Heavy Duty

Control Valves
...................................................
By H. L. Miller

22591 Avenida Empresa

Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688
949.858.1877 w Fax 949.858.1878 w ccivalve.com
229 | 07/00 w ©2000 CCI w DRAG is a registered trademark of CCI.
Heavy Duty Control Valves Velocity Control

The problems mentioned above are best solved by controlling the

n By Herbert L. Miller, Vice President CCI
cause of the damage. Many attempts throughout the industry are
made to resolve the problems by addressing the effects of the
Abstract damage. For example, the use of harder materials when erosion

T he definition of a heavy duty control valve is examined and cavitation damage occur. These solutions only marginally

through the undesirable effects of the process medium prolong the time at which failure will take place.

on a valve improperly applied to the service. A solution for The cause of the undesirable effects is excessive fluid velocity
these undesirable effects is to control the velocity of the that occurs as the pressure reduction takes place in the control
fluid as its pressure is reduced across the valve. A means valve. The velocity must be controlled for all valve settings.
of velocity control is presented and typical applications and One of the first methods of controlling velocity was to place
examples are discussed. a cage around the plug. This transferred the higher velocites
from the plug/seat interface to multiple orifices in the cage.
As higher pressure drop was encountered multiple, concentric
Introduction
cages were added. The principle of operation is still to achieve
The use of the label “heavy duty control valves” results in pressure reduction in steps by contraction through an orifice
many different visions and definitons for the valves to be without smooth downstream recovery. A superior method is
discussed. Each of these visions is generally dictated by an to continously control the velocity by dividing the fluid stream
experience with a troublesome valve application. into multiple but discrete flow passages and to dissipate the
energy continously via turbulence.
An understanding of why the valve selected is not
performing satisfactorily is not always known and, in many A multiple discrete passage method is shown by Figure 1. Each
cases, is accepted as the norm. Although each industry disk has many parallel flow paths and many disks are stacked
may have a different definition of a heavy and severe duty to form the valve trim. Each disk’s flow passages are opened as
valve, there are some generaliztions that can be made. These a plug moves across the opening in the center of the disk stack.
are valves that are characterized by erratic control, noise, Each path is made tortuous by forcing the fluid to make right-
mechanical vibration, cavitiation, erosion, and short life. angle turns. The pressure drop thus is achieved by a reduction
of a velocity head, ρv2/2g, for each right-angle turn. Test results
When the above conditions exist, the pressure ratio across
indicate a higher multiple than one velocity head is achieved for
the valve is usally greater than three, that is, the absolute
each turn. The fluid velocity through each of the flow paths is
inlet pressure exeeds three times the downstream pressure.
controlled by the number of paths selected. Additional velocity
The pressure level is frequently greater than 70 Kg/cm 2
control can be achieved by varying the flow area within each
(1,000 psi), although there are many cases in which valve
flow path. This is illustrated in Figure 2, where the outlet
life is shortened due to internal damage at lower pressures.
area, A2, is greater than the inlet area, A1, with a continually
Temperature of the flowing fluid is also an important variable increasing flow area between inlet and outlet.
in the valve’s duty. If the flowing fluid is liquid, it is important
to consider the fluid’s temperature and whether the pressure
drop within the valve passes through the vapor pressure of the
fluid. When there is sufficient heat in the fluid, a vapor change
can take place leading to internal valve damage via cavitation
and/or erosion. In additon to the fluid phase change problem,
absolute temperature level can have signficant influence on
the design. The influence is associated with material strength
and expansion characteristics with temperature. Materials
and design must be such that expansion does not over-stress
components and particular attention must be paid to
expansion of parts during thermal transients. As a rule,
temperature above 300C (600F) require accomodations in the
design to minimize thermal expansion effects.
Figure 1—Punched Disk Stack

2 Heavy Duty Control Valves | 229 ©2000 CCI. All rights reserved.
 Any valve using multiple orifice trim will cause this problem, due
to the uncontrolled velocities in the area of each vena contracta.

As the fluid moves out of the throat of the valve, pressure recovery
begins as kinetic energy is converted back to potential. Full
recovery to downstream pressure is indicated at P3 and velocity at
V3. When the recovery pressure exceeds the fluid’s vapor pressure,
Pv, collapse or implosion of the just-formed bubbles takes place,
resulting in cavitation damage. The energy released here causes
local surface stresses greater than 700 MPa (100,000 psi) which
can consume even stellited valve trim rapidly.
Figure 2
VALVE

The damaging effects of velocity are thus controlled in two ways. Inlet Outlet
Inlet P1
The first, by dividng the flow into many small streams of low
Pressure Pressure VVC vc = Vena Contracta
mass flow rate and secondly, by forcing the fluid through a series
of right-angle turns to effect the pressure drop steps.

The parallel disks form a cylindrical valve trim, which is placed

V1 V2 Outlet Velocity
in a valve body as shown in Figure 3. Control of the flow rate is Inlet
Velocity
achieved by the up and down movement of the plug across each
Velocity P 2 Outlet Pressure
of the disk openings. Externally, the valve appearance is essentially
PV
the same as a conventional globe or angle type control valve. Flashpoint Cavitation
P VC

Figure 4—Conventional Control Element

An approach widely used in the industry concerns itself only with

the flow rate. Simply stated, the principle is that if the valve flow rate
is not significantly reduced by the bubble volume entrained in the
fluid, the cavitation potential that exists is not damaging. A more
thorough approach is to control the velocity through the pressure
reduction. Using the velocity control technology, the pressure is
reduced in a large number of steps. The steps are so numerous that
the energy of velocity is dissipated through turbulence at the same
rate the pressure energy is being converted into velocity. Therefore,
the velocity can be maintained virtually constant at each step if
Figure 3 desired. The local pressure can also be maintained above the vapor
pressure of the fluid so that bubbles are not formed during the
Velocity Control Examples pressure reduction across the valve. This is shown by Figure 5.
A number of examples in which velocity control is essential are
VALVE
presented. The first example involves the cavitating fluid situation.
Cavitation is the process of formation and subsequent collapse of Inlet Outlet
microscopic vapor bubbles in a flowing fluid. In order for cavitation Inlet P1
Pressure
to occur, the fluid must pass through a low-pressure region, then Pressure
into a region of higher pressure. In control valves, the low-pressure
region is caused by local high velocities, usually in the vena contracta
immediately downstream of the seating area or port area. This Inlet V2 Outlet Velocity
V1
Velocity Velocity
process, for a conventional valve design, is shown in Figure 4.
P2 Outlet Pressure
Pv
Fluid enters at pressure P1 and velocity V1. As the fluid moves
Flashpoint
through the reduced area of the valve trim, it accelerates to
velocity V2 and its static pressure drops suddenly to P2, a level at
or below the fluid’s vapor pressure Pv. At this point, the fluid boils. Figure 5—Velocity Control Element

©2000 CCI. All rights reserved. 229 | Heavy Duty Control Valves 3
Because of the ability to completely control the velocity, it is
practical to let the velocity increase by using a constant area
passage when the pressure is considerably above the vapor
pressure. Then, as the pressure reduces, convert to an expanding
passage so that the velocity will drop and the local pressure be
maintained comfortably above the vapor formation pressure.
Another example of the need to control velocity is for cases
in which erosion damage occurs as a result of liquid droplets
entrained in the fluid vapor. The formation of the liquid can
be avoided by maintaining the expansion of the fluid above the
saturation curve as shown in Figure 6. The low pressure and high
velocity inherent in flow through a conventional or multi-orificed
trim, allows the fluid to expand polytropically from P1 to P3. At P3,
with velocity at its peak, droplets are formed which will rapidly
erode valve trim and cause impingement damage to the valve
body. Pressure recovery is completed in the valve outlet at P2
with the fluid in a superheated phase. In contrast, velocity control
elements operating at a low velocity allow the fluid to expand
in an isenthalpic manner. Thus the moisture droplets are not
formed during the throttling across the velocity controlling trim.
Figure 6
In some valve applications, it is necessary to maintain very low
velocities. Such an example would be a pump test loop application,
where it is very important that the control valve not impose
vibration and control instability prints upon the pump characteristics
being measured. Vibrations/transitions are caused and maintained by
unbalanced forces acting on the valve plug. These forces are the result
4 Heavy Duty Control Valves | 229
of excessive fluid velocities acting either perpendicularly or axially on
the plug. By controlling these velocities to acceptable levels during the
pressure reduction and throttling function, the vibrations and erratic
control that may result are eliminated.
From the above discussion, it is seen that, if needed, almost
any velocity can be achieved with the multi-path turns concept.
Variables that can be varied are:
1. Number of passages per disk.
2. Number of disks.
3. Flow area of each passage.
4. Amount of expansion of the flow passage.
5. Number of turns per flow passage.
6. The resistance, flow impedance, across each disk may change
with stroke so as to characterize the flow versus stroke
performance of the valve.
With such a side range of variability, designs could be made that
would achieve velocities that exactly follow the specific volume
expansion of a fluid as the pressure decreased.
Control Sensitivity
Most of the above discussion has dealt with the problems that result
in physical damage to the valve hardware. There are cases in which
the control valve performs without noise and vibration, but still has
a significant impact on the processs. This would occur where the
process requires a very fine control of the flow rate, or pressure,
and small deviations are magnified. One solution is to solve the
problem with multiple valves in which one valve, the smallest, acts
as a trimming control in parallel with larger valves which carry the
major load changes. The principle of operation in this case is that a
relatively large change in the position of the small valve plug results
in only a small change in the combined affect of all the parallel
valves. As control systems improve in their ability to provide an
accurate and discrete signal, the possibility exists that the multi-valve
approach may not be required. Much depends upon the ability of
the valve actuation and position system. Even though these systems
have improved over the years, special care must be exercised to
achieve a 1% resolution of the valve stem position. In most cases a
2% resolution of position results, which is many times larger than
the accuracy of the control signal.
With the velocity control valve concept it is still possible to be
able to do the job with one valve for many applications. Thus the
process control system would not need the extra control logic nor
extra valves to utilize a multi-parallel valve system. The approach
is achieved with a highly characterized trim whereby, at certain
positions of the valve stroke, a 1% change in stroke would result
in less than a 1% change in the flow rate.
©2000 CCI. All rights reserved.
To illustrate the above principle of characterization, consider
a valve in which control of the process pressure upstream of
the valve is required. Downstream of the valve the pressure is
essentially constant because a large receiver, tank or atmosphere,
is used for discharge. Then any change in valve position will
change the upstream pressure and flow rate throughout the
valve. Such an application is quite common, especially in process
start-up systems.

The magnitude of the pressure swings can be estimated by using

small perturbaton theory on the equation for the valve CV. For the
incompressible flow situation this results in:

1
Figure 7

or Since the downstream pressure is constant, the above values of dP

represent the instantaneous swing in process pressure for the two
2
valves. If the valve resolution is 2%,the above values would double.
The potential for oscillation of system pressure then exists as the
The above equation says that for a small change in the CV of control system attempts to correct the pressure causing in the linear
the valve, a corresponding change in flow and pressure drop will valve trim, a swing of + 12 Kg/cm2 (+ 173 psi). This value is
follow. For the case in which the flow is constant, the above significantly reduced by characterizing the valve trim.
equation reduces to: The characterization shown by Figure 7 has three unique flow
resistant regions. In each of these regions, the disk used to form
3 the trim would be different. Primarily in the number of right-
angle turns and flow passages per disk. Via characterization, it
A constant flow would result for an upstream pump running at is possible to significantly amplify the resolution accuracy of the
constant speed or a flow rate delay results as the mechancial actuator and positioner controls.
pumping equipment tries to respond. Even if a trim is not characterized, the approach of many flow
The percentage change in CV is related to the valve stroke from disks results in a straight flow versus stroke curve. In conventional
the manufacturer’s valve curve as shown on Figure 7. From Figure valves, whether there is a ported cage or not, a linear valve design
7, for a 1% change in stroke with a linear trim, a change of can be made, but deviations from linear exist. These deviations
2.6 occurs in CV. For the characterized trim, an 0.8 change in CV are due to flow distribution patterns in the valve which are not
results for the range of CV from 40 to 65. For the valves operating ideal, as well as manufacturing compromises and economic trade-
at a CV fo 60, a system pressure of 175 kg/cm (2,500 psi), and
2 offs. In most cases, these deviations do not have a noticable
a downstream tank pressure of 35 kg/cm2 (500 psi) the impact impact on the process control, however, when they are significant,
from equation 3 of a 1% change in stroke is: changes in the control system is not always a fix and valve
replacement is required.
FIGURE 7 CURVE
Aerodynamic Noise
Characterized Linear
% Stroke at CV = 60 45 22 The most signficant noise in control valves is aerodynamic. If a
δ CV/CV 0.8/60 2.6/60 valve is noisy, it generally identifies major problems that will result
%dP 2.67 8.67 in shortened life and high maintenance costs. In addition to the
dP, Kg/cm2 3.7 12.2 valve damage that results, consideration must be given to plant
dP, psi 53 173 operating personnel, who work in the noisy field environment. In
many countries, the noise design constraint is imposed by law.

©2000 CCI. All rights reserved. 229 | Heavy Duty Control Valves 5
The aerodynamic noise generated in a gas or steam valve is the
noise associated with moving of turbulent compressible fluid and
interaction of the moving compressible fluids with solid boundaries.
At subsonic flow speeds, noise is created by one or more of
three basic types of aerodynamic sources: monopole, dipole
and quadrupole. The aerodynamic monopole is like a pulsating
sphere where the acoustic pressure waves are always in phase.
Typical monopole sources are pulse jets, sirens, or propellers at
zero pitch. The dimensional relation of radiated sound power
and the parameters that product it are:
4 generating mechanisms in control valves, the sound power increases as
Note from the above relationship that the radiated sound power
varies as the fourth power of velocity.
The aerodynamic dipole is two monpoles pulsing 180 degrees
out of phase with each other. This type of radiation occurs when
a fluid interacts with a solid body to produce unsteady forces.
Typical of dipole sources are compressors, fluid flowing past grids
or rods, flow through valves, and flow in pipes or ducts. The
dimensional dependence on radiated sound power is:
5
Note from the above relationship that the radiated sound power
varies as the sixth power of velocity.
The aerodynamic quadrupole is two dipoles pulsing in opposing
pairs. This type of radiation is typical of high speed jets mixing
with still media in the absence of obstacles. The dimensional
dependence on radiated sound power is:
6
Note from the above relationship that the radiated sound power
varies as the eighth power of velocity.
At sonic speed flow, or choked flow, the noise generation is based
on two noise producing mechanisms. The first mechanism is
the turbulent mixing process downstream from the device. The
mechanism is associated with quadrupole radiation. The second
mechanism results from the interaction between the turbulence
and the complex flow field that forms downstream from the
device. This mechanism is called “shock noise” and is not
associated with the three basic source types. For pressure ratios
less than three across the conventional valves, both mechanisms
must be considered. With pressure ratios greater than three, the
shock noise mechanism predominates and the turbulent mixing
mechanism may be neglected. In valves with velocity control trim,
sonic conditions and their related noise mechanisms are avoided.
6 Heavy Duty Control Valves | 229
The most logical and economical way of dealing with control valve
noise is to treat it at the source. This is accomplished through
two mechanisms: frequency shift and velocity control. Small passage
design greatly increases the frequency of the noise over that found in
conventional or large passage designs. It has been found through testing
that the greatest portion of the noise energy generated in a disk stack
is well above the frequency range sensitive to human hearing. This
high-frequency noise is easily attenuated by the pipe wall and does not
contribute to the “A” weighted total sound level. Velocity is another
major contributing factor to noise generation in a valve as is clearly
seen in the sound power and velocity relationships disccussed earlier.
For aerodynamic dipole and quadrupole, which are the major noise
the sixth to eight power of velocity. Therefore, in dealing with control
valve noise the most effective way is velocity control. The velocity
control trims can be custom designed to meet the noise requirement
at virtually any pressure ratio and flow capacity. And, since the fluid
velocity is maintained well below sonic at all points in the trim, there is
no need for any downstream diffusers, insulations, or silencers.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
As discussed at the beginning of the paper, a definition of heavy
duty control valves is best recognized from the problems encountered.
Parameters to be considered for predicting that a special valve is
needed were absolute pressure level, pressure ratio, noise requirements,
temperature level and control. These parameters are present in one form
or another in the many applications that are listed in Table 1. New
applications arise as designers increase pressures and temperatures in
their processes to increase efficiency or to commercialize new processes.
In the latter case there will be much activity in the future in coal
gasification/liquification and heavy crude refining processes, as we learn
to expand our known energy resources.
NOMENCLATURE
ρ Density of Fluid
V Velocity of Fluid
g Gravitational Contact
A Flow Area
P Pressure
W Flow
Wam Radiated Sound Power, Monopole
Wad Radiated Sound Power, Dipole
Waq Radiated Sound Power Quadrupole
Cv Valve Sizing Coefficient
dPPressure drop
δ Change
C Speed of Sound in Fluid
©2000 CCI. All rights reserved.
 TABLE 1
Velocity Control Applications

Typical Power Plant Applications

• Feedwater Regulation - Full Range

• Pump Recirculation - Minimum Flow Systems
• Reheat, Attemperator and Desuperheater Spray
• High Pressure/Temperature Bypass
• Steam Vents
• Start-Up System Steam Valves
• Auxiliary Steam Control

--------

Process Applications

• Compressor Anti-Surge (Kick Back)

• Process Letdown
• Process Bypass
• Process Vents
• Level Control
• Flare Header
• Steam Valves
• Water Valves

--------

Oil and Gas Production/Separation

• Gas and Surge Drum Vent to Flare

• Gas and Reinjection Compressor Anti-Surge
• Flow and Pressure Control-Separators to Compressors
• Separator Level Control
• Turbo Expander Bypass
• H.P. Scrubber - Letdown and Vent
• Injection Pump and Mol Pump - Discharge and Recirculation
• Well Head Choke

©2000 CCI. All rights reserved. 229 | Heavy Duty Control Valves 7