequency a portion of FM modulated signal is fed to a programmable divider, which divides the frequency by a factor N to get 10 kHz frequency at the input of a phase and frequency comparator (phase detector). The factor N is automatically selected when we set the station carrier frequency. The other input of phase detector is a reference signal of 10kHz generated by a crystal oscillator of 10 MHz and divided by a divider (1/1000). The o u t p u t o f phase detector is an error voltage, which is fed to VCO for correction of i t s frequency through rectifier and low pass filter.
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7.4 2 x 3 kW FM TRANSMITTER
2 x 3 kW Transmitter setup, which is more common, consists of two 3 kW t r a n s m i t t e r s , designated as transmitters A and B, whose output powers are combined with the help of a combining unit. Maximum of two transmitters can be housed in a single rack along with two Exciter units. Transmitter A is provided with a switch-on-control unit (GS 033A1) w h i c h , w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e A d a p t e r p l u g i n - u n i t ( K A 0 3 3 A 1 ) , a l s o e n s u r e s t h e p a r a l l e l operation of transmitter B. Combining unit is housed in a separate rack. Low-level modulation of VHF oscillator is carried out at the carrier frequency in the Exciter type SU 115. The carrier frequency can be selected in 10 kHz steps with the help of BCD switches in the synthesizer. The exciter drives four 1.5 kW VHF amplifier, which is a basic module in the transmitter. Two such amplifiers are connected in parallel to get 3 kW power. The transmitter is forced air-cooled with the help of a blower. A standby blower has also been provided which is automatically selected when the pre-selected blower fails. Both the blowers can be run if the ambient temperature exceeds 40oc.
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Power stages are protected against mismatch (VSWR > 1.5) or excessive heat sink temperature by automatic reduction of power with the help of control circuit. Electronic voltage regulator has not been provided for the DC supplies of power amplifiers but a more efficient system of stabilization in the AC side has been provided. This is known as AC-switch over. Transmitter operates in the passive exciter standby mode with help of switch -on-control unit. When the preselected exciter fails, standby exciter is automatically selected. Reverse switch over, however, is not possible
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7.5 2 x 5 KW FM Transmitter:
A simplified block diagram of a 2 x 5 kW FM Transmitter is as shown in the figure
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This unit processes the incoming audio signals both for m o n o a n d s t e r e o transmissions. In case of stereo transmi ssion, the i n c o m i n g L a n d R c h a n n e l s i g n a l s a r e processed in the stereo coder circuit to yield a stereo base band signal with 19 kHz pilot tone for modulating the carrier signal. It also has a multiplexer wherein the coded RDS and SCA signals are multiplexed with the normal stereo signal on the modulating base band. The e n c o d e r s f o r R D S a n d S C A a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e e x t e r n a l t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n d h a v e t o b e provided separately as and when needed.
Power coupler
The output from the RF switch is fed to the two transmitters A and B from where the signals are fed to power coupler. There it generates a power of 2.5/3w and the output is fed to the harmonic filter where it generates the harmonics and the increases its output power to1.25kw which is fed to the power coupler again and is finally fed to the antenna.
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The simplified block diagram of 1.5 kW Power Amplifier is as shown in the figure
This amplifier requires an input power of 2.5 to 3 W and consists of a driver stage (output 30 W) followed by a pre-amplifier stage (120 W). The amplification from 120 W to1500 W in the final stage is achieved with the help of eight 200 W stages. Each 200 W stage consists of two output transistors (TP 9383, SD1460 or FM 150) operating in parallel. These RF transistors operate in wide band Class C mode and are fitted to the PCB by means of large gold plated spring contacts to obviate the need for soldering. The output of all these stages is combined via coupling networks to give the final output of 1.5 kW. A m o n i t o r i n e a c h amplifier controls the power of the driver stage depending on the reference voltage produced b y t h e s w i t c h - o n - c o n t r o l u n i t . S i n c e t h i s r e f e r e n c e v o l t a g e i s t h e s a m e f o r a l l t h e V H F amplifiers being used, all of them will have the
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same output power. Each amplifier has a meter for indicating the forward and reflected voltages and transistor currents. Also a fault is signaled if the heat sink temperature or the VSWR exceed the prescribed limits. In both cases, the amplifier power is automatically reduced to protect the transistor.
Tower
A tower of good height is required for mounting the FM antenna since the coverage of the transmitter is proportional to the height of the tower. For a 100 m height, the coverage is about 60 km. Wherever new towers were to be provided, generally they are of 100 m height since beyond this height; there is steep rise in their prices because of excessive wind load onthe top of the tower. At some places existing towers of Doordarshan have also been utilized f o r m o u n t i n g t h e F M a n t e n n a . P r o v i s i o n h a s a l s o b e e n m a d e o n t h e A I R t o w e r s f o r t o p mounting of TV antenna below FM antenna (Aperture for Band III)
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Antenna
The main requirements of the antenna to be used for FM transmitters are: Wide-band usage from 88 to 108 MHz range. Omni-directional horizontal pattern of field strength. Circular polarization for better reception. High gain for both vertical and horizontal signals. Two degrees beam tilt below horizontal Sturdy design for maintenance-free service
Further, depending on the type of tower available for mounting the requirement is for two types of antenna. The first type is to be mounted on a small cross -section AIR Tower. For which a pole type FM antenna has been selected. For mounting on the existing TV towers, a panel type antenna has been used. The cross section of the TV tower at the AIR aperture is2.4 x 2.4 m. The pole type antenna is quite economical as compared to panel type antenna but it cannot be used on large area towers.
Very low power radiation towards Transmitter building. Spacing between dipoles is 2.6 m and all the dipoles are mounted one abovethe other on the same face. Lengths of feed cables of dipoles will be different and has been calculated to givea beam tilt of 2o below horizontal. The feed point of the antenna is looking towards gro u n d s o a s t o a v o i d deterioration of the insulating flange. This flange consists of high density PVC. The life of this is expected to be about 7 to 10 years.
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The distance of the feeding strip is 240 mm from edge and this s h o u l d n o t b e disturbed. All the six dipoles are mounted on a 10 0 mm die Pole. This pole is supported by the main tower. The antenna is fed through a power divider which divides total p o w e r i n t o 6 outlets for feeding the 6 dipoles. The power divider is mounted on a different face of the tower. The main feeder cables, power divider branch feeder cables, and dipoles are of hollow construction to enable pressurization of the system. The antenna can handle two channels with diplexing. Suitable terminations are supplied for terminating the output of power divider incases of failure of any dipole.
The capacity of each dipole is 2.5 kW. Therefore, each panel is able to transmit 10kW power. The reflector panels are constructed of GI bars whereas the dipoles are made out of steel tubes. Since each panel consists of 4 dipoles, there are a total of 64 dipoles for all the16 panels. Therefore the power divider has 64 outlets to feed each of the dipoles. The power divider will be mounted inside the tower. This antenna gives an Omnidirectional pattern when the panels are mounted on all the four faces. FEEDER CABLE For connecting the output power of the transmitter to the dipoles through the power divider, a3 dia feeder cable has been used. This cable is of hollow type construction and has to be handled very carefully. From the building to the base of the tower, the cable is laid on horizontal cable tray. Along with the tower this is fixed on the cable rack provided for this purpose. The cable is clamped at every1.5 m and the minimum radius of bending of this cable is about 1 m. The cable has been provided with two numbers of EIA flange connectors of 3 1/8 size on both ends. Both the connectors are of gas-stop type. The cable connector on the antenna end i.e. on top of the tower is made gas-through before hoisting. This is achieved by drilling a hole through the T e f l o n i n s u l a t o r
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inside the connector. A dummy hole (drilled i s a l r e a d y provided by the manufacturer for this purpose.
only
half
way)
8. DIGITAL FM EXCITERS
Generating the FM signal with Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) technology, the digital FM exciter uses Numerically Controlled Oscillator for program modulation instead of the Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) traditionally used in analog exciters.
When utilized as a quadrature synthesizer, DDS afford unparal leled matching and control of I and Q synthesized outputs.
8.1.2 THEORY OF OPERATION In its simplest form, a direct digital synthesizer can be implemented from a p r e c i s i o n reference clock, an address counter, a programmable read only memory (PROM), and a D/A converter as shown in the figure below
In this case, the digital amplitude information that corresponds to a complete cycle of a sine wave is stored in the PROM. The PROM is therefore functioning as a sine lookup table. The address counter steps through and accesses each of the PROMs memory locations and the c o n t e n t s ( t h e e q u i v a l e n t s i n e a m p l i t u d e w o r d s ) a r e p r e s e n t e d t o a h i g h - s p e e d D / A converter. The D/A converter generate an analog sine wave in response to the digital input words from the PROM. The output frequency of this DDS implementation is dependent on The frequency of the reference clock, and The sine wave step size that is programmed into the PROM.
While the analog output fidelity, jitter, and AC performance of this simplistic architecture can be quite good, it lacks tuning flexibility. The output frequency can only be changed by changing the frequency of the reference clock or by reprogramming the PROM. Neither of these options supports high-speed output frequency hopping. With the introduction of a phase accumulator function into the digital signal chain, this architecture becomes a numerically-controlled oscillator which is the core of a highlyflexible DDS device. As the figure below shows, an N-bit variable-modulus counter and phase register are implemented in the circuit before the sine lookup table, as a
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replacement for the address counter. The carry function allows this function as a phase wheel in the DDS architecture.
To understand this basic function, visualize the sinewave oscillation as a v e c t o r rotating around a phase circle (see Figure 1 -3). Each designated point on the phase wheel c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t p o i n t o n a c y c l e o f a s i n e w a v e f o r m . A s t h e v e c t o r r o t a t e s around the wheel, visualize that a corresponding output sine wave is being generated. One revolution of the vector around the phase wheel, at a constant speed, results in one complete cycle of the output sine wave. The phase accumulator is utilized to provide the equivalent of the v e c t o r s l i n e a r rotation around the phase wheel. The contents of the phase accumulator correspond to the points on the cycle of the output sine wave. The number of discrete phase points contained in the wheel is determi ned by the resolution, N, of the phase accumulator. The output of the phase accumulator is linear and c a n n o t d i r e c t l y b e u s e d t o g e n e r a t e a s i n e w a v e o r a n y o t h e r w a v e f o r m e x c e p t a r a m p . Therefore, a phase-to-amplitude lookup table is used
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to convert a truncated version of the phase accumulators instantaneous output value into the sine wave amplitude information that is presented to the D/A converter.
Most DDS architectures exploit the symmetrical nature of a sine wave a n d u t i l i z e mapping logic to synthesize a complete sine wave cycle from cycle of data from the phase accumulator. The phase-to-amplitude lookup table generates all the necessary data by reading forward then back through the lookup table.
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The phase accumulator is actually a modulus M counter that increments its stored number each time it receives a clock pulse. The magnitude of the increment is determined by a digital word M contained in a delta phase register that is summed with the overflow of the counter. The word in the delta phase register forms the phase step size between reference clock updates; it effectively sets how many points to skip around the phase wheel. The larger the jump size, the faster the phase accumulator overflows and completes its equivalent of a sine wave cycle. For a N=32-bit phase accumulator, an M value of 00000001(one) would result in the phase accumulator overflowing after 232 reference clock cycles (increments). If the M value is changed to 01111111, the phase accumulator will overflow after only 21clock cycles, or two reference clock cycles. This control of the jump size constitutes the f r e q u e n c y tuning resolution of the DDS architecture. The relationship of the phaseaccumulator and delta phase accumulator forms the basic t u n i n g e q u a t i o n f o r D D S architecture.
FOUT = (M (REFCLK)) /2N Where: FOUT = the output frequency of the DDS M = the binary tuning word REFCLK = the internal reference clock frequency (system clock) N = the length in bits of the phase accumulator
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Changes to the value of M in the DDS architecture result in immediateandphasec o n t i n u o u s c h a n g e s i n t h e o u t p u t f r e q u e n c y . I n p r a c t i c a l application, the M value, or frequency tuning word, is loaded into an internal serial or byte-loaded register which precedes the parallel o u t p u t d e l t a p h a s e r e g i s t e r . T h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d o n e t o m i n i m i z e t h e package pin count of the DDS device. Once the buffer register is loaded, the parallel-output delta phase register is clocked and the DDS output frequency changes. Generally, the only speed limitation to changing the output frequency of a DDS is the maximum rate at which the buffer register can be loaded and executed. A numerically-controlled oscillator (NCO) is a digital signal generator which creates Asynchronous (i.e. clocked), discrete-time, discrete-valued representation of a waveform, usually sinusoidal. NCOs are often used in conjunction with a digital-toanalog converter (DAC) at its output to create a direct digital synthesizer (DDS).
8.3 OPERATION
An NCO, generally, consists of two parts:
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Figure 8.6: Normalized phase accumulator output The adder is designed to overflow when the sum of the absolute value of its operands exceeds its capacity (2N1). The overflow bit is discarded so the output word width is always equal to its input word width. The remainder n, called the residual, is stored in the register and the cycle repeats, starting this time from n (see figure 2). Since a phase accumulator is a finite state machine, eventually the residual at some sample K must return to the initial value 0. The interval K is referred to as the grand repetition rate (GRR) given by
Where GCD is the greatest common divisor function. The GRR represents the true periodicity f o r a g i v e n F w h i c h f o r a h i g h r e s o l u t i o n N C O c a n b e v e r y l o n g . U s u a l l y w e a r e m o r e interested in the operating frequency determined by the average overflow rate, given by
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The frequency resolution, defined as the smallest possible incremental change in frequency, is given by
Equation (1) shows that the phase accumulator can be thought of as a programmable non-integer frequency divider of divide ratio F / 2 N
Up convertor
A single stage up converter mixes the output of the digital modulator with a synthesized local oscillator, producing the on-channel FM-carrier.
Filters
Unwanted mixing products are removed by very stable, well -controlled band pass filters. Several stages and types of filters are used after up conversion to ensure
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mixing productions are at least 80 dB below the un modulated carrier. Special techniques are used to preserve the Bessel sideband components.
8.7 ADVANTAGES
The Direct Digital Synthesis process eliminates the need for linearly c o r r e c t i o n circuitry and related adjustments Modulation is controlled by a digital word , hence there is n o c h a n c e o f o v e r modulation. The FM exciter directly accepts a digital audio signal thereby making it possible to eliminate analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversations that add hum, noise, distortion to a signal Among benefits are improved stereo signal-to-Noise, AM noise null, and the ability to synchronize to an external reference for use on-channel booster systems. Problems associated with VCO/PLL technology such as poor l o w f r e q u e n c y separation and PLL unlock from audio transients, are eliminated With flat low-frequency response to below 10 Hz, the digital FM exciter can pass such low sounds as music synthesizers, pipe organ pedal stops, and large bass drums. Among other performance advantages, they are immune to subsonic transients that can put an analog exciter in to a fault mode and force a station off air.
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Sustainable performance is another key benefit of the digital FM e x c i t e r . U n l i k e analog exciters whose performance can degenerate overtime, digital FM exciters deliver the same exceptional signal quality years after installation as it did in the factory on the day of final test.
9.RADIO RECEIVERS A radio receiver is an electronic circuit that receives its input from an antenna, uses electronicf i l t e r s t o s e p a r a t e a w a n t e d r a d i o s i g n a l f r o m a l l o t h e r s i g n a l s p i c k e d u p b y t h i s antenna, amplifies it to a level suit a b l e f o r f u r t h e r p r o c e s s i n g , a n d f i n a l l y c o n v e r t s through demodulation and decoding the signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data, measurement values, navigational positions, etc 9.1 TYPES OF RADIO RECEIVER Basic crystal set. A T.R.F. Receiver. A Super heterodyne Receiver. Mainly FM receivers are of the super heterodyne variety. Before we go into any depth about FM radio receivers let's consider the principal differences between a.m. and FM. signals. At first glance it might seem I am merely stating t h e b l i n d i n g o b v i o u s b u t t h e differences are indeed quite profound. 9.1.1 Crystal radio (A Crystal Set):
Antenna The antenna converts the energy in the electromagnetic rad i o w a v e s s t r i k i n g i t t o an alternating electric current in the antenna, which is connected to the tuning coil. Since in a crystal radio all the power comes from the antenna, it is
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important that the antenna collect as much power from the radio wave as possible. The larger an antenna, the more power it can intercept.
Tuned circuit
A tuned circuit to select the signal of the radio station to be received, out of all the signals received by the antenna. This consists of a coil of w ire called an inductor or
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tuning coil and a capacitor connected together, one or both of which is adjustable and can be used to tune indifferent stations. In some circuits a capacitor is not used, because the antenna also serves as the capacitor. The tuned circuit has a natural resonant frequency, and allows radio signals at this frequency to pass while rejecting signals at all other frequencies.
Crystal detector
A semiconductor crystal detector which extracts the audio signal (modulation) from the radiof r e q u e n c y c a r r i e r w a v e . I t d o e s t h i s b y o n l y a l l o w i n g c u r r e n t t o p a s s t h r o u g h i t i n o n e direction, blocking half of the oscillations of the radio wave. This rectifies the alternating current radio wave to a pulsing direct current, whose strength varies with the audio signal. This current can be converted to sound by the earphone. Finally, An earphone to convert the audio signal to sound waves so they can be heard. The low power produced by crystal radios is insufficient to power a loudspeaker so earphones are used.
The T.R.F. (tuned radio frequency) receiver was among the first designs available in the early days when means of amplification by valves became available. The basic principle was that all RF stages simultaneously tuned to the received frequency before detection and subsequent amplification of the audio signal. The main drawback for this is it is exceedingly difficult or near impossible to build LC Filters with impressive channel spacing and shape factors at frequencies as high as the broadcast band .
at this stage block frequencies which are far removed from the intended reception frequency.
Demodulation
The received signal is now processed by the demodulator stage where the audio signal (or other baseband signal) is recovered and then further amplified
10.1SATELLITES
Satellites are also used for radio communication. As short wave communi c a t i o n s a r e unreliable, and cannot carry the level of traffic required, higher frequencies must be used. It is possible to transmit signals up to satellites in outer space. These can receive the signals and broadcast them back down to Earth. Using this concept it is possible to transmit signals over vast distances, such as over the oceans. Additionally it is possible to use the satellites for b r o a d c a s t i n g . T r a n s m i t t i n g a s i g n a l u p t o t h e s a t e l l i t e , i t i s t h e n r e l a y e d o n a d i f f e r e n t frequency, and can give coverage over a whole country using just one satellite. A land based system may require many transmitters to cover the whole country.S a t e l l i t e s m a y a l s o b e u s e d f o r m a n y o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s . O n e o f t h e s e i s f o r observation. Weather satellites, for example, take images of the Earth and relay them back to Earth using radio signals. Another application for satellites is for navigation. GPS, the Global Positioning System uses a number of satellites in orbit around the Earth to provide very accurate positioning. Now further systems including Galileo (a European based system) and Glonass (a Russian based system) are being planned and put into operation.
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10.2RADAR
Radar is an application of radio technology that has proved to be very useful. It was first used by the British in the Second World War (1939 - 1945) to detect incoming enemy bombers. B y k n o w i n g w h e r e t h e y w e r e , i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o s e n d u p f i g h t e r s t o i n t e r c e p t t h e m a n d thereby gain a significant advantage. The system operates by sending out a short burst of wireless energy. The signal is sent out and reflects back from the objects in the area that is illuminated' by the radio signal. By knowing the angle at which the signal is returned, and the time it takes for the reflection to be received, it is possible to pinpoint the object that reflected the signal.
10.3MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
In recent years there has been an explosion in personal communications. One of the first major applications was the mobile phone. Since their introduction in the last 20 years of the20th century, their use has mushroomed. Their growth has shown the value of mobile Communications and mobile connectivity. Accordingly other applications such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and others been developed and are now part of the wireless scene.
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11. CONCLUSION
It is evident that digital FM exciters are incredibly versatile and will far exceed the currentr e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g f u t u r e n e e d s . I t i s F M e x c i t e r s that will change e x p e c t a t i o n s b y p r o v i d i n g t h e c l e a r e s t c l e a n e s t F M s o u n d , t h e b e s t q u a l i t y , t h e l e a s t maintenance, and the highest value of FM exciter. Application of frequency modulation technique for superimposing audio signals on the VHF carrier was a notable development in radio broadcasting in 1950. 88-108MHz f r e q u e n c y b a n d i s r e s e r v e d f o r F M B r o a d c a s t S e r v i c e . T h e m a j o r a d v a n t a g e o f F M broadcasting is its better noise tolerance and higher fidelity compared to AM broadcasting.T h e m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e o f F M i s i t s s h o r t r a n g e , o n l y t e n s o f k i l o m e t e r s . V H F / F M technology has since been extensively used for broadcasting in India. With the growth in the requirement for mobile connectivity, it is certain that wireless technologies with radio at the core will continue to thrive and become more widespread. To meet the demand it is likely that new technologies will be developed to maximize the use of t h e a v a i l a b l e r a d i o s p e c t r u m . I t i s a l s o a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e u s e r w i l l b e less aware of the under lying technology. With the increasing c o m p l e x i t y , i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t h a t a l l t h e technicalities are handled by the software, leaving the user free to use the device, whatever it may be, easily and freely. Radio transmission technology is a one way sound broadcasting service, transmitted over radio waves (a form of electromagnetic radiation) from a transmitter to a receiving antenna and intended to reach a wide audience. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast common programming, either in syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting are also can be done via cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the internet.
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12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerically-controlled_oscillator www.electronics-radio.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_broadcasting http://www.transmitter.be/ A technical tutorial on digital signal synthesis analog devices Harris DIGIT CD FM exciters
http://www.intechopen.com
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