JAN CS0203 Media in Singapore Ch1-24 Complete

CS0203 Media in Singapore
CS0203
MEDIA IN SINGAPORE
jeremiah wong Module Chapters

01 Introduction to Media in Singapore 02 Journalisms Public Role 03 Journalism and Politics 1 04 Journalism and Politics 2 05 How Journalists Work 1 06 How Journalists Work 2 07 Regarding Race, Language and Religion 08 The Business of Journalism 09 Alternative Online Journalism 10 Alternative Media and Political Change 11 Ethics and Accountability in Journalism 12 The Evolution of Advertising 13 Multiculturalism in Advertising 14 Ethics and Social Responsibility in Advertising 15 Public Relations 1 16 Public Relations 2 17 Public Relations 3 18 Singapore Radio 19 Singapore TV 20 Singapore TV News 21 Media Law 1 22 Media Law 2 23 Media Policy 24 Singapore Film
Module Objectives:
The course will examine the various professions and industries that shape Singapores media landscape. It will cover journalism, cultural industries, public relations and advertising; across all platforms newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television and online media. It will trace their historical development and explore how they currently operate. Connections will be made to the broader social, cultural, political, legal, policy and economic environment in Singapore. The course will also relate these topics to international trends, to provide a global perspective. It will lay the foundations for developing responsible media practice and discerning media use, by relating topics to ethics and civics.
Course Assessment:
30% 2x MCQ Quiz o Lecture Materials + Assigned Readings 50%: Final Examination (27 Apr 2012) o 2 Research Projects 20%: Class participation o 4 Discussion Question Posting
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2012 JIROS AWESOME NOTES
01 Introduction to Media in Singapore

Need to have both critical understanding and conceptual understanding.
1.1 Towards Critical Understanding

Being Critical means
YES Exercising careful judgment or judicious evaluation, taking effort to see clearly and judge more fairly. Articulating, backing up your point of view Understand opposing points of view Knowing wad question to ask, how best to answer them Tapping best available knowledge and argument NOT Not merely expressing an opinion. Not to find fault or criticize unfavourably
1.2 Conceptual Understanding

Discovering ideas that help us understand, explain, predict and control the power of media. E.g. How to understand Umami the way Japanese understand it? Use a parallel example. The same way Cherian has a sweet tooth, his wife has an umami tooth.
1.3 Empirical vs. Normative definitions

Empirical is statements E.g. The media is governments way to talking to her people. Reporting and commenting on current affairs WHAT Emp based on observation, investigation, and analysis, HOW Emp Normative should statements E.g. The media should be unbiased and impartial to all voices. in order to serve peoples needs to comprehend change to take part in public life WHY Normative
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1.4 9 Highly Normative Definition of Journalists

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth First loyalty is to Citizens Its essence is a discipline of verification Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover It must serve as an independent monitor of power It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant It must keep news comprehensive and proportional Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience
1.5 Difficult to define Whos a Journalist?

Classic definition is:someone who does journalism for a living someone who works in a news organization
But in reality,
not everything produced by a news organisation is journalism (it could be marketing, for e.g.) There are also non-profession people who do journalistic works (like citizen reporting)
So, its more meaningful to refer to journalism, rather than journalists.
1.6 Key Concepts & Chapter Review

1. Empirical vs Normative statements about journalism We need to look at ideals, but if we fail to check reality, it is useless. Life depends on the judicious challenge between empirical and normative statements. More meaningful to define journalism
2. Its hard to define a journalist
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02 Journalisms Public Role

Is there a universal definition of journalism? Or are there multiple journalisms? Whats with Mainstream vs. alternative journalism in the Geographic sense? Is there a diff between Singapore and world journalism?
2.1 Singapore and the World

In History Asian values were seen as contrary to Western Liberalism. But as Asian countries democratized, they become more liberal. Singapore started off as more liberal, but in the end we are even more Asian than other countries like Taiwan or China.
2.2 Avoiding Eurocentric Universalism

Avoid Eurocentric universalism imposing alien theories unthinkingly in different contexts (e.g. in Asian societies, do western theories work). For e.g.
Author said that Singapore is so controlled, that Singaporeans need have to queue for taxis. But its not true. We are civil to line up for taxis. We are not suppressed, nor feel forced to queue, but it's a common-sensical, voluntary thing to do.
Author is from United States, made a wrong conclusion about Singapore (American-centric universalism)
2.3 Avoiding Moral Relativism

Avoid moral relativism assuming that there is never a common basis for making value judgment. Reason why theres more friction within a religious group, than among different religions Within a religion, they share common values basis to judge one another for behavior or conformity More friction Different religions different value sets no basis to judge less friction
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In extreme cases, can lead to loss of morality (e.g. Murder can be justified in certain cultures, so lets be broadminded about it?) We need a common moral viewpoint (and to recognize that some things are just bad, regardless of culture).
2.4 Balancing between Centrism and Moral Relativism

While not being overly cultural-centric, we mustnt be overly broadminded as well.
2.5 Diff. in Paradigms vs. Diff. in Contexts

Differences in Doctoring Different paradigms Analogy Western doctor vs. TCM doctor vs. Ayurveda Doctor Explanation fundamentally different training and qualification based on worldviews that do not translate easily Similar skillset. A doctor in US can let a doctor in India see X-rays and send their reports back to the US. Singapore doctor can insert himself anywhere in the world and still work. Can translate. Singapores Journalism SAME PARADIGM, DIFFERENT CONTEXT.
Different contexts in the same paradigm
Doctor in US, doctor in Sg, doctor in China
2.6 Same Paradigm, Different Contexts

Same Paradigm WHY? Shared: worldview, standards for judging excellence and bad practice, professional language, training, association E.g. Singapore journalism has the same professional language, technical language, academic training, schools both trainings translates Different Context BUT Within a paradigm, we see different contexts (different priorities, resources, legal constraints, cultural environment) E.g.: In Australia, weather news is more important than in Singapore cos of its large agricultural industry.
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2.7 Asian Values Tool to Insulate against Criticism

In Singapore A strong incentive for Singapore government and its defenders to say that Singapores journalism represents a different Asian paradigm using moral relativism to insulate the system from criticism. Moral Relativism States that if theres different paradigm, no shared basis for comparison, so cannot criticize me. Impact Very commonly used argument; a political ploy to insulate Singapore media from judgment
The journalistic paradigm is essentially the same, since the practice of journalism is similar to everywhere else. Assertion of differences is used to governments benefit of self-protection.
2.8 Core of the Paradigm

Normative commitment to serve society by informing the public, scrutinizing the way power is exercise, stimulating demo debate, and in those ways adding political, economic, socially, cultural development. - UNESCO Ultimately based on Democratic Values. Democracy is part of Singapores society (found in pledge, etc), but its implementation might be different. Popular sovereignty is when the people themselves rule, not the people in power.
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2.9 Journalisms 3 Democratic Values

1. To inform about change and choices highlighting risks and opportunities journalism is an additional sense to our 5 senses agenda setting role: telling people what they should be thinking about watchdog role: check and balance on powerful sectors of society, such as government and business Issues How to select stories? How to be sure that the stories that journalist pick, are real risks and opportunities of society, and not from some crazy / selfish people? Is the press itself a powerful sector? And if so who watches the watchdog? Is the media too powerful to be given the watchdog role? Obstacles in being a watchdog? How adversarial? Yes, sometimes watchdogs go too far. Media coverage had made public too cynical about politics. People turn off and believe politicians are crooks. Passive or Active role? Speaking for the voiceless. Naturally the media will catch the voices of the more eloquent and more financial upper class than less eloquent and lower social strata.
2. To monitor power
3. To facilitate dialogue and construct society
Gather diverse interests and multiple points of views Vertical AND horizontal comm. (Gov. talking to people AND people talking TO people) important aspect of democracy Need for shared spaces / forums for dialogue, and its thru media that we discover the feelings of other people.
E.g.: TOC: speaking for the foreign workers, the marginalized people of society
3 Journalistic Democratic Values 3 Global normative values of journalism, based on universally recognized democratic principles
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03 Journalism and Politics 1

Reading Notes Singapore Press is a compliant press, because:Governance Social Order Values of Population National Security Free press hinders govts work Singapore society too fragile to handle an irresponsible press Mass media needs to be moral guardian to teach right cultural & social values Unfettered press will publish articles that jeopardises Singapores foreign relations
Control Legal Tussles

Closures of major defiant news papers Internal Security Act, ISA (1963) Newspaper and Press Act, NPPA (1974) o Allows Govt to exert control without having to do the openly undesirable invisible control o Ensures pro-PAP leadership in newspapers no need for G to dirty hands o Limited circulation of problematic publications like Asian Wall Street Journal Foreign report now snuffed in silence and obedience
Commericalisation SPH
Monopolization profits sustainability
Issue: Is NPPA the main contributor to Singapores growth during nationhood? A freer press could alert the G to social / economic issues averting eco crisis? Media reflects the societys culture of a lack of access to data and a lively, intellectual debate. Will a free press destroy Singapores peace and harmony?
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3.1 What Shapes Journalism?

Framework for discussion today and the next few weeks.
Individual Level Fundamental attribution error: tendency to mistake things as being caused by individual level factors May be true some times, but are mostly gross misrepresentations Professional procedures/ processes that news org go through to get certain jobs done Most Important Process: News Values how news is defined (metal constructs like proximity that deems certain news more impt than others) Most journalism in context of large org (commercial). Every Org has its own logic that goes beyond needs of journalism (Normative) But also by the organizational prerogative to make money (outside of media) Journalists are also people in same society; influenced by same events Most powerful ideology are those commonsensical; so common that people don't notice E.g. Govt & Law E.g. Conspiracy Theories Just cos we don't see eye to eye with what we read, we assume that editors are biased / unfair, etc.
Routine Level
E.g. 3 people died in Singapore gets more coverage than 30 in Venezuela.
Organizational level
Extra-media Level Ideology Level
E.g. Education: Edu gets large coverage and high priority in Sg papers. Maybe cos of the ideology in Singapore that edu is very impt E.g. Sports: All newspapers around the world whip up support for their own soccer teams. Nationalism is a strong ideology. Citizens think they are to their country first, then to the planet. Most agree.
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3.2 Journalism & Political System

Not easy to answer exceptionally well. Key Questions:1. Does Singapore have a free press or a Govt-controlled press? Should there be more press freedom? 2. Should the press be more balanced in covering elections? What does balance mean in Singapore context? 3. Is Singapore journalism a reflection of Singapore society? a. b. c. d. If our newspapers are pro-PAP, does it mean the society is pro-PAP? Or are our newspapers holding back Singaporean who are ready for change? Singapore society is conservative, yet press is edging them on for change? In other words, is Singapore Press:i. Mere reflection of Singapore society? ii. Head of Singapore society? iii. End of Singapore society? Ask journalists these Question
3.3 Other Models

American Liberal Tradition The First Amendment to the US Constitution says "Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech or of the press A strong law that prohibits Govt intervention in press freedom Mistrust of Govt power (central to American culture) must be limits to how much we should respect G, press still needs to have their say Champions a watchdog press: duty to speak truth to power Chinese Communist Tradition Official policy: news media are the (propaganda) mouth piece of the people (people = Chinas Communist Party) People (= CCP) s Republic of China
3.4 Singapore: Subordinate, not Subservient

Freedom of the press freedom of the news media must be subordinated to the overriding needs of Singapore and to the primacy of purpose of an elected government. LKY 1971 Subordinated: bring to a lower rank principle of press freedom must occupy a lower priority than these factors (i.e. needs to Singapore) Purpose: Will of the elected Govt
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I do not favour a subservient press. An unthinking press is not good for Singapore. But press freedom must be practiced with a larger sense of responsibility and the ability to understand what is in or not in our national interests. GCT 2005 Not Subservient: not like servant-like / slave But don't forget who is boss, when in conflict. LKY is not looking for communist model of media. Govt chose not to nationalize the press did not take over ownership. (Myth: Press is NOT govt-owned! SPH is not Govt-linked company) Allowed newspaper to continue to operate as commercial firms, run by professional editors. But introduced laws to ensure that press would be subordinate
3.4 Website for Research

http://infopedia.nl.sg/ Statutes.agc.gov.sg Article 14 of Sg constitution There is freedom of expression in Singapore, but, it is subject to whatever laws the parliament writes.
3.5 Phrases in Press Controls

Before 1959 British period: bans / suspensions of publications and detention of journalists can stop publications anytime British G wants detention without trial (can throw into jail straightaway, cos they are dangerous)
1959-1974
1974 present 1995 present
Early PAP period. More of the same. Felt it was convenient to keep the laws (detention w/o trials) WHAT HAPPENED IN MAY 1971? A TURNING POINT NPPA (newspaper & printing presses Govt stopped using those powers of pre-1974 acts). Shift to behind-the-scenes control new media period. Unlicensed websites (arrival of internet); dont have to ask G for permission to write stuff online, but on print still have to
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3.6 May 1971: A Turning Point

http://newspapers.nl.sg/
Nanyang Siang Pau 3 newspaper guys arrested, because Chinese newspapers were unhappy that Singapore Govt implemented English language policies that disadvantaged the Chinese speaking 1 Editor and 3 other executives arrested under ISA Arrested without Trial, 2 years jail Publisher of paper was kept in jail without trial. Loses its license. #1 Theory: PAPs cover to look even-handed even as they cracked down on the Chinese press o See, PAP also killed the English paper what, so PAP is not anti-Chinese! #2 Theory: LKY has intent on making a strong political point that Singapore journalism cannot have American-style policies Threatened and closed down. All journalists there quit, and the paper committed suicide.
Singapore herald (English Language)
Eastern Sun
Official justification of Govt: Chinese press acted in chauvinistic ways, being influenced by foreign influences, shady sources like from communist parties. Govt felt foreign governments were trying to influence Singapore politics by funding these papers. (Allegation) Conclusion: May 1971 changed everything: ISA inherited from British Licensing law inherited from British allowed closure of newspapers o Govt can say yes or not without a reason o Lasts 1 year o Can cancel at will within that year
Showed public that in any fight with the press, Govt always wins. ISA + Licensing laws make it unbeatable. But: at what costs?: Open battles with newspapers not good for PAPs reputation Adversarial relationship not ideal for PAPs nation-building agenda Main aim of NPPA: make open confrontation never necessary again o NPPA is absolutely successful in fulfilling its purpose. Govt never changed this law since 1974. Extremely ingenious about this law.
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04 Journalism and Politics 2

Reading Notes Q1: What do young journalists need to learn most when entering the newsroom? (Main challenges + Influences from prior job or studies)
Young Journ - finding their foothold in a system, how to ask questions. - how to deal with deadlines and how to manage time. - ethics Senior Journalists / Editors - need for passion for the job and a sense of curiosity and urgency - concept of news - building confidence - instilling idea of currency, objectivity and balance; - and hoping that they bring a passion for the job and a strong sense of curiosity.
ST No cadet program all new journalists have supervisors attached (section editor / senior journalist) Q2: How is the process of integration into newsroom handled by a newspaper? Ans: Attachment to a supervisor, Throwing into deep end & Feedback thru debriefing sessions. Styles: ways of writing, reporting and informing ST Journalism: Most restrictive media laws among researched, journalists contend with many, conflicting values Routines Management to obtain certain product PAPs Stance on Press: Independent, but subordinate to an elected Govt. STs public debates involve but considered comments by its columnists (Catherine Lims article slammed by PMO) 60% of story belongs to reporter; 40% to Straits Times If story is too mangled, reporters can choose to remove their names from bylines. Money desk is youngest. Most difficult to retain staffs, which get easily poached to other industries for their specialized knowledge and contacts of bigshots.
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4.1 Newspapers & Printing Presses Act (NPPA), 1974

NPPA - Govts response to 1971s ugly crackdown on presses:Normal Policies Kept permit system: Licensing of newspaper New Policies Banned foreign ownership of presses All directors of foreign companies be Singaporean Ownership spread Management Shares Why Uniquely Singapore? Unlike other countries (China, Malaysia), SG Govt did not seize ownership of the press E.g. The Star, owned by MCA in ruling Msian coalition Hence, LKY did the opposite, made sure ownership is spread out, against the textbook RATIONALE: For a professional, self-sustaining, commercial enterprise Management Shares Management shares allocated by Govt to trustworthy companies and Individuals All other shareholders have basically no voting power in any decisions Class B shares hold greater weight shares with more voting rights B can veto huge amounts of A shares, Management shares have 200x the voting power of ordinary shares Mgmt. shares allocation determined by Govt Even though SPH is private, it has to accept instruction by Govt. E.g. If I am a multi-billionaire in Singapore, I can only buy up to 12% of total shares. AND, But I will only be ORDINARY shareholder private companies cannot take over SPH. RATIONALE: Clever way to allow people to make money from newspapers & maintain political stronghold on SPH.
Unique
Ownership spread Ownership spread among many shareholders
Action of Law No more media barons (Publishers with agenda / egos indv ownership outlawed Media Barons: Indv powerful owners who can decide the editorial line
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4.2 Inside Singapores Press

Singapore Press Holdings & Mediacorp Myth: SPH is a Govt Linked Company (GLC)?
Ordinary Shareholders SPH Top Ord. shareholders: only a few are local companies Less likely to be controlled locally Thousands of shareholders, mostly private companies. SPH is not a GLC ManagementShare Holders Top MS Holders: Yet, Temasek Holdings NOT in them! Banks will not rock the boat Did not need TH, just need banks which by nature, prize stability and status quo Most are foreign banks (financial sector) Govt choose Financial Sector, cos they are stable, well-invested Mainly large financial institutions SPH owns part of TODAY, as a trade-off for killing its TV stations. Govt owns >12% of TODAY. Temasek Holdings. Is a GLC TODAY (Mediacorp Press)
Board of Directors (BOD)
A few GLCs: Singtel, DBS, NTUC Chairman: Former Ministers Members: Members of the Establishment Even tho the mgmt-share holders are non-Govt linked, the Board of Dir are FILLED with PAP people.
BOD @ Singtel, DBS, SIA etc BOD of Singtel, DBS, SIA, make more sense. Made up of people who know their industry
BODs from relevant background
BOD @ Mediacorp, SPH Makes no sense; not a serious board Made up of random people who dont know their stuff; who are considered safe by the Govt BODs: Almost no one from related backgrounds (e.g. information, publishing). Made up of people who will NOT rock the boat, people very close to PAP and LKY. Former Cabinet Ministers, Chief Justices, etc
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4.3 Rationales for Ownership & Control of Presses

1. Subordinating the press (lower in rank) without taking ownership (LKY) So that: Govt can give business sector the freedom to profit from newspaper publishing Profits Invest in a professional product Newspaper is highly profitable more profitable than SIA Govt are usually bad at running newspapers, and dont earn. LKY decided to let the newspapers make money. Irritant: Lee Foundations Lee family of Nanyang Siang Pau newspaper a matter of truth and accountability. Mathematical: Many shareholders, all have different voices pressure of majority focus on the bottom line of MONEY Pre-NPPA: Yusof Ishaks era. Newspapers were run by passion and values.
2. Newspaper companies affect political stability
LKY: will not take over, but ban publishers Impossible for any publishers to stand up to the Govt like the Lee Foundation family
Shareholders will play along despite normative / individual values Played on the shareholders inherent desire to make money
3. Control editors through management, shareholders and board
Outlawed non-commercial reasons for operating newspapers NPPA: make any other motivations illegal BOD: Senior decisions (e.g. choosing new senior editors) by govt-filled BOD Senior Editors: Experienced, skilled professionals with keen political judgment
Not Govt mouthpieces or Govt people. (Myth) Govts control of media is not so simple. Yet PAPs control is not stupidly authoritarian. A Govt media will collapse cos it could not make money.
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4.4 Attitudes of Press towards Government

Senior editors are concerned about quality and credibility, but they cannot take on the Govt. 1981: JB Jeyaratnam broke through into parliament through by-election. PAP was convinced that only crazy people would vote for Opposition. People were led astray by newspapers & journalists. Media had to convince LKY not to take over press. Press cannot assume they are on the same level as the Govt as an equal. Govt has final say in running of newspapers.
4.5 Brave today, Gone tomorrow

In theory they can be brave today, but will lose their jobs tomorrow will they be replaced by someone braver? NO, but by less brave people. Dilemma of an Editor: Yes, I will protect the newspapers cred, but if I push too hard, I will jeopardize my own career, and Singapores journalistic freedom, since I will be replaced by someone even more co-operative (less brave) than I am. Editors hence exercise "self-censorship; they pick battles strategically. FACT: Straits Times is not censored / controlled by Govt. Govt does not control the stories that ST writes. No vetting by Govt.
4.6 Editing =/= Censorship

Editing Profession-related E.g. taking out less than accurate blocks of text, unverified sources of information, less than professional ways Censorship Politics-related E.g. motivation by fear of political cost of story coming out
Many reports could be censored because they are sensitive; others might be taken off, because they just really suck. Films & drama scripts are censored by Govt directly (thru MICA). But not news stories! News stories are vetted by Govt-trusted people in the press. Singapores Press is controlled, but in an INDIRECT way and UNIQUE way, through BODs.
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05 How Journalists Work 1 5.1 Framing

Question of selective truth. Journalism a concept of selection. The same event, different ways of looking at it. E.g. the same park look at the pond? Look at the rubbish?
5.2 SCDF Chief Corruption: Issues in this Case

How did a mainstream newspaper beat the alternative online media, which also got the tip off? Mainstream papers have better Reporting Capabilities Publishing requires verification Easy to receive tip offs, not easy to publish it TR no paid reporters, but WB has Press not willing to publish, unless verified Alternative media does not have the resources (contacts, authority) as mainstream media to check things out Due to Defamation Law Can comment on greed, their character, but But to say they have broken the law, if untrue, is liable to be SUED!! Newspaper Niches Different papers have niches and inclinations that make certain topics easier to report themselves o Business: BT, o Political : ST, o Accident: TNP, WB, SM WB is a tabloid: keen to covering rumours, more dependant on crime stories closer relationship to police, criminals and crime-related contacts than other papers hear things faster WB likely to receive more tip offs 1. Timing (CNY holiday) 2. Language (ZB is in Chinese, ST need to translate) Online Media: More critical, comments often link everything to pay, PAP. YES: Shows conclusively that even officials re not perfect, cannot be trusted need fearless media to points out flaws Mainstream coverage: Less emotive, more broad-based in coverage. NO: Cos Govt does it itself. The Corrupt Practices Bureau in Govt worked and acted against the people involved. WB did not investigate, merely reported.
Why did TR not report it earlier when they got the tip off? (10 days in advance) Why ZB and not other papers getting the scoop?
Why did it take so many hours for the WB story to be picked up by other papers? How and why will online comments differ from mainstream coverage of this story Why does the case say about media and politics in Singapore (need for watchdog journalism)
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5.3 Subordinate, but not Subservient

SPH was a private holding company with close ties to the government; the government must approve (and can remove) the holders of SPH management shares, who have the power to appoint or dismiss all directors or staff. Columnists' opinions and letters to the editor expressed a moderate range of opinions on public issues. While newspapers printed a large and diverse selection of articles from domestic and foreign sources, their editorials, coverage of domestic events, and reporting of sensitive foreign relations topics usually closely reflected government policies and the opinions of government leaders.
5.4 Singapores Press

Experienced Skilled profession with keen political judgment Balancing act Serve readers (using independent editorial judgment) but not upset Govt too much (selfcensorship).
1. Reporters must operate within law.

Not apply self-censorship Let editors worry about political limits (Out of Bound markers) Do not defame someone, don't defeat security systems, don't steal diaries NOT reporters job to self censor Editors' job to worry about political limits
2. Reporters are expected by editors to do good journalism according to international standards.

Write for the public o e.g. CNB corruption: Govt did not want to come up the news yet, because no official sources quoted o Showed that mainstream media put interest of public first Pursue stories, including those that some want to hide o Never write for newsmakers, even if it's the Govt o Write for your readers Ask sharp, relevant Questions o Understand society, understand news, what readers concern o Newsmakers (CEO, pol figures) want to shape stories in their way o But we have to remind ourselves that its just THEIR POV, readers need to know other stuff
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5.5 What makes Good Journalism?

SPH journalism awards proof that Editors want Journalists that push for their stories / not just play safe and self-censor
Indication / inside view of what editors consider good journalism Impossible to exert QC for top quality everyday, every article Some articles bound to be good, but some will suck Look at how they give awards aims that reporters are expected to pursue
5.6 Influences on Journalism (Part 2)

Individual (+) Ideals, passions blunders, biases (-) Biases: e.g. assume editor is gay etc. Blunders: hear wrongly (e.g. 2 to 3 dozen 2 to 3 thousand) Organisational Routine
Standard operating procedures Set formulae for carrying out journalism work Decision making shortcuts Beats system Organizes the newsroom around topic areas: Allows reporters to specialize E.g. Health beat reporters: go check the MOH on new diseases, etc, hospitals. News judgment How to decide what news should get more space/time and better play?
Required for: Handling huge amounts of new info daily Coordinating the work of large teams
E.g. Edu, Tpt, health, football, film, Malaysia, stock market etc.
Ideological Extra-media
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06 How Journalists Work 2

Reading Notes 1: Lost Meaning of Objectivity Initially journalists pursued realism (reporting as it is) over objectivity, but then realized it was too nave, because of increasing propaganda. Journalists will unwittingly, irrationally have unexamined prejudgments that they will not acknowledge. Lippmann argues for journalists to be more scientific in their method. The method is objective, not the journalist. Objectivity is a discipline of the craft; not the aim. Effect #1: Impartiality no longer a fundamental principle of Journ, but a tool to show a new organizations effort to objectively obtain info. Effect #2: Neutral voice can be abused to advance a journalists own belief, thereby deceiving people. Objective reporting is not properly taught down or upheld. No standardized method to fact checking.
Reading Notes 2: He Said, She Said Journalism He Said She Said: a dispute news no real attempt to test clashing claims report could have checked, but did not reporter places both sides to form a polarized symmetry of extremes A says Black. B says white. No analysis. Forces readers to try to guess who is right. Relevant for certain occasions (e.g. 1st time witnessing squabble between party officials, dont know what is really happening) But for cases where its supposed to be clear enough, reporters should not give benefits of the doubt where it is clearly underserving / inappropriate. He say, She says: safe, fast way to submit writing assignments Haphazardly finding opposing voices just to make your article sound balanced for the sake of sounding unbiased / fair.
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Instead of actually assessing the strength of opposing claims and presenting difference in severity. Politics - a good place to use He Said, She Said. Journalists like to associate the middle ground to be the truth, or phony mean. When they may be no reason to. Middle ground in itself is a distortion of truth! Such He said, She Said journalism is in decline. Why? Availability of factchecking avenues (internet, blogs) and more fact-checkers themselves. American Journalism prizes truth-telling over difference-splitting or dilemmadisposing.
6.1 Routines of News Judgment

Timeliness Proximity Prominence Impact Conflict: conflict between people, concepts, generation divide provides tension that make news more interesting Unusualness Human interest events that people can identify with
what is interesting to a diverse, mass audience
Not a list generated by Journalism associations; rules of thumb that journalism evolved over centuries Related to a human need to understand change. Not invented by journalists.
6.2 We vs. Journalists

We know our Facebook friends, their interests, families. But, Journalists write for people they dont know! As a writer, they have no clue of audiences interests, hence: Thats why this list of news judgment is important to Journalists Product of experience over time tells journalists what interests people
News Judgment = decision-making shortcut (routine) Because they don't have time to think about 50 stories!
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Dependent on newspapers. ST considers unusualness as less important than TNP. TNP / SM prize stories of high HI, even if they have low impact. What people want not necessarily whats important, what people need.
6.3 News Judgment: A Critical Look

E.g. Climate change vs Earthquakes
Observation Earthquakes make Page 1 News more often than climate change. Earthquake will hog headlines for a few days. But NOT for climate change. In fact, we can do more to address climate change than earthquakes. Yet earthquakes are treated as more news worthy Climate change is not as news worthy as compared to earthquakes. Timeliness: Not very timely (very gradual development). Proximity: (CC not localized, by and large invisible phenomena, unlike earthquake) News values not working well in identify whats important for the reader. False Balance Weakness Exploited by spin doctors Climate: Companies found people who write opposing stuff journalists pursuing mindless objectivity reported uncertainty when it was certain! Despite overwhelming scientific consensus, journalist continued to talk about it as if it's a balanced argument (of such an existence)!
Caveat
Reason
E.g. 9/11 Attacks. 2,974 fatalities

Observation In the same year as 9/11, US shooting deaths were 29,000. (10x) 10x people died as result of gun violence (10x 9/11s caused by gun violence) Yet, no debate on gun violence! Not as often as the coverage on war against terror not quite right!
Tobacco: not news worthy as 9/11, because its routine. Were more sensitive to risks that are out of control, more catastrophic, sudden events over controllable, less dramatic or gradual events.
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6.4 News Judgment & Normative Judgment

Applied news judgment: import routine that enable journalists to write, but might not tell us the stories we need to know. (Normative) Journalism: Storytelling w a purpose Must balance what readers know they want; with What they cannot anticipate but need Must make the significant interesting and relevant Quality measured both by how much a work engages its audience and enlightens it.
Interesting vs Important: Identify what is important; use journalistic skills to make it interesting. Concepts I can use to critique Media in Singapore. E.g. Editors feel it is important, but see that their job is to make a certain topic interesting for us. News Judgment: most important routine that journalists can apply to make their work easier.
6.5 Objectivity is a Practical Approach

1. Objectivity is not a philosophical thing, but a practical approach to solving. 2. Even though most Journalists think of objectivity as an important standard to uphold, there are serious flaws in their approach (routine that journalism use to pursue objectivity). Biggest failures in journalism Objectivity means: Stories built on facts, can be independently verified Journalist biases suppressed, as best as they can While being aware its not fully possible
6.6 Objectivity: How it Arose

Editors used to put their own morals in the stories.
Intellectual culture Scientific method Power of new way of gathering info Compared journalistic profession to scientific profession A relatively new concept in journs history Journalism affected by prevailing societal climate
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Stability
US: 19 C was a period of political stability Political stability is a period when there is little debate on fundamental issues people can take fundamentals for granted Objective journalism ties more tightly in more civil societies SG: Chinese papers in early Singapore was anything but objective. But as society progressed (more stable), the news became more objective SG: Large newspapers tend to be fact-based, objective. Alternative websites tend to be more opinionated cos they dont have to keep 1.5mil readers, just their members happy. True of significant proportion of people are ant-PAP, but not all are anti-PAP. Politically, more people are pro-PAP. But a growing minority is antiPAP. Large papers like ST have to stick to the facts.
th
Economic
In revolutionary society (instability), object journalism is useless. Journalists need to take sides (not just state facts Diversity: Cater to large urban markets Write stories that have least chance of offending anyone Suppress my own biases, stick to facts Fact-driven reporting style
Easier to take a stand if Im in charge of a small newspaper in a small town. But in a big city with a big newspaper, I have to write safe stories so as not to offend anyone.
Technology
Volume of information explosion. Newspapers had to handle it: After telegraph: too much news, cannot fit in a newspaper Had to make judgment on what news to put Too much info already, so "maybe my own views shouldnt be in" Fact based stories squeezed opinionated news out of papers Lack of reliability of telegraphs, so editors decided: even if only 10 words come thru, they have to tell the story. 100 words 100 words tell the story birthed the Inverted Pyramid o Most Important facts put first o Opinions secondary Not a philosophical aim, but a routine In newsroom with 100 reporters with different views can cause problems. "Lets just have the facts" Easier to check if right or wrong.
Organizational Need
Legal Defense
Defamation Law If I write something defamatory (reduces rep of person), my best defense is my ability to prove it. Opinions don't stand up in court. Comments need to be based on fact
Conclusion: objectivity is not airy-fairy, but PRACTICAL!!!
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6.7 How Objectivity is Practised

Separation of news and opinion Emphasis on facts and accuracy Inclusion of multiple perspectives o Assumption: for any story, there is always different POVs Checks against conflict of interests o Ensure themselves are not in conflict of interest o e.g. financial writers cannot write for their own financial / investment interests banning staff from owning share
6.8 Bright & Dark Side

Bright A check against the abuse of media power: objectivity encourages selfrestraint A practical response to plurality of perspectives Dark Most journalists fail to be objective A superficial critique (obvious, not need to say this) Fundamental Critique: Objectivity fails as a standard a fundamental critique: Even when they succeed by they own standards, something seriously wrong happens. Ritual of objectivity compromises truth-seeking. Happens due to Operationalisation
6.9 How Objectivity compromises Truth-seeking

How Objectivity is operationalized Under time and resources constraints Stories built on best available facts Journalists values suppressed Which results in 2 problems: 1. False Balance trap Trying to look objective Finds two sides of the story, even when one side is right, and the other is wrong. Giving one side far more attention than should be unethical Take all sides, but NOT make a False Balance Only one side has expertise, power, credentials while the other side doesn't?
No infinite resources. No time to find things out myself, so have to find someone who will tell me Operationalisation of Objectivity Dependence on sources
Lack of diverse sources
Objectivity works best with eloquent, credible sources But diverse sources
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result in vary credibility, power, credentials among sources Objectivity tells journalists to distrust views of the anonymous, in favor for elites well-known, authority figures Objectivity need an authorized voice Elite Consensus If elite has high consensus, objectivity doesnt work Journalist will interview elites since they are authorized They may be wrong, but journalists have no basis to declare them wrong
Irony: Even if journalists are to collect multiple POVs, how are they to decide which POVs to consider?
E.g. Occupy protests in America When big unions (elite) backed protesters up media started to focus on them. Social movements tend to be under covered compared to mainstream movements
6.10 Objectivity: The Limits (US & WMD)

Observation Bush admin claims US must intervene militarily because: Saddam has WMD Saddam is helping Al Qaeda After 9/11, Saddam is ally Supposed facts push out by US admin Overall, the admin lied. Worlds longest-lasting and strongest demo goes to war after govt deceives citizens, aided by uncritical media RESULT: 3,000 American soldiers dead, thousands more Iraqi dead most spectacular failure of journ Reason In a run up to war: Elites (establishment, institutions, including opposition) rally behind the president and the flag Pluralism gives way to dominant voice o Even among democrats, had to show they were loyal Americans (didn't want to be seen as unnationalistic) o Plurality disappears, become effectively 1 dominant voice
Caveat
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Objective journalisms reliance on elite sources breaks down as a method of truth-seeking. OJ works well in normal times, because all Govt agencies and opposition parties have differing opinions / shades of opinions. But in war times, it breaks down, because everyone has the same voice. Even if non-American sources denied existence of WMD, American presses were nationalistic and played down the non-existence of WMD. One year later, NYT admitted failure.
We have found a number of instances of coverage that was not as rigorous as it should have been.. They depended at least in part on info from a circle of Iraqi informants defectors and exiles bent on regime change in Iraq the accounts of these exiles were often eagerly confirmed by united states officials convinced of the need to intervene in Iraq. - NYT, May 26 2004
Its not that US media was a propaganda instrument of the US govt. NO! Generally, it was a failure of objective reporting by the editors.
6.11 Rethinking Objectivity

OK Focus on others' diverse perspectives Basing stories on independently verifiable facts Relying uncritically on elite sources Rejecting responsibility by sitting on the fence Bias for truth seeking and questioning power Given the power of news media reassures us good thing that we want people to retain
OK OUT OUT IN
Unwilling to take sides Questioning authority that control info Hard to do need a lot of resources
Due Weight: Impartiality =/= equal proportion of coverage. Neutrality =/= undue weight to any opinion Duty as a journalist to find out who is right and who is wrong.
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6.12 What does this means for Singapore?

Open information law: any citizen can go to Govt and request information. Opposite to secrecy law. Objectivity as a means of truth-seeking works best when:Journalists have time and resources to do their own investigation + Info law SG: SPH is richer, might be better SG: Dont have freedom of info law not so well in SG See below. Investigations are backed by 'freedom of information' laws Elite sources are diverse, competitive, vocal
Elite Sources Strong opposition parties o Shadow cabinet with exministers hold weight Factions within government o Competition voices that leaks stuff to reporters Factions within ruling party Check and balance by other state institutions: presidents, judiciary Trade unions, universities, think tanks, civil society Organization, student organizations
For SG: Unlike other UK and US, SGs opposition is weak SG has very watertight Govt no ministers complaining against Govt PAP speaks with one voice Elite extremely tight, homogenous, disciplined A little bit of this happening, but far from other countries Tend to be good sources for alt POVs Still nowhere close to other countries
A decent critique of objectivity: even if Singapore journalists have hearts in their right place, the press can still FAIL to arrive at the TRUTH Systemic failure of OJ (as seen in US example) In SG, establishment speaks with a dominant voice Objectivity backfires Remedy: Less objective journalism, alternative media, willingness to take sides.
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6.13 The Press System in Relation to Singapore

Lack of alternative voice in Singapore. Press system is part of a wider system of PAP dominance
OJ depends on sources Lack of independent sources constrains independent journalism Other countries: hard hitting stories are entirely reliant on tip-offs / leaks / POVs within Govt / institutions / think-tank / opposition on shadow policies
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07 Race, Language & Religion (RLR)

A local aspect of OJ, more Singaporean. Sensitivity is part of our ideology
Not that it is untrue Yet it is but only 1 of the many possible ways to define our society A choice to identify myself as part of race, language, religion Yet In SG, we are encouraged to see ourselves as that
7.1 RLR Poses challenges for Media System

Media and inter-ethnic conflict Language as a conduit / medium for foreign culture / value Communal loyalty vs, nation-building Linguistically fragmented news media Market Maria Hertogh riots, 1950 Muslim papers picked the court case as a religious issues (saw them as Islam vs. Catholics) Every language seen as potentially threatening. Chinese language communism English liberal western value Crackdown on Nanyang Siang Pau State intervention to ensure eco viability Hard for media in Malay, Tamil and Chinese to survive Issue: why ch8 has a higher viewership, yet Chinese papers meet a decline? SG Chinese people prefer to listen in Chinese, but think in English Merger and formation of SPH: intervention by LKY, who saw that Chinese papers are becoming less viable. So that profitable ST will help less economically viable newspapers like Chinese press to SURVIVE.
7.2 Issues for Journalistic Practice

How to report on ethnical groups without having stereotypes.
Stereotyping, bias for bad news How do media influence inter-ethic relations? IRO - more reflective of SG cult But we hear more of JI than IRO Could because media like things that break down that things that function Social constructions How real and relevant are racial/ religious categories? Social constructs, because they are fuzzy constructs, not like color of hair, etc Only recently they have hyphenated racial categories (all the while have been mixed racial categories) Given life by media they use these categories
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7.3 Impact on Ideology and Media Policy

Consensus: limits on free speech
Used as a tool to justify censorship in other areas? Right for the state to intervene should people speak irresponsibility Strong consensus in SG: free speech in good, but not in this area of race o Most racial-related arrests are reported by citizens, not Govt o Political: restraint
Yet Govt intervention is not racially related, but is political.

Whenever people argue for a freer press, Govt will use the excuse of RLR to back itself up for not wanting a freer press. Excuse does not match the facts
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08 The Business of Journalism

Reading Notes:
Global newspaper readership on decline due to internet and global financial crisis Developing Asian countries bucking the trend Developed countries in Asia still reflect global decline In future, traditional media will become more analytical and commentary People willing to pay a premium for it Free, reporter-direct content will be online Newspapers need readers for viability Increase price of papers to sustain oneself Online papers need to find their edge to becoming paid-only Web content 3.0 will be curated
8.1 Business of Journalism

Much of journalism is shaped by routines (of operation, of objectivity).
Normative Principle This course aims to look at the impact of business due to the social role of journalism. Empirical Normative (Positive or Negative)? Empirical Reality Most journalism is commercially organized: done in profit-oriented firms
'Journalism is a business however unpleasant this may sound to idealist readers will demand quality info. If you cannot provide it they will find it lease where. Profitable newspapers are better positioned than unprofitable ones to improve the scope of service. - SPH ex Chief Dominant Marketplace View Profit seeking more resources quality products Profit seeking responsive to market responsible to public Political economy / Critical View\ Market and Public NOT the same Commercial standards not democratic standards
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8.2 Micro Level (Individual Companies)

Looking at NORMATIVE principles, not profit. o Editorial integrity Impact of commercial priorities on editorial integrity o Sticking to professional principles o Even when under pressure from powerful forces (political or business) Commercial newspapers. How business factors influence journalism within a newspaper company
Can editorial decisions be insulated from these forces?
What makes the individual business tick?

Costs 1. Fixed costs: Whether I produce 1 or 100 newspaper, I will need to play these costs. No change, even if the quantity changes. o o Manpower = fixed costs Office space = fixed costs Revenue Circulation (no. sold x cvr price) = circulation revenue Advertising Licensing or syndication o E.g. Yahoo vs SPH dispute Big newspapers can benefit from licensing Printing services o SPH owns big printing press o Can earn revenue from competing newspapers (e.g. Herald Tribune prints in SPH factory) Creative services o Mediacorp: produces TV commercial Events o Jobs Factory: does job fairs as well
2. Variable costs increases per output. o o Printing = variable costs Distribution = variable costs
Newspaper Companies have:High Fixed Costs + Low Variable Costs = Economies Of Scale o Average cost (unit cost) goes down rapidly as more quantity is produced Small startups difficult to compete against a large newspaper like ST Cannot just start small and build up to fight ST (in terms of resources like 300 journalists)
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8.3 Newspapers: A Dual Product

1. Newspaper sell content to readers 2. Newspaper sell readers to advertisers big part of the newspaper business Critics aim at this.
8.4 Advertiser Influence

In day-to-day operations, stories are selected or slanted to please (or avoid displeasing) major advertisers. Two ways to avoid this:Zero Advertising Influence CU: published by consumers union, a non-profit organization. "to maintain our independence our independence and impartiality, CU accepts no outside advertising, no free test samples. Strong Advertiser Influence Let revenue come from advertisers instead of readers newspapers are now free Free dailies, free weeklies (free) all revenue is from ads Arrangements of Advertisement Payments for Quotes of Advertiser in a disguised news story We will only buy your advertising space, if we are mentioned as a quote in your stories. TODAY: all revenue from advertisements Issue: if 100% revenue is from ads, will the news be skewed?
Aliran: a Malaysian human rights group. Yet, extremely rare no revenue guaranteed to remain poor
8.4 Advertising & Circulation

SPH: the values of the company are critical to managing these conflicts (of being nice to advertisers and nice to readers). The most valuable is the principle of editorial integrity. - Cheong Yip Seng
In day-to-day operations: ensuring individual stories are not influenced by advertiser pressure how to they protect their editorial integrity?
Firewall Invisible divide between editorial and marketing departments No communication between the 2 department Professional solidarity Professional solidarity among journalists Publishers (owners) who protect editors Business reputation is ultimately based on serving readers, not advertising Not merely idealistic
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Under threat due to commercial pressure o ST: in Sports, in Life section increasing corporate influence S-League coverage brought to you by ___ Careful selection of sponsors will choose sponsors that appear neutral (e.g. Starhub, Beer companies)
8.5 Protecting Editorial Integrity

In allocation of resources
Ensuring that space and time are deployed according to the publics needs, not advertisers preferences But commercial media tend to prize segments of the public that are attractive to advertisers Serving the market is NOT serving the public! o Today: decision of TODAY to appeal to rich, educated readership so they can appeal to advertisers nd o Tabla: appeal to no.1 target of HNW Indian expats. Indian Singaporeans 2 priority o Readership is skewed towards demographics what appeals to advertisers (rich, educated), even though there are other normal people who need news Allocate resources disproportionately to readers (ST Urban, BT Watches supplement)
Not a democratic, but an advertorial decision!
8.6 Advertiser Influence

Faith in the market
SPH: Journalism is a business readers will demand quality info if you cannot provide it they will find it elsewhere. Profitable newspapers are better positioned than unprofitable ones to improve the scope of service (to whom? advertisers or readers??). - Cheong Yip Seng 1. Society is used to paying a low / reduced amount (because advertisers foot the bill) a. Good side: no need to pay for what readers read 2. But Advertisers wont subsidies all needs of all readers 3. Newspaper can be profitable by improving their service to advertisers instead of readers a. Dont need to work v hard to get what readers want b. But just need to work on what advertisers want
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8.7 Macro Level (The Newspaper Industry)

Tendency towards concentration How much of the market is controlled by the biggest firms Top companies sales as a percentage of total sales WHY? Reasons Singapores licensing system Economies of scale 'Circulation Spiral
8.8 Circulation Spiral (specific to Newspaper Industry)

EOS affects all industries, but Circulation Spiral specific to Newspaper Industry. Comparing 2 similar newspapers in the same market (with same unit price).
Newspaper w/o advertising Newspapers proportionally higher circulation revenue Newspaper with Advertising Biggest newspapers Disproportionally higher circulation revenue Like giving steroids to the winner in the lead
1. Firms will choose larger newspapers (with larger readership) to stretch their advertising dollar. 2. Extra circulation revenue earned goes to further boost their bottom line (e.g. buying better machines / systems). 3. Even harder for competition to happen.
Winner takes all effect
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09 Alternative Online Journalism 9.1 Commercial Newspaper Industry

Newspaper industries have:1. 'Dual business results in a bias for market segment that are desirable to advertisers 2. Tendency towards concentration, due to circulation spiral and economies of scale: domination by a few big players (political and economic barrier) Even in other countries that newspapers dont need permission, there is still an economic barrier Result lack of media diversity Yet, human society is more diverse than what is reflected in mainstream media not reflective (due to structural / business reasons)
9.2 Adding to Media Diversity: The State

Get the state to inject diversity to the media system. State =/= Government States should not be part of the government, not answerable to the Govt.
State intervention to compensate for lack of diversity State support for journalism; without Government control o Judiciary are state institution, should not be part of the Government o Provides a check and balance BBC Model Public service broadcasters: charter system Government provides long-term funding (10 years) to achieve broad negotiations (include current affairs, children shows, news, etc) Funded by TV license (public money) No obligation to side with Govt Contract of charter written in nonpartisan terms No Govt interaction with day-to-day running of media Norway Model Subsidy for daily, paid newspaper regardless of political orientation All smaller newspaper subsidized Making sure no political interference: daily newspaper is general interest newspaper Rule #1: If newspaper is a daily, it is assumed to be a general interest newspaper (tend to be news pub.) Rule #2: If people want to buy, then Govt will subsidize Regardless of political affiliation
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9.3 Adding to Media Diversity: Technology

Digital technology expanded the space for niche (opposite of traditional) media, due to the long tail effect.
Y: Millions sold X: No. of products that are out there Popularity Head: Focus used to be on hits products: few products, each very popular. Niche Tail: Not big hits, but still in demand Compounded by physical limitation of shelve space in shops e.g. bookstores only carry books that will sell / CD shops only sell popular music, not every single song.
Amazon realized that: while bookstores can only display 10,000 books, but they are able to display millions first long tail business Long tail business can be even more lucrative that head business Vast range of items A phenomenon driven by new age technology
9.4 Alternative Journalism

Long tail Market / Tech. Perspective Alternative media sociological perspective Complementary Perspective
Different ways of looking at things, not competing theories
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9.5 Alternative vs. Mainstream

Defined in relationship to political, economic and cultural power, NOT technology, in any society.
Mainstream media Centre of to political, economic and cultural power "Establishment", "dominant institutions / forces Status Quo Alternative media Margin of to political, economic and cultural power Marginalized groups, sub-culture, social movement Social movement: loose network of group pushing for change in some way SG: Broad middle group Not tolerant of sub-culture
Margins can become centers thru time.
9.6 Alternative Media

Alternative =/= Online Media
Not a technological definition Not necessarily must be online (non traditional) in delivery But how it relates to POWER in our society Not about variety, but about diversity Only have a few choices to choose from About the diversity of views in the landscape E.g. TODAY newspaper is a variety, not diversity Not a alt. media.
1 online media: e.g. Yahoo a traditional business (listed company) nd 2 : Mediacorp rd 3 : ST
st
Online media is NOT necessarily alternative No fixed definition; it is relational Sub cultures in one decade but become mainstream in future.
e.g. Rolling Stones: part of protest counter culture, was one an alternative culture. Difficult to define, but can identify it.
Usually media is small, independent, challenging (wanting to change) or resist (not wanting to be changed) the status quo
Resisting: Insulating my culture from the outside world; Leave me alone, I just want to continue the way I am.
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9.6 Alternative Media = Alternative Functions

Party / Movement Opposition media (e.g. The Hammer) o Also printed as well as online (Shows that alternative media is NOT online media!!!) o Only in countries which parties represented are on the political margins (e.g. WP in SG, NOT republicans in US) Environmental media o Civil society groups o Cause driven E.g. religious, sexual minorities, oppressed classes Fringe groups E.g. rural communities Malaysiakini: professional running of the news agency o Ex-professionals in mainstream media disillusioned by its political and economical influences o They would rather print newspaper, but cannot o Driven by editorial integrity o Daily updates, 4 languages, TV
Sub-cultural media Grassroots / community media Professional media
9.7 Alternative Media

Can alternative missions be pursued thru mainstream methods? Commercial reality: Realities cause compromises
E.g. MyPaper: English sides have 2x ads as Chinese section English speaking population is the richer group more attractive to advertisers
Alternative function needs to be matched by alternative form
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9.8 Alternative Media = Alternative Form

Traditional Medias Barriers to Entry Capital Response be everything mainstream is not Low capital (e.g. TOC) o Cheap formats o Volunteer labor Amateurism o Celebrate amateurism o Low production values o Rejection of objectivity Flat structures o Zero structure E.g. Yawning Bread approach o Collective leadership: e.g. TOC Unlicensed o Internet media
Skills
Hierarchies
Legal: permits
Categorization based on mission can it achieve its mission by imitating mainstream media?
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10 Alternative Media and Political Change 10.1 Legal Framework

Internet is the only medium with no permit system no Govt permission required to publish content online ISPs must block sites as instructed by MDA.
Situation
In SG:
Only 98 porn sites blocked, 2 extremist religious sites symbolic stand against objectionable content No political site ever blocked SG is quite free in terms of online freedom However, required certain political / religious sites to register. Govts reason: to promote accountability
Caveat Reason
Unlike the rest of the world, SG does not block any political sites Understanding the technology will be counter productive (draw more attention to it)
Registration
Offline laws
Political Donations Act
TR TR is based overseas Govt does not know who is in charged of TR. Yet, offline laws apply online: defamation, sedition etc. Dont have to ask for permission, but all offline laws STILL apply! Yet, hasn't been used much Strongest action taken against racist speech, not political dissent Prevents a Malaysiakini-type site Backdoor use of law To prevent political competition between parties from being too influenced by money, by: Controlling money flows into political parties PLUS any group designated as a political association used against TOC o But TOC did not ambition to be professional like Malaysiakini o Succeeded in keeping TOC small and amateur o Also backfired: Publicly declared that TOC was a threat made TOC very public increased donation and volunteers o Now people know TOC is the main leader to volunteer in, for the online sphere
Giving details about owners and info about websites But registration was no big deal. Only applies to local sites Not a form of censorship
Sintercom: didn't want to register closed down.
Overall, SGs online freedom of expression:

More restricted than in liberal democracies But much greater than other spheres in SG (e.g. offline sphere) Singaporeans freedom of expression online is much greater online than offline
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10.2 Impact on Politics

Technological Determinism view Internet as a revolutionary technology A very direct cause-and-effect view of tech Will cause authoritarian regimes to fall Conventional wisdom Internet amplifies / multiplies effects of other forms in society an interaction between internet and society
Failed theory
Multiplying effect: But if theres no political activity to start with nothing to multiply Democratizing effect only when society is vocal, active [see Shirky reading]
10.3 Impact on Politics in Singapore

Greatly democratized space for individual selfexpressions Demonstration effect? Bolder, less fearful public? E.g. protest of Arab Spring, Occupy Movement String of events: internet makes political acts contagion But isolated individuals cannot produce change Weak opposition and civil society groups Multiplier effect of internet cannot be of use Traditional controls on offline politics [See Rodan reading] Catherine Lim Case Wrote articles commenting on political culture Warned by Govt Articles no longer published by ST But internet allowed her articles to be publicized anyway General Elections 2011 Main reason for weak PAP vote is economic (3 recessions in 10 years) PAP screwed up immigration, transport, housing PAP would still have done badly without Social media, though social media did embolden the electorate
Less impactful in promoting organized dissent
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10.4 Online Humor Good or Bad?

Political humor: Likes of Mr Brown provide cathartic effect against agenda for change but after that, what? things go back to normal after the release nothing happens after a release of emotions Is online humor a coping mechanism for society that has no power?
Which is why political bloggers hate Mr. Brown Makes safe humor and never goes in for the kill
10.5 Impact on Journalism

Political Center
Alternative Media Cheap capital, Embracing amateurism, Flat structure, Unlicensed
Alterative in 2 ways
Alternative missions, achieved thru Alternative methods / forms
Capital, Skills, Hierarchical, Legal: (permits)
Internet so important for alternative media, since Internet does not need a license.
10.6 Different Strategies

Not about license, but degree of openness about ourselves on the Internet.
Legally Known? Advantages Disadvantages Open and within law e.g. TOC But can build alliances trust More vulnerable, careful Underground e.g. TR Less vulnerable. Bolder But no partners (no real world connections) Independent e.g. Yawning bread Answerable to nobody
Independence?
Backed by formal groups e.g. fridae, catholicnews Have more resources, can hire full time resources (people apply to for a job) But limited internal democracy
Advantages
Disadvantages
Less resources
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10.7 Objectivity, Fairness & Balance

Professional standards of objectivity can hinder truth seeking. Role of alternative journalism is not to be balanced, but to balance the overall skewed media landscape towards PAP.
10.8 Alt. Media: to Lead or Follow Public Opinion?

Situation Editorial strategy: mirror/echo or lead the public, even in ways they think they are right. TOC, YB: some of them feel strongly against being guided by public opinion they try to lead public opinion. Easier to just opposing PAP
Caveat Reason
Difficult since their readership goes down
Also want to change the people (e.g. getting people to be concerned about migrant workers, against capital punishment) Post-moderation vs Pre-moderation: YB has little comments, because Alex Au moderates them before they are published
10.9 Impact of Alternative Online Journalism

Situation Caveat Reason Alternative Online Journalism has added to media diversity. Unsolved: how to pay for regular, in-depth coverage Full time prof journalism for alt media SGs alt media has no clue, no plans currently NO perfect formula each strategy (legal or not; independent or not) has its own trade offs Competitive but also complementary roles o Not about who will win: no way the alternative media can substitute commercial media hence they will play a complementary role
10.10 Networked Journalism

Offers new ways to participate thru: Amateur and non-market production Niche and special-internet groups; and Ascendance of the aesthetics of parody, remix and appropriation
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11 Ethics and Accountability in Journalism 11.1 Media Accountability

Media Accountability: Ensuring that media work for the pub interest and respond to criticism Larger organizations include alt media (unlike personal blogs) Peace of mind that when they go off track, something to do about it 3 ways to improve Media Accountability:Libertarian response The Market Decides. All other methods violate press freedom Society stays out of this, individual has the final say Just ensure enough media around competitive enough No need extra special effort by society to ensure media accountability. The truth will live; let the market decide. Problem: Yet, business models for news does not result in accurate reporting (due to stakeholders / elites / newsmakers etc) Problem: Govt will abuse power for their own political purposes rather than the public. People fear Govt control more than they fear media control of agenda Authoritarian response The law. The market cannot be trusted. We need strong Govt working thru the law. Social Responsibility response We cannot trust the free market as well as the govt (worse than market) We need to build media accountability systems Use moral influence instead of legal force (moral suasion)
Supplement to laws, cannot replace laws plays complementary role
Problem: Voluntary; enhance responsibility w/o restricting freedom can it be complete?
MAS Are people going to follow this? Analogy: Our lives are governed by social norms (not to stick out the wrong way. To be noticed for the good things, not the bad) But we do need the assurance (hence the MAS) Can be internal (operated by media themselves) or external or both.
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11.2 Types of MAS

Letters to the editor Most common, usually work Limitation: Need to catch them out on specific incidents (not talk about overarching news coverage), otherwise will not publish Media critics within media who criticize other news, including their own Online media used to criticize performance of mainstream media the more they show mainstream media cannot be trusted attract more readership to self Civil society groups o E.g. Aliran (Malaysia) Set out professionals ethical rules Often internal documents, not well publicized Publishing them improves accountability Codes can be industry wide; o Committee of concerned Journalists o UK editors code Or company-level more detailed, easier to enforce o BBC o Reuters Defend against harm from reporting process Principles that tell media to remain independent and preserve reputation as unbiased and so on Ombudsman cannot be fired o Fixed non-renewable 2 year term period o Cannot fire the ombudsman. Cannot rehire him after term Has an independent mind Has a guaranteed fixed column in newspaper to criticize the newspaper, which cannot be edited by editors complete freedom to say One of the most powerful way to make news stay on track PC tend to operate at regional / national level o (e.g. California PC, US PC, etc) Made up of trusted journalists, civil society reps, members of public - not Got official Investigate complaints, announce findings, uses moral suasion, threat of adverse publicity No legal obligation for newspaper to respond, but due to moral suasion newspaper will take seriously, otherwise bad publicity Usually lacked resources to be proactive in research Usually ignored by the least responsible media Faster, cheaper resolution than using defamation suits In SG? Yes
Media watchdog / monitor
No e.g. in SG
Publicized code of ethics
No
Reader representative or ombudsman / Readers Editor
No
Independent press councils
No
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11.3 MAS in Singapore

Media accountability in SG done via government controls instead of independent self-regulatory systems. After 1971, the idea of SG press council was discussed, but Govt didn't want. Chose the legal route instead of the social responsibility
11.4 Singapore Model: Justification

PAP Philosophy:
The people have given Govt the mandate to govern Democratic critique Democratic mandate: mandate / legitimacy Free and fair elections must be based on free and fair media Cannot say SG election is free and fair Press freedom must be subordinate to the supremacy of elected Govt (LKY quote) Demo critique: even an elected govt should not have unlimited power. Govt power should be limited by checks and balances (like those provided by media) Size, History and Culture after investigation not true! o Size (Pop): Middle in ranking o History: Singapore hasnt had the most violent civil unrest history record o Culture: Taiwan, China more Confucian than Singapore, but their media is more democratic! Vulnerability: ideological construct rather than fact Cultural explanations are problematic Argument based on instrumental value that freedom is overrated Another argument: freedom has intrinsic value, not just instrumental value Economical growth, social stability do not require such control Economic growth, social stability may even improve with more freedom
To govern well, Govt cannot allow press to obstruct its work (LKY quote)
Pluralistic politics, not appropriate for SG due to its small size, unstable history and Asian culture
Results show that the PAP approach is right for Singapores economic growth and social stability
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12 Evolution of Advertising
Advertising: communication by means of paid-for insertions in the media. Advertising Agencies (AA): companies that act as a third party, facilitating a connection between clients who wish to buy advertising and the media who wish to sell the space (or time) to accommodate it. AA charge a commission from the media & a fee from the client.
12.1 Brief History of Advertising

1441 1440s 1600s 1655 1740 to 1821 17601830 Johannes Gutenberg invents movable type printed handbills newspapers emerge with the invention of the printing press First use of the term advertising UK Population doubled The Industrial Revolution Origins of Mass Communication 1790s to 1880s 19C Last Quarter The inventions of lithography The invention of photography The line-block half-tone block Creation of pictorial poster Social and economic changes Needs and means for the masses Transportation Infrastructure Production Population movement Growth of townships Rise of middle class
Four significant developments Four inventions in the field of communications made the expansion of advertising techniques possible.
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12.2 Advent of Advertising Agencies

Follow fixed procedures till today: Fixed commission of 12.5% 15% (as of today) as commission Practised till today Media is seller, Client is buyer. For e.g. Newspaper sells ad space for $100, AA buys the space and submits the ad for a client. The AA earns $15 (15% of Ad space payment) as commission. Hence the client has to pay the AA $115 for the service. Product Ads Branded Ads: At first, ads have little branding, since products are very different from each other. But more and more similar products emerged, and competition made ads into branding ads. No advertising standards. Exaggerations, claims were common.
12.3 Media Milestones (Cinema Radio TV)

Advertising appeared in cinemas (1899), radios (1920) and finally TV (1950).
1930s 1950s 1960s Radio overtakes magazines as medium Rise of TV. Rosser Reaves (Bates) develops USP Leo Burnett brings out inherent drama. David Ogilvy develops image advertising Bill Bernbach uses art of persuasion. Age of creativity Age of computerization. Positioning Age of integration and globalization Age of New Media and interactivity
1970s 1980s 1990s 2000+
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13 Multiculturalism in Advertising
Social role, language and values of advertising affects & reflects its culture: Echoes and forms the attitudes behind the behavior
13.1 Components of Culture

Values & Beliefs Obeying a certain value or belief system promoting / restraining cultural behaviour A Slice of Life - things present in society now that can represent us o Gender roles o Use of celebrities o Depiction of lifestyle Use of language o Symbolic exchange o Social setting o Informational vs Emotional Executional differences Individualistic or Collectivist Materalistic values Regard for elder / women Taboo subjects
Material Artifacts
Communication & Language
e.g. US less likely to portray women as employed compared to men e.g. Chinese ads have less adult voiceovers
e.g. Japanese ads rely more on atmosphere and imagery
Links to globalization
13.2 Globalisation and Advertising

Globalisation is: Faster communication World travel Ease and speed of financial transactions Technological advancements Knowledge and resource sharing
Why do Advertising globalize?

Push factors: why cannot stay at home Home markets saturation Slow population growth Intense local & global competition Pure survival for companies/countries Pull factors: why its good to be global Opening of markets due to economic, social and political changes Transitions of economies Burgeoning population growth Growing aspirations
China and India is up and coming. 1/3 of world population. China is 3rd biggest market after US and Japan.
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14 Ethics & Social Responsibility in Advertising 14.1 Different Views of Advertising

Ideological View Is capitalism. (Marx) Moralists View Corrupt, unethical and oppressive, controlled by evil corporation. Breeds selfishness and exploitation of humans Cynical View Does not contribute to humanity. Tool to make money only. Insiders View nd 2 to Sex. 90% hard work, 90% frustration.
14.2 Advertising as the Accused

Accussed of Deception Offending Insensitivity Exploiting Falsehood on the Grounds of Over-persuasiveness Misleading: the said and the unsaid The influence of Unidentified Source Pushing the limits of decency Character profile Highly pervasive Highly visible Highly intrusive Highly persuasive Highly excessive Highly influential Highly manipulative
14.3 Three Ethical Perspectives

Micro Perspectives Effects affecting the individual Autonomy of indv Decision-making compromised? Being misled? Certain groups more vulnerable? Consumers rights protected? Macro Perspectives Social effects due to collective impact Encouraging excessive materialism Reinforcing stereotypes Create false values Meso Perspectives Effects on orgs and cultures Ethical leadership Industry norms Definition of professionalism Collective responsibility
14.4 Defense
You always have a choice Advertising merely reflects Advertisers dont call the shots Paid to do
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14.5 Benefits of Advertising

Democracy: Advertising allows information exchange decision making. Economic: Creates demand for goods employment competition Consumer-benefit: Sport, music and entertainment industries become cheaper.
Guidelines Ethics
Adhere or circumvent? Moral principles and values that govern our decisions and actions as individuals and as a community.
Legal =/= Ethnical
Legal but unethical: will not be caught red-handed by law. E.g. to use hopeless in ad for Social workers not against the law or defamatory, but it seems to put down the mentally challenged E.g. Condom advertisments how explicit? Singapore regulations What ASAS does: ASAS: the Advertising Provides advice and Standards Authority of Singapore guidance MDA: The Media Development Handles complaints Authority of Singapore about advertising practices. SCAP: Singapore Code of Advertising Practice
Regulations
14.6 Regulatory Attitudes in Singapore

Matchmaking ads commoditizing brides are forbidden. The minimum font size for disclaimers revised to 8-point. Prices for air-fares must be advertised inclusive of surcharges.
Condom Must be in good taste Not promote promiscuity No erotism Editorial-style Ads Anyone looking at the advertisement must be able to recognize that it is not an editorial matter using ADVERTSEMENT word to place on top Alcohols Advertisements should never encourage over-indulgence and excessive consumption.
Need to regulate: Self-regulate? Personal, industrial or societal self-regulation? A question of balance, subjectivity and recognizing shifting values.
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15 Public Relations I: About PR

Public Relations: a communication effort towards the public, meant to create and maintain goodwill for a client or organization. Stakeholders include customers, investors, business partners, students and patrons etc. Manages peoples perceptions influence sequence of behaviours reaches organisations objective
15.1 Why PR is important today?

1. Need to appeal to stakeholders Increasing influence of stakeholders. New Public Service model of governance 2. Increased need to appear accountable and transparent, both in public and private sectors 3. Need to manage information flow due to increased media freedom and New Media proliferation 4. Basic pre-requisite of all effective public and private figures 5. Effectiveness of communication critical to policy implementation and success 6. To manage crises
15.2 Process of PR activity

Pre-writing Writing Post-writing
Pre-writing Planning & Research What / Who / How best to communicate Budgeting process Language and tone Region targeted Writing Use of tools, vehicles, kit, events, Implementation / Dissemination. Through words or actions? Post-writing Media monitoring, post modem, feedback Program evaluation, reach and target audience hit rate Influenced opinion? Buying decisions? Voting decisions? Media Relations, Annual Reports, News Releases
Messaging Strategy Persuasive Strategies
PR Writing
The PR title is also known as: Corporate Communications, Public Affairs, Corporate Affairs, Investor Relations etc.
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15.3 Organizational Chart of a PR department

Head or Corporate Communications (Dy Head) Supervisor Supervisor Branding/Editorial Events Mgmt / CSR Writing / Archives Facilitate Media Editorial req of the Coy Events: responses company (Annual Marathons, Ministers Pitch media ideas Reports etc) visit, Dinners Does Press Releases Corporate branding Corp Res. (CSR): Customer Complaints Media agency mgmt. sponsoring food and Advert collaterals community events, charity drives Supervisor Media Mgmt Supervisor Investors Relations Shareholders monitoring and analysis Shareholders Comm. (Results, transactions, appointments, crisis communications
* CSR= Corporate Social Responsibility
15.4 Reasons to Engage the Media

1. Key leaders & executives lack the ability to wisely address the media 2. Need to clear public disquiet: New media platforms (global, real time) increase plurality of opinions and rumours 3. Need to manage bad news / crisis to prevent damage to public image/reputation 4. Inform and persuade new initiatives - new policies, new products, business initiatives, CSR, awards
15.5 In-house vs. External PR

Most companies use both in-house and external PR agencies due to (financial & non-financial) costs and benefits. Advantages:
Why use In-house? Better access to sensitive information Easier to Understand corporate culture and personalities Faster response time and authority Why use External? Multiple industry skills or industry expertise Better understand the business of running PR agencies Project managing, revenue generation, client servicing, working under pressure, timesheet clocking.
Disadvantages:
Why not In-house? Too close to issues and companies cannot get an honest reponse Bosses pref to use outside people Why not External? External PRs attention diluted by other clients. Conflict of interests when PR consultants have similar industry clients
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15.6 Realities & Remedies

In reality: PR is function is not solely the job of the PR department PR crises emerge from non-PR work as well Bosses can create PR crises for themselves and the company
Remedies: Have media policies and guidelines Train executives in media mgmt. Create a pro-business & pro-customer environment
15.7 Singapore PR History, Trends & Evaluation

70s, 80s: PR mainly reactive, Govt agencies have no PR reps, so admin staffs double up Untrained Role mostly confined to responding to media queries Only MNCs and intl players have agencies
Growth: Arrival of financial PR firms Arrival of Investor Relation (IR) advisors Proliferation of corporate governance and transparency requirements Disclosure-based approach
Level of PR in Singapore is still low (not very professional), because it is mainly operational (e.g. producing releases, disseminating, logistic work) rather than strategic (planning, advisory work). Even more so because of internet easy availability of information online ease of info dissemination for everyone (postbox syndrome). PR agencies need to improve beyond being operational need to give advice on strategies
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16 Public Relations II: Internal & Media Management

Public Relations: a communication effort towards the public, meant to create and maintain goodwill for a client or organization.
16.1 Two Commonly Asked Questions

What makes a good PR professional? Good eye for detail, visuals, creative mind, street-smart, EQ > IQ Calm disposition Good understanding of financials ad business acumen; general knowledge Listen, persuade and mediate senior people Is PR needed at all? People think PR is costly, dont understand PR work PR has monetary values is saving massive cap losses; worth the small investment Crisis mgmt. is essential in leadership PR strategy need to follow business strategy
16.2 Issues in managing internal Stakeholders

Origination of Information SOP Senior manager or PR person writes first draft? Place: PR person in which department? (e.g. pdt development or planning) Purpose: Proactive or reactive role Time: Stage of intervention (when does the PR guy start writing?) Role: Who releases the information, the actual uploading and dissemination Need for confidentiality and proper disclosure protocol. Who handles feedback, queries and responses Advisors or Enforcers? Writers licence. Who calls the shot? Lawyering of PR information. Manage social media behavior by employers and senior mgmt
Legal role & degree of Compliance Social media
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16.3 Issues in PR and Communication

Usage of Right / Deceptive language (Logical fallacies) Logically fallacies illogical and deceptive Causation: Does A really cause B? Association: If A does B and B is evil, is A evil? Inference: If billions of a product is sold, does it make it good? Equivocation: misusing word with more than 1 meaning (e.g. Resigned vs Sacked) Amphiboly: stating a part as the whole (part of nutritious diet, but which part?) Emotive (e.g. revolutionary, amazing, miracle) 1. There must be communication 2. Communication published or communicated to third party. Slander (Oral) / Libel (Written) 3. Person must be identified by name or direct inference. (Chris Lingle) 4. Person must prove damage caused 5. Negligence / Malice Not allowed to: Appropriate (commercial usage of someones name or picture without permission) Divulge private facts (e.g. personal health, family, lifestyle) Intrude (e.g. bugging phones, filming, recording without permission) You may use portion of information if: Not out of context Credited to source Usage doesnt affect market of material For scholarly / research purposes Used material doesnt exceed certain percentage of total work Always get permission or be sure none is needed. Client poaching: Stealing the client into my PR agency Clash of interest between similar clients Tipping of extra info like clients rivals shortcomings
Legal issue in writing (defamation)
Client Privacy
Copyrights
Ethical issues
16.4 Media Management

Media management: how the newsroom works and develops contacts Need to understand the newsrooms set up (hierarchy), process and products.
Set up Organizational hierarchy (e.g. Editor in chief, Dy Editor, Executive, Associate, News, Assignment editor) Who does what (night editor, photo editor, online editor etc) Schedule of the newsroom Morning conf Afternoon conf Writing / Editing Copy editing Offstone Pull out stories etc News stories, interviews, follow-ups, reaction stories Advertisements vs Advertorials
Processes
Products
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16.5 Reasons why Companies go the media

Inform and persuade new Manage bad news/crisis Clear public disquiet Background briefing on sensitive matters Introduce new leader and management Show off product/technology To stand out of competitive news reporting
16.6 Examples of News Packaging and Editing

Reactionary (Follow-up) Commentary Pictorial Historical Graphical On announcements, new policies, disasters etc Reactions from stakeholders and people involved Analysis from govt Photos of events and personalities To capture mood, significance, colour Record of milestone of events Explain trends Explanatory effect To help people understand complex things
16.7 Guidelines and PR Advice

For writing to media:How PR should be: Honest, credible, set ground rules early, give reporters what they want What reporters like New, news, newsy Concise and clear Photos, graphics, news writing styles What reporters hate X Harassment of newsroom X Advertising in editorials X Ask to see the story
For interviews: Know topic well Be honest for bad things do not hide the truth consequence of lying is worse Keep calm; look professional Dont assume media is hostile and out to get me
For error correction: Factual error or fair comment? Decide Not everything needs correction some are too minor, others may cause you to be seen as petty not good for long term Take revenge by advertising in rival media? Sue them? Decide
For handling difficult questions / reporters: Do not openly threaten reporters No sarcasm, offensive or vulgar language Cant win everything; let some bad things go out into the press Media has different agenda dont sound despo Build contacts reap dividends
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17 Public Relations III: Writing, Trends and Media 17.1 Key Writing Principles
Wording Short, simple, plain X ambigious terms, double negative words, bombastic jargons it, which must be defined. Who? Passive language sounds suspicious and reeks of irresponsibility
Style
Clear, concise Use active language X split infinitive (e.g. to boldly go) Use precise words Use easier, readable words Consistent Clear paragraphs Introduce subject / organization first State location and time Grammar and Spelling Facts are correct and genuine Coherence of thought Don't assume knowledge
E.g. Disseminate instead of Send Out E.g. Buy instead of Purchase
Accuracy
E.g. Jackson Tai, President of DBS Group today reported a net profit of xxxx E.g. President Arroyo today unveiled a new plan to increase military in an annual Budget Review speech to the legislators in Congress Supply background info to readers
Financial reporting is needed everywhere, especially for senior mgmt. because all firms need to show financial transparency and accountability
17.2 Writing tools and Vehicles for PR

Decide which to use. Depends on content, budget, context etc.
News Releases Backgrounders Public Service Announcement Advertising Editorials most widely used for publicity purposes Biodata, history, key issues, basic information as an aid to product information, technicals reporters broadcast, Not-for-profit organisations audience and timing targeted Newsletters: in house, trade or consumer publications. Collaterals: brochures, flyers as part of package Annual reports: information and performance review, financials, corporate branding and image e.g. Apple media event for the Inform, persuade better than new iPad written at times Facebook, Twitter
Speeches & Media events Online
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17.3 Pros and Cons of Media Landscapes

Newspapers: SPH, Mediacorp Press
Advantages Large geographical reach Immediate Can vary ad size and placement Immediate exposure Disadvantages Expensive short message life
Wires: Bloomberg, Reuters, AFR, AP, Dow Jones

Advantages Global reach Immediate Very credible Disadvantages Less space for article depth Less control Harder to get stories in Likely to be more negative
Magazines: Mediacorp, Panpac

Advantages Better targeting of audience high reader attention longer shelf life Disadvantages Expensive Not immediate, have to wait Inflexible in placement, layout
Radio: Mediacorp, SPH, BBC

Advantages Cheaper than other forms of advertising Can selectively target certain demographics (e.g. young people listen to Yes933) Disadvantages Too many stations spread Easily missed Restricted by time, background medium
TV: Mediacorp, SPH Razor TV, Cable

Advantages Large geographical reach Can selectively target certain demographics (e.g. young people watch to MTV channel) Disadvantages Temporary Expensive limited length of exposure
Internet: Asiaone, ST Interactive, Today Online

Advantages good for targeting and tracking response immediate, easy to track response, global audience, no space constraints updated easily, shared easil Disadvantages May not seem as credible Maintenance is time consuming
Consumer devices: iPhone, iPads

Advantages Like internet, and mobile Disadvantages Only for some countries
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17.4 Issues with New Media vs. MSM

These include credibility, political effects and campaigning.
17.5 Handling Media Crises

Individuals vs Media. (David vs. Goliath)
What is happening? Mostly about disputes, injustices, financial losses, compensation. Public always side with the individual, the old, weak, helpless, oppressed. Cannot sue them (too expensive, bad rep for the company affect long term business). Unlike individuals, companies are bound legally. What to do? Inform all stakeholders speedily. Everyone on same page and not caught out. Give access. Be transparent to media Be seen (dont hide from public or hide facts) No lying Show empathy
17.5 Corporate Social Responsibility

Sustainability Reporting: means reporting on the economic, environmental and social aspects of organisational performance. Info about a companys impact on environment, society and economy. How the company plans to improve on these areas. Increasing trend in Singapore, though not compulsory. Used as marketing tool.
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18 Radio Guest Lecture
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19 Singapore TV 19.1 Evolution of Local TV

1956 1963 Preparations being for TV Viewing centres TV broadcasts official begins Feb: Weekly 1-hour Ch5 Apr: Daily transmissions at 5hrs on Weekends, 10hours on weekends in English & Malay Nov: Ch8 with Eng & Chi programming LKY opens TV Centre Colour TV broadcasts begin Singapore Broadcasting Act to give RTS greater autonomy All under Radio & Television Singapore (RTS)
1966 1974 1979
restricted foreign progs resulted in more production of local drama Recruited drama specialists from Taiwan / Hongkong
1980 1984 1994
RTS became Singapore Broadcasting Corporation SBC TV12 launched for Malay, Tamil and Children programming Corporatisation of SBC into:Aim to strengthen SIM companies agains foreign competition Cable TV project begins SIM Mediacorp TCS Mediacorp TV TV12 Mediacorp TV12 Mediacorp Press Mediacorp Publishing SCV merged with Starhub
1. TCS 2. RCS 3. TV12
1995 1999 2001
2002
40 channels in 1997 to 80 channels in 2012 40% Mediacorp, ST Telecoms 32%, SPH 26%
19.2 Licensing Framework

Broadcasting Act: CEO and half of BOD must be Singapore citizens CEO, director or chairman appointment need MDA approval
Cannot own >12% control of shares without ministers approval. No foreign funding of >49% without ministers approval. Mediacorp is 100% owned by Temasek Holdings.
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19.2 Competition between SPH vs Mediacorp

2000 2001 2002 SPH issued licence for 2 TV stations TVWorks Ch I Ratings war between Ch U and Ch 8 TVWorks & Ch U All under Radio & Television Singapore (RTS)
Channel U Did well because of successful programming & scheduling Had a good programming mix of coproductions Imported programmes
Channel I Unable to clinch popular Hollywood shows unlike Ch 5 Unsuccessful co-prods Had some local successes (e.g. Makansutra)
19.3 Merger
Sept 2004: Merger between SPH & Mediacorp SPH:Gave up Gave up Ch U & I Closed Streats Received Received $10m in new company, Mediacorp TV Holdings 40% share in Mediacorp Press (TODAY0
Reasons for merger:Financial SPH S$40m loss a year, share price hit Today lost S$9.6m and Streats over $5m in 2004 Predatory pricing
Market too small or predatory behavior?
unsustainable MediaCorp lost tens of millions cutting advertising rates Ang Peng Hwa argues that it is a not a structural but a behavorial issue: overheated rivalry excessive undercutting results in loss Market is big enough for 2 media companies
Local dramas from corporate & dotcom recession relief recent shows
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19.4 Obstacles with Local Drama

Limited production budgets Limited talent pool of (underpaid, overworked) Writers & actors Over-emphasis on programme ratings before show has chance to develop Over-emphasis on programme ratings before show has chance to develop Fake or unnatural accents US: US$1m for 30min programming SG: $0.07m for 30min programming
Local actors spoke in unnatural western accents even though they are Chinese and in a Chinese-themed show on Ch 5
Government policy and constraints Foreign competition
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20 TV News

20.1 Channel News Asia case study

Began in Mar 1999 Sept 2000, CNA International Owned by Mediacorp Programming Mix includes: 16 hourly news bulletins a day Current Affairs (self produced or commissioned) Acquired programmes (on Weekends) News complilations
Reporting style is similar to CNN. But is more docile in local issues compared to overseas reporting. E.g. Al-Jazeeras Soaring Prices hit Singapores Poor will never appear in CNAs headlines
20.2 Newsplex - Newsroom Integration

Newsplex: A restructured physical space of a newsroom to pool the newsgathering resources of a company's television, radio, press and interactive media platforms. Convergent newsroom. Different newsrooms have different layouts. No correct or wrong. TV news venture out of traditional TV to online TV (e.g. Razor TV).
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20.3 Meeting the Internet Challenge

Mainstream media (MSM) should continue to provide accurate and balanced coverage. Tuck Yew wanted MSM to expand into the online sphere by presenting information and news in suitable packages for online media. E.g. ST having the ST online. He did not want MSM to be corrupted with new media technology as it will remove credibility of journalism built over the years. New media tech may introduce a lower standard of journalism since it does not require the high standards of fact-checking and balance. Thats what he said. The ex. MICA minister.
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21 Media Law 21.1 Covering the Courts

Media reporting is generally encouraged for public education, deterrence and public interest. But journalists should operate within responsible boundaries:Coverage Be fair and accurant Relate only to prodceedings held in an open court (open to public) Do not use hearsay or opinions Be on the ball, report it ASAP Do not have an ulterior motive Name, age, occupation of accused, details of victim (unless there are restrictions) Description of charge Plea (if any) Courts decision plus any appeal (2 weeks) Previous convictions, if cited by DPP Names of DPP and defence counsel Whether case is continuing, e.g. adjourned
Covering Criminal Cases
Difference between criminal and civil cases

Criminal Cases: against the Law offences committed in breach of laws, fines/jail/sentence, conviction. State prosecutes Does NOT include private prosecutions. Civil Cases: against people private disputes involving individuals or entities, where one party sues the other for damages/injunctive relief e.g. Ali vs Ah Huat, AG vs Anthony de Souza. Michelle John was found liable, or Rajus claim dismissed private prosecutions e.g. PP vs Tan Ah Kow

Supreme Court (Court of Appeal & High Court) Capital cases (e.g. murder, Claims over $250,000 kidnapping, discharging of firearm) Divorce anxillaries where assets Offences with jail terms >10 years worth over $1.5m Admiralty matters Companies winding-up Bankruptcy
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Subordinate Courts (District Court) Criminal Civil max $10,000 fine, 7 years jail (10 up to $250,000 years in special cases), 12 strokes cane)

Subordinate Courts (Magistrates Court) Criminal Civil max $2,000 fine, 2 years jail, 6 up to $60,000 strokes cane)
Have the Subordinate Courts Act and the Criminal Procedure Code.
Small Claims Tribunal Civil: $10k or more Juvenile Court Offender <16yo Family Court Adoptions, divorce, division of inheritance Coroners Court Unnatural deaths Community Court Smaller things involving young / old offenders, mentally disabled offenders, neighborhood disputes etc
21.2 Criminal Case Flow

1. Arrested. Must be produced before a Magistrate within 48hrs. 2. Either side may request adjournment further mentioned date will be fixed. Or else, accuseds plea is taken. 3. Accused pleads guilty judge may pass sentence immediately a. If trial, fix date for hearing b. If bailable, accused can be released to the custody of the bailor
Prosecutors's case"
Submission of No Case to Answer by accused "
Defences case"
Rebuttal evidence (if any) by Prosecution "
Closing submissions "
Verdict"
21.3 Reporting Practices

Mr / Ms (By name) (Cannot name) XYZ is assisting police with investigations Used until proved guilty, or after release Once convicted If arrested but not charged. Except only if police named the suspect in public. Must not have implication that he/she is going to be charged Not proven Risk of defamation otherwise
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21.3 Reporting Restrictions

Obey restrictions ordered by the Court, e.g. in sexual offences, minors. No filming or audio recording inside court building. Artists impressions/sketches allowed. Dramatic re- enactments of trials are ok after they have taken place No interviews with accused, witnesses or any party to proceedings until final determination of the case No identification of children under 16 unless Court / Minister allows it Beware of commenting on matters that are sub judice, i.e. under deliberation before the court
Sub judice: Proper reporting behavior Must be done in good faith and be accurate, impartial, fair and balanced. Do not report in a manner that is unfairly biased against one party Avoid trial by media
Contempt of Court happens when the reporting on matters sub judice: Impair courts impartiality Deter or influence witnesses Deter or inhibit parties in conduct of proceedings Prejudge issues to be determined by court Create a real risk of prejudicing the trial Concempt Only when proceedings are active
In defense, can say that you didnt know and had to reason to suspect proceedings were active Innocent publication Discussion of public affairs: under certain circumstances, a report made in good faith to discuss matters of legit public interest is not treated as contempt, if the risk of prejudice is merely incidental to the discussion
21.4 Contempt of Court

3 classes:Civil contempt Failure to comply with court order, breach of undertaking / promise(s) given to court Verbally abusing a Judge or court officer Reporting in a manner that interferes with due administration of justice Criminal contempt Calculated act to obstruct/interfere with due course of justice or lawful process Scandalizing the court Any calculated act to bring court / judge into public scorn or to lower authority E.g. Calling the court a kangaroo court. SDP SecGen with 2 activitist critizing the court. Were jailed and fined. E.g. Alan Shadrake, given heaviest penalty
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21.4 More Media Laws

Privacy Breach of confidence Trespass Nuisance Causing danger/obstruction in a public way/navigation Newspapers to keep their sources in confidence But may be ordered by High Court to reveal sources Minister may prohibit printing, publication, sale, issue, circulation or possession of any subversive document or publication, without good reason fine $2,000, 3 years jail obscene tends to deprave or corrupt persons
Source Confidentiality
ISA/Sedition Act
Sedition Act act/publication must incite hatred or raise discontent or disaffection against government or against administration of justice fine $3,000, jail 3 years or both objectionable describes sex, horror, crime, cruelty, violence or consumption of drugs or other intoxicating substances to be injurious to public good or causes illwill/hatred between different racial or religious groups
Undesirable Publications Act/ Indecent Ads/Films Act
Defamation
libel and slander
Libel: writing, print or other permanent form, actionable per se Slander: spoken or in gestures
Copyright
Ones right to prevent others from copying his work Protection for original works and entrepreneurial works No protection for ideas or facts
must be in tangible form, i.e. material fixation
21.5 Copyright in Singapore

Can be Literary, dramatic, musical, artistic Author must have expended intellectual skill, effort and labour Not be a slavish copy of another work Creative merit not taken into account Subjective qualified person Singapore citizen or resident
Duration: authors life + 70 years

Sound recordings/cinematograph films 70 years after 1st publication
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TV/sound broadcasts, cable programmes 50 years after year of broadcast or inclusion in cable programme Published editions 25 years after first publication
21.6 Defenses against Copyright

Fair Dealing: a form of copyright defense Fair dealing:Relating to works/for purpose for research or private study For criticism & review For reporting current events Court will balance all the relevant factors Single article or reasonable portion of a literary, dramatic or musical work 10% rule number of pages or bytes Sufficient acknowledgement of work Newspaper, magazine, broadcasting, cable programme, cinematograph film sufficient acknowledgement of work
Case 1: Record TV vs Mediacorp Mediacorp threatened lawsuit to RecordTV for distributing its content using their service. RecordTV launched pre-emptive law suit against Mediacorp for making unjustifiable claims. Mediacorp countersued, won. RecordTV appealed won. ...public interest better off served by encouraging rather than stifling use of RecordTVs novel technology, especially given that MediaCorp has not suffered any loss.
Case 2: SPH vs Yahoo SEA SPH Claim: SPH: YSEA infringed content, free ride, wants them to stop, wants damages paid YSEA Defense & Counterclaim: YSEA: drew distinction btw internet and newspaper content, had fair dealings, public interest, facts & info are not protected + SPH Stomp had copied their content SPHs Defense to YSEAs counterclaim: rd SPH: STOMP articles by 3 party No financial benefits from alleged infringement
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21.7 Defamation
Defamation: libel and slander. Fine and/or jail 2 years.
Defamation Libel in writing, print or other permanent form, actionable per se Slander Spoken or in gestures Must show special damage o (i.e. can be quantifiable by money) Except in certain instances o (e.g. statement imputing disease, disparaging official, professional or business reputation, imputing crime punishable by death, caning, jail, or unchastity / adultery by any woman or girl
News stories risk defamation if they: make reasonable and respectable people think less of someone lower that persons standing in the estimation of right-thinking people injure someones reputation by exposing them to hatred, contempt or ridicule cause someone to be shunned or avoided
Defamation test: the ordinary effect on reader or audience with wisdom and knowledge of the ways of the world Someone can be defamed even if they suffer no proven economic harm, so long as the statement is deemed to have had a negative impact on their reputation or caused ridicule in the minds of right-thinking members of society. ($1 cases)
21.7 Things to Prove to sue for Defamation

Defamatory statement was made and the words convey a defamatory meaning either through direct (natural, ordinary) meaning or through innuendo Defendant published or was responsible for publication of defamatory statement E.g. wrong picture of criminal maids sister gave people impression that the maids sister was that maid Maid could argue that defamation referred to them
Defamatory statement is reasonably understood to refer to the plaintiff
Papers editor, publisher, author Broadcast commercial broadcaster, editor, presenter, reporter, journalist as with original person Person who republishes media is also liable Anyone who participates or authorises the publication is jointly liable E.g. Long pan shot in which Bad impression, business name of restaurant appeared affected. Demanded apology just as narration said this and notice of clarification. area is frequented by the gang
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21.8 Defenses against Defamation

Justification Privilege Stating its the truth Prove the gist of libel is factually correct Statements of opinion or comment on matters of public interest (PI) Words must be only comments and not presented as facts Must be objective, in spirit of fair discussion Must concern public interest
Fair Comment
Absolute Privilege Cannot be sued Parliament debates / proceedings Judicial hearings Reports on judicial proceedings Qualified: where an individual in the circumstances has a right to state matters which may be defamatory Newspapers have this when they report fairly and accurately of public proceedings
Politicians tend to be very blasphemous in parliament X NOT election speeches! E.g. Sun Xu, where statements are made in discharge of moral, social duty
But, Malice defeats Fair Comment & Qualified Privilege! Evidence of Malice:
too-strong language in the circumstances history of animosity defendant had no honest belief in, or reckless indifference to truth of statements
Only living people can sue and be sued.

Can sue: every living person, children, bankrupts and lunatics. But dead people cannot. If a case is in progress and either party dies, the legal action dies with it.
21.8 Tips to Avoid being Sued

Ensure there are other statements in the same report to take away the sting of the defamatory statement Be balanced Invited offended party to respond to allegations in original report If stating opinion, include facts on which this is based Check facts!
Apologize! If accepted, case closed. Otherwise, it will also help the defendants case.
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22 Media Policy 22.1 Direct vs. Indirect Regulation

Indirect regulation regulation by gatekeeprs, public, courts, advertisers / sponsors, minority groups, etc Direct regulation Regulatory agency on media NPPA, Films Act, MDA Act
22.2 About Media Development Authority (MDA)

Est. Jan 2003 (merger of Singapore Broadcast Authority, Films & Publications Dept, Singapore Films Commission) Streamlines policies across Internet, publications & audio material, radio, TV MDAs Roles:
develop Singapore as global media hub foster growth of media industry
Thru:Industry Promotion Media 21 (2003) Increase GDP contribution from 1.56 to 3% in 10yrs Create 10,000 new jobs Singapore Media Fusion Plan (SMFP) (Jun 2009) Enhance eco contribution of media sector & create new jobs $1b injection over 5yrs (Oct 2009) Fund 3 4 films a year Applicable to all 7 media sectors: Broadcast, Animation, Film, Music, Interactive Media, Games and Publishing Development, Production, Marketing, Talent & Enterprise Assistance Develop Sg into global media city for the Intl mkt
Sg to be Trusted Global Capital for New Asia Media Due to rise of Asia + digital media revolution Facilitate ties btw media professionals in Mideast, US and Singapore encourage media companies and individuals to own and more full capitalise on the IP of their product, service or solution across different platforms
MDA Grant Schemes
77
Public Service Broadcasting (Funding)
Programmes that promote social objectives and national harmony as well as serve the interests of consumers Primary criteria:o Public service value have common values, global concerns & points of public interest o Reach/exportability can appeal to local audience and regional / intl audience o Innovativeness fresh take on subject, interactive, new formats and delivery platforms etc may not be commercially viable but serve publics interest Includes minority radio programmes Call for proposals (2009) MDA coinvest in programmes of value will change cos MDA finds it hard to get the royalty eventually
65% Mediacorp 35% Local production houses E.g. environment, health, education, security, food, water, poverty eradication.
E.g. online, mobile, VOD, outdoor broadcast E.g. current affairs, education, culture, children and minority interests.
In future More resources to develop talent Extend PSB to non-FTA platforms Maximise PSB reach through dubbing / subtitling and publicity
22.3 Policy Guidelines

MDA manages through system of co-regulation between codes of practice and self-regulation.
Codes of Practice Television Programme Code Radio Programme and Advertising Code Internet Code of Practice Code of Practice for Market Conduct in the Provision of Mass Media Services Self-regulation Committees & Panels o Broadcasting o Publications o Internet o Films & Drama Censorship Classification
22.4 Censorship
Started off with the Jayakumar Report (1981). Censorship Review Committee (CRC): Govt-appointed committee that reviews and makes recommendations for Singapores censorship policies, once every 10yrs.
78
1992 CRC Report Restricted Publications Scheme Sex manuals Adult themed comics & films But no to porn in all media
2002 CRC Report M18 (accepted) and NC15 (not accepted) film ratings Only M18 and below videos to be sold to public Relaxed restrictions on theatre scripts Cable and VOD can broadcast M18 content after 10pm Existing 100 banned websites to include child porn and other harmful sites
2009 CRC Report Govt felt had to reconvene EARLIER cos too many things happened aldr. R21 OK for VOD New PG13 film rating 1yr term licence for arts groups Arts appeal committee has final say in hearing appeals against regulatory decisions made by authorities
Not accepted: R21 films in neighbourhood cinemas R21 videos sold in shops Lifting of 100 banned website list Lifting dialect restrictions
22.5 Classification
Violence, Sex, Nudity, Language, Drug and Substance Abuse, Horror
1991 G, PG, R18 R(A) 1993 NC16 2004 M18 Now G, PG, PG13, NC16, M18, R21
79

JAN CS0203 Media in Singapore Ch1-24 Complete

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CS0203 Media in Singapore

jeremiah wong Module Chapters

CS0203 Media in Singapore

01 Introduction to Media in Singapore

1.1 Towards Critical Understanding

1.2 Conceptual Understanding

1.3 Empirical vs. Normative definitions

CS0203 Media in Singapore

1.4 9 Highly Normative Definition of Journalists

1.5 Difficult to define Whos a Journalist?

So, its more meaningful to refer to journalism, rather than journalists.

1.6 Key Concepts & Chapter Review

2. Its hard to define a journalist

CS0203 Media in Singapore

02 Journalisms Public Role

2.1 Singapore and the World

2.2 Avoiding Eurocentric Universalism

2.3 Avoiding Moral Relativism

CS0203 Media in Singapore

2.4 Balancing between Centrism and Moral Relativism

2.5 Diff. in Paradigms vs. Diff. in Contexts

Different contexts in the same paradigm

Doctor in US, doctor in Sg, doctor in China

2.6 Same Paradigm, Different Contexts

CS0203 Media in Singapore

2.7 Asian Values Tool to Insulate against Criticism

2.8 Core of the Paradigm

CS0203 Media in Singapore

2.9 Journalisms 3 Democratic Values

3. To facilitate dialogue and construct society

CS0203 Media in Singapore

03 Journalism and Politics 1

Control Legal Tussles

CS0203 Media in Singapore

3.1 What Shapes Journalism?

E.g. 3 people died in Singapore gets more coverage than 30 in Venezuela.

Extra-media Level Ideology Level

CS0203 Media in Singapore

3.2 Journalism & Political System

3.3 Other Models

3.4 Singapore: Subordinate, not Subservient

CS0203 Media in Singapore

3.4 Website for Research

3.5 Phrases in Press Controls

1974 present 1995 present

CS0203 Media in Singapore

3.6 May 1971: A Turning Point

Singapore herald (English Language)

CS0203 Media in Singapore

04 Journalism and Politics 2

CS0203 Media in Singapore

4.1 Newspapers & Printing Presses Act (NPPA), 1974

Ownership spread Ownership spread among many shareholders

CS0203 Media in Singapore

4.2 Inside Singapores Press

Board of Directors (BOD)

BODs from relevant background

CS0203 Media in Singapore

4.3 Rationales for Ownership & Control of Presses

2. Newspaper companies affect political stability

3. Control editors through management, shareholders and board

CS0203 Media in Singapore

4.4 Attitudes of Press towards Government