NOTES ON Petroleum Processing

David A. Stark
Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, IN 46556

Printed on April 30, 1998

Contents
1 Introduction to Petroleum Processing 2 Natural Gas and Liquid Separation
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Vertical Separators . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal Separators . . . . . . . . . Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators Stage Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 11 13 13

3 7

3 Dehydration

3.0.1 Glycol Dehydration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.0.2 Dehydration and Gas Puri cation by Adsorption 19

15

4 Cryogenic Processing of Natural Gas

4.1 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4.1.1 Expander Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4.1.2 Cascade Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

23

5 Basic Processes of Liquid Petroleum Processing 6 Crude Oil Distillation

6.1 Design Tools for Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 6.1.1 True Boiling Point Curve and the Equilibrium Flash Vaporization Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 6.1.2 Establishing Flash Zone Conditions . . . . . . . . 37

31 35

7 Vapor Recovery 8 Catalytic Cracking

1

41 45

9 De-waxing Process 10 Petroleum Coking

10.1 Delayed Coking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 10.2 Flexicoking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 10.3 Fluid Coking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

49 51

A Internal Flow in Pipes B Fluid Machinery

B.1 Classi cation of Fluid Machinery . . . . . B.2 Turbomachinery Analysis . . . . . . . . . . B.2.1 The Angular Momentum Principle B.2.2 Euler Turbomachine Equation . . . B.3 Velocity Polygon Method . . . . . . . . . . B.4 Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . B.5 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . B.6 Similarity Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.0.1 C.0.2 C.0.3 C.0.4

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57 67

67 70 70 70 75 78 79 81 87 88 90 90

C Compressor Calculations

Cylinder Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . Volumetric E ciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discharge Temperature and Adiabatic Head Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

Chapter 1 Introduction to Petroleum Processing

The purpose of this document is to discuss the various components of petroleum processing and to look into the thermodynamic and uid mechanic properties found within these processes. The basic purpose for petroleum re ning is to create usable fuels and lubricants for combustion engines, and the e ect it has had on the modern world is spectacular. Crude oil is composed of literally hundreds of hydrocarbon compounds ranging in size form the smallest, methane, which has only one carbon atom, to large compounds containing 200 or more carbon atoms. A major portion of these compounds are para ns. Para ns are straight-chain hydrocarbon compounds such as methane, ethane, and propane. The remaining hydrocarbon compounds are either cyclic para ns called napthenes or aromatics. These families of hydrocarbons are called homologues, and because of the large quantity of these compounds which are found in crude oil, only the simplest of the compounds can be isolated on a commercial scale. Generally, isolation of these compounds are restricted to those compounds lighter than C8s. This isolation occurs in the products primarily through the use of their di erent boiling points. In general, the products that are normally obtained from crude oil can be grouped as follows. 3

H H C H Methane H H

H C

H C H H

H C H

H C

H C H

H H Ethane

H H Propane

H H H C H H C H H C H H C H H H Isobutane H H H N-Butane C C C H H H C H H

Figure 1.1: Examples of Para ns in crude oil. 1. Volatile products Propane LPG Lique ed Petroleum Gas Butane LPG Light naphtha C5s and C6 2. Light distillates Gasolines Heavy naphtha Kerosene and jet fuel 3. Middle distillates Diesel fuel 4

H2 C H2 C CH
2

H2 C H H2 C C C H3 H2 C

H2 C H C C H3 C H2 C H C H3

C H2

C H2

C H2

C H2

Cyclopentane

Methylcyclopentane

Dimethylcyclopentane

Figure 1.2: Examples of Naphthenes found in crude oil.

H C HC CH

HC

CH

C H Benzene

Figure 1.3: Example of an Aromatic hydrocarbon in crude oil Heating oils Gas oils 4. Fuel oils Marine diesel Bunker fuels for ships 5. Lubricating oils Motor Spindle Machine oils 5

6. Waxes Food and paper coating grade Pharmaceutical grade 7. Bitumen Asphalt Coke Products in these groups are produced from distillation processes and treated to meet certain speci cations. These speci cations are the result of a compromise between performance capabilities of the product and the treating that must occur to reach these performance characteristics.

Chapter 2 Natural Gas and Liquid Separation

Product from a gas well is composed of a complex mixture of many di erent compounds of hydrogen and carbon. This product shall be termed a natural gas well stream or simply a well stream, once it has been introduced to the pipeline for transport. All of the di erent hydrogen and carbon compounds found within the well stream have various thermodynamic properties such as density, vapor pressure, boiling and freezing points, and other physical characteristics. Typically, a well stream is a high velocity, turbulent, constantly expanding mixture of gases and liquids mixed with free water, water vapor, solids, and other contaminants." 6, p. 37 As this well stream travels from the hot, high pressure reservoir, it constantly undergoes reduction in its pressure and temperature. Thus gases separate from and mix with the uids, water vapor condenses, and various other phases of matter are observed such as mist, bubbles, and free gas. Thus one of the most important and primary steps of processing natural gas is separation of the gases from the solids and liquids in the well stream. This step is conveniently called separation. There are four basic functions a well designed separator must accomplish. First, it must cause a primary-phase separation between liquid hydrocarbons from gaseous hydrocarbons by creating a momentum reduction. The second step is a second separation of liquid mist from the gases. Then, further re nement occurs by removing gas suspended 7

in the previously separated liquid. The nal step is the discharge of the separated gas and liquid from the vessel without mixing the newly separated products. Ideally, gases and liquids should reach a state of equilibrium in a separator, however, the degree of separation usually is dependent on the cost of installation for the separator verses the degree of separation. Thus the processing equipment downstream and the conditions they require dictate the necessary degree of separation. There are several factors which in uence the design of a separator. The rst is the ow rate. Flow rates must be accounted for both liquids and gases entering and exiting the separator. These ow rates are usually measured in barrels per day for liquids and million standard cubic feet MMscf per day for gases. The second factor is the speci c gravities of the compounds in the well stream. The di erence in the speci c gravities will allow for some separation by merely allowing gravity to act on the oil, water, and gases. Thirdly, the required retention time of the product within the separator for separation. The fourth factor is the operating temperature and pressure of the separator. The next factor to consider is the number of phases the separator will handle. In other words, if the separator is designed to be a two-phase design, it handle only oil and gas. On the other hand, a three-phase design will be capable of separating oil, gas, and water. It should be noted that the term phase is not used in the standard thermodynamics sense. Rather, it is a term used in the petroleum industry to refer to the type of product being used. Therefore, the deciding factor for the number of phases in a separator depends on the content of the well stream. Also related to the content of the well stream is the amount of solid impurities the separator must be able to handle. Therefore, for ows with high impurity content, the separator must be both easily maintained and large in size to keep from being clogged. Finally, the amount of space allowed for the placement of the separator in uences both the size and style of the separator. Thus, this brings us to the three most basic types of separators: vertical, horizontal, and horizontal double-barrel. 8

2.1 Vertical Separators

Vertical separators are often used for low to intermediate ratios of gas to oil in a well stream, and they are often employed for well streams which produce large slugs of liquid. However, the primary advantage of the vertical separator is the relatively small amount of oor space it requires. This can become a very important design factor for o shore processing rigs. A vertical separator operates by passing the inlet well stream through an inlet diverter, which is simply a piece of material inhibiting the forward velocity of the well stream. By blocking the well stream, the diverter imparts a centrifugal motion to the uid spreading the uids against the separator shell in a thin lm. This centrifugal motion provides a reduction of momentum in the uid which allows the gases to escape the thin uid lm. This gas rises to the top of the vessel and the newly separated liquids settle to the bottom. Any remaining small uid particles, such as mist, which rise with the gas are then caught by a centrifugal ba e arrangement below the gas outlet. These small uid particles eventually collect and settle back to the bottom of the vessel. The centrifugal motion imparted by the ba es ensure the contact of the liquid with the ba es, thus preventing any liquid from escaping. As mentioned above, the vertical separator has a gas outlet above the ba es from which the gas is removed from the vessel to be further processed. Similarly, there is a liquid discharge at the base of the separator maintained by a liquid-level control which keeps a set volume of liquid in the base of the vessel. This liquid acts as a seal to force the pressure within the vessel to push the gas out of the top of the vessel. Figure 2.1 illustrates the basic setup of a vertical separator.

Figure 2.1: Standard Vertical Separator

10

Figure 2.2: Standard Horizontal Separator

2.2 Horizontal Separators

In comparison to the vertical separator, the horizontal separator provides a much greater gas-liquid interface area allowing the horizontal separator to handle well streams with much higher ow rates. It also has a few economic advantages in that it is less expensive to construct, easier to clean and service, and it is easier to hook up. The basic process within the horizontal separator is composed of a few major steps. First of all, upon entry into the vessel, the well stream impacts a series of staggered ba e plates which provide an initial momentum reduction. As with the vertical separator, this provides the main component of the liquid gas separation. Gas is then passed along the top of the vessel through horizontal ba e plates which run the entire length of the vessel. Within these horizontal ba e plates the direction of the gas is altered by a second set of ba ing plates which create a herringbone design. The constant change of direction ensures that the liquid particles, which are suspended in the gas, contact the ba es and settle to the base of the vessel. To allow the settling process to occur, the horizontal plates are staggered for drainage. This process of constantly redirecting the gas is termed scrubbing. The scrubbed gas is then 11

passed to a storage compartment which is connected to the gas outlet where it can be discharged from the vessel. The liquid stored in the base of the vessel may either be drained or separated into oil and water if the separator is three-phase. Located at the top of this section in Figure 2.2, is an illustration of a horizontal three-phases separator. The separation of these liquids is based on the di erence in the densities of the liquids. Since oil has a lower density than water, it is easily separated by allowing it to oat on top of the water. By maintaining the water level, the oil is allowed to runover a containment wall into an oil drainage compartment. Similarly, to prevent water from running over the containment wall, there is a drainage site for the water at the base of the vessel.

Figure 2.3: Standard Double-Barrel Horizontal Separator

12

2.3 Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators

Double-barrel horizontal separators possess all of the advantages of a normal horizontal separator, it uses the same components for the scrubbing process, however, it is capable of handling a much higher liquid capacity than the normal horizontal separator. Instead of retaining liquid in the base of the vessel, it is drained directly into the second barrel. Thus, the gas velocities may be much higher since over ow of the liquids is not as great of a concern.

2.4 Stage Separation

Stage separation is the separation of vapor and liquid phases of gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons by two or more equilibrium ashes at consecutively lower pressures. In this context, a ash is the vaporization of hydrocarbons. A two-stage separation requires one separator and one storage tank. Similarly, a three-stage separation is composed of two separators and one storage tank, and a four-stage separator follows this same pattern. In each case, the tank is considered the nal stage for vapor-liquid separation since the nal equilibrium ash occurs in the storage tank. The process occurs by feeding the well stream into the rst separator, after, the initial separation process has occurred, the gas is removed from the vessel. By removing the separated gas, the pressure in the vessel is reduced, and the separated liquid is fed into the second separator where more gases are released, and so on until the liquid is fed into the storage tank. The purpose of using a stage separation such as this is that at high pressures, petroleum liquids usually contain high quantities of lique ed propanes, butanes, and pentanes. Thus by using a stage separation to lower the pressure on the liquids, a more complete separation of the products is produced for the storage tank, due to the vaporization of the lique ed propanes, butanes, and pentanes.

13

14

Chapter 3 Dehydration
One of the most undesirable impurities found within a gas stream is water vapor. Water vapor itself is not a problem, however, the liquid or solid phases which precipitates from the gas during compression or cooling is. In its liquid phase, water accelerates corrosion inside the system and acts as an anti-catalyst for later catalytic processes; in its solid state, ice, water can plug valves, ttings, and even gas lines. Therefore, in order to prevent major di culties, all fuel gas transported in pipelines must be at least partially dehydrated. The quantity of water in saturated natural gas at various pressures and temperatures can be estimated from Figure 3.1, which is based on data computed by Kohl and Reisenfeld. 4 This chart also shows a hydrate formation line gas with a speci c gravity of 0.6. To the left of this line, solid hydrates form when the saturated gas is cooled. It can be noted that hydrates form more readily in gases with a high density than gases with a very low density. For example, when examining the chart, at a pressure of 1000 psia, hydrates form at approximately 62 F in a natural gas with a speci c gravity of 0.6. However, for a speci c gravity of 0.75 and 1.00 hydrates form at temperatures of 67 F and 71 F respectively. 4, p. 583 One of the contributing factors which increases the equilibrium concentration of water in the gas stream is the presence of substantial concentrations of acidic gases. Two such acidic gases are carbon dioxide CO2 and dihydrogen sul de H2 S. The e ect of these gases is most notable at pressures above 1000 psia. Typical data for this correlation is 15

Figure 3.1: Water-vapor content of saturated natural gas presented in Table 3.1. It is noted that the increase of the concentration of water caused by acidic gases is greatest at high temperatures and low pressures. The e ect of CO2 verses the e ect of H2 S is not equivalent, though for equal concentrations, CO2 contains only 75  of the water concentration of H2 S.

16

Pressure psig 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000

Temperature  C H2 S  CO2  H2 O Conc. ppMM 100 0 0 58.9 100 10 10 63.9 100 20 20 71.9 200 0 0 630 200 20 20 733 100 0 0 23.1 100 10 10 38.5 100 20 20 73.6 200 0 0 197 200 20 20 397 100 0 0 19.9 100 10 10 36.1 100 20 20 71.8 200 0 0 159 200 20 20 378

Table 3.1: E ect of H2S and CO2 on Water Vapor Content of Saturated Natural Gas The water content of saturated air at pressures from 1 to 1000 atm is given in Figure 3.2, which can be found in the Chemical Engineers Handbook. Another useful method of indicating the water content of a gas is in terms of its dew point. The dew point is a more direct indication of the dehydration e ectiveness than the absolute water content. Therefore, if the dew point temperature is known, given either the variable for pressure or content of the water, the other variable may be read from Figure 3.1. ? . There are three primary processes for water vapor removal from gas streams, and they can be classi ed as follows: Absorption by Liquids Adsorption by Solid Desiccants 17

10

10

10 LBS Water/LBS AIR

150 100

10

50

10

10

-50
6

10

10

10

10

10 PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERES

10

Figure 3.2: Water-vapor content of saturated air Condensation by Compression and or Cooling Only absorption and adsorption will be considered in this document since condensation is rarely an economical means of water vapor removal. There are three primary liquids used for drying gas: triethylene glycol TEG, diethylene glycol DEG and tetraethylene glycol T4 EG.

3.0.1 Glycol Dehydration Process

Figure 3.3 represents a ow diagram of a plant designed to use either of the glycols for the dehydration process. The basic steps that occur are as follows. First, the glycol stream containing from about one to ve percent water contacts the gas in a short, counter-current column. The water which is absorbed dilutes the glycol. This diluted solution must be re-concentrated before it can be forwarded to the 18

Dried Gas

H2O Phase Separator

Absorber

Reconcentrator

Inlet Scrubber

Figure 3.3: Flow Diagram of a Glycol Dehydration Plant absorber. Re-concentration of this glycol is achieved by distilling water out of the solution in a regenerator. This method of re-concentration by heating the solutions is very e ective due to the large di erence in boiling points of water and glycol. This is a cyclic operation, where the glycol is repetitively diluted and re-concentrated. Eventually, the glycol is broken down, and it must be replaced.

3.0.2 Dehydration and Gas Puri cation by Adsorption

Anytime a molecule bonds to the outside of a compound, the process is termed adsorption. This is di erent from absorption in that during absorption, the molecule penetrates the compound. In the process of 19

adsorption, materials are concentrated on the surface of a solid as a result of forces existing at this surface, whether the forces be pressure, weight, or other intermolecular forces. The greater the surface area of the adsorption material or dessicant, the greater amount of particles or impurities adsorbed. Therefore, most solid dessicant adsorbers use dessicants that are irregular granules or preformed spheres or tablets in order to increase the surface are of the dessicant. The cause of the inter-particle force, is not thoroughly understood, however, the most familiar theory proposed in Kohl and Reisenfeld 4 is that the forces are similar to those responsible for chemical reactions. Adsorption resembles sites of residual valency found with many crystals. When an adsorbable molecule, in this case a water molecule, comes in contact with an unoccupied space on the desiccant, the molecule becomes trapped due to the bonding forces and cannot rebound into the gas. However, molecules which are trapped may also become free of the desiccant when suitably activated by raising its energy level. However, after the molecule becomes activated, another molecule may take its place in the now unoccupied site. Although adsorption can be practiced with many solid compositions, the majority of gas puri cation and dehydration uses forms of silica, alumina, carbon, and silicates. The silica and alumina-base adsobents are primarily used for the removal of water molecules. However, whether the process involves the removal of water vapor or of some other impurity, the basic concepts involved in adsorption are the same. In its simplest form, an adsorption plant for removing water vapor from gases consists of two vessels lled with granular desiccant. These two beds are connected in such a way that gas may be passed through one vessel while the other vessel's desiccant is regenerated. Regeneration of the desiccant occurs by passing hot gas through the desiccant material which activates the water molecules, freeing them from the material. This separated water vapor may be removed from the vessel and it is ready to accept gas again. Many gas-dehydration problems can be solved using either liquid removal systems or by using solid desiccant. However, the principal design factor depends on whether complete or nearly complete dehydration is necessary. For this case, solid desiccant designs are more appropriate. On the other hand, for the dehydration of relatively large 20

volumes of high-pressure natural gas, a liquid dehydrating system is more applicable since it can be run continuously.

21

22

Chapter 4 Cryogenic Processing of Natural Gas

Cryogenics is a branch of thermodynamics dealing with the e ects and creation of very low temperatures. The temperatures that are associated with cryogenics are generally below ,150 F. However, in the petroleum industry, cryogenic temperatures are considered to be below ,50 F. The reason for this is that -50 F is approximately the minimum temperature that can be reached with a propane refrigeration system. The key to cryogenic gas processing is using the proper combination of pressure with low temperature. When the proper combination is achieved, a very complete product recovery can be made. Figure 4.1 represents an example of the relationship between pressure and temperature with the recovery of 60 percent ethane from natural gas.

23

120

130

140

Temperature (F)

150

160

170

180

190 100

150

200

250

300

350 400 Pressure (psia)

450

500

550

600

Figure 4.1: Pressure and Temperature to Recover 60 percent Ethane Data taken from Gas Processors Association 5 

4.1 Processes
4.1.1 Expander Process
Figure 4.2 represents the ow for an expander process. The rst process applied to the inlet gas is the removal of water. This is done by cooling the gas through a two branch process. The inlet gas is divided such that approximately half ows through a gas gas exchanger where cooling is accomplished by using cold residue gas, and the second half ows through a cold demethanizer internal liquid found on the 24

Recompressor

Exp.- Compressor

Expander 3

Gas Inlet

Expander Inlet Separator Final Product Demehtanizer

Initial Treating

First Gas/Gas Exchanger

Second Gas/Gas Exchanger

Side Exchange

Demethanized Plant Products

Figure 4.2: Cryogenic Expander Process side exchange of the demethanizer unit. The gas from these rst two processes are then joined to ow through a second gas gas exchanger. Liquid from the gas is condensed and separated from the vapor in an expander inlet separator. The vapor ows through the expander, where the pressure is reduced. This liquid is then fed to the demethanizer. Once the pressure has been reduced, the vapor continues to ow to the top of the demethanizer. The demethanizer has a large top which serves as an expander outlet separator. Cold residue gas from the top of the demethanizer then acts as a coolant for inlet gas. It is then compressed 25

to sales gas pressure in the expander-compressor and recompressor. Figure 4.3 represents the pressure-temperature diagram for the expander process. In this process, the solid line refers to the plant inlet gas. To the right of the critical temperature and pressure point is the dew point line. To the right of the dew point line, and outside of this line, the gas is 100 percent vapor. However, as the gas is cooled, at a reasonable pressure below approximately 1200 psia the gas begins to condense. As the gas is cooled further, it reaches the dew point line which is located to the left of the bubble point line, and outside of this line, the gas condenses completely. The dashed line represents the process represented in gure 4.2 Downstream of the initial treating facilities, the inlet gas is represented by point 1 on both gures 4.2 and 4.3. As the gas is cooled in the gas gas exchangers and the demethanizer side exchanger, the temperature is lowered to point 2. At point 2, the gas enters the expander inlet separator where the condensed liquid is separated from the vapor. This vapor has its own pressure-temperature diagram, and it is represented by the dashed curve. At the expander inlet, the gas is on its dew point line. As the gas ows through the expander, its pressure-temperature path is shown by the dashed line from point 2 to point 3. Where point 3 represents the gas at the outlet of the expander. The importance of doing driver work for the compressor can be seen by comparing path 2 to 3 with path 2 to 4. Path 2 to 4 is called a Joule-Thompson expansion, where the gas is simply expanded without doing any work. It can be seen by comparing these two paths that both the outlet pressure and temperature are higher for the Joule-Thompson expansion. This results in a reduction of product recovery.

26

Critical Temperature and Pressure Bubble Point Line 1000 800 500 300 200 Dew Point Line 100 -200 -100 0 100 3 2 1

Figure 4.3: Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Expander Process Data taken from Gas Processors Association 5  Figure 4.4 represents a ow diagram for a the principle components of a cascade refrigeration process. The use of a cascade refrigeration process is normally limited to processing inlet gas steams around 500 psig or lower. Higher pressures in the gas result in a large quantity of methane gas to condense. After initial treating, the inlet gas is cooled by cold residue gas and then sent into the refrigeration system. The cascade refrigeration system is composed of two primary systems, the propane chiller and the ethane chiller. Propane is used as the rst chiller, this is due to the fact that propane can be condensed at fairly low pressure by air or water coolers. The condensed propane is then used to cool the inlet gas 27

4.1.2 Cascade Refrigeration

Propane Compressor

Ethane Compressor

Propane Condenser Propane Surge Tank

Ethane Condenser Ethane Surge Tank

Residue Gas For Sales Inlet Gas

Second Gas/Gas Exchanger Propane Chiller Ethane Chiller

Separator

Liquid to Demethanizer

Figure 4.4: Cascade Refrigeration to approximately ,40 F, causing separation of most of the undesired components of the gas. Stage two of the cascade refrigeration process is the ethane chiller. Ethane is used in the second stage to cool the inlet gas to a temperature around ,120 F. Cooling the inlet gas to this temperature range knocks out the remaining undesired components of the gas, leaving the end product to be fairly pure. The ethane used in the second stage of the refrigeration process is compressed and then chilled by the propane stream at the ethane condenser. Thus, the propane refrigeration system is used to cool both the inlet gas in stage one and to condense the ethane used in stage two. By optimizing the cooling done on the inlet gas by the propane, the amount of ethane used in stage two is minimized. Finally, by minimizing the 28

quantity of ethane used in stage two, the amount of propane is also minimized for condensing the ethane.
Stream 1 90 F 500 psia Propane Compressor

85 F

-40

Ethylene Compressor 85 F

-155 F

-80 F 490 psia

Stream 2 Methane Compressor 85 F

-265 F

Stream 3

Figure 4.5: LNG Cascade Cycle A more speci c type of cascade cycle is the Lique ed Natural Gas LNG cascade cycle represented in gure 4.5. The system is composed of a heat exchanger, and three refrigerants. The primary refrigeration system used in this system is propane. Following the rst stage is an ethylene chiller, and the nal refrigeration system used is methane. The heat exchanger uses an aluminum plate n, aluminum core or an aluminum tubing which is wound on an aluminum spool. These two designs require many di erent ow streams. The di culty arises in that it is very di cult to maintain these di erent ow streams with shelland-tube exchangers. Thus there is the need for this design. The rst 29

stream, Stream 1 is the gas entering the system to be lique ed. The gas is dehydrated before entering the system and coming in contact with the plate n exchangers. As it is cooled within the system, most of the heavy ends are condensed, knocking them out of the gas. These heavy ends are then removed through a separator at a temperature around ,80 F. This is represented by Stream 2 in gure 4.5. As the ow stream continues through the heat exchanger, nitrogen, methane, ethane, and some propane are lique ed around the temperature of ,250 F and 20 psia. These are then removed as Stream 3, completing the separation. Through the use of cryogenic processes, many more hydrocarbon compounds can be separated in comparison to the use of separators alone. Thus, a much more pure product which results in a higher heating value is produced.

30

Chapter 5 Basic Processes of Liquid Petroleum Processing

Oil enters a re nery from two main sources, crude oil directly from the well and from liquid product separated from natural gas. In re ning this crude oil, it is rst broken up into various raw stocks, which are then re ned into a nished product. This break-up of the crude oil is achieved by separating the crude through a series of boiling points. This is accomplished within the atmospheric and vacuum distillation units. Crude oil rst enters the atmospheric distillation unit where dissolved brine is removed in a process referred to as De-salting and it is heated to a predetermined temperature to begin the fractionation process. This is done through heat exchange with hot products as well as direct- red heaters. The now hot and partially vaporized crude oil is ashed" in a distillation unit, commonly known as a fractionation tower. The fractionation tower separates the crude into four basic products: kerosenes, light gas oil, fuel oil, and heavy gas oil. Once these product have been separated they can be passed along to the next level of processing. For example, kerosenes and light gas oils are passed along to vapor recovery units and catalytic cracking units. From here they are processed further to create gasoline, jet fuel, heating and diesel fuels, and industrial fuel oil. Heavy gas oils are passed along from the fractionating tower to extraction and dewaxing units, after which it is 31

processed into lubricating oils and greases. Finally, crude residue is processed into petroleum coking and asphalts. Further break-up of crude oil is often required to produce low-cost feed for cracking units or it may be necessary for the basic stocks for lubricant production. In either case, a vacuum distillation unit is inserted into the re ning system. During this process, products from the atmospheric distillation unit is fed into the vacuum distillation unit where it is distilled under sub-atmospheric conditions. This unit operates similarly to the atmospheric unit in that the crude that is fed into the unit is heated by heat exchange between heaters and hot products. However, the vacuum unit operates at overhead pressures as low as .02 psig, where the atmospheric unit operates at a positive pressure of 5 to 10 psig. Under these conditions the hot vapors rise to the top of the fractionating tower, where they are condensed. The condensed products are then taken from the tower in side-streams. After the vacuum distillation process, there are three resulting products: light vacuum gas oil, heavy vacuum gas oil, and bitumen.

32

Gasoline

Vapor Recovery

Alkylation

Jet Fuel

Diesel Fuels Additional Processing

Catalytic Cracking Fractionation Tower

Industrial Fuel Oil

Waxes

Lube Oils Extraction Dewaxing

Grease Manufacturing

Greases

Coking Petroleum Coking

Asphalts

Figure 5.1: Overview of Re nery Flow 33

34

Chapter 6 Crude Oil Distillation

The concepts for crude oil distillation are primarily the same for both atmospheric and vacuum distillation units. However, this section will only deal with the fractionation tower of the atmospheric distillation unit. The degree of fractionation in a crude oil distillation unit is measured by the temperature di erence between 95 vol. ASTM American Standard Temperature and Measurement of the lighter product and 5 vol. ASTM of the adjacent heavier product. These lighter products are composed kerosene and light gas oil. The heavier products are composed of heavy gas oil and fuel oil. When the temperature di erence gives the 95 point of the lighter products to be less than the 5 point of the heavier products, the di erence in temperatures is referred to as an ASTM gap. For the reverse case, the situation is referred to as an ASTM overlap. Fractionation performance is at its best when there is an ASTM gap between the products. As fractionation decreases, the gap becomes an overlap, a greater number of the components of the two products are not separated. Fairly complete fractionation may be expected in the upper regions of the fractionation tower between lighter products such as kerosene and light gas oils. However, lower in the fractionation column such separation is not possible. It may be pointed out, that in the lower levels of the fractionation column, there is an ASTM overlap. During crude oil distillation steam stripping is used to further remove the entrained light end products from the draw-o products. When side stream products are drawn o of the main fractionation 35

Figure 6.1: Fractionation Curves column it contains various light end components from vapors passing through the draw-o trays. This draw-o product is then routed to a side-stream stripper where steam is introduced through the bottom of the tower, owing counter-currently to the liquid. By imposing a counter current ow of the steam on the liquid, greater heat transfer is achieved due to a mixing of the products. Steam strippers such as the one described are usually composed of four trays to increase surface area contact between the products and the steam. The entrained light ends are removed by the steam through vaporization and both they and the steam reenter the fractionation column. This process is also done for the residue collected from the base of the fractionation column as well. A representation of the quantity 36

of steam and the percent of light end products removed by stripping is represented in the Figure 6.1.

6.1 Design Tools for Distillation

Two important tools for designing and maintaining the distillation process are the True Boiling Point TBP and the Equilibrium Flash Vaporization EFV curves. The rst of these is the TBP curve which is created from the product ASTM distillation curves. The ASTM distillation data is tabulated as the temperature's Initial Boiling Point IBP, 10, 30, 50, 70, 90, and Final Boiling Point FBP. The temperatures between the IBP and the EBP are read o at the respective volume percentages distilled. This is represented in Figure 6.2. From such a gure, data for the TBP may be read. Once TBP has been calculated, the EFV curve may be created. The purpose for creating an EFV curve is that it provides the temperature where a required volume of product will be vaporized. This information is very important in the design stage, in that improper design will either provide insu cient separation or unneeded costs. Using Figure 6.3 the Flash Reference Line FRL may be drawn onto the TBP curve. The EFV is then drawn as a straight line between the intersection of the 10 volume point on the FRL and the 70 vol point on the TBP curve.

6.1.1 True Boiling Point Curve and the Equilibrium Flash Vaporization Curve

A ash zone is the area in the crude distillation tower where separation of distillate vapors from unvaporized liquid product occurs. Upon entry of the ash zone, vapors from the distillate rise through the tower where it is condensed by a cold re ux stream. This re ux stream ows down from the top of the tower. At the same time, steam enters the ash zone from the bottom product stripper which is located below the ash zone. 37

6.1.2 Establishing Flash Zone Conditions

Flash zone conditions, particularly the temperature, are di cult to measure accurately. This is primarily due to the turbulent conditions created by the entrance of the liquid products and the disengagement of the vapors from the liquid products. However, these conditions are necessary for evaluating a distilling units performance. Therefore, there are seven primary steps for determining ash zone conditions given by Jones. 3 Establish the total ash zone pressure. Set the quantity of stripping steam used. This value is usually 1.2 pounds of steam per gallon of product Using a material balance, calculate the moles per hour of vapor leaving the ash zone. Set the amount of over- ash Construct the EFV curve. From a knowledge of the amount of hydrocarbon vapor moles, the moles of steam in the ash zone, and the total pressure within the ash zone, determine the partial pressure of hydrocarbons. This is molesHCvapor 6.1 molessteam + molesHCvapor  totalpressure Adjust the EFV curve to calculate partial pressures. By following this seven step process, the ash zone temperature may be obtained.

38

Figure 6.2: True Boiling Point Correlation

39

Figure 6.3: Slope for TBP

40

Chapter 7 Vapor Recovery

After light-end vapors are removed from the crude feed in the fractionation tower, they are removed through an outlet in the top of the tower. These vapors are then condensed into a liquid phase for further processing.
Steam and Light end Vapor

Containment for Water Drainage

water in water out lightends

Condenser

Liquid water and Light ends

water

Figure 7.1: Water Cooler Condenser To begin the condensing process these vapors are passed through a cold water condenser which speeds the phase change of the lightends. The rst phase of this process is a heat transfer, whereby the 41

gas is passed over coils containing counter current owing water. Heat from the vapor passes to the coils and is removed by the owing water. The heat transfered to the water is then removed by convection and radiation to the atmosphere. As the temperature of the vapor decreases it begins to condense, eventually reaching a nearly complete liquid phase. Once this occurs, the water that has condensed from the extracted steam may be drained o from the light-end liquid. After this separation of liquids, the light-end liquids may be further processed to produce jet fuels, gasoline and diesel fuels. The driving principle behind this condenser is that of a heat exchanger. Where in this case, heat from the vapor is transfered through convection, due to the velocity of the vapor, to the coil. There is then a heat transfer across the thickness of the coil due to conduction, and then there is a transfer to the liquid water inside the coils due to convection. Finally, there is a very small amount of heat that is removed by radiation e ects within the system. The heat transfer within the system follows the equations: _ 7.1 Q = ,kA dT dx _ Q = hATb , Tf  7.2 _ Q = ATb 4 7.3 where k is the conduction constant based on the properties of the medium, h which is a convection constant based on the velocity and properties of the medium, which is the emissivity of the surface of the radiating medium, and which is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The heat loss by the vapor results in an enthalpy loss in the vapor: dH = Q , W _ _ 7.4 dt where enthalpy, H , is the sum of the internal energy U and the product of the pressure p and volume V , giving an equation for enthalpy as:

H = U + pV:
42

7.5

Liquid Pressure

Solid

Vapor

Temperature

Figure 7.2: Pressure vs. Temperature Phase Relationship Since U, p, and V are all properties of the vapors, this combination H is also a property of the vapor. It should also be noted that in the _ enthalpy balance, W for the system is zero. Thus, the vapor performs a phase change to a liquid state, and removed energy is then released to the atmosphere by the owing water.

43

44

Chapter 8 Catalytic Cracking

Catalytic processing is designed to improve the octane quality of medium to light end products. By increasing the octane level, the tendency to ignite prematurely is decreased. This is both advantageous to the environment and the machinery. The principle reaction is dehydrogenation of aromatics or naphthenes, which can then add para n side chains in place of some of the hydrogen attached to the ring of carbons. Examples of such para ns, aromatics and naphthenes may be found in gures 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3. The combination of the para ns to the naphthenes or aromatics result in octane chains which take the basic form found in gure 7.4. Feeds for this process are passed through three basic stages. Each stage contains two operations, a pre-heat and then a reactor. The reactions in this rst stage are highly endothermic, in that heat is added in order for the reaction to occur. The mixture is then passed from the reactor to a re-heat before passing to the second reactor, and nally to a third re-heat and reactor. The second and third reactions are also endothermic, however, it is to a slightly lesser degree since there are fewer reactants to react. The product is separated into hydrogen-rich gas and reformate in a high-pressure separator which operates around a temperature of 100oF . Typically, the dehydrogenation process occurring inside the reactors is due to chloride or platinum catalyst, and by pre-heating the liquid products, a higher internal energy is created to spur the reaction. Typi45

H H C H Methane H H

H C

H C H H

H C H

H C

H C H

H H Ethane

H H Propane

H H H C H H C H H C H H C H H H Isobutane H H H N-Butane C C C H H H C H H

Figure 8.1: Examples of Para ns in crude oil. cally these catalysts have approximately a one year lifespan, after which they must be replaced. After passing through these three reactors, the product is passed to a separator to remove more light ends, which are passed on to the vapor recovery unit. The remainder of the product is further processed to create industrial fuels which are used to power heavy machinery for the generation of electricity.

46

H C HC CH

HC

CH

C H Benzene

Figure 8.2: Example of an Aromatic hydrocarbon in crude oil

H2 C H2 C CH
2

H2 C H H2 C C C H3 H2 C

H2 C H C C H3 C H2 C H C H3

C H2

C H2

C H2

C H2

Cyclopentane

Methylcyclopentane

Dimethylcyclopentane

Figure 8.3: Examples of Naphthenes found in crude oil.

H H H H H H H H

C H C H H

H C

Figure 8.4: Octane Carbon Chain 47

Reactor 1

Reactor 2

Reactor 3

Light end Feed Separator Pre-heater Re-heater Re-heater

Figure 8.5: Catalytic Reactor Process

48

Chapter 9 De-waxing Process

"Warm Solution Drum" Feed Oil Batch Cooler Rotary Filter (High Pressure)

Propane Injection

Refrigeration System

Dewaxed Oil

Filtered Oil

Solvent Recovery
Wax Waxy Mixture

Figure 9.1: De-waxing Process Flow Diagram 49

Most lubricating oil feed stock must run through a De-waxing process in order to ow properly at ambient temperatures. Therefore, De-waxing is one of the most important processes in the manufacturing of lubricating oils and grease. The simplest and most common De-waxing process uses refrigeration to crystallize wax which permits a rapid ltration of the wax from the oil. In a propane De-waxing process, propane is used as both a dilutant and a refrigerant for the waxy oil mixture. By injecting propane into the oil stream the waxy oil mixture is thinned, and the propane acts as a transport medium for the wax as it begins to crystallize. Once waxy oil is mixed with the liquid propane it is allowed to cool to a temperature of approximately 80oF 27oC . It is then pumped into a warm solution drum" where it is pressurized to prohibit propane vaporization. From the solution drum, it is charged into a batch cooler where the mixture is cooled at a controlled rate by evaporation of the propane. As a refrigerant, propane cools the oil through evaporation from the now propane-waxy oil solution. The cooling process usually occurs at a rate of approximately 3oF 1:5oC  per minute, and the ratio of the volume of propane to feed oil ranges between 1:5 : 1 and 3 : 1. This rate is carefully controlled to promote good wax crystal growth. Wax is then removed form the oil using rotary lters which collect the wax into large clusters. These clusters are then removed by passing cold propane vapors over the wax, causing the wax cluster to contract and release from the lter. Propane is then recovered from the De-waxed-oil stream by heating the stream to temperatures around 320oF 160oC  causing the propane to vaporize. These propane vapors are then ashed at high pressure so that the propane can be condensed with cooling water. Once recondensed, it is recirculated into the the waxy oil streams to repeat the process. The De-waxed lubricating oil is then sent to a nal reformulation process to stabilize the color and odor of the lubricant. Afterwards, the processed oil may then be used in industrial processes as lubricating oils or industrial grease.

50

Chapter 10 Petroleum Coking

Heavy residual products which accumulate at the base of the fractionation tower have become more of a problem for petroleum re neries. This is primarily due to the decrease in demand for heavy residual fuels. Historically these residual fuels were burned to produce electrical power for industrial operations. However, heavy environmental restrictions have led industries to switch to natural gas. As a result, more of this residual product must be processed in order to have a marketable product. To combat this problem, coking units are introduced to convert these heavy products into a solid coke and to lower the boiling points of other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons can then be processed in other re ning units for conversion into fuels of higher value. The other product of this process is solid coke which is primarily solid carbon mixed with various metallic impurities. The coking process is very similar to an extreme case of cracking where one of the end products is coke. This coke actually contains some volatile matter which is remaining hydrocarbons with high boiling points. These hydrocarbons must then be removed by running the solid coke through a calcination process at approximately 2000 F to 2300 F 1095 to 1260 C. The need for a coking process is to create a more suitable feed fuel for the catalytic cracking process. By reducing coke formation inside the catalytic cracker, re neries have an increase in the output of catalytic cracking processes, and thus produce fuels at a much lower cost. There are three primary coking processes in use today. The rst of 51

these is delayed coking, which is the most widely used process. Fluid coking and Flexicoking process are two other methods developed by Exxon and are now being commercially operated in a handful of reneries. There are several types of coke produced in these processes. Coke produced in the delayed process is primarily sponge coke. Sponge coke is hard, porous and irregularly-shaped, and it receives its name because it resembles a sponge. Sponge coke ranges in size from 20 inches to a ne dust. A second form of coke produced in the delayed process is needle coke. Needle coke takes its name from its needle-like crystalline structure. Both of these cokes have uses in the production of electrodes due to their low electrical resistivity and a minimal change in thermal expansion. A third and less desirable form of coke is shot coke. this form of coke takes its name from its spherical shape giving it a similar appearance to shotgun pellets. Shot coke is an undesirable product due to its lack of marketability and the danger it creates by posing the threat of plugging the coking unit. The main uses of petroleum coke are: Fuel Chemical carbon source for manufacturing of carbide Manufacturing of electrodes Manufacturing of graphite.

52

10.1 Delayed Coking Process Description

In the delayed coking process residual heavy products are heated to temperatures around 925 F. The heated residual product is then fed to one of several coking drums represented in Figure 10.1. Upon entry into the drum, vapors released from the heated coke are extracted through the top of these drums and returned to the fractionation tower. Once the coke drum in service is lled to a safe margin from the top, the heater e uent is switched to the empty coking drum. This safe ll height for the drum is set by the designer of the particular drum. Once the drum is isolated from the heater, the coke drum is steamed to remove remaining hydrocarbon vapors in the coke through a calcination process. These hydrocarbon vapors are then removed through the top of the coke drum as was done before, leaving only the solid coke in the drum. After the calcination process is completed, the solid coke is quenched with water. This water is then drained from the drum, and the coke is ready for removal. Removal of the coke is accomplished through the use of either a mechanical drill or reamer. After which the coke may be shipped for manufacturing of various products.

10.2 Flexicoking Process Description

In the exicoking process, feed from the fractionation tower is preheated and sprayed into the reactor where it contacts a hot uidized coke. this uidized coke is cycled between the reactor and the heater at a rate which maintains a reactor temperature around 1000 F 540 C. The cracked vapor products are then passed through ba es in a scrubber located in the top of the reactor to separate the coke particles from the vapors. This scrubber is fed a cool oil wash which washes the collected particles back to the lique ed coke in the reactor. The extracted 53

vapors are then removed from the reactor scrubber and returned to the fractionation tower where they are sent to various re nery processes. As the coke cools inside the reactor it settles to the base of the reactor, this settling coke is then stripped with steam in a ba ed section of the base of the reactor to prevent products other than coke from leaving the reactor. Coke then ows from the reactor to the heater where it is reheated to approximately 1000 F 540 C. The reheated coke then ows from the heater to a third uidized bed referred to as a gasi er. In the gasi er, the coke is reacts with air and steam to produce various fuel gases which consist of CO2, CO, H2, and N2. This gas is then removed from the gasi er and passed through a scrubber before being sent to be reprocessed in the fractionation tower. The remaining purge coke is then treated and removed from the process for manufacturing of coke products.

10.3 Fluid Coking Process Description

Fluid coking is a simpli ed version of exicoking. In the uid coking process, there are only two main components, a reactor and a heater. This di ers from the exicoking process in that there is no gasi er. Thus the uid coking process has a disadvantage compared to the exicoker in that less hydrocarbon gas is removed and saved, however, this comes at an advantage in lower cost. Therefore, a uid coking system would be used in products containing low amounts of hydrocarbons found within the residual heavy products.

54

Gasoline

Vapor Recovery

Alkylation

Jet Fuel

Diesel Fuels Additional Processing

Catalytic Cracking Fractionation Tower

Industrial Fuel Oil

Waxes

Lube Oils Extraction Dewaxing

Grease Manufacturing

Greases

Extracted Gas

Coke Drum

Asphalts

Heater Coke

Figure 10.1: Delayed coking unit. 55

Coke Drum

Gas Products to Fractionation Tower Gasifier (Scrubber) Coke Heater Feed Reactor Coke

Steam (Scrubber) Purged Coke

Figure 10.2: Flexicoking coking unit.

56

Appendix A Internal Flow in Pipes

Flows completely bounded by a solid surface are called internal ows. This ow can be either laminar or turbulent, compressible or incompressible depending on the velocity and the nature of the uid. For most petroleum uids, ows will be considered incompressible. Therefore, in the case of incompressible ow through a pipe, laminar or turbulent ow is determined by the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that relates the ratio of internal forces to viscous forces, and it can be expressed as the following equation:  Re = V D  A.1

where:

Re=Reynolds number = density of the uid  V = the average ow velocity  =the viscosity of the uid Laminar ow is characterized by little or no mixing of the owing uid, and the velocity pro le as seen in gure A.1 is parabolic. 57

Turbulent ow involves complete mixing of the uid and a more uniform velocity pro le. An ideal representation of the velocity pro le is also represented in gure A.1. Laminar ow has been shown in experiments to exist at Reynolds numbers below 2300 and turbulent ow above Reynolds numbers of 4000. Reynolds numbers between these limits are considered to be in a transitional zone and can be either laminar or turbulent. Once the ow regimes have been calculated, pressures within the pipes may be determined using Bernoulli's theorem. Bernoulli's equation expresses the properties of the owing uid in terms of the energy contained within a uid. Using this basis, Bernoulli's equation breaks down the energy in the uid in terms of: The height of uid above an arbitrary datum The potential energy from the pressure of the uid at a point along the pipe Kinetic Energy from the velocity of the uid Assuming no work is done by the uid and no energy is added to it, the law of conservation of energy may be applied. Thus, the energy at a point along a pipe must equal the energy at a second point in the pipe. Bernoulli's equation can therefore be written as

where:

P1 + V1 2 + gz = P2 + V22 + gz 1 2 2 2

A.2

z=elevation P=pressure = density of the uid V = velocity g =the gravitational constant 58

However, in pipe ow, there is energy loss due to friction, and thus, Bernoulli's equation may be rewritten as

P1 + V12 + gz = P2 + V2 2 + gz + h A.3 1 2 lT 2 2 where hlT is the total head-loss. This total head loss is the sum of all major losses, hl , due to friction and the sum of all minor losses, hlm , due to entrances, ttings and area changes. Thus: hlT = hl + hlm
where: 2 hl = f LV2 D where: A.5 A.4

f =the friction factor L= Pipe length D= Inner pipe diameter  V = Average uid velocity
and
e 2 hlm = f LDV 2

A.6 A.7

or where

2 hlm = K V2

Le =Equivalent length K= Loss coe cient

59

The friction factor for laminar ow is 64 flaminar = Re

A.8

This friction factor does not take into account pipe roughness, and is inversely proportional to the Reynolds number. However, the friction factor for turbulent ow may be found by combining gure A.4 and gure A.3. This is due to the protrusion of rough surfaces inside the pipe which penetrate through a thin viscous sub-layer of the uid on the inner wall of the pipe. This results in an increase in drag on the uid causing a pressure loss. This sub-layer is represented in gure A.2. Thus, this friction factor e caused by turbulent ow depends on the ratio D where e is the roughness of the pipe, and D is once again the inner diameter of the pipe. The loss coe cient k for minor losses may also be used to nd the head loss created in inlets, enlargements and contractions. These values for k may be determined using Tables A.1 and A.2 in gure A.5 Equivalent length as used in the above equations may be used to represent bends, valves and ttings, to a more simple representation as a length of straight pipe. The head loss in these bends, valves and ttings is much larger than the headloss in fully developed straight ow. This headloss is primarily caused by secondary ow. In short, secondary ow is any ow that does not follow the primary downstream owlines. This can be easily seen in the spiraling motion observed in ow through a bend or through the separation e ects ovserved in valves and ttings. This secondary ow uses up energy that would otherwise be used to move the uid downstream. Examples of these secondary ow types are represented in gure A.6.

60

Velocity profile for Laminar Flow

Ideal velocity profile for turbulent flow

Figure A.1: Velocity pro les

61

Vinfinity

Sublayer

V0

Figure A.2: Example of the sublayer of uid located on the inner wall of a pipe

62

Reynolds number

Figure A.3: Friction factor for fully developed ow in pipes Data from Fox and McDonald

63

Relative roughness, e/D

Friction factor

Relative Roughness, e/D

Pipe diameter (inches)

Figure A.4: Relative roughness for pipes Data from Fox and McDonald

64

Table A1

Minor loss coefficients for pipe entrances

Entrance Type Reentrant K 0.78

Sharp-edge

0.5

Rounded-edge

r/D 0.02 0.06 >0.15 K 0.28 0.15 0.04

Table A2 Minor loss coefficients for gradual contractions

A2/A1 0.50 0.25 0.10 10 0.05 0.05 0.05 15-40 0.05 0.04 0.05 50-60 0.06 0.07 0.08 90 0.12 0.17 0.19 120 0.18 0.27 0.29 150 0.24 0.35 0.37 180 0.26 0.41 0.43

A1

A2

Figure A.5: Minor loss coe cients Data from Fox and McDonald 65

Cross-sectional View A

Flow through a Bend

Secondary Flow

Flow through a Valve or Fitting

Figure A.6: Secondary ow caused by bends, valves and ttings.

66

Appendix B Fluid Machinery

Among various processing plants, di erent processes and machinery are used depending on what liquid products the facility wishes to produce. However, one necessary piece of machinery for all of these plants are pumps. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and analyze uid machines used in industry. The ows being used with these pumps will all be incompressible liquid ows, and this type of machinery is all work absorbing, in that work is put into the system to move the uid. Later in the chapter, work producing uid machinery will be looked at as well.

B.1 Classi cation of Fluid Machinery

Work absorbing uid machinery may be classi ed into two major categories, positive displacement or dynamic. The rst category, positive displacement machinery, uses an energy transfer which is done by volume changes within the inside of a closed chamber or passage. The second classi cation deals with devices that direct uid ow with vanes or blades which rotate on a shaft. These are more speci cally termed turbomachines, and they have a dynamic displacement of uid. 67

The di erence between these types of machinery is that all of the work interaction in turbomachinery results from the dynamic effects of the rotor on the uid stream. An example of a positive displacement machine commonly used in the petroleum industry is the reciprocating compressor. Compressors such as this are used for uids in gaseous phases, and these compressors are discussed in the following chapter. The emphasis of this chapter will deal with dynamic machines. Inside the branch of turbomachinery, a further distinction can be made into radial and axial ow machines. In radial or centrifugal ow machines, the ow path is essentially radial. This ow path also has a dramatic change in the radius from the inlet to the outlet. On the other hand, axial ow machines have a ow path which is more or less parallel to the centerline of the machine. The terminology given to these machines when dealing with incompressible uids are pumps. Similar machines which are used to move gases and vapor are called fans, blowers, and compressors. The rotating element in a pump which drives the uid is called the impeller. This impeller is then contained inside a housing which allows the impeller to direct the ow through the pump. Three types of these centrifugal machines are shown in gure B.1. Flow enters each machine in an axial direction. The entrance point of the ow has a radius r1 . Flow then exits the impeller through an opening of width, b, at a radius of r2 . Similar to pumps and compressors are turbines. However, the primary di erence between turbines and pumps is that turbines extract energy from the uid. A turbine assembly is composed of vanes or blades which are attached to a turbine shaft. This entire assembly is called a rotor. Two types of turbines are primarily used in uid ows, these are gas or steam turbines and hydraulic turbines, where the uid mediums are gas and liquid respectively. Within this category, two typical types of turbines are used, the Francis type also known as a reaction turbine and the Kaplan type also known as a propeller turbine. In the Francis type turbine shown in gure 68

b r2

r1

(a) Centrifugal pump Volute

(b) Centrifugal blower

Impeller vane

Eye

(c) Centrifugal compressor

Figure B.1: Schematic diagrams of typical centrifugal- ow turbomachines. B.2 Liquid enters the casing of the turbine where it ows cir69

cumferentially. This ow is then directed into the rotor by the stationary guide vanes. After driving the rotor, the liquid then ows through a di user and nally leaves the turbine. Also represented in gure B.2 is the Kaplan type propeller turbine. In this assembly, liquid enters the turbine in the same fashion as it did for the Francis type turbine. However, this liquid is directed to ow nearly axial to the rotor shaft. This liquid then drives the rotor as it passes through the turbine.

B.2 Turbomachinery Analysis

Depending on the information desired about the system, various methods of analysis can be used to analyze turbomachinery. In cases such as those used in petroleum processes, the desired information is usually ow rate, pressure change, torque and power. This information can be found by applying a nite control volume.

B.2.1 The Angular Momentum Principle

The principle of angular momentum, when applied to a control volume, results in the equation:

~Fs+ r ~

Z @Z r ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~  ~ dV +TShaft = @t ~  V dV + ~  V V
dA r g CV CS CV B.1

B.2.2 Euler Turbomachine Equation

When analyzing turbomachinery, it is convenient to choose a xed control volume which encloses the rotor so that the torque may be evaluated. To simplify the analysis, torques due to surface 70

Stationary Guide Vanes

Rotor Vanes

Casing Draft Tube

Reaction turbine (Francis type)

Guide Vanes

Casing Rotor Vanes

Propeller turbine (Kaplan type)

Figure B.2: Schematic diagrams of typical hydraulic turbines.

71

X U2 U1 Vt1 Y r1 r2 Vn1 V1

Vt2

V2

Vn2

Figure B.3: Finite control volume and absolute velocity components for angular momentum analysis. force are ignored. Contributions due to body forces may be neglected due to symmetry. Therefore, for steady ow , equation B.1 changes to:

~ TShaft =

by selecting a xed control volume as seen in gure B.3 which encloses the rotor of a turbomachine. Fluid enters the rotor at a ~ radial location r1 , with a velocity V1 . This uid then leaves the ~ system at a radial location 2, with velocity V2. Thus equation B.2 becomes:

CV

~  V V
dA r ~ ~

B.2

TShaft = r2 Vt2 , r1 Vt1m _ B.3 By noting that V
dA = m. Equation B.3 is often called the _
72

Euler Turbomachine equation, and it provides a basic relationship between torque and angular momentum for turbomachines. Giving TShaft 0 for pumps and compressors and TShaft 0 for turbines. _ The mechanical power, Wm or the rate of work done on a turbomachine rotor is given by the dot product of the angular velocity of the rotor, ~ , and the applied torque, TShaft . ! or _ Wm = ~
TShaft ! ~ B.4

_ Wm = !r2Vt2 , r1 Vt1m _ B.5 From this equation, it can be noticed that the angular momentum of the uid increases with the addition of shaft work. Therefore, _ for a pump, Wm 0 the angular momentum of the uid must _ increase. On the other hand, for a turbine, Wm 0 and therefore there is a decrease in the angular momentum. By introducing U = r!, where U is the tangential speed of the rotor at radius r, then _ Wm = U2 Vt2 , U1 Vt1 m _ B.6 or by dividing this equation by mg, a quantity with the dimen_ sions of length is obtained, which is termed the head added to the ow. _ 1 _ H = Wm = g U2Vt2 , U1 Vt1 m mg _ B.7

From these equations, one may notice that the di erence in the product rVt or UVt , between the inlet and the outlet sections is important in determining the torque applied to the rotor or the energy transfer to the uid. Applying the rst law of thermodynamics for incompressible ow across a pump or turbine, the rate of energy added to or extracted _ _ from the uid stream, for an ideal case, Wh = m
p = mgH = _ 73

_ QgH . In this case Wh is the hydraulic power. Neglecting friction and ow losses, the hydraulic power is equal to the mechanical power. However, when friction and ow losses are included, hydraulic and mechanical power are related using e ciency. _ Wh For pumps, the e ciency is de ned as p = Wm . Thus, _ _ p = Wh = QgH _ !T Wm _ !T t = Wm = QgH _ Wh B.8

_ For hydraulic turbines, the e ciency is de ned as t = Wm . Thus, _ Wh

B.9

74

B.3 Velocity Polygon Method

The importance of having clearly de ned components for uid velocity is seen in the equations used in this chapter. Thus, it is often useful to create velocity polygons for both the inlet and the outlet ow. These velocity polygons are illustrated in gure B.4. In an idealized situation, ow relative to the rotor is assumed to enter and leave tangent to the pro le of the rotor blade. This ideal situation is often referred to as shockless entry. The blade angles, , are measured relative to the tangential velocity of the blade. The inlet blade angle, 1 , xes the direction of the inlet velocity relative to the design conditions of the rotor assembly. The absolute uid velocity is the vector sum of the uid ow velocity relative to the blade and the tangential uid velocity at that point. The angle of the absolute uid velocity, 1, is measured from the normal direction, as shown in gure B.4. The tangential component of this absolute velocity, Vt1 , and the component normal to the ow area, Vn1, can also be seen in gure B.4. It should be noted that the normal component of the absolute velocity, Vn, and the normal component of the velocity relative to the blade, Vrbn, have equal magnitudes. In swirl-free conditions for the inlet ow, the absolute velocity will be completely radial in direction. The inlet blade angle may be speci ed for the design ow rate and pump speed to provide shockless entry ow. Pre-swirl, which may be present in the inlet ow, or created by stator vanes, will cause the absolute inlet ow direction to stray from the radial direction. Velocity polygons are constructed in a similar fashion at the outlet section of the rotor. The tangential velocity is U2 , which is found from the dimensions of the rotor and the angular velocity at which the rotor is running. The relative ow is then assumed to leave the impeller tangent to the blade, as shown in gure B.4. By using this idealized assumption, the direction of the relative outlet ow at the design conditions can be found. 75

In the case of a centrifugal pump or a reaction turbine, illustrated in gures B.1 and B.2 respectively, the velocity relative to the blade changes in magnitude from the inlet to the outlet. Thus, the continuity equation must be applied, using the impeller geometry, to determine the normal component of velocity at each section. This equation in cylindrical coordinates is: 1 @ r Vr  + 1 @  V  + 1 @  Vz  + @ = 0 B.10 r @r r @ r @z @t The normal component combined with the blade angle is then su cient enough information to establish the velocity relative to the blade at the impeller outlet for a radial- ow machine. The velocity polygon for this position can then be completed. Once the inlet and outlet conditions are established, all of the information needed to calculate the ideal torque or power which is absorbed or delivered by the rotor using equations B.2 and B.4. The results of these calculations provide the performance of a turbomachine under idealized conditions. These idealized results represent the upper limits of performance for a turbomachine. The actual performance may be estimated using the same basic approach, however variations in ow properties across the blade span at the inlet and outlet sections must be accounted for. Secondly, deviations between the blade angles and the ow directions must also be taken into account. However, the calculations for the actual performance are beyond the scope of this document. The alternative is to measure the overall performance of a turbomachine on a suitable test stand. This data can often times be found in the speci cations provided by the manufacturer. Figure B.4 represent the ow through an impeller. Assuming that the uid enters the impeller with a purely radial absolute velocity, swirl free conditions, then the uid entering the impeller has no angular momentum and Vt1 is zero. Thus the increase in head is given by:

V H = U2g t2
76

B.11

Then, using the exit velocity polygon of gure B.4

V Vt2 = U2 , Vrb2 cos 2 = U2 , sinn2 cos 2 2 which reduces to: U2 , Vn2 cot 2 Thus equation B.11 can be whiten as: U2 2 , U2 Vn2 cot 2 H= g For an impeller of width w, the volume ow rate is:

B.12 B.13 B.14

Q = D2wVn2 B.15 Therefore, to express the head in terms of volume ow rate, Vn2 is substituted in terms of Q. Thus
2 H = Ug2 , U2 cot 2 Q D2wg Equation B.16 may be represented in the form

B.16

H = C1 , C2Q B.17 where constants C1 and C2 are functions of the rotors geometry and speed, C1 = Ug2
2 2

B.18 B.19

and

Equation B.17 predicts a linear variation of the head, H, with the volume ow rate, Q. This may be represented in gure B.5. 77

C2 = U2 cot 2 D wg

Constant C1 represents the ideal head developed by the pump for zero ow rate. The slope of the curve of head verses ow rate depends on the sign and magnitude of C2 . For example, as illustrated in gure B.5, for radial outlet vanes, 2 = 90 and C2 = 0, the tangential component of the absolute velocity at the outlet is equal to the wheel speed and is independent of ow rate. If the vanes are forward curved, 2 90 and C2 90 . The absolute uid velocity at the outlet in this case is greater than the wheel speed and it increases as the ow rate increases. As represented in gure B.5, the head increases linearly with increasing ow rate. In the case of a backward curved impeller, 2 90 and C2 90 . Thus the characteristics of a radial- ow machine can be altered by changing the angle of the rotor vanes.

B.4 Performance Characteristics

An example of the characteristic curve for a centrifugal pump are shown in gure B.6. This curve is combined with the ideal ow curve to display the signi cant di erence between the ideal and actual pump performance. The reasons for the di erence in the performance are: Recirculation of uid in the impeller occurs at very low ow rates As ow rate increases, friction loss and leakage loss increase. Shock loss" resulting from a mismatch between in relative speed of the uid and impeller speed. For this typical machine, head is a maximum at shuto and decreases continuously as ow rate increases. Input power is minimum at shuto and increases as delivery is increased. Pump e ciency increases with capacity until the best e ciency point is reached. E ciency the decreases as ow rate is increased. Thus for minimum energy consumption, pumps must be run at the best e ciency point. 78

Another interesting characteristic is that centrifugal pumps may be combined in series or parallel. When combined in series, pumps deliver greater head to the system. Parallel pumps on the other hand, deliver more ow. Like pumps, turbines must also be tested in order to gain accurate knowledge of their characteristics. The procedure for testing turbines requires a dynamometer to absorb the turbine power output while the speed and torque are measured. These test are usually done at constant speeds with varying loads to simulate real world conditions.

B.5 Dimensional Analysis

The purpose of this section is to provide forms of dimensionless coe cients commonly used with turbomachinery. The ow coefcient, , is de ned as the ow rate divided by the exit area and tangential speed of the rotor. Giving B.20  = AQ = Vn2 : 2 U2 U2 Vn2 in this equation is the velocity component perpendicular to the exit area. Next a dimensionless head coe cient, , may be obtained by dividing the head, H, by Ug . Giving
2 2

= gH : B.21 U2 2 A dimensionless torque coe cient, , is then obtained by dividing the torque, T, by A2 U22 R2. Thus

T B.22 A2 U2 2R2 where is the density of the uid, A2 is the exit area, U2 is the tangential velocity of the rotor at the exit and R2 is the radius at the exit.
= 79

Finally, the dimensionless coe cient for power is determined, . _ This is obtained by normalizing the power, W with the angular momentum at the exit, mU2 2. Thus _ _ _  = W 2 = 2 W2 QU2 ! QR2 B.23 When dealing with pumps, the mechanical input power is greater _ Wh than the hydraulic power, and the e ciency is de ned as p = Wm . _ This may then be written as

QgH _ _ Wm = T! = 1 Wh =  B.24
p p

Substituting the dimensionless coe cients , , and into these equations, and analogous relation is obtained. =  
p

B.25

Similarly, for turbines, the mechanical output power is less than _ _ the hydraulic power, and the e ciency is de ned as t = Wm=Wh:Thus; _ _ Wm = T! = t Wh = t QgH B.26 Once again the dimensionless coe cients, , , and are introduced into the previous equation giving = t  B.27 The dimensionless coe cients and the equations above using them, are the basis for scaling turbomachinery. These equations allow the use of small scale models to be used to aid in the design of full scale machinery. In using these equations, the ow coe cient, , is the independent parameter. The coe cients for torque, power, and head are then treated as multiple dependent parameters, and viscous e ects of the uid are neglected. Using these assumptions, dynamic similarity 80

is achieved when the ow coe cients are matched for models and the actual machinery. When scaling these machines, a useful tool is the speci c speed. This is obtained by combing in the ow and head coe cients to eliminate the machine size. This results in

Ns = !Q B.28 H Incorporating dimensionless parameters such that the head is expressed as energy per unit mass, and ! is expressed in radians per second.
1 2 3 4

Ns = !P B.29 H The speci c speed may also be represented in terms of the turbomachine's power. Since this power is proportional to the product of the volume ow rate and the head, the speci c speed can be represented as
1 2 5 4

Ns = !P B.30 H Speci c speed then can be viewed as the operating speed at which the turbomachine produces unit volume ow rate at unit head. Thus by holding the speci c speed constant, the operating conditions of all geometrically similar machines under similar ow conditions can be described. Thus it is possible to characterize machines by their speci c speed at the design point. For example, low speci c speeds are produced e ciently by radial- ow machines. High speci c speeds are produced e ciently by axial- ow machines. Thus for a speci ed head, one can choose a low speci c speed machine or a high speci c speed machine.
1 2 5 4

B.6 Similarity Rules

Pump manufacturers o er a limited number of casing sizes and designs. Usually, these casings are developed from a common design and altering 81

all of the dimensions by a scale ratio. Additional characteristics may occur by altering the impeller size or the pump speed. In such cases, the dimensionless parameters provide a solid tool for determining the pump speci cations which resulted in altering the pump size or speed. Dynamic similarity between two pumps of similar design is found by holding the dimensionless ow coe cient constant and comparing the ow rate, rotational speed and the pump diameter. It should also be noted that the ow elds must be similar and the viscous e ects must be neglected. Assuming all of this gives

Q1 = Q2 B.31 !1 D13 !2D23 Since the dimensionless head and power coe cients are only dependent on the ow coe cient.
and

H =f  Q  !2D2 1 !D3

B.32 B.33

Using this relationship, pump characteristics at a new condition can be compared to characteristics at an old or previous position by

P =f  Q  !3D5 2 !D3

and

H1 = H2 !12 D12 !22D2 2

2 3 D1 5 = 2 !2 3 D2 5 1 !1

B.34

P1

B.35

These scaling relationships allow a prediction of the e ects the changes in pump operating speed, size, or impeller diameter within a given housing have. 82

V2 V rb2 U2

V rb1

V1 r1 r2 U1

(a)

Absolute velocity as a sum of the velocity relative to the blade and the rotor velocity. V t1 1 V n1 1 V 1 U1

V rb1

(b)

Velocity polygon at inlet

V rb2 V n2 2 (c) 2

V t2 V2 U2

Velocity polygon at outlet

Figure B.4: Geometry and notation used to develop velocity polygons for a typical radial- ow machine.

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Forward Curve

2>90

2=90, radial
2<90
Backward Curve

Head, H

R2 H= g

Volume flow rate, Q

Figure B.5: Idealized relationship between head and volume ow rate for a centrifugal pump with forward-curved, radial, and backwardcurved impeller blades.

84

Loss due to recirculation Ideal head-flow curve

Head, H

Actual head-flow curve Approximate best efficiency point.

Loss due to internal flow friction

"Shock" loss

Volume flow rate, Q

Figure B.6: Comparison of ideal and actual head- ow curves.

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86

Appendix C Compressor Calculations

There are ve factors which must be looked at when selecting a compressor. These are: Cylinder Displacement Volumetric E ciency Discharge Temperature Adiabatic Head Power

C.0.1 Cylinder Displacement

Cylinder displacement can be calculated through the use of geometric relations of the compressor components. For a single acting cylinder: where: Displacement = St  !  D 4 X = Cylinder displacement St =Piston stroke ! = Strokes per minute D = Piston face diameter 87
2

C.1

C.0.2 Volumetric E ciency

To determine the actual inlet capacity of a cylinder, the calculated displacement must be modi ed. One reason behind this modi cation is due to the clearance between the piston and the end of the cylinder which is denoted in gure C.1 by .

Outlet valve

Fully Extended Inlet valve

Fully Extracted

Figure C.1: Representation of the clearance between the cylinder wall and the piston. During the expansion portion of the cycle represented in process 3 to 4 in the P-V diagram below, the gas trapped in the clearance expands to partially ll the cylinder. this can be represented by the following equation which calculates theoretical volumetric e ciency, Evt . 1 Evt = 1:00 ,  f rp1=k , 1c C.2

where:

Evt = Theoretical Volumetric E ciency

88

3 Pressure

Volume

Figure C.2: P-V diagram for cylinder.

Z f = Z 1 = ratio of discharged compressibility to inlet compressibility rp = pressure ration cp k= cv = isentropic exponent c= compressor coe cient
2

89

The inlet capacity of the cylinder is then calculated by:

Q1 = Evt  X

C.3

C.0.3 Discharge Temperature and Adiabatic Head

The discharge temperature may be represented as:

T2 = r k , k T1 p and the adiabatic head may be calculated by:

 1

C.4
1

where:

k,
h = h2 , h1 = RT1 k rp k , 1 k,1



C.5

h = adiabatic head rp = pressure ratio k = isentropic exponent

C.0.4 Power
The work-per-stage can be calculated by multiplying the adiabatic head by the mass ow per stage. _ ,W =
h  m _ replacing mRT1 with P1Q1 produces: _ where: C.6
1

k _ _ k ,W = mRT1 k , 1 rp k, , 1


C.7 C.8

k _ k ,W = P1Q1 k , 1 rp k, , 1
 1

90

P1 = initial pressure Q1 = inlet capacity of the cylinder The gure C.3 gives values of e ciency plotted against pressure ratios which may be used for compressor selection. Valve velocity in this gure is taken to be 3000 fpm and the mechanical e ciency of the system is 95.
86

84

82

Efficiency (%)

80

78

76

74

72 1.5

2.5

3.5

4 4.5 Pressure ratio

5.5

6.5

Figure C.3: E ciency versus pressure ratios data taken from Brown ?.

91

92

Bibliography
1 Robert Fox, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, New York, John Wiley and Sons, INC 1992 . 2 James H. Gary, Petroleum Re ning Technology and Economics, New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994 . 3 D. S. J. Jones, Elements of Petroleum Processing, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1995 . 4 Arthur L. Kohl, Gas Puri cation, Fourth Edition Houston, Gulf Publishing Company, 1985 . 5 C. F. Kruse, Plant Processing of Natural Gas, Austin, Petroleum Extension Service, 1974 . 6 Jodie Leecraft, Field handling of Natural Gas, Fourth Edition, Austin, Petroleum Extension Service Division of Continuing Education, 1987 . 7 Robert A. Meyers, Handbook of Petroleum Re ning Processes, New York, McGraw-Hill 1996 . 8 Pierre Pichot, Compressor Application Engineering, Houston, Gulf Publishing Company, 1986 .

93