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also as it does the combined result of B.M.E.P. and piston speed. The full line in Fig. 5 shows the steady increase that has taken place in piston speed, while the dotted line illustrates the effect on dynamic loading for any given stroke, showing how modern engines have developed in the capacity of their moving parts, bearing surfaces, lubrication, etc. Horse-power output comparisons are, of course, incomplete without taking into account the specific weight of the engine, and here again from the engineers' and engine designers' point of view it is suggested that this should be on the basis of lbs. per gross horse-power so as to cover altitude. The user or aircraft designer will naturally compare dry weights of engines on normal rated power, but since there will be a particular altitude in view the purpose will be equally served. Fig. 6 shows the improvement of specific weight in relation to normal rated and gross horse-power with time. A striking point about all of these curves is the rapid development which has taken place within the last few years. FOREIGN LIQUID-COOLED ENGINES It is interesting to note, more particularly now that we are engaged in that fiercest form of competition, e.g., war, in what way foreign practice differs from our own. Liquid-cooled engine design abroad generally favours a policy of using lower boosts and obtaining the same output by more engine capacity. The result is a larger engine for approximately the same horse-power and weight. This necessarily carries with it the serious penalty of a larger frontal area, and since half the weight of the engine consists of castings, implies a surpassing foundry technique, together with the employment of casting alloys possessing the necessary qualities of fluidity in the mould to produce the thin sections required, at whatever sacrifice in other directions. In their renaissance of liquid-cooled engines for military purposes, the Germans have gone over completely to the inverted type of 12-cylinder Vee, but the result is not at all convincing in favour of this type with the restrictions it imposes on the power plant layout due to the necessity for leaving the whole of the underneath unmasked by any other features of the installation except the cowling. In any case the lack of accessibility that is apparent cannot be made up for entirely by arranging for the power plant to be quickly detachable. I h e most striking feature, however, of the German technique is the application of direct fuel injection, but it is too early to say yet if this is a complete success and if the problem of control has been satisfactorily solved.

At long last aeronautical engineers have begun to pay more attention to the business end of the engine. The fixed wooden airscrew has adequately but long since served its purpose and should surely soon become a thing of the past. Commendable progress has now been made with the development of variable pitch airscrews of different types featuring engine speed control, feathering, etc. The possibilities of these new airscrews are being fully exploited by the engineer in developing the various aspects of aircraft operational requirements, which has resulted in new and more exacting demands on the engine. At the same time, fresh conditions have been raised in functional requirements, while owing to the greater mass, inertia, and relatively less damping properties of these mechanically variable screws, new problems have arisen in connection with synchronous vibration. Fortunately we have to-day many scientific aids to analyse phenomena of this kind and to supplement the efforts of the mathematical and stress departments in steering clear of trouble. Experience and research have clearly shown the desirability of avoiding subjecting the engine and airscrew combination to unknown stresses when testing on ground beds, arising from forced or synchronous vibration effects. Engineers are in consequence working along the lines of perfecting hangar test beds which will as nearly as possible simulate actual flight conditions in respect to the elastic and damping qualities of the

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Fig. 6. Curves showing decrease of engine dry weight (as A.M. specification) in pounds per normal rated horsepower and gross horsepower with time.

engine mounting on the aircraft fuselage. This is all the more important when it is appreciated that different types of airscrews or any other changes sufficient to affect the dynamics of the airscrew or engine create new combinations requiring investigation and test, to ensure that a satisfactory result has been obtained. ENGINE STARTING AND ELECTRICAL SERVICES It is fitting that some remark should be devoted to this important section. It is inevitable that aircraft of all types will sooner or later be as self-sufficient as the modern mass-production motor car in respect to engine starting and electrical services. The facility for starting the engine under any condition even at sub-zero temperatures by simply pressing a button with a system which is self-regulating and self-maintaining will become a regular feature. This condition can be ensured with no more weight than is required on some of the systems that are in use to-day. While the cartridge starter operates quite effectively, it is considered that the balance of advantages is in favour of the electric type.