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OF
INFINITE EXTENTION
To Elizabeth
1.1. Displacement fields. The space B under consideration, also called a Kelvin
space, is all filled up with an elastic continuum which in its undeformed state is
homogeneous and isotropic with mass density ρs that obeys the deformation laws
of The Linear Theory of Elasticity. Notice that I already now put the index s on the
mass density in order to distinguish it from the charge density ρ of electrodynamics.
Date: 20:08:08.
Thanks to a friend who wants to be anonymous, because he has supplied me with important
books, and given me the term ”The spatial continuum”.
1
2 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
The displacement in this space is described by the displacement field ; its value
u(x) at a point x is the infinitesimal displacement of x. The symmetric part
¡ ¢
(1.1) ² = 12 ∇u + ∇uT ,
1
²ij = 2 (u i, j + uj, i ),
of the displacement gradient, ∇u, is the infinitesimal strain field, and the above
equation, relating ² to u, is called the strain-displacement relation. In this context
the (local) space is to be understood as the whole of the deformed area, or at least
an area through which border no significant forces due to the inside deformation
are conveyed. In addition u has got to be continuous and sufficiently smooth.
We call
div u = tr ²,
the dilatation. The infinitesimal volume change δv(P ) of a part P of space due to
a continuous displacement of the field u is defined by
I
δv (P ) = u · n da,
P
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface element da of the surface of P , and
we say that u is solenoidal if δv(P ) = 0 for every P . By the divergence theorem
we have
Z Z
δv (P ) = div u dv = tr ² dv.
P P
In addition to this initial body force, I will keep the possibility open that there
might be another hypothetical body force b caused by the external world, just in
order to see how such a force would change the spatial continuum. The total force
f (P ) on a part P of space is the total surface force from the stress vector sn exerted
across the surface ∂P plus the total body force exerted on P by the external world
Z Z
f (P ) = sn da + b dv.
∂P P
The Cauchy-Poisson theorem [1, page 44] states that if u is an admissible motion
and f is a system of forces, then [u, f ] is a dynamic process if and only if the
following two conditions are satisfied:
(1) there exists a symmetric tensor field σ called the stress field, such that for
each unit vector n,
σn = σ n;
(2) u, σ, and b satisfy the equation of motion
(1.4) div σ + b = ρs ü.
This theorem is one of the major results of continuum mechanics.
4 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
1.4. The Navier-Cauchy equation. From the strain field (1.1), the Stress-strain
relation (1.5) and the Equation of motion (1.4) one can derive the Navier-Cauchy
equation [1, page 213]
µs ui, jj + µs uj,ij + (λs uk,k δij ), j + bi = ρs üi
µs ui, jj + µs uj, ji + λs uk,ki + bi = ρs üi ,
(1.6) µs ∇2 u + (λs + µs )∇divu + b = ρs ü,
or equivalently by the mathematical identity curl curl u = ∇ div u − ∇2 u
(1.7) (λs + 2µs )∇divu − µs curl curl u + b = ρs ü.
At this point it may be appropriate to stress the point that the Navier-Cauchy
equation only treats the limit where deformations can be considered infinitesimal,
and it must not be mixed up with Navier-Stokes equation, which also incorporates
viscosity and takes into account the hydrodynamic property that v̇ may be different
from ∂v/∂t [i.e. v̇ = ∂v/∂t + (v · ∇)v].
1Note that I have put on the indices s to avoid mixing them up with other properties in
electrodynamics.
5
1 ∂ 2 (curl u) curl b
(1.13) ∇2 (curl u) − =−
c22 ∂t2 µs
With b = 0 we have two wave equations where the dilatation, divu, satisfies
a wave moving with the speed c1 , while the rotational component curlu, satisfies
6 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
a wave moving with the speed c2 . In fact the Propagation theorem for isotropic
bodies states that if a body is isotropic, then a wave is either longitudinal, in which
case c = c1 , or transversal, in which case c = c2 [1, page 256]. This diversion of
the Navier-Cauchy equation into one irrotational and one solenoidal part, allows
us to examine these two parts separately and thereby simplifies the strain-stress
relation immensely by reducing the elastic constants to only one single constant
(the wave speed) in each equation (c1 6= c2 ). We see from Equation (1.10) that
the two wave p speeds are related to each other with a fixed constant given by the
relation c1 = 2 + λs /µs · c2 . We notice that c1 is about the double of c2 .
Finally we notice that all information of curlu is lost in (1.12) and all information
of divu in (1.13).
1.5. Field energy and energy transport. From the Navier-Cauchy equation
one can find the internal field energy in an admissible field in B by performing the
following thought experiment: Introduce a hypothetical body force, −b (negative
because b is a breaking force), from the outside world such that it eradicates the
entire field in B; i.e. u and all functions of u become constant like zero all over
B. In addition I will assume that the entire field is confined inside B such that u
is zero on the surface of B and beyond. The energy released by this operation, E,
would then be like the total field energy in B.
Z Z0
E=− dv bdu
B f (u)
Z fZ(u)
h ¡ ¢ i
= dv ρs ü − (λs + 2µ)grad divu + µcurl curlu du
B 0
Z ³ Zu̇
du̇ ´
E1 = dv ρs du
dt
B 0
Z ³ Zu̇ ´
= dv ρs du̇ · u̇ ,
B 0
Z
1 2
E1 = 2 ρs u̇ dv.
B
The next part can be integrated by using the mathematical identity (1.17) and
inserting φ = div u and A = du
7
Z Z u
div
h i
E2 = (λs + 2µ) dv div u · div(du) − div(du · div u)
B 0
Z Z u
div
£ ¤
= (λs + 2µ) dv div u · d(divu) −
B 0
Z Z u
div
¡ ¢
(λs + 2µ) dv · div du · divu .
B 0
The first part of the integral can readily be integrated, and the last part can
be transformed into a surface integral over ∂B by the Divergence theorem2 and
disappear because u is constant like zero on the border of B and beyond. Thus
Z
1 2
E2 = 2 (λs + 2µ)(div u) dv.
B
We can find E3 in much the same way by using the identity
(1.14) div (A × B) = curl A · B − curl B · A,
and inserting B = curl u and A = du
Z Z u
curl
h i
E3 = −µ dv div(du × curl u) − curl u · curl(du)
B 0
Z Z u
curl
equation above, and no other energy is present as long as we deal with infinitesimal
deformations restricted to a limited area of a homogeneous and isotropic continuum
covered by the Linear Theory of Elasticity.3 With this restriction in mind the local
energy density, e, in the spatial continuum is given by
(1.16) e= 1
2 ρs u̇2 + 1
2 (λs + 2µs )( div u)2 + 1
2 µs ( curl u)2
leaving the possibility open that there may be a residual pressure and a corre-
sponding homogeneous residual energy density in addition to this field energy. It
is noteworthy that the energy density in any field of strain and motion is nonneg-
ative even if the space itself should happen to contain a huge amount of uniformly
distributed energy due to an initial pressure.
The energy transport in the deformation field can be found by deriving the
equation above with respect on time. We acquire
∂e
= ρs u̇ü + (λs + 2µs ) div u div u̇ + µs curl u curl u̇.
∂t
We substitute ρs ü from Equation (1.7) and get
∂e £ ¤
=u̇ (λs + 2µs ) grad div u − µs curl curl u + b
∂t
+ (λs + 2µs ) div u div u̇ + µs curl u curl u̇,
∂e £ ¤
bu̇ = + µs curl ( curl u) · u̇ − curl u̇( curl u)
∂t £ ¤
− (λs + 2µs ) ( div u) div u̇ + u̇ grad ( div u) .
By the mathematical identity (1.14) and the identity
(1.17) div (φA) = φ div A + A grad φ,
this equation develops into
∂e £ ¤
+ div (µs curl u × u̇) − div (λs + 2µs ) div u · u̇ = bu̇.
∂t
We define a new vector
(1.18) S = µs curl u × u̇ − (λs + 2µs ) div u · u̇,
and in the absence of external forces we acquire the compact equation:
∂e
+ div S = 0.
∂t
Since the increase in energy density has got to be equal to the inflow of energy per
unit volume, S can be interpreted as the energy flow vector.
more than pure mathematical entities will be discussed in another paper4. Some
terms are used quite differently in mechanics and electrodynamics. For example
the Greek letter ρ is used for mass density in mechanics, but as charge density
in electrodynamics. To avoid confusion I will use an index s on the mechanical
terms whenever necessary. Hence ρs means spatial mass density while ρ means the
density of sinks – the spatial counterpart to charge density.
sink density is negative. The strength of a spatial sink, Qs , can be defined as the
inflow of spatial mass through a closed surface around the sink
I
def
Q = −ρs u̇ndf, [F T L−1 ] = [M T −1 ],
V
2.2. The stress energy tensor. According to (1.16) and the newly defined prop-
erties the elastodynamic field energy in a divergence-free field is
ε0 2 1 2
(2.11) e= E + B , [F L−2 ] = [M L−1 T −2 ].
2 2µ0
Since this field may contain energy, we must also expect that it can move around
in space as the field changes. To examine this property we can start by deriving
11
Ṡ 1 ¡ ¢
= 2 E × Ḃ + Ė × B ,
c2 c µ0
Ṡ £ ¤
2
= ε0 E × (− curl E) + (c2 curl B − c2 µ0 j) × B ,
c
Ṡ 1
= −ε0 E × curl E + curl B × B + B × j.
c2 µ0
By applying the mathematical identity
we obtain
Ṡ ¡ ε0 ¢ ¡ 1 ¢
2
+ grad E · E − ε0 (E · ∇)E + grad B·B
c 2 2µ0
1
(2.16) − (B · ∇)B = (B × j).
µ0
12 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
Ṡi ¡ ε0 2 1 2¢
2
+ E + B , i − ε0 Ej Ei, j − ε0 Ej, j Ei + ε0 Ej, j Ei
c 2 2µ0
1 1 1
− Bj Bi, j − Bj, j Bi + Bj, j Bi = ²ijk Bj jk .
µ0 µ0 µ0
The term Bj, j is like zero by (2.8), Ej,j = ρ/ε0 by Equation (??), and the rest
can be manipulated into
∂Si
(2.17) − + σij,j = ρEi − ²ijk Bj jk .
c2 ∂t
where the new tensor σij is given by
def 1 1¡ 1 2¢
(2.18) σij = ε0 Ei Ej + Bi Bj − ε 0 E2 + B δij .
µ0 2 µ0
Now we write out (2.14) and (2.17) in component form and obtain the set of
equations (the zeroes are inserted for clarity)
∂e ∂Sx ∂Sy ∂Sz Ex jx Ey jy Ez jz
+ + + =0 − − − ,
c∂t c∂x c∂y c∂z c c c
∂Sx ∂σxx ∂σxy ∂σxz
− − − =Ex ρ + 0 − Bz jy + By jz ,
c2 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Sy ∂σyx ∂σyy ∂σyz
− − − =Ey ρ + Bz jx + 0 − Bx jz ,
c2 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂Sz ∂σzx ∂σxy ∂σzz
− − − =Ez ρ − By jx + Bx jy + 0.
c2 ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
The four differential equations can be written as one matrix equation
∂
c∂t e Sx /c Sy /c Sz /c
∂ Sx /c −σxx −σxy −σxz
∂x
∂ · Sy /c −σyx −σyy −σyz
∂y
∂
∂z
Sz /c −σzx −σzy −σzz
0 −Ex /c −Ey /c −Ez /c cρ
Ex /c 0 −Bz By
(2.19) = · jx
Ey /c Bz 0 −Bx jy
Ez /c −By Bx 0 jz
which formally can be written
Tαβ ,β = Fαβ Jβ ,
or in frame independent notation
∇ · T = F · J.
Here the second order tensor T, the stress energy tensor, is given by
e Sx /c Sy /c Sz /c
αβ def Sx /c −σxx −σxy −σxz
(2.20) T = ,
Sy /c −σyx −σyy −σyz
Sz /c −σzx −σzy −σzz
the second order tensor F by
0 −Ex /c −Ey /c −Ez /c
def Ex /c 0 −Bz By
(2.21) Fαβ = Ey /c
,
Bz 0 −Bx
Ez /c −By Bx 0
and finally J by
def
(2.22) Jα = (cρ, jx , jy , jz ).
In four-space we need some definitions:
First the Minkowski metric
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
ηαβ = 0
.
0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Coordinates in 4-space
xα =(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x, y, z),
xβ =xα ηαβ = (−ct, x, y, z).
The del operator in four space
³1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ´
∇α = ∂α = , , , ,
c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
³ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ´
∇α = ∂ α = − , , , ,
c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
³ 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ´
∇ 2 = ∂ α ∂α = − 2 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 .
c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
2.3. The vector potential in the elastic continuum. Equation (2.8) means
that the field B can be derived from some vector potential A
(2.23) B = curl A,
where div A is temporarily arbitrary, but can be given a fixed meaning later without
changing the term curl A.
By inserting (2.23) into (2.7) we get
curl (E + A,t ) = 0.
Therefore E + A,t may be represented as some gradient
E + A,t = −c grad φ,
hence
(2.24) E = −(c grad φ + A,t ).
Thus both E and B can be represented by some potentials A and φ. For the choice
of A and φ the Equations (2.7) and (2.8) are fulfilled.
14 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
By adding and subtracting the same term c grad ψ,t into (2.24), we acquire
E = −[c grad (φ − ψ,t ) + (A + c grad ψ),t ].
We also have that adding c grad ψ to A leaves B unchanged. Hence the substitutions
(2.25) φ → φ0 = φ + ψ,t , A → A0 = A + c grad ψ
leave the properties E, B, j, and ρ unchanged for arbitrary functions ψ. The substi-
tutions (2.25) are called Gauge transformations (see http://www.mathematik.tu-
darmstadt.de/ bruhn/Maxwell-Theory.html).
The most obvious gauge is to set div A = div u which means to infer that the
spatial continuum is uncompressed. It would work equally well to set div u = const.
This picture is complicated by the assumption that there are true point-like sinks
and sources around, hence − div u̇ = ρ/ε0 (see Equation (??)), so we can introduce
a potential φ such that
ρ
−∇2 φ = .
ε0
This leads to the Coulomb gauge which works well if we consider a fixed frame in
the spatial continuum. What we need, however, is a gauge that works equally well
in a moving frame. This requirement leads to the Lorenz gauge after the Danish
physicist Ludvig Valentin Lorenz (1829-1891):
1
(2.26) div A + φ, t = 0.
c
Inserting (2.23) and (2.24) into (2.9) yields
1
curl curl A + 2 (A,tt + c grad φ) = µ0 j,
c
and by applying the mathematical identity
(2.27) curl curl A = grad div A − ∇2 A,
we obtain
1 1
A,tt − ∇2 A + grad ( div A + φ, t ) = µ0 j.
c2 c
Analogously by inserting the same properties into (??) we obtain
ρ
−(c∇2 φ + div A,t ) = ,
ε0
or by adding and subtracting 1/cφ,tt we acquire
1 1 ρ
φ,tt − c∇2 φ − ( div A + φ, t ),t = ,
c c ε0
1 2 1 1 cρ
φ,tt − ∇ φ − ( div A + φ, t ),t = µ0 · 2 .
c2 c c c ε0 µ0
By the Lorenz gauge and (2.6) the two potentials reduce to
1
(2.28) − 2 φ,tt + ∇2 φ = −µ0 · cρ,
c
1
(2.29) − 2 A,tt + ∇2 A = −µ0 · j.
c
These two equations can be expressed as one vector potential in four-space
∂α ∂ α Aβ = −µ0 · Jβ ,
15
where
Aβ = (φ, Ax , Ay , Az ),
Jβ = (cρ, jx , jy , jz ),
or in frame independent notation
(2.30) ∇2 A = −µ0 · J.
hence the box is moving with some velocity v in the direction of S and it contains
an amount of energy given by
m
X
E= En .
n=1
16 BJØRN URSIN KARLSEN
We divide Equation (2.32) by c2 and take the time derivative of it. We obtain
∂ ³ Ev ´ X ∂ ³ Sn ´
m
= ,
∂t c2 n=1
∂t c2
∂ ³ Ev ´ X
m
= fn ,
∂t c2 n=1
∂ ³ Ev ´
= f.
∂t c2
Finally we define a new property m given by
def E
m = ,
c2
or
(2.33) E = mc2 ,
and acquire
∂
(2.34) (mv) = f .
∂t
We can interpret this equation such that if we have a box containing a distur-
bance energy similar to m, then a force f is needed to give it an acceleration a = v̇,
provided that the property m, which we could call the mass of radiation, is kept
constant.
When the box is accelerated from zero velocity6, however, we have got to add
energy to it given by
dE = f · ds,
= f ds,
6The situation is considerably more complicated if the box and the observer have an initial
velocity, say v0 . To address that question, one first has got to assume that the phenomenon
is observed in a Lorentz frame that makes the equations above invariant for the change of the
observer’s coordinate system, as Lorentz showed already in the fall of the nineteenth century.
That would make the observation fully relativistic, and v0 could be set to zero from where the
deduction could proceed as shown.
17
3. Summing up
In this paper we have seen that the four equations (2.7) through (??) correspond
to James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831–1879) electrodynamic equations. Provided that
there are free moving sinks and sources in the spatial continuum, Equation (2.10)
demonstrates that they will generate a ”drag” just like Lord Kelvin postulated
for moving electrons in 1890 [2, page 247]. The energy flow vector in Equation
(2.13) is formally like Poynting’s vector after John Henry Poynting (1852-1914).
In a notation introduced by Hermann Minkowski (1864–1909), the field tensor
Fαβ in Equation (2.21) is like the Electromagnetic tensor, and the Elastodynamic
stress-energy tensor, Tαβ , corresponds exactly to the Electromagnetic stress-energy
tensor. Note also that the spatial stresses, σxy , correspond exactly to Maxwell’s
stress tensor that represent the mechanical stresses caused by electromagnetic fields
in space. Finally it is possible to describe deformation fields as a vector potential
in the spatial continuum. In this notation the fields, like electromagnetic fields,
are invariant by transformations between different Lorentz frames, after Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928), in rectilinear motion relative to each other. A moving
weightless box containing an amount of disturbance energy will have a momentum
corresponding to the energy in a material body with the same energy content. The
force needed to change its velocity corresponds to Newton’s second Law of motion,
and moreover, to increase the velocity of such a box towards the propagating speed
c of transversal waves will increase its energy towards infinity.
References
1. S. Flűgge (ed.), Mechanics of solids ii, Encyclopedia of Physics, vol. VIa/2, Springer, 1972.
2. Sir Edmund Whittaker, A history of the theories of aether and electricity, vol. I and II, Philo-
sophical Library, 1951.
E-mail address: ukarlsen@online.no