PE Notes

Oxygen Debt & Recovery

What is it all about then?

When you have a short intense burst of exercise such as sprinting you generate energy for this anaerobically or without oxygen. When you stop exercising you are still breathing heavily.

The Anatomy of the Spine

The Human Skeleton The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. The functions of the skeleton are to provide support, give our bodies shape, provide protection to other systems and organs of the body, to provide attachments for muscles, to produce movement and to produce red blood cells. The 5 sections of the spine: The cervical spine makes up the neck and has 7 vertibrae. The thoracic spine has 12 vertibrae which the ribs attach to. The lumbar spine has 5 which make the lower back. The sacrum consists of 5 bones which are fused or stuck together and the

coccyx is made up of 4 tiny bones and used to be a tail.

Types of Bones in the Human Body There are 5 types of bones in the human body. These are long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones and sesmoid bones.

Long Bones Long bones are some of the longest bones in the body, such as the Femur, Humerus and Tibia but are also some of the smallest including the Metacarpals, Metatarsals and Phalanges. The classification of a long bone includes having a body which is longer than it is wide, with growth plates (epiphysis) at either end, having a hard outer surface of compact bone and a spongy inner known an cancellous bone containing bone marrow. Both ends of the bone are covered in hyaline cartilage to help protect the bone and aid shock absorbtion.

Short Bones Short bones are defined as being approximately as wide as they are long and have a primary function of providing support and stability with little movement. Examples of short bones are the Carpals and Tarsals - the wrist and foot bones. They consist of only a thin layer of compact, hard bone with cancellous bone on the inside along with relatively large amounts of bone marrow.

The carpals - short bones

Flat Bones Flat bones are as they sound, strong, flat plates of bone with the main function of providing protection to the bodies vital organs and being a base for muscular attachment. The classic example of a flat bone is the Scapula (shoulder blade). The Sternum (breast bone), Cranium (skull), os coxae (hip bone) Pelvis and Ribs are also classified as flat bones. Anterior and posterior surfaces are formed of compact bone to provide strength for protection with the centre consisiting of cancellous (spongy) bone and varying amounts of bone marrow. In adults, the highest number of red blood cells are formed in flat bones.

The scapula - a flat bone Irregular Bones These are bones in the body which do not fall into any other category, due to their non-uniform shape. Good examples of these are the Vertebrae, Sacrum and Mandible (lower jaw). They primarily consist of cancellous bone, with a thin outer layer of compact bone.

Vertebrae - irregular bones

Sesamoid Bones Sesamoid bones are usually short or irregular bones, imbedded in a tendon. The most obvious example of this is the Patella (knee cap) which sits within the Patella or Quadriceps tendon. Other sesamoid bones are the Pisiform (smallest of the Carpals) and the two small bones at the base of the 1st Metatarsal. Sesamoid bones are usually present in a tendon where it passes over a joint which serves to protect the tendon.

The patella - a sesamoid bone Structure of Bone

It is important for bones to be strong to support our body weight and in some cases provide protection such as the skull and ribs. However, they must also be light enough to make movement possible. A long bone consists of several sections:

Diaphysis: This is the long central shaft Epiphysis: Forms the larger rounded ends of long bones Metaphysis: Area betweent the diaphysis and epiphysis at both ends of the bone Epiphyseal Plates: Plates of cartilage, also known as growth plates which allow the long bones to grow in length during childhood. Once we stop growing, between 18 and 25 years of age the cartilage plates stop producing cartilage cells and are gradually replaced by bone.

Covering the ends of bones, where they form a joint with another bone, is a layer of hyaline cartiage. This is a firm but elastic type of cartilage which provides shock absorbtion to the joint and has no neural or vascular supply. Bone Anatomy If you were to cut a cross-section through a bone, you would first come across a thin layer of dense connective tissue known as Periosteum. This can be divided into two layers, an outer 'fibrous layer' containing mainly fibroblasts and an inner 'cambium layer', containing progenitor cells which develop into osteoblasts (the cells responsible for bone formation). The periosteum provides a good blood supply to the bone and a point for muscular attachment.

Under the periosteum is a thin layer of compact bone (often called cortical bone), which provides the bones strength. It consists of tightly stacked layers of bone which appear to form a solid section, although do contain osteons, which like canals provide passageways through the hard bone matrix.

Types of Joint A joint is the point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints; Fibrous (immoveable), Cartilagenous (partially moveable) and the Synovial (freely moveable) joint. Fibrous joints Fibrous (synarthrodial): This type of joint is held together by only a ligament. Examples are where the teeth are held to their bony sockets and at both the radioulnar and tibiofibular joints. Cartilagenous Cartilagenous (synchondroses and sympheses): These joints occur where the connection between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage for example between vertebrae in the spine.

A cartilagenous joint between two vertebrae Synchondroses are temporary joints which are only present in children, up until the end of puberty. For example the epiphyseal plates in long bones. Symphesis joints are permanant cartilagenous joints, for example the pubic symphesis.

Synovial Joints Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by far the most common classification of joint within the human body. They are highly moveable and all have a synovial capsule (collagenous structure) surrounding the entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule) which secretes synovial fluid (a lubricating liquid) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage which pads the ends of the articulating bones. There are 6 types of synovial joints which are classified by the shape of the joint and the movement available.

Types of Synovial Joint

Joint Type

Movement at joint

Examples

Structure

Hinge

Flexion/Extension

Elbow/Knee

Hinge joint

Pivot

Rotation of one bone around another

Top of the neck (atlas and axis bones)

Pivot Joint

Flexion/Extension/Adduction/ Ball and Socket Abduction/Internal & External Rotation Shoulder/Hip Ball and socket joint

Flexion/Extension/Adduction/ Saddle Abduction/Circumduction CMC joint of the thumb Saddle joint

Flexion/Extension/Adduction/ Condyloid Abduction/Circumduction Wrist/MCP & MTP joints

Condyloid joint

Gliding

Gliding movements

Intercarpal joints

Gliding joint