Managing environmental problems in Cuban karst aquifers

L.F. Molerio León

CESIGMA, S.A.,
P.O. Box 6219, CP 10600,
Habana 6, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba
Email: leslie@cesigma.com.cu NH8.03. Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst
areas
EGU2007-A-01839
M. Parise
National Research Council, IRPI, Bari, Italy
Gruppo Puglia Grotte, Castellana-Grotte (BA), Italy
Email: m.parise@ba.irpi.cnr.it

Abstract. Cuban karst covers almost 66% of the territory. The most important aquifers are of karstic nature
and comprise 80% of the country’s groundwater resources. These aquifers are mainly unconfined and built
by Miocenic carbonate rocks morphologically expressed as very gentle coastal flatlands. Only a small part of
the total karst, almost 7 500 km2 is occupied by low to medium height mountains of Jurassic to Paleogene
rocks.The enlarged configuration of the country produces two main slopes, at north and south, of the central
water divide. river basins are small and bigger catchments are only found in the scarce rivers running
eastward or westward. Flashfloods characterizes the response to the heavy rains associated with the extreme
events typical of the humid tropics. Cuba is also an archipelago. Close to 4000 small and very small islands
(named “cayos”) surrounds the two main islands: Cuba and the Isle of Youth. Economy is mainly
agriculturally based as most of the Caribbean, while other activities are rising in importance as mining, light
industry and tourism. A phenomenon of high concentration of the population in the capital of the country or
in the main cities has developed since the 1960´s and only stopped and slightly reverted locally in the last five
years. Therefore, the geological, geographical and economic framework of the country defines the
environmental problems that should be managed for an adequate protection of groundwater quality. This
paper offers an overview of the main pollution sources of the country and how risk assessment is developed
in the particular case of a karst territory in the humid tropics.

INTRODUCTION
Cuban karst covers almost 66% of the territory (Fig. 1). The most important aquifers are of karstic
nature and comprise 80% of the country’s groundwater resources. These aquifers are mainly
unconfined and built by Miocenic carbonate rocks morphologically expressed as very gentle coastal
flatlands. Only a small part of the total karst, almost 7 500 km2 is occupied by low to medium
height mountains of Jurassic to Paleogene rocks (Fig. 2).

While in the flatlands conduit and diffuse flows are observed, dominating the latter, in the
mountains, conduit flows dominates.

Because of the enlarged configuration of the country two main slopes, at north and south, are
founded after the central water divide. Thus, river basins are small and bigger catchments are only
found in the scarce rivers running eastward or westward. Therefore, flashfloods characterizes the
response to the heavy rains associated with the extreme events typical of the humid tropics.

Cuba is also an archipelago. Close to 3 500 small and very small islands (named “cayos”) surrounds
the two main islands: Cuba and the Isle of Youth.
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Fig. 1. Cuban karst areas (generalized by H. Farfán)

Fig. 2. Cuban flatlands commonly articulate without transition with the mountainous landscape
(Photo by L. Molerio).

Economy is mainly agriculturally based as most of the Caribbean, while other activities are rising in
importance as oil exploration and production, mining, light industry and tourism. A phenomenon of

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high concentration of the population in the capital of the country or in the main cities has developed
since the 1960´s and only stopped and slightly reverted locally in the last five years.

Therefore, the geological, geographical and economic framework of the country defines the
environmental problems that should be managed for an adequate protection of groundwater quality.

This paper offers an overview of the main pollution sources of the country and how risk assessment
is developed in the particular case of a karst territory in the humid tropics.

VULNERABILITY OF KARST AQUIFERS

Vulnerability of aquifers depends on several factors linked with the geological structure, climatic
conditions, land and water use and economic framework. Karst aquifers are often more complicated
in defining vulnerability because of the heterogeneity and anisotropy of the water bearing strata, the
close relationship between landforms and drainage and the degree of hydrological activity of the
karst system (Molerio, 2004).

Molerio (2004) has identified a general chart of karst aquifer vulnerability and Gutiérrez & Molerio
(1996) and Molerio & Gutiérrez (1999) have considered, in detail, the factors controlling aquifer
vulnerability in the case of nitrification processes in Cuban karst aquifers. Excluding components
considered by them specifically attaining the agricultural framework, the general picture is
resembled in Table 1 and, generally speaking has been found useful in the assessment of
vulnerability of karstic aquifers. Foster & Hirata (1988) defined vulnerability as a function of the
properties of the unsaturated zone. If these properties in karst systems are properly defined, no
conceptual modifications need to be made to the criteria of these authors.

Karst systems are characterized by the following properties (Molerio, 1985, 1992):
• Thermodynamically, karst is an open system interacting with the surrounding media.
• Variables describing system's physical properties shows a progressive three-dimensional
anisotropy.
• For any kind of basic measure of a characteristic length (area, volume, length, effective
diameter) the karstic space is rigorously hierarchisized.
• Four types of constitutive spaces are then developed, generically designed -in decreasing order
of characteristic length- as caves, joints, pores and solid matrix.
• Each of the constitutive spaces exhibits their own flow domain and, among them, an active
exchange of mass, moment and energy take place.
• According to this the physical properties field is structured and defined for each space.
• Responses to external or internal -natural or artificial- inputs of mass, energy and moment are
hierarchically modulated by the system's internal structure and capability to assimilate
stresses.
• The scale factor exerts a strong influence on the physical meaning and stochastic behavior of
the physical properties .Within the system, work development produces self-regulated energy
dissipation structures feeding back the whole set of processes.
• Thus, the system and in particular, the physical properties defining it are highly
time-dependent at different space and time scales.
• The karstification process is irreversible; its evolution is unidirectional towards increasing
levels of entropy.

In fact those properties mean that anisotropy and heterogeneity are due to the differentiated
development of karstification in carbonate rocks. Morphological features are developed selectively.
Therefore they behave also different with respect to vertical or horizontal flows (Fig. 3).

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Dolines and vertical shafts or horizontal and also subhorizontal caves absorbing overland or
streamflow are the carriers of great water volumes entering fast to the aquifer system. Responses to
these concentrated inputs use to be more or less rapid, depending on the initial state of the system and
its inertial properties. Commonly, when connected to water table aquifers, response tends to be fast,
seeming a piston-flow behavior that is a very useful pattern to explain and mathematically describe
aquifer hydrodynamics.

Less developed karst features, clay-filled vertical caves, joints and fissures, behave more slowly to
inputs, delaying flow to the saturated zone and, in turn, producing a second peak in groundwater levels
or at least a delayed response to mass transfer.

These two extreme behaviors produce a complex interaction and behavior of the system with respect
to mass transport processes. While physical properties are different for each of the involved spaces,
time responses are also different. The so-called multiphase flow is most commonly observed in karstic
systems than anywhere. An intensive karst development in this unsaturated zone allows for two
main infiltrating paths to ground waters. Therefore,
• A fast concentrated recharge takes place along vertical groundwater-connected shafts or
following horizontal or subhorizontal caves. Surface flow to those karst features occurs in
two main ways: a diffuse overland flow and a concentrated or channeled flow following
streams entering caves.
• A slow, diffuse recharge takes place following pores, joints and fissures less karstified.
Both mechanisms are also important to explain pollution hydrodynamics in karst terrains.
Different concentrations, flow paths and arrival times are controlled by the recharge system.

Mathematical modeling or analytical solutions has also to account whether or not contamination
sources are punctual or diffuse inputs.

While one group of boundary conditions concerning infiltration capability depends on the
differentiated karst development, the other group depends upon the anthropogenic effects over karst.
Therefore, karst land and water use strongly influences system’s vulnerability. According to this,
aquifer vulnerability to nitrification processes depends on the interaction of the factors described in
Table 1.

Six major pollution sources to ground waters are identified in Cuba:

• Sea water intrusion
• Agriculture and Husbandry
• Domestic wastes
• Industry
• Mining (including oil exploration and production)

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Fig. 3. Idealized sketch of a karstic system showing extreme features for infiltrating waters
(modified and adapted from Mangin, 1975)

Sea water intrusion

The most important aquifers are located beneath the southern coast of Cuba. Sea water intrusion,
therefore, becomes the most common and extensive source affecting water quality. In the small and
very small islands it is also the main factor affecting groundwater quality (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The main island of Cuba has almost 3600 km of coastline vulnerable to sea water
intrusion (Photo by L. Molerio).
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Karst exerts a differentiated influence upon distribution and intensity of sea water intrusion.
Flooded karst conduits shows differentiated vertical saline distribution depending on caves depth
below sea level disregarding the distance with respect to the shoreline. While depth of flooded
caves is associated with the development of ancient sea level positions, cave level distribution is a
controlling factor of present sea water intrusion. In several cases, isolated lens of intruded sea water
are found dozens of kilometers inland.

In conduit-flow aquifers, sea water intrusion is controlled by the amount of water discharged by
submarine or shoreline springs. Commonly, under the same abstraction regime, rainfall distribution
and land-use patterns diffuse - flow aquifers are more intruded than conduit-flow systems. Whereas
both types of aquifers coexist in Cuban karst, is not uncommon to observe an irregular pattern of
horizontal and vertical distribution of sea water intrusion depending on the above mentioned
factors.

Agriculture
Agricultural impact on groundwater is due to several factors as land-use pattern and irrigation,
culture and husbandry practices and on soil cover properties. The most important evidences of
agricultural contamination of ground waters are the presence of nitrates and pesticides in ground
waters (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. The terra rossa deposits are the most important spoils in Cuban karst (Photo by L.
Molerio).

Since the 1960´s irrigation and fertilization practices developed fast in Cuba. Nitrate concentration
in ground waters increased suddenly from a background level of 0 to 10 mg/l to values over the
permissible limits of drinking water in several basins. Fertilization was the main responsible for this
situation and gross estimates accounts for input values between 80 and 120 kg N/Ha/y.

Nitrate groundwater contamination in Cuba is always related with its agricultural economic
framework. Evidences of an increase in nitrate concentrations are observed in monitoring wells in the

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last decades. The karst nature of Cuban territory and of its main aquifers allows an average high
vulnerability to nitrate pollution.

As a matter of fact, the knowledge of the factor involved in leaching process allowed an achievement
of the ranks of nitrogen supply to ground waters, that could be estimated between 40-80 kg N/Ha/y.
Local variability are related with the type of water used for irrigation, the kind of crops and the nitrate
concentration of irrigation waters.

The application of a simple mixing-cell model allowed to account N supply from the unsaturated zone,
effective recharge, annual variation of natural and induced recharge, the involved volume with respect
to the effective depth considered and the nitrogen base level of the aquifer, allowed to compute and
validate a methodology described in a recent paper.

In Cuba, were high level nitrate ground waters are used for irrigation purposes it becomes evident that
the nitrogen loads supplied from irrigation is relevant for computations and must be included in any
mathematical model. Values as high as 30 kg N/Ha/y has also to be considered in fertilization
balances.

Once started the nitrification process, concentrations will tend to fluctuate around the computed
concentration because of the inter annual behavior of rainfall and of the effective recharge, associated
with local intense precipitation or large droughts typical of tropical climates. Recovery processes are
slow and under Cuban conditions, could reduce between 10-15% nitrate concentrations in about 10
years, figures that are much lower than the estimates for other climates or type of aquifers.

Domestic wastes
Direct infiltration of crude or poorly treated domestic wastes (Fig. 6) is important sources of
groundwater pollution, together with the point sources of septic tanks and latrines. Discharges from
oxidizing ponds and failures in depuration processes are the main cause of direct contamination of
ground waters not only in karst but in all Cuban aquifers.

Sewerage services extend to 39% of the population. Table 2 shows the distribution of sanitation
services in Cuba in 1993.

Industry
Industrial wastes are one of the most extended pollution sources. Particularly hazardous is the
contamination derived from the sugar cane industry, promoting sacarose enriched, low pH and high
temperature waters whose impact on groundwater quality is traduced in lowering COD, SO4
bacteria and indirectly, also in local subsidence due to CO2 enriched waters accelerating limestone
dissolution.

Pollution endangering from the light industry comes from textile factories and paper mills. Colored
waters from textile factories have been used for a long time as tracers in western Cuba. Another
source of pollution comes from the pharmaceutical and chemical industry, but because of being
recent developed industries are much better controlled by the environmental agencies.

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Fig. 6. Untreated sewage waters are a common threat to groundwater in urban karst lands (Photo
by L. Molerio).

Fig. 7. Sugar factories are one of the most important sources of groundwater pollution of karst
waters in Cuba (Photo Cuban Environmental Agency).
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Table 2. Sanitation services in Cuba, (Figures in millions of inhabitants)

Total population % of population with sanitation services

Appropriate service

Sector Inhabitants % Sewerage Tanks and Total Inadequat Total Populat

latrines e with ion
solutions service without
service
%
Urban 8.27 75.7 35.0 31.6 66.6 30.0 96.6 3.4
Rural 2.65 24.3 52.0 46.8 52.0 20.0 72.0 28.0
Total 10.92 100.0 39.0 35.2 74.2 27.6 90.6 9.4

Mining
Accelerated mining development carried out several problems of surface water pollution instead of
groundwater contamination because nickel, copper, iron and gold mining are related with non-
karstic rocks (Fig. 8). Their effect on groundwater is less dangerous because the relative isolation of
these mines with respect to carbonate terrains.

Oil well drilling and oil fields are, up to now, the most dangerous sources of groundwater pollution
derived from mining (Fig. 9). The most important oil fields have been developed over limestone
aquifers increasing the risk of environmental problems in the country.

Fig. 8. Open pit mining threatens groundwater quality and quantity because direct pollution and
evaporation (Photo by L. Molerio).

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Fig. 9. Oil well drilling and oil fields are, up to now, the most dangerous sources of groundwater
pollution derived from mining (Photo by L. Molerio).

RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk assessment of groundwater pollution is institutionally based by:
• a legislative framework
• a monitoring network of groundwater quality and the corresponding data processing and alarm
systems
• a contingency plan for environmental emergency

Legislative framework
Laws dealing with inland waters, soils and environmental management and protection have been
systematically improved since the 1960´s. The Constitution of the Republic of Cuba considers
environmental protection as a right and a duty of the State and of the citizens.

In what concerns to groundwater protection, the responsibility lies in the National Institute of Water
Resources being the Center of Hydrology and Water Quality (CENHICA) the national agency in
charge of monitoring and implementation of water resources protection.

Monitoring Network and Data Processing and Warning System

The national ground and surface monitoring network in operation is administrated by the
CENHICA-INRH since the second half of 1960´s except for rainfall and several hydrometric
stations in operation, some of them since the beginning of the 20th century. Table 3 shows the
structure of the monitoring network.

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Table 3. Monitoring network of the Republic of Cuba (after Molerio et al.,1998)

1. Surface waters.

Measured variable: Stations Total

Rain Rain gauges 1997
Rain gauges recorders 1083
Surface flow Hydrometric 50
Evaporation, relative humidity, Climatic (mainly evaporimetric 75
wind, insolation stations)
Water quality 768

2. Groundwaters

Measured variable: Stations Total

Groundwater level Observation wells 2399
Groundwater salinity Observation wells 290
Groundwater quality Observation wells 1354

Warning systems are integrated by selected stations monitored on a daily, weekly or monthly basis.
Variables measured are evaluated in terms of their variations in water quality or resources.
Simulation models have been implemented in several basins or aquifer systems in order to diagnose
and forecast its behavior. The structure of this informative network is depicted in table 4.

Table 4. Warning systems for environmental emergency of inland waters.

1. Surface waters.

Measured variable: Stations Total

Rain Rain gauges 696
Water quality Variable. Depending on the
season, population supplied and
monitoring programme

2. Groundwaters

Measured variable: Stations Total

Groundwater level Observation wells 527
Groundwater quality Observation wells Variable. Depending on the
season, population supplied and
monitoring programme

FINAL REMARKS
The geological, geographical and economic framework of the country defines the environmental
problems that should be managed for an adequate protection of groundwater quality.

Vulnerability of Cuban aquifers depends on several factors linked with the geological structure,
climatic conditions, land and water use and economic framework of the country. Karstic aquifers,
extended over 65% of the national territory, are often more complicated in defining vulnerability
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because of the heterogeneity and anisotropy of the water bearing strata, the close relationship
between landforms and drainage and the degree of hydrological activity of the karstic system.

Five major pollution sources to groundwater identified in Cuba are: sea water intrusion, agriculture
and husbandry, domestic wastes, industry and mining. Groundwater quality is then managed by a
Warning System integrated by selected stations monitored on a daily, weekly or monthly basis.
Variables measured are evaluated in terms of their variations in water quality or resources.
Simulation models have been implemented in several basins or aquifer systems in order to diagnose
and forecast its behavior.

REFERENCES
Foster, S.S.D. and Hirata, R (1988). Groundwater pollution risk assessment a methodology
using available data. Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental
Science (CEPIS), Lima, Perú

Gutiérrez J. and L.F. Molerio (1996): Nitrates In Cuban Groundwaters. in/ L. Candela (Edit):
Agricultural Threats to Groundwater Quality.

Mangin, A. (1975): Contribution a létude hydrodynamique des aquifers karstiques. Thése.

CNRS: Moulis: 356p

Molerio León, Leslie F. (1975): Esquema Geoespeleológico Preliminar de cuba (Memoria

Explicativa del Mapa de las Regiones Cársicas de Cuba a escala 1:1 000 000). Simp. XXXV
Aniv. Soc. Espel. Cuba, La Habana, :68

Molerio León, Leslie F. (1985): Dominios de Flujo y Jerarquización del Espacio en Acuíferos
Cársicos. Simp. XLV Aniv.Soc. Espel. Cuba, La Habana,: 54

Molerio León, Leslie F. (1992): Complementos de un Modelo de Simulación Matemática del

Desarrollo del Carso. GTICEK. Taller Internac. sobre Cuencas Experimentales en el Karst,
Matanzas, Publ. Universitat Jaume I de Castelló,:83-92

Molerio León, L.F. & J. Gutiérrez Díaz (1999): Agricultural Impacts on Cuban Karstic Aquifers
in/ Drew, D.& H. Hötzl [Eds.] (1999): Karst Hydrogeology and Human Activities, A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam,:76-78

Molerio León, L.F., O. Barros, N. Gómez, J.L. Gelabert (1998): Cuba. Red Nacional de
Monitoreo del Régimen de las Aguas Subterráneas. Red Internac. de Organismos de Cuenca.
Carta de la Red. (6), 1er trimestre, :9 http://www.inbo-news.org/pdf/inbo6.pdf

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