Grammar Reference

The Noun
There are four kinds of nouns in English: abstract nouns (love, freedom thought); common/concrete nouns (book, table); collective nouns (family, herd); proper nouns (Greg, London).

Gender
Masculine: men and boys (he) Feminine: women, girls, cars, ships, countries (she) Neuter: babies, animals, things (it) Notes: - Babies and animals are referred to as male or female when we know their sex. - Cars, ships and countries are sometimes referred to as female but the neuter is more common in modern English. Most common nouns referring to people have the same form whether male or female: teacher (man or woman), doctor, etc. Some common nouns referring to people have different forms for male and female: gentleman lady heir heiress husband wife hero heroine host hostess monk nun nephew niece prince princess cock hen tiger tigress policeman policewoman steward stewardess son daughter uncle aunt widower widow waiter waitress Actor actress Barman barmaid Bachelor spinster Boy girl Bridegroom bride Duke duchess Emperor empress Father mother Bull cow

Some common nouns referring to animals have different forms for male and female:

Drake duck Dog bitch

gander goose lion lioness

stag doe stallion mare

Countable/uncountable nouns
Countable nouns are those which can be counted: one book, two books, three books. Countable nouns can be singular or plural: This cup is empty. These cups are full. Uncountable nouns are those which cannot be counted. Uncountable nouns can only be singular: The water is cold. The weather is fine. The coal has a good quality. They take a singular verb and are not used with a/an. The words some, any, no, (a) little, much, plenty of etc can be used with uncountable nouns. Uncountable nouns are: Names of substances (materials, liquids, gases. etc): leather, paper, wood, metal, silver, water, coffee, bread, meat, butter, wine, flour Activities and sports: running, swimming, shopping, gardening, football, tennis Games ending in s: billiards, darts, bowls, dominos etc Diseases ending in s: mumps, rickets Names of subjects: history, mathematics, music, physics Languages: Russian, Greek, German, English Abstract nouns: love, hope, advice, information, intelligence, beauty, hunger, poverty Collective nouns: furniture, luggage, equipment, accommodation, traffic

Nouns which may be uncountable or countable

Some nouns are uncountable when we talk about the substance, material or abstract concept but countable when we talk about one specific item. Chicken/a chicken, stone/a atone, hope/ a hope, education/an education Some nouns which are usually uncountable can be countable when we refer to a particular variety. Wine/an excellent wine, fruit/ a very sweet fruit In informal English, drinks and some types of food which are normally uncountable can be counted, particularly when we are making an order in a restaurant Many uncountable nouns can be made countable by means of partitives: a piece of cake/information/baggage/advice/furniture/work/equipment; 2

a glass of water/beer/wine; a jar of jam; a sheet of paper; an item of news; a drop of water/oil; a box of chocolates; a metre of cloth; a packet of biscuits; a pound of flour; a puff of smoke a strip/acre of land a grain of sand a set of cutlery an attack of fever a piece of music

a slice of bread a loaf of bread a pot of tea a cup of tea a lump of sugar a game of chess a kilo of meat a bottle of wine a whiff of garlic a beam of light a pile of rubbish a stack of hay a word of advice a wink of sleep

a tube of toothpaste a bar of soap/chocolate a blade of grass a flash of lightning a clap of thunder a cube of ice a roast of meat a pint of beer a gust of wind a breath of fresh air an article of clothing a ball of string a roar of laughter a feat of passion

a state of emergency a stroke of luck

The Genitive/Possessive Case

Form: o The S Genitive/the Synthetical Genitive: the boys hat, the boys hat o The OF Genitive/the Analytical Genitive: the director of the museum o Double Genitive: a work of Miltons 1. The Inflected/Synthetical Genitive (the S Genitive) Form: s is used with singular and plural nouns not ending in s: a mans job, mens work, the butchers (shop), a childs voice, the childrens room A simple apostrophe () is used with plural nouns ending in s: the girls school, the Smiths car Other names ending in s can take s or the apostrophe alone: Mr Joness/ Mr Jones house With compounds, the last word takes the s: my brother-in-laws guitar s can only be used after initials: the MPs briefcase, the VIPs escort 3

s is omitted in the phrase for sake: for goodness sake s is often added to a noun phrase (the group genitive): the Duke of Yorks eldest son

If joint possession is intended, the apostrophe is placed on the last element: Tom and Marys baby Individual possession requires an apostrophe with each element of the series: Americas and Englands problems. The local genitive is used to denote institutions of various kinds (restaurants, churches, theatres, etc), a home, a shop: at Joes, at the chemists, at my parents (home) The synthetical genitive (s genitive) is used after: nouns denoting people or other beings (animate nouns): Johns lecture, my parents advice, the horses neck, the dogs bark nouns denoting measurement, time, space, quantity, size, distance, weight: a two months practice, yesterdays newspaper in expressions of money + worth: ten dollars worth of sugar collective nouns: the governments decisions, the Parliaments laws geographical names, vehicles, natural phenomena, etc.: Englands mountains, the spaceships crew, the afternoons heat. names of seasons, months, days: a winters day/a winter day some expressions (these have an alternative with of): the waters edge, at his journeys end, the waters surface, for charitys sake some other expressions (they do not have an alternative with of): at arms length, within arms reach, at a stones throw, their moneys worth some idiomatic expressions: to ones hearts content, to my minds eye, to a hairs breadth, at ones wits end, a birds eye view 2. The OF Genitive Form: It is formed by means of a noun which is preceded by the preposition of: the cover of the book. It is mainly used with inanimate nouns Usage:

In titles and formal speech or written text: the Poetical Works of Alfred Tennyson, the welfare of the people If a genitive governs another genitive, the former is expressed by the of- phrase: the house of my sisters neighbour With nouns coming from adjectives: the contempt of the rich When the governing noun is modified by a long phrase or clause: the intelligence of the woman across the street

3. The Double Genitive Form: It is made up of the inflected genitive (s) and the of genitive: a nephew of Queen Marys, lyrics of Hugos, two friends of Jacks Compare: A portrait of Dali (one portraying him) a portrait of Dalis (one painted by or belonging to him)

Controlled Practice
1. Translate into English: a. Inventatorul telefonului este Graham Bell.; b. S-au fcut progrese semnificative n medicin i s-au descoperit medicamente mpotriva cancerului .; c. El folosete multe maini-unelte produse in Franta.; d. Doi prieteni de-ai lui John i-au fcut o surpriz de ziua lui.; e. Tatl studentului a venit la universitate s vorbeasc cu profesorul de chimie.

__________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 2. Translate into English, taking into account the form of uncountable nouns: a. Aceasta este o mobil prea veche pentru gustul nostru. b. Orice informaie despre jaful de la banc este vital. c. Nu mai am strop de energie ca s urc i panta aceasta. d. Un fulger urmat de un tunet asurzitor i-au speriat pe copii.

e. Alaltieri am cumprat cinci spunuri i astzi nu gsesc nici unul. f. Bagajul meu se afl ntre cele dou doamne grase. g. Mi-a dat un sfat foarte important: s nu mnnc pine dup miezul nopii. h. I-am rugat s ne cumpere patru pini de Extrapan. i. A but trei cafele i l-a apucat ameeala. j. Povestea din rzboi cu o pasiune extraordinar.

__________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 3. Match: a bunch of a bundle of a fleet of a cluster of a clump of a flight of a string of a crate of a pack of a bouquet of a burst of an attack of a hint of an ounce of a stroke of a wink of a feat of a term of a word of a state of 4. Use the correct form of the verb: beads stars beer rags grapes trees taxis flowers stairs cards energy laughter abuse trouble fever luck sleep endurance imprisonment emergency

1. The audience (is, are) asked to pay attention to the speech. 2. My family (has, have) been living in that chalet for years.

3. The majority (was, were) against the war. 4. That team (is, are) all children. 5. Mathematics (was, were) my favourite subject. 6. Politics (is, are) a matter of no interest to me. 7. The police (has, have) been chasing the thieves for weeks. 8. The audience (has, have) just come back and (is, are) taking (its, their) seats. 9. Your heroics (was, were) useless in that situation. 5. Put into the possessive and carry out any necessary changes in the wordings of the sentences: a. Mary, the daughter of the baker, is my best friend. b. I have done that for the sake of my cousin George. c. During the holiday of three weeks of their friends, the children had to go to the mountains. d. The novels of Dickens and Hardy are very often read nowadays. e. The nephew of Chris and Liz is very smart. f. She took the coat of somebody else. g. There is a magazine belonging to Mr. Smith in almost every country. h. There was a great variety of cars for the disabled in the fair. i. The speech of the President was received with applause. j. Cotroceni Palace is the residence of the President of Romania.

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6. Rewrite the following sentences using the underlined words in the possessive case. Make any other necessary changes in the wordings of the sentences:

a. The jam I bought weighed half a kilogram. b. Mike bought some flowers costing a dollar. c. The trek to the next city was ninety kilometres. d. The movie lasted three hours. e. They granted them an interview lasting half an hour. f. His mother bought some books which cost ten pounds. g. I have seen a building of 450 metres in the city of Atlanta. h. The man on the street weighs 250 kilograms. i. It was a journey of ten days. _______________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 7. Supply the correct collective nouns. Choose from the following: bevy, bunch, swarm, row, fleet, pack, colony, clump, board: a. My cousin was bitten by a of bees. b. She ate a of grapes in two minutes. c. Although the forest caught fire, some of trees were still untouched. d. A .. of buildings was destroyed by the earthquake. e. The teacher told them that wolves attack in . f. George bought Mary a box of chocolates and a of flowers on her birthday. g. The . of managers decided to buy the product. h. A of ships had been sent to rescue the survivors. i. A of termites was eating my furniture. j. A . of boys was laughing at the clown. 8. Put in the missing partitive: Stretch, acre, sip, spell, scrap, pinch, bowl, drop(2), litre, lock, hint, metre, beam, gust. a. You should add a of salt and mix the ingredients. b. A of cloth is enough to clean the table. c. She wrote the address on a of paper.

d. This morning a . of wind broke two windows of my house. e. My neighbours send for the police at the slightest .. of trouble. f. They would like a of pineapple juice. g. George has never drunk beer so he tried a . of mine. h. They will open a new .. of road between Tokyo and Osaka. i. A of light from your candle was enough to find the lost ring. j. A . of soup will help you get rid of your nausea. k. They went inside as they had felt a . of rain. l. That . of land is very rich in oil. m. The painting needs a . of green here and it will be perfect. n. The killer cut a .. of hair of the victim to have a souvenir. o. Theyve had of good weather so far. 9. Translate into English: a. Divorul copiilor vecinilor notri va avea loc luna viitoare. b. Spune-i domnului Cole, amantul prietenei vrului meu, c dac l prind i rup oasele! c. Casa cea nou a administratorului parcului naional al oraului nostru are cel puin treizeci de camere. d. Am putea s ne ntlnim la coal, nu avem de mers mai mult de 15 minute de la aeroport. e. Are 93 de ani i la vrsta ei o cltorie de 12 ore cu trenul este sinucidere curat. f. O turm de oi mi-a invadat curtea; fii atent, turma ta se mprtie n toate direciile! g. Face bagajele de cel puin patru ore; dac ea avea un singur bagaj nu dura att de mult. h. Trebuie s aflm toate informaiile necesare; fiecare informaie este vital. i. Piesa noastr de mobilier este foarte modern dar mobila de dinainte de rzboi era de mare clas.

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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________ 10. Write a before the nouns which are used as countable nouns: a. I am lucky to have had very good education. Education does not just take place at school. b. Beauty is my favourite concern. Mary is real beauty. c. His eyes are not very sensitive to light. Is there light in Mikes room? d. Tom has proved of great help to me. I have to call my family because I desperately need help. e. I dont usually drink tea. Ill have two cappuccinos and whisky, please. f. He has great love of art. Sometimes love can solve all the problems. g. You cant get a job without experience. Im so glad I read it: it was wonderful experience. h. The statue is built of marble. That is beautiful stone. i. Fear is a protective, natural human feeling. He has terrible fear of snakes. j. You were so hungry that you ate whole turkey. I like red meat but I dont eat pork. k. John thinks thats really beautiful painting. Painting can be a really relaxing activity. l. I usually eat fruit for dinner. Thats very unusual fruit. What is it? m. This meal has potato in it. Would you like baked potato? 11. Choose the right word from the brackets: a. The scissors (was/were) on the table a few minutes ago. b. His luggage (was/were) found without much effort. c. A (little/few) knowledge (is/are) as dangerous as having none. d. (much./many) women on the boat (was/were) getting seasick from the waves. e. There (is/are) several means of reaching the chalet on daylight. f. Billiards (is/are) a very interesting game. g. The news printed in that magazine (is/are) always accurate. h. We should buy (much/many) furniture; there (isnt/arent) (much/many) chairs and tables here.

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i. How (much/many) information do you need to get it done? j. You gave me (much/many) ideas about the job but very (little/few) advice. 12. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words: bar, bit, item, piece, slice: a. He wanted to buy a of chocolate but the shop was closed. b. There are three outrageous of news in todays paper. c. I cut several of bread for my kid sister. d. They will buy a new of furniture for their bedroom. e. We are allowed to take four of luggage in our trip. f. With a luck you can still catch the train. g. You cant eat that of cold beef left because it is off. h. This is a of good advice, you should take it into consideration. 13. Use either the analytical or the synthetical genitive with the nouns in brackets: a. They painted only one (wall, their room). b. The (neighbours, friends) were invited to the party. c. Do you know the (Moon, distance) from the Sun? d. We are amazed by (that girl, lies). e. The Amazonian jungle is one of the (world, natural wonders). f. Your business depends on his (country, future). g. When they got to the (bottom, the stairs) they realized that was not their house. h. Ill never forget (Helen, words). i. Have you read (today, newspaper)? j. Father is trying to fix the (leg, chair). 14. Fill in the blanks with nouns derived from the words in brackets: a. He is a fantastic (basketball), but also a good volley (play). b. We were able to give a satisfactory (explain) for our (behave). c. Children have a great deal of (curios). d. The (begin) of the book was boring, but the (end) was more exciting. e. There is a great (differ) between to remind and to remember. f. She will give the detective a detailed (describe) of the thief. g. (Visit) are requested to sign their names in the book. h. The (advertise) will have to be published in the morning paper.

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__________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _________ 15. In the following fragment, articles are missing. Put in a/ an / the as appropriate: I remember in dim and distant past my children being obsessed by man called Bob Dylan. I have no idea if hes still alive, but impact he had in sixties and seventies was huge. I remember one song called Blowing in Wind; my son hes in his fifties now sang it all day and all night, month and month out, for several years. And it was so silly: How many times must man look up before he can see sky? I mean, question like that cant be taken seriously, can it? And, How many times must white dove fly before it sleeps in sand? And then answer to profound questions: Answer, my friend, is blowing in wind. Generation after mine didnt know what life was all about, did they? We did, of course. Very thought of you. Just way you look tonight. Night they invented champagne. They were real songs. But what came next? How many years can mountain exist before it is washed to sea? And there was whole generation singing alone to song. Funny world we live in, I say its funny world we live in.

__________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _________ 16. Put one of the nouns in each of the sentences. dislikes, travels, authorities, matters, heavens, hopes, expenses, means, sights, terms, sands, feelings, odds, interests, talks, basics, arms, movements a. The Blue Killer was never arrested and was never handed over to the (). b. The () opened and, unfortunately, we didnt have any umbrellas, so we got soaked. c. The actor thinks he can win the award but we suspect the () are against him. d. What is the purpose of your going to Hawaii? Well, just to see the ().

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e. Theres no need for us to discuss the () of this marriage, I suppose. f. Dont be rude! What about her (), cant you imagine you hurt her? g. Civilians are forbidden to carry () during peacetime. h. Peace () in Palestine are meant to put an end to the guerrilla fights. i. I suppose they wont claim travel () for their voyage to the island of Crete! j. My bosss likes and () shouldnt be of any interest to the employees. k. Im warning you, if you keep teasing my daughter, start considering yourself on shifting (). l. Jack trusts his aunt, he tells her all his () and fears. m. Hes up and about, isnt he? I hear that he is off on his () again. n. Have you found out what our enemies () are over the following days? o. Im sure the gangsters discussed a range of important () since the Godfather was present. p. Well have to get back to () to understand the grammar of the English language. r. Try as I might, I wont find any () of transport at this hour of the night. s. In the () of the citizens, could you answer these questions, Mr. Mayor? 17. Write a new sentence as similar as possible in meaning to the original sentence, using the word given. This word must not be altered in any way. a. All the money they managed to earn was spent on clothes. (proceeds) b. She wasnt as innocent as it seemed to be. (means) c. George got on very well with his father-in-law. (terms) d. Theres little chance of raining this week. (odds) e. Parents dont agree with their childrens liberal ideas. (eye) f. They play football, even if its snowing, raining or extreme cold. (weathers) g. I dont think John is planning to buy that expensive house. (designs) h. It will be best for her to help them right now. (interests) i. Once the causes of Mikes death are made public, the policemen will arrest the suspects. (open) j. She is convinced her daughter is going to be as successful as herself. (high) ____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 13

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