Human Resources

Examination: Study Aide

Memoir


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Contents
1. Performance management: .................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Motivation: ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Personality & Performance ............................................................................................. 7
1.3. Performance Management & Reward: ......................................................................... 13
1.4. Task Performance: The Goal Setting Theory, ................................................................ 14
1.5. Five Principles of Goal Setting ....................................................................................... 14
1.6. Contextual Performance: Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (hereafter, OCB): ..... 16
2. Group dynamics and team working: ..................................................................................... 17
2.1. Types of Groups: ........................................................................................................... 17
3. Leadership, Power and Authority:- ....................................................................................... 23
4. Employee resourcing:- .......................................................................................................... 31
4.1.1. 'Human Resource Planning - HRP' ................................................................................. 32
4.2. Succession Planning: ..................................................................................................... 32
4.3. Selection and Performance ........................................................................................... 33
4.4. Recruitment and selection:- .......................................................................................... 33
4.5. HR Development (Employee development):- ............................................................... 34
4.6. The learning organisation:- ........................................................................................... 35
4.6.1. How to Achieve the Principles of a Learning Organization ........................................... 36
5. Organisational change: ......................................................................................................... 38
6. Conflict ing organisations: ..................................................................................................... 41
7. Organisational structures:..................................................................................................... 42
8. Organisational culture: ......................................................................................................... 50
The Cultural Web ........................................................................................................................ 51



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HR Exam Prep Plan:

This study framework has been developed in accordance with the Human Resources module
teaching and the examination study template in accordance with Prof D XXXX.
1. Performance management:
Performance management is about creating a culture that encourages the continuous improvement
of business processes and of individuals skills, behaviour and contributions

Summary of key points:
In the lectures, Performance management was divided into three subtopics as follows:-
Motivation
Personality and performance
Performance management and reward
1.1. Motivation:

Motivation is defined as forces within the individual that account for the direction, level,
and persistence of a person's effort expended at work (Schermerhorn, et al., 2011, p. 102).
There are two main motivation theories (illustrated below):-

Key Reading: http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Motivation.htm
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1.1.1. Content theories:-
Content theories focus on the question of what arouses, sustains and regulates goal
directed behaviour ie, the particular things that motivate people. They offer ways to
profile or analyse individuals to identify their needs.
Often criticised as being static and descriptive they appear to be
linked more to job satisfaction than to work effort.
Content motivation theories are divided into intrinsic and extrinsic
theories.
Extrinsic motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity
is done in order to attain some separable outcome. Extrinsic
motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which refers to
doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, rather
than its instrumental value. (Ryan and Deci, 2000)
Intrinsic Motivation: According to (Ryan and Deci, 2000) (pp. 56), Intrinsic motivation is
defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some
separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved to act for the
fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external products, pressures or reward.
Examples:
Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
Herzberg Two Factor Theory
ERG Theory
Achievement Motivation Theory
Motivation
Content
Intrisic
Extrinsic
Process

Online Lecture:
Hawthorne
Experiments

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Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory:


Strengths:
Since it is a humanistic content theory model, Maslows Hierarchy of Needs greatest
strength is its intuitive nature. Intuitive nature is the awareness of emotions. It is this
strength that supports practitioners in using the theory despite the lack of supportive
evidence (OConnor & Ybatel, 2007).

Practitioners of the theory, those who put it into practice when working within their
organizations, understand this flexible, individualized theory as a dynamic solution to
motivating members of an organization.


Weaknesses:
The appeal of the model is its simplicity, and its use as a first stab analysis. However, when
deeper investigation is required, the interviewer requires skill and understanding. Research
on the model remains on-going.

Maslow, himself, warned that the model takes into account only 'basic' needs. Other needs,
such the need for aesthetics, exist outside the hierarchy.


Online Lecture:
Maslow's
Need Hierarchy
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Maslow regarded culture as one of the influencing factors that can cause a change in the
Hierarchy's order, but the model does not take into account cultural differences.

1.1.2. Process theories:-

Process theories attempt to explain and describe how people start, sustain and direct
behaviour aimed at the satisfaction of needs or the reduction of inner tension.
The major variables in process models are incentive, drive, reinforcement and
expectancy.

Examples:
Goal Setting Theory
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Adam's Equity Theory
Porter's Performance Satisfaction Model

Expectancy Theory:
According to Management: Concepts, Practices, and Skills, by R. Mondy and Shane
Premeaux, expectancy theory attempts to explain behaviour in terms of an individuals
goals and choices and the expectation of achieving the
objectives.
The probability of an individual acting in a particular manner
will increase when an employee associates it strongly with a
given, attractive outcome.
When deciding among behavioural options, individuals select
the option with the greatest motivation forces (MF).
The motivational force for a behaviour, action, or task is a
function of three distinct perceptions: Expectancy,
Instrumentality, and Valance. The motivational force is the product of the three
perceptions:




Online Lecture:
Expectancy Theory

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The theory states that motivation depends on three variables:
Expectancy probability: based on the perceived effort-performance
relationship. It is the expectancy that one's effort will lead to the desired
performance and is based on past experience, self-confidence, and the
perceived difficulty of the performance goal. Example: If I work harder than
everyone else in the plant will I produce more?
Instrumentality probability: based on the perceived performance-reward
relationship. The instrumentality is the belief that if one does meet performance
expectations, he or she will receive a greater reward. Example: If I produce more
than anyone else in the plant, will I get a bigger raise or a faster promotion?





Strengths:
Expectancy theory provides a framework for thinking about how people make choices based
upon expectations.
Focusing on expectations allows the theory to account for differences in choices between
people despite the actual amount of effort necessary to achieve rewards and the actual
value of rewards.

Weaknesses:
Expectancy theory implies that individuals will only put effort toward something for a
reward. This implication seems to conflict with altruism which describes actions done purely
to benefit others without regard for personal rewards.
One of the drawbacks of expectancy theory is that perceptions about effort, performance
and the value of rewards are difficult to quantify so comparisons between different choices
or people using the expectancy theory framework may not be accurate.

Other models (Summary):
Alderfer's ERG Theory
Existence Needs- They need for basic human needs and security/safety.
Relatedness Needs- The need to have high quality relationships
MF = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
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Growth Needs- Need for continued self-development and competency

Murray/McClelland's Manifest Need Theory
Need for Achievement- Need to perform challenging tasks and meet personal standards
for excellence
Need for Affiliation- Need to establish and maintain good relationships with others.
Need for reassurance and approval from others.
Need for Power- Need to exert emotional and behavioral influence over others.


1.2. Personality & Performance
Personality is defined as those relatively stable and enduring aspects of an individual that
distinguish him/her from other people and at the same time form a basis for our predictions
concerning his/her future behavior.



The whole issue of whether a trait exists in all people to a greater or lesser degree is
complicated by different views of the trait perspective.

There are two different views as to whether all traits exist in all people:

Personality
Idiographic:
Personality as an integrated whole
(what makes a person unique) that
may change over the life-course in
response to experience
Example:
Psychodynamic approaches, e.g. Freuds
ego super-ego id triad
Nomothetic:
Personality as a set of stable and
relatively fixed characteristics (traits);
traits are common to all people, but
vary in degree, allowing people to be
divided into types.
Example:
The Big Five
personality traits
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Idiographic: people have unique personality structures; thus some traits (cardinal traits) are
more important in understanding the structure of some people than others

Nomothetic: people's unique personalities can be understood as them having relatively
greater or lesser amounts of traits that are consistently across people (e.g., the NEO is
nomothetic)

The Idiographic view emphasizes that each person has a unique psychological structure and
that some traits are possessed by only one person; and that there are times when it is
impossible to compare one person with others. This viewpoint also emphasizes that traits
may differ in importance from person to person (cardinal, central and secondary traits). It
tends to use case studies, bibliographical information, diaries etc for information gathering.

The Nomothetic view, on the other hand, emphasizes comparability among individuals but
sees people as unique in their combination of traits. This viewpoint sees traits as having the
same psychological meaning in everyone. The belief is that people differ only in the amount
of each trait. It is this which constitutes their uniqueness. This approach tends to use self-
report personality questions, factor analysis etc. People differ in their positions along a
continuum in the same set of traits.

Nomothetic: The Big Five Model:
The Five Factor Model is a model of personality that uses five separate factors to describe an
individuals character.

The factors of the Big Five and their constituent traits can be summarized as (OCEAN):
Openness to experience
Inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious.
Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.

Conscientiousness
Efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless.
A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather
than spontaneous behaviour.

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Extraversion
outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved
Energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company
of others.

Agreeableness
Friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind
A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic
towards others.

Neuroticism
Sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident.
A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or
vulnerability.

Further reading: http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/13139/1/What-Is-the-Five-Factor-
Model-of-Personality.html

Strengths & Weaknesses:
The Big Five is a very useful model for assessing non-managerial staff, but it lacks some of
the rigour required for assessing people in or destined for managerial and executive roles.
The Big Five model gives us an accurate and fast way of assessing the main drivers of
someone's personality. But the model by itself is not able to drill down into complex
management capabilities or competencies. For this we must refer more to work-related
behaviours rather than 'pure' personality.
Management performance depends more on the subtle use of discretionary elements of the
job, which the Big Five will not measure. The Big Five is a 'broad brush' personality
methodology. A different approach is required for management assessment, to gauge the
'components' of people's behaviour and the detailed combinations of working style.
The strengths of the Big Five Factor model lie in its speed and ease of use and this makes it a
very useful tool for gaining a rapid overview of a person's key drivers.
The Big Five Factor model has been very well validated, and while it has shown correlations
with performance in jobs, studies indicate that the correlation with particular jobs does not
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exceed 0.30, which accounts for no more than 15% of the variables. There is a big difference
between measuring job suitability, style, etc., and measuring personality per se.

Idoigrahpic Freuds ego super-ego id triad:
Sigmund Freuds psychoanalysis has endured because it (1) postulated the primacy of sex
and aggressiontwo universally popular themes, (2) attracted a group of followers who
were dedicated to spreading psychoanalytic doctrine, and (3) advanced the notion of
unconscious motives, which permit varying explanations for the same observations.

Levels of Mental Life
Freud saw mental functioning as operating on three levelsunconscious,
preconscious, and conscious.
Unconscious
The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond awareness but that
motivate most human behaviors. Freud believed that unconscious drives can
become conscious only in disguised or distorted form, such as dream images, slips of
the tongue, or neurotic symptoms. Unconscious processes originate from two
sources: (1) repression, or the blocking out of anxiety-filled experiences and (2)
phylogenetic endowment, or inherited experiences that lie beyond an individuals
personal experience.

Preconscious
The preconscious contains images that are not in awareness but that can become
conscious either quite easily or with some level of difficulty.
Conscious: plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory. Conscious ideas stem
from either the perception of external stimuli (our perceptual conscious system) or
from the unconscious and preconscious after they have evaded censorship.

Provinces of the Mind:
Freud conceptualized three regions of the mindthe id, the ego, and the superego.
The Id:
completely unconscious, serves the pleasure principle and contains our basic instincts. It
operates through the primary process.
The Ego
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(secondary process) is governed by the reality principle and is responsible for
reconciling the unrealistic demands of the id and the superego.

The Superego:
Serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystemsthe conscience and the ego-ideal. The
conscience results from punishment for improper behavior whereas the ego-ideal stems
from rewards for socially acceptable behavior.

1.2.1. Dynamics of Personality

Dynamics of personality refers to those forces that motivate people.
Instincts: Freud grouped all human drives or urges under two primary instinctssex
(Eros or the life instinct) and aggression (the death or destructive instinct). The aim of
the sexual instinct is pleasure, which can be gained through the erogenous zones,
especially the mouth, anus, and genitals. The object of the sexual instinct is any person
or thing that brings sexual pleasure. All infants possess primary narcissism, or self-
centeredness, but the secondary narcissism of adolescence and adulthood is not
universal. Both sadism (receiving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain on another) and
masochism (receiving sexual pleasure from painful experiences) satisfy both sexual and
aggressive drives. The destructive instinct aims to return a person to an inorganic state,
but it is ordinarily directed against other people and is called aggression.
Anxiety: Only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and outside world can each be
a source of anxiety. Neurotic anxiety stems from the egos relation with the id; moral
anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the egos relation with the superego; and
realistic anxiety, which is similar to fear, is produced by the egos relation with the real
world.

Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms operate to protect the ego against the pain of anxiety.
Repression:
involves forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the unconscious. It is
the most basic of all defense mechanisms because it is an active process in each of
the others.
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Reaction Formation:
Marked by the repression of one impulse and the ostentatious expression of its
exact opposite.
Displacement: takes place when people redirect their unwanted urges onto other
objects or people in order to disguise the original impulse.
Fixation: develop when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development,
making psychological change difficult. Some adults may remain fixated on the anal
stage of psychosexual development.
Regression: occur whenever a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes of
behavior. Some adults may return to the oral stage as a means of reducing anxiety.
Projection: is seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or behaviors that actually
reside in ones own unconscious. When carried to extreme, projection can become paranoia,
which is characterized by delusions of persecution.
Introjection: take place when people incorporate positive qualities of another person
into their own ego to reduce feelings of inferiority.
Sublimation: involve the elevation of the sexual instincts aim to a higher level, which
permits people to make contributions to society and culture.

Stages of Development
Freud saw psychosexual development as proceeding from birth to maturity through
four overlapping stages.
Infantile Period
The infantile stage encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life and is divided into three:
Sub-phases:
oral, anal, and phallic. During the oral phase, an infant is primarily motivated to receive
pleasure through the mouth. During the 2nd year of life, a child goes through an anal phase.
If parents are too punitive during the anal phase, the child may adopt an anal triad,
consisting of orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy. During the phallic phase, boys and girls
begin to have differing psychosexual development. At this time, boys and girls experience
the Oedipus complex in which they have sexual feelings for one parent and hostile feelings
for the other. The male castration complex, which takes the form of castration anxiety,
breaks up the male Oedipus complex and results in a well-formed male superego. For girls,
however, the castration complex takes the form of penis envy, precedes the female Oedipus
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complex, leads to a gradual and incomplete shattering of the female Oedipus complex and
results it a weaker and more flexible female superego.
Latency Period
Freud believed that psychosexual development goes through a latency stagefrom
about age 5 years until pubertyin which the sexual instinct is partially suppressed.
Genital Period
The genital period begins with puberty when adolescents experience a reawakening
of the genital aim of Eros. The term genital period should not be confused with
phallic period.
Maturity
Freud hinted at a stage of psychological maturity in which the ego would be in
control of the id and superego and in which consciousness would play a more
important role in behavior.






Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud erected his theory on the dreams, free associations, slips of the tongue, and
neurotic symptoms of his patients during therapy. But he also gathered information
from history, literature, and works of art.

Critique of Freud
Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many critics consider his methods to be
outdated, unscientific, and permeated with gender bias. On the six criteria of a
useful theory, psychoanalysis we rate its ability to generate research as high, its
openness to falsification as very low, and its ability to organize data as average. We
also rate psychoanalysis as average on its ability to guide action and to be
parsimonious. Because it lacks operational definitions, we rate it low on internal
consistency.

1.3. Performance Management & Reward:
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Job performance: observable behaviours and outcomes of intellectual activities that contribute to
the organizations goals and can be measured in terms of each individuals contribution (Campbell et
al., 1996)
Two major sub-dimensions of job performance:
Task performance: Required & prescribed, directly related to the technical core of the
organization, specific to certain jobs.
Contextual performance (aka Organisational Citizenship Behaviour, OCB): Voluntary, similar
across jobs, improves social context in the organization (e.g., helping co-workers)

1.4. Task Performance: The Goal Setting Theory,
This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that
specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better
task performance. In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what
needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be put in.
Locke's research showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal
was and people's performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better
task performance than vague or easy goals.
Telling someone to "Try hard" or "Do your best" is less effective than "Try to get more than 80%
correct" or "Concentrate on beating your best time." Likewise, having a goal that's too easy is
not a motivating force. Hard goals are more motivating than easy goals, because it's much more
of an accomplishment to achieve something that you have to work for.
A few years after Locke published his article, another researcher, Dr Gary Latham, studied the
effect of goal setting in the workplace. His results supported exactly what Locke had found, and
the inseparable link between goal setting and workplace performance was formed.
In 1990, Locke and Latham published their seminal work, "A Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Performance." In this book, they reinforced the need to set specific and difficult goals, and they
outlined three other characteristics of successful goal setting.
1.5. Five Principles of Goal Setting
To motivate, goals must have:
1. Clarity.
2. Challenge.
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3. Commitment.
4. Feedback.
5. Task complexity.
a. Clarity
Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and specific, with a definite
time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding about what behaviors will be
rewarded. You know what's expected, and you can use the specific result as a source of
motivation. When a goal is vague or when it's expressed as a general instruction, like "Take
initiative" it has limited motivational value.
To improve your or your team's performance, set clear goals that use specific and measurable
standards. "Reduce job turnover by 15%" or "Respond to employee suggestions within 48
hours" are examples of clear goals.
When you use the SMART acronym to help you set goals, you ensure the clarity of the goal by
making it Specific, Measurable and Time-bound.
b. Challenge
One of the most important characteristics of goals is the level of challenge. People are often
motivated by achievement, and they'll judge a goal based on the significance of the anticipated
accomplishment. When you know that what you do will be well received, there's a natural
motivation to do a good job.
Rewards typically increase for more difficult goals. If you believe you'll be well compensated or
otherwise rewarded for achieving a challenging goal, that will boost your enthusiasm and your
drive to get it done.
Setting SMART goals that are Relevant links them closely to the rewards given for achieving
challenging goals. Relevant goals will further the aims of your organization, and these are the
kinds of goals that most employers will be happy to reward.
When setting goals, make each goal a challenge. If an assignment is easy and not viewed as very
important and if you or your employee doesn't expect the accomplishment to be significant
then the effort may not be impressive.

Strengths of the Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work
quickly and effectively.
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Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also
through increasing and improving the feedback quality.
Weaknesses of the Goal Setting Theory
At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal conflict has
a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift.
Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.
If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then the
goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.
There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

1.6. Contextual Performance: Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (hereafter, OCB):

Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (hereafter, OCB) has been studied since the late
1970s. Over the past three decades, interest in these behaviours has increased substantially.
Organizational behaviour has been linked to overall organizational effectiveness, thus these
types of employee behaviours have important consequences in the workplace.
1.6.1. Practical Implications
If contextual performance is a fundamental part of the employee performance criteria, then
contextual performance should be considered in all aspects of the employment process, this
includes selection, performance appraisal, and rewards.
Selection procedures should take into account the predictors of both task and contextual
performance. Therefore when conducting performance appraisals, organizations may want
to explicate that they take into account facets of both contextual and task performance.
Lastly, rewards and incentives should be set up to address employees who perform helping
behaviours that contribute to the overall goals of an organization as well as behaviours that
contribute strictly to individuals projects.

Job performance vs. Personality:

Big Five trait Prediction of task performance
Conscientiousness Positively predicts in a wide variety of jobs
(strongest Big 5 predictor across jobs)
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Extraversion Positively predicts in sales and managerial jobs
Agreeableness Positively predicts in service jobs
Emotional stability Positively predicts in sales, service and managerial
jobs
Openness Positively predicts in service jobs (& strongest
positive Big 5 predictor of creativity)

2. Group dynamics and team working:

A group is any number of people who a) interact with each other, b) are psychologically
aware of each other and c) perceive themselves to be a group" (Buchanan & Huczynski)
The literature on groups is voluminous but disjointed: it requires a framework to organise
and integrate ideas.
Groups form for two reasons:
Deliberately set up to perform a task/work function (Formal group)
Evolve from interaction among individuals arising out of proximity and attraction
(Informal)
2.1. Types of Groups:

Formal: Deliberate or constructed
Informal: Spontaneous
Primary: Small and close
Secondary: Larger and distant
Co-acting: Individual independence
Counteracting: Competitive
Reference: Influences behaviour

Vertical Group structure:
Status:
Value/importance placed on group members.
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Key issue: congruence between formal status (given by title/position) and informal
status (conferred by group members)
Power:
Ability to influence others' behaviour, stemming from control over
resources/knowledge/ideas.
Key issue: congruence between formal power (of position) and informal power (of
person).
Leadership:
Process of directing group to certain behaviours.
Key issues:
Individual vs. Collective leadership
Autocratic vs. Laissez-faire vs. Democratic

Horizontal Group Structure:
Task roles:
(getting job done) and Maintenance roles (keeping group together) (Bales)

Diversity of group members:
more effective in long run (Belbin)

Efficiency:
To be effective, a group needs a spread/balance (Belbin)


2.2. Group dynamics and team working:-

Tuckman Group Development stages:

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2.3. Belbin Group Roles:
Belbin identified nine team roles and he categorized those roles into three groups: Action
Oriented, People Oriented, and Thought Oriented. Each team role is associated with typical
behavioural and interpersonal strengths.
Belbin also defined characteristic weaknesses that tend to accompany each team role. He
called the characteristic weaknesses of team roles the "allowable" weaknesses; as for any
behavioral weakness, these are areas to be aware of and potentially improve.

The nine team roles are:

Action Oriented Roles:
Shaper (SH)
Shapers are people who challenge the team to improve. They are dynamic and usually
extroverted people who enjoy stimulating others, questioning norms, and finding the best
approaches for solving problems.
The Shaper is the one who shakes things up to make sure that all possibilities are considered
and that the team does not become complacent.
Shapers often see obstacles as exciting challenges and they tend to have the courage to push
on when others feel like quitting.
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Their potential weaknesses may be that they're argumentative, and that they may offend
people's feelings.

Implementer (IMP):
Implementers are the people who get things done. They turn the team's ideas and concepts
into practical actions and plans. They are typically conservative, disciplined people who work
systematically and efficiently and are very well organized. These are the people who you can
count on to get the job done.
On the downside, Implementers may be inflexible and can be somewhat resistant to change.

Completer-Finisher (CF):
Completer-Finishers are the people who see that projects are completed thoroughly. They
ensure there have been no errors or omissions and they pay attention to the smallest of
details.
They are very concerned with deadlines and will push the team to make sure the job is
completed on time.
They are described as perfectionists who are orderly, conscientious, and anxious. However, a
Completer-Finisher may worry unnecessarily, and may find it hard to delegate.

2.4. People Oriented Roles:

Coordinator (CO)

Coordinators are the ones who take on the traditional team-leader role and have also been
referred to as the chairmen.
They guide the team to what they perceive are the objectives. They are often excellent
listeners and they are naturally able to recognize the value that each team members brings
to the table. They are calm and good-natured and delegate tasks very effectively.
Their potential weaknesses are that they may delegate away too much personal
responsibility, and may tend to be manipulative.

Team Worker (TW)
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Team Workers are the people who provide support and make sure that people within the
team are working together effectively.
These people fill the role of negotiators within the team and they are flexible, diplomatic,
and perceptive.
These tend to be popular people who are very capable in their own right, but who prioritize
team cohesion and helping people getting along.
Their weaknesses may be a tendency to be indecisive, and to maintain uncommitted
positions during discussions and decision-making.

Resource Investigator (RI)

Resource Investigators are innovative and curious. They explore available options,
develop contacts, and negotiate for resources on behalf of the team. They are
enthusiastic team members, who identify and work with external stakeholders to help
the team accomplish its objective. They are outgoing and are often extroverted,
meaning that others are often receptive to them and their ideas.
On the downside, they may lose enthusiasm quickly, and are often overly optimistic.

2.5. Thought Oriented Roles:

Plant (PL)
The Plant is the creative innovator who comes up with new ideas and approaches. They
thrive on praise but criticism is especially hard for them to deal with.
Plants are often introverted and prefer to work apart from the team. Because their
ideas are so novel, they can be impractical at times.
They may also be poor communicators and can tend to ignore given parameters and
constraints.

Monitor-Evaluator (ME)

Monitor-Evaluators are best at analyzing and evaluating ideas that other people (often
Plants) come up with. These people are shrewd and objective and they carefully weigh
the pros and cons of all the options before coming to a decision.
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Monitor-Evaluators are critical thinkers and very strategic in their approach. They are
often perceived as detached or unemotional. Sometimes they are poor motivators who
react to events rather than instigating them

Specialist (SP)
Specialists are people who have specialized knowledge that is needed to get the
job done. They pride themselves on their skills and abilities, and they work to
maintain their professional status.
Their job within the team is to be an expert in the area, and they commit
themselves fully to their field of expertise.
This may limit their contribution, and lead to a preoccupation with technicalities
at the expense of the bigger picture.

Figure 1: Belbin's Team Roles
Action Oriented Roles Shaper Challenges the team to
improve.
Implementer Puts ideas into action.
Completer Finisher Ensures thorough, timely
completion.
People Oriented Roles Coordinator Acts as a chairperson.
Team Worker Encourages cooperation.
Resource Investigator Explores outside opportunities.
Thought Oriented Roles Plant Presents new ideas and
approaches.
Monitor-Evaluator Analyzes the options.
Specialist Provides specialized skills.

Negative Group Roles:
AGGRESSOR: deflates others, shows disapproval, attacks group/task, shows envy
BLOCKER: negative and stubbornly resistant, disagrees irrationally, tries to revive dead issues
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RECOGNITION-SEEKER: seeks to draw attention to themselves through boasting of own
achievements
SELF-CONFESSOR: uses group as audience for non-group related personal feelings and ideas
CLASS CLOWN: makes display of lack of involvement in team activity through cynicism,
nonchalance or horseplay
DOMINATOR: seeks to assert superiority by asserting status and giving orders or
manipulating group members by flattery or deals
HELP-SEEKER: craves sympathy of group through expressions of insecurity, confusion or self-
deprecation
SPECIAL PLEADER: disguises personal interest by claiming to speak on behalf of a wider
constituency

2.6. Group processes:
Communication patterns - Circle, chain, wheel, 'Y' - influence problem-solving and group satisfaction









Synergy: extent to which group is more than the sum of its individual members, through:
Interdependence of skills
task efficiency
Stimulation
idea generation/creativity

3. Leadership, Power and Authority:-

Circle
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Leadership: Is setting goals and using cognitive and normative forms of power and influence to
encourage the achievement of those goals with a high level of commitment

3.1. Types of leadership:
There are different types of leadership listed below. However for the purposes of the Exam prep,
I have only focused on:
3.2. Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership: Key points:
Transactional Leadership (in Management)
Maintains the status quo
Legitimate authority and bureaucracy
Clarifies and controls process, rules. systems
Based on mutual dependence and exchange
Purpose: to engender compliance
Transformational Leadership (of Management)
Changes the status quo
About transforming the organization
Based on creativity and innovation
Purpose: to engender commitment

3.3. Transactional leadership
Assumptions
People are motivated by reward and punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to
their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.

Style
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is
required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders.
Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal
systems of discipline are usually in place.
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The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the
subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the
subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate.
When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be
fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out.
When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is
punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding).
The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that
if something is operating to defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not
need attention. Exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding
expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below
expectation.

Discussion

Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent
upon performance.
Despite much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is still a
popular approach with many managers. Indeed, in the Leadership vs. Management
spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale.
The main limitation is the assumption of 'rational man', a person who is largely motivated by
money and simple reward, and hence whose behaviour is predictable.
The underlying psychology is Behaviourism, including the Classical Conditioning of Pavlov
and Skinner's Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on controlled
laboratory experiments (often with animals) and ignore complex emotional factors and
social values.
In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This
is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the
effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow's Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill outstrips the
supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more
effective.

3.4. Transformational leadership
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Assumptions
People will follow a person who inspires them.
A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.

Style
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They
put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed.


Developing the vision
Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future
that will excite and convert potential followers.
This vision may be developed by the leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad
series of discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, line and sinker.

Selling the vision
The next step, which in fact never stops, is to constantly sell the vision. This takes energy and
commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision, and some will join the
show much more slowly than others.
The Transformational Leader thus takes every opportunity and will use whatever works to
convince others to climb on board the bandwagon.
In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in creating
trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are selling. In
effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision.

Finding the way forwards
In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some Transformational
Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them.
Others do not have a ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of possible routes
to the Promised Land.
The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a clear
vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can be an ongoing
process of course correction, and the Transformational Leader will accept that there will be
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failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they feel progress is being made, they
will be happy.

Leading the charge
The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational Leaders
are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind their troops.
They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should behave. They also make
continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers, constantly doing the rounds,
listening, soothing and enthusing.

It is their unswerving commitment as much as anything else that keeps people going,
particularly through the darker times when some may question whether the vision can ever
be achieved. If the people do not believe that they can succeed, then their efforts will flag.
The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect their followers with a high level of
commitment to the vision.
One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in the use of
ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big hurrahs, pumping
up their significance as indicators of real progress.

Overall, they balance their attention between action that creates progress and the mental
state of their followers. Perhaps more than other approaches, they are people-oriented and
believe that success comes first and last through deep and sustained commitment.

Discussion
Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is
also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps
to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the followers are the
product of the transformation.
Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure
Charismatic Leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in
others.
One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can
easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great things have been
achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate people
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have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. Just because
someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right.
Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up.
Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly
applied, can wear out their followers.
Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not the details, where the
devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take care of this level of information,
then they are usually doomed to fail.

Finally, Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the
organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a
leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they
come into their own and can be personally responsible for saving entire companies.

Other types of leadership include:

Autocratic leadership:
Bureaucratic leadership.
Charismatic leadership.
Democratic leadership or participative leadership.
Laissez-faire leadership.
People-oriented leadership or relations-oriented leadership.
Servant leadership.
Task-oriented leadership.

Key conclusions:
'Leadership' as the generalised attempt to influence behaviour has little value as a separate
concept - indistinguishable from management
To have any value, concept of leadership should:
refer to a process whereby people are inspired to perform exceptionally
refer to a process that involves generating voluntary commitment to goals through
the power of ideas and values, rather than coercion or calculation.
recognise that process of leadership can (and should) be exercised at all levels of an
organisations
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Leadership is multi-faceted
no agreed definition
no agreed determinants
Leadership as a balanced portfolio?
Balanced behaviours
Instrumental (Task; Relationships/ Stability)
Expressive (Charisma/ Change)
Underpinned by key traits: drive, confidence, integrity, situational
sensitivity/empathy, adaptability
Applied appropriately to situation
organisational setting ( task, structure/culture)
follower characteristics
Sustained by sense-making and managing meanings
But who does this - leaders in name or leaders in fact?


3.5. Power (Control & Authority):
Control within an organisation is a general process whereby management and other groups
are able to initiate and regulate the conduct of activities.
A control system is a mechanism intended to ensure that targets are achieved and will
continue to be achieved.

3.6. Sources of Power:
Power (French and Raven, 1959)
TYPE SOURCE
Reward power - perception
Coercive power - perception
Legitimate power - perception
Referent power - identification
Expert power - perception



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3.6.1. Pfeffer Principles:
(1981 Power in Organizations, Marshfield, MA, Pitman)

Power
Ambiguous and ubiquitous; relative, not absolute. A person is only powerful in relation to
others.

Authority
When the distribution of power in a social setting is accepted or legitimised by the other
actors.

Politics
Action taken to overcome resistance to ones preferred outcomes. A conscious effort to
muster and use force to overcome opposition.



















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4. Employee resourcing:-
Labour Markets:
The labour market is not much different from the market for bananas; if demand exceeds
the supply the price should increase; if supply exceeded demand, the reverse should happen
and the price should fall; at some point demand should equal supply at an equilibrium
point. Stoney (quoted by Canning 1984)

Types of Labour Market:
Internal
External
Geographic (Local & National)
Primary
Secondary
Dual (Atkinson:- Flexible firm/ Japanese firms)

Primary Labour Market:
High pay
Opportunities for training
Opportunities for promotion
High skills
High job security
Above average unionization

Secondary Labour Market
Low pay
Few opportunities for training
Little chance of promotion
Mainly unskilled
Low job security
Low unionization
High absence
High labour turnover


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4.1.1. 'Human Resource Planning - HRP'
The on-going process of systematic planning to achieve optimum use of an organization's most
valuable asset - its human resources. The objective of human resource (HR) planning is to ensure
the best fit between employees and jobs, while avoiding manpower shortages or surpluses. The
three key elements of the HR planning process are forecasting labour demand, analysing present
labour supply, and balancing projected labour demand and supply.

4.1.2. Aims of HRP
Obtain and retain necessary human resources
o quantity
o quality
Optimize use of human resources
Anticipate deficits and shortages
Workforce development
training, multi-skilling/role flexibility,
Reduce dependence on external labour supply
strategies for retention and development

Labour Turnover Measurements:
Turnover index
Number of leavers divided by average employees in period x 100
Stability index
Number with 1 years service divided by number employed 1 year ago x 100
Survival rate
Expressed by leavers as a % of total entrants over a period of time.

4.2. Succession Planning:

An extension of human resource planning
Aims to provide the organization with suitable
management
leadership
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Aims to fill vacancies created by:
promotion, retirement, transfer, wastage, death
4.3. Selection and Performance










4.4. Recruitment and selection:-


4.4.1. Defining Requirements:
Job Analysis
Job Specification
Job Description
Person Specification
Competency Framework
Roberts (1997); Wood and Payne (1998); Farnham and Stevens (2000)
Seven-point plan
Rodger (1952) Physical make-up; Attainment; General intelligence; Special
aptitudes; Interests; Disposition; Circumstances
Five-fold grading system
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Munro Fraser (1954) Impact on others; Acquired qualifications; Innate
abilities; Motivation; Adjustment

4.4.2. Attracting Candidates:

Labour market access
Advertising
Newspapers
Journals
Job Centres
Word of mouth (beware nepotism!)
Outsourcing
Agencies/consultants/head hunters
Milk Round
Schools and colleges

4.4.3. Selection:
Individual interviews
Panel interviews/Selection boards
Sequential interviews
Assessment centres
Tests
Psychometric
Aptitude
Graphology

4.5. HR Development (Employee development):-
. is concerned with the provision of learning, development and training activities in order
to improve individual, team and organizational performance. Armstrong (1999)
HR development shapes the organisations mission and goals. McCracken and Wallace
(2000)

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4.6. The learning organisation:-
Peter Senge is a leading writer in the area of learning organizations. According to Peter Senge (1990:
3) learning organizations are:
organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly
desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set
free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together.
His seminal works, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, and The
Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization, describe five
disciplines that must be mastered when introducing learning into an organization:

1. Systems Thinking the ability to see the big picture, and to distinguish patterns instead of
conceptualizing change as isolated events. Systems thinking needs the other four disciplines to
enable a learning organization to be realized. There must be a paradigm shift - from being
unconnected to interconnected to the whole, and from blaming our problems on something
external to a realization that how we operate, our actions, can create problems (Senge 1990,10).

2. Personal Mastery - begins "by becoming committed to lifelong learning," and is the
spiritual cornerstone of a learning organization. Personal Mastery involves being more
realistic, focusing on becoming the best person possible, and striving for a sense of
commitment and excitement in our careers to facilitate the realization of potential
(Senge 1990,11).


3. Mental Models - must be managed because they do prevent new powerful insights and
organizational practices from becoming implemented. The process begins with self-
reflection; unearthing deeply held belief structures and generalizations, and
understanding how they dramatically influence the way we operate in our own lives.
Until there is realization and a focus on openness, real change can never take place
(Senge 1990,12).

4. Building Shared Visions - visions cannot be dictated because they always begin with the
personal visions of individual employees, who may not agree with the leader's vision.
What is needed is a genuine vision that elicits commitment in good times and bad, and
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has the power to bind an organization together. As Peter Senge contends, "[b]uilding
shared vision fosters a commitment to the long term" (Senge 1990,12).


5. Team Learning - is important because modern organizations operate on the basis of
teamwork, which means that organizations cannot learn if team members do not come
together and learn. It is a process of developing the ability to create desired results; to
have a goal in mind and work together to attain it (Senge 1990,13).

Short Summary:
To summarize, a learning organization does away with the mindset that it is only senior
management who can and do all the thinking for an entire corporation. Learning organizations
challenge all employees to tap into their inner resources and potential, in hopes that they can build
their own community based on principles of liberty, humanity, and a collective will to learn.

4.6.1. How to Achieve the Principles of a Learning Organization
The first step is to create a timeline to initiate the types of changes necessary to achieve the
principles of a learning organization.
Timeline: In Order of Appearance
Stage One is to create a communications system to facilitate the exchange of information,
the basis on which any learning organization is built (Gephart 1996,40). The use of
technology has and will continue to alter the workplace by enabling information to flow
freely, and to "provide universal access to business and strategic information" (Gephart
1996,41). It is also important in clarifying the more complex concepts into more precise
language that is understandable across departments (Kaplan 1996,24).
Stage Two is to organize a readiness questionnaire, a tool that assesses the distance
between where an organization is and where it would like to be, in terms of the following
seven dimensions. "Providing continuous learning, providing strategic leadership, promoting
inquiry and dialogue, encouraging collaboration and team learning, creating embedded
structures for capturing and sharing learning, empowering people toward a shared vision,
and making systems connections" (Gephart 1996,43). The questionnaire is administered to
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all employees or a sample of them, and is used to develop an assessment profile to design
the learning organization initiative (Gephart 1996,43).
Stage Three is to commit to developing, maintaining, and facilitating an atmosphere that
garners learning.
Stage Four is to create a vision of the organization and write a mission statement with the
help of all employees (Gephart 1996,44).
Stage Five is to use training and awareness programs to develop skills and understanding
attitudes that are needed to reach the goals of the mission statement, including the ability
to work well with others, become more verbal, and network with people across all
departments within the organization (Navran 1993).
Stage Six is to "communicate a change in the company's culture by integrating human and
technical systems" (Gephart 1996,44).
Stage Seven is to initiate the new practices by emphasizing team learning and contributions.
As a result, employees will become more interested in self-regulation and management, and
be more prepared to meet the challenges of an ever-changing workplace (Gephart 1996,44).
Stage Eight is to allow employees to question key business practices and assumptions.
Stage Nine is to develop workable expectations for future actions (Navran 1993).
Stage Ten is to remember that becoming a learning organization is a long process and that
small setbacks should be expected. It is the journey that is the most important thing because
it brings everyone together to work as one large team. In addition, it has inherent financial
benefits by turning the workplace into a well-run and interesting place to work; a place
which truly values its employees.







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5. Organisational change:

Change management is a structured approach to shifting/transitioning individuals, teams, and
organizations from a current state to a desired future state. It is an organizational process aimed at
helping employees to accept and embrace changes in their current business environment

Why organisations need to change:
Challenges of growth, especially global markets
Challenge of economic downturns and tougher trading conditions
Changes in strategy
Technological changes
Competitive pressures, including mergers and acquisitions
Customer pressure, particularly shifting markets
To learn new organisation behaviour and skills
Government legislation/initiatives.

Key principles of managing organisational change:
o The key issue is that the direct and indirect effects of a proposed change on the
control of hazards should be identified and assessed.
o Due to the greater potential consequences of an accident, major accident hazard
sites should aim for higher reliability in their planning and decision making.
o Avoid too many simultaneous changes which may result in inadequate attention to
some or all. Phase changes whenever possible.
o Organisational change should be planned in a thorough, systematic, and realistic
way; similar to the processes for managing plant change.
o Two aspects of the change need risk assessment: risks and opportunities resulting
from the change (where you want to get to) and risks arising from the process of
change (how you get there).
o Consult with staff (including contractors) before, during and after the change - dont
miss serious issues hidden among all the natural concerns.
o Ensure that all key tasks and responsibilities are identified and successfully
transferred to the new organisation.
o Provide training and experienced support/supervision for staff with new or changed
roles.
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o Consider reviews of plans and assessments by independent internal or external
experts - be prepared to challenge.
o Remember that change can happen even to apparently static organisations e.g. the
effects of an ageing workforce.

Types of change:
Ackerman (1997) has distinguished between three types of change:
Type of Change

Characteristics
Developmental
May be either planned or emergent; it is first order, or incremental. It is
change that enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation,
often focusing on the improvement of a skill or process.
Transitional
Seeks to achieve a known desired state that is different from the existing
one. It is episodic, planned and second order, or radical. Much of the
organisational change literature is based on this type.
Transformational Is radical or second order in nature. It requires a shift in assumptions
made by the organisation and its members.

Transformation can result in an organisation that differs significantly in
terms of structure, processes, culture and strategy. It may, therefore,
result in the creation of an organisation that operates in developmental
mode - one that continuously learns, adapts and improves.

Rate of change can be:
A) Incremental
B) Continuous
C) Discontinuous

5.1. Planned versus emergent change
Sometimes change is deliberate, a product of conscious reasoning and actions - planned
change. In contrast, change sometimes unfolds in an apparently spontaneous and unplanned
40 | P a g e

way. This type of change is known as emergent change. Change can be emergent rather than
planned in two ways:
Managers make a number of decisions apparently unrelated to the change that emerges. The
change is therefore not planned. However, these decisions may be based on unspoken, and
sometimes unconscious, assumptions about the organisation, its environment and the future
(Mintzberg, 1989) and are, therefore, not as unrelated as they first seem. Such implicit
assumptions dictate the direction of the seemingly disparate and unrelated decisions, thereby
shaping the change process by 'drift' rather than by design.
External factors (such as the economy, competitors' behaviour, and political climate) or internal
features (such as the relative power of different interest groups, distribution of knowledge, and
uncertainty) influence the change in directions outside the control of managers. Even the most
carefully planned and executed change programme will have some emergent impacts.

5.2. Episodic versus continuous change
Another distinction is between episodic and continuous change. Episodic change, according
to Weick and Quinn (1999), is 'infrequent, discontinuous and intentional'. Sometimes
termed 'radical' or 'second order' change, episodic change often involves replacement of
one strategy or programme with another.
Continuous change, in contrast, is 'ongoing, evolving and cumulative'. Also referred to as
'first order' or 'incremental' change, continuous change is characterised by people constantly
adapting and editing ideas they acquire from different sources. At a collective level these
continuous adjustments made simultaneously across units can create substantial change.
The distinction between episodic and continuous change helps clarify thinking about an
organisation's future development and evolution in relation to its long-term goals. Few
organisations are in a position to decide unilaterally that they will adopt an exclusively
continuous change approach. They can, however, capitalise upon many of the principles of
continuous change by engendering the flexibility to accommodate and experiment with
everyday contingencies, breakdowns, exceptions, opportunities and unintended
consequences that punctuate organisational life (Orlikowski, 1996).
Using these characteristics proposed changes can be placed along two scales: radical -
incremental and core - peripheral (Pennington 2003) Plotting the character of a proposed
change along these scales can provide a sense of how difficult the introduction of any
particular initiative might be and how much disturbance to the status quo it might generate.
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Radical changes to an institution's or department's core business will normally generate high
levels of disturbance; incremental changes to peripheral activities are often considered to be
unexceptional and can be accommodated as a matter of course, especially if the group
involved has a successful past record of continuous improvement.











6. Conflict ing organisations:

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7. Organisational structures:

Organisations are structured in a variety of ways, dependant on their objectives and culture. The
structure of an organisation will determine the manner in which it operates and its
performance.
Structure allows the responsibilities for different functions and processes to be clearly allocated
to different departments and employees.
The wrong organisation structure will hinder the success of the business. Organisational
structures should aim to maximize the efficiency and success of the Organisation.
An effective organisational structure will facilitate working relationships between various
sections of the organisation. It will retain order and command whilst promoting flexibility and
creativity.
Internal factors such as size, product and skills of the workforce influence the organizational
structure. As a business expands the chain of command will lengthen and the spans of control
will widen. The higher the level of skill each employee has the more the business will make use
of the matrix structure to maximize these skills across the organization.

Span of Control:
This term is used to describe the number of employees that each manager/supervisor is
responsible for. The span of control is said to be wide if a superior is in charge of many
employees and narrow if the superior is in charge of a few employees.
Tall Structure:

In its simplest form a tall organisation has many levels of management and supervision. There is a
long chain of command running from the top of the organisation eg Chief Executive down to the
bottom of the organisation eg shop floor worker. The diagram below neatly captures the concept of
a tall structure.

Advantages of the Tall Structure:
There is a narrow span of control ie each manager has a small number of employees under their
control. This means that employees can be closely supervised.
There is a clear management structure.
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The function of each layer will be clear and distinct. There will be clear lines of responsibility and
control.
Clear progression and promotion ladder.

Disadvantages of the Tall Structure:
The freedom and responsibility of employees (subordinates) is restricted.
Decision making could be slowed down as approval may be needed by each of the layers of
authority.
Communication has to take place through many layers of management.
High management costs because managers are generally paid more than subordinates. Each
layer will tend to pay its managers more money than the layer below it.
Flat Organisational Structure:
In contrast to a tall organisation, a flat organisation will have relatively few layers or just one layer of
management. This means that the Chain of Command from top to bottom is short and the span
of control is wide. Due to the small number of management layers, flat organisations are often
small organisations.
Advantages of the flat Structure:

More/Greater communication between management and workers.
Less bureaucracy and easier decision making.
Fewer levels of management which includes benefits such as lower costs as managers are
generally paid more than worker.

Disadvantages of the Tall Structure:
Workers may have more than one manager/boss.
May limit/hinder the growth of the organisation.
Structure limited to small organisations such as partnerships, co-operatives and some private
limited companies.
Function of each department/person could be blurred and merge into the job roles of others.
Hierarchical Organisational Structure:
In a hierarchical organisation employees are ranked at various levels within the organisation, each
level is one above the other. At each stage in the chain, one person has a number of workers directly
44 | P a g e

under them, within their span of control. A tall hierarchical organisation has many levels and a flat
hierarchical organisation will only have a few. The chain of command (ie the way authority is
organized) is a typical pyramid shape.

Advantages of Hierarchical Organisation:
Authority and responsibility and clearly defined
Clearly defined promotion path.
There are specialists managers and the hierarchical environment encourages the effective use of
specialist managers.
Employees very loyal to their department within the organisation.

Disadvantages of Hierarchical Organisation
The organisation can be bureaucratic and respond slowly to changing customer needs and the
market within which the organisation operates
Communication across various sections can be poor especially horizontal communication.
Departments can make decisions which benefit them rather than the business as a whole
especially if there is Inter-departmental rivalry.

Centralised vs. Decentralised Organisations:
In a centralised organisation head office (or a few senior managers) will retain the major
responsibilities and powers. Conversely decentralised organisations will spread responsibility for
specific decisions across various outlets and lower level managers, including branches or units
located away from head office/headquarters. An example of a decentralised structure is Tesco
the supermarket chain. Each store of Tesco has a store manager who can make certain decisions
concerning their store. The store manager is responsible to a regional manager .
Organisations may also decide that a combination of centralisation and decentralisation is more
effective. For example functions such as accounting and purchasing may be centralised to save
costs. Whilst tasks such as recruitment may be decentralised as units away from head office may
have staffing needs specific only to them.
Certain organisations implement vertical decentralisation which means that they have handed
the power to make certain decisions, down the hierarchy of their organisation. Vertical
decentralisation increases the input, people at the bottom of the organisation chart have in
decision making.
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Horizontal decentralisation spreads responsibility across the organisation. A good example of
this is the implementation of new technology across the whole business. This implementation
will be the sole responsibility of technology specialists

Advantages of Centralised Structure for Organisations:
Senior managers enjoy greater control over the organisation.
The use of standardised procedures can results in cost savings.
Decisions can be made to benefit the organisations as a whole. Whereas a decision made by a
department manager may benefit their department, but disadvantage other departments.
The organisation can benefit from the decision making of experienced senior managers.
In uncertain times the organisation will need strong leadership and pull in the same direction. It
is believed that strong leadership is often best given from above.

Advantages of Decentralised Structure for Organisations:
Senior managers have time to concentrate on the most important decisions (as the other
decisions can be undertaken by other people down the organisation structure.
Decision making is a form of empowerment. Empowerment can increase motivation and
therefore mean that staff output increases.
People lower down the chain have a greater understanding of the environment they work in and
the people (customers and colleagues) that they interact with. This knowledge skills and
experience may enable them to make more effective decisions than senior managers.
Empowerment will enable departments and their employees to respond faster to changes and
new challenges. Whereas it may take senior managers longer to appreciate that business needs
have changed. Empowerment makes it easier for people to accept and make a success of more
responsibility.

Matrix organisational structure:
A Matrix structure organisation contains teams of people created from various sections of the
business. These teams will be created for the purposes of a specific project and will be led by a
project manager. Often the team will only exist for the duration of the project and matrix structures
are usually deployed to develop new products and services. The advantages of a matrix include
Individuals can be chosen according to the needs of the project.
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The use of a project team which is dynamic and able to view problems in a different way as
specialists have been brought together in a new environment.
Project managers are directly responsible for completing the project within a specific deadline
and budget.

Whilst the disadvantages include
A conflict of loyalty between line managers and project managers over the allocation of
resources.
If teams have a lot of independence can be difficult to monitor.
Costs can be increased if more managers (i.e. project managers) are created through the use of
project teams.


Gods of Management:
ZEUS or Club Culture:
Power is concentrated in the hands of one individual, the top boss. Control radiates from the
centre's use of personal contacts over procedures. The most powerful person dominates the
decision making process.
Proximity to the boss is vitally important as he frequently uses his network of friendships and old
boys.
Decisions are made quickly, but their quality depends almost entirely on Zeus and his inner
circle. The Club culture's administration is small as are its costs. Investment banks and brokerage
firms reflect organisations with a dominant club culture.
APOLLO or Role Culture:
A strong role culture places a premium on order and efficiency. Power is hierarchical and clearly
defined in the company's job descriptions. Decision making occurs at the top of the bureaucracy.
An apollonian response to a change in the environment generally starts by ignoring changes in
circumstances, and by relying on the existing set of routines. Life insurance companies reflect an
Apollonian organisation.


ATHENS or Task Culture:
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Power is derived from the expertise required to complete a task or project. The work, itself, is
the leading principle of coordination.
Decision making occurs through meritocracies. Employees move frequently from one project or
group to another.
Task culture fosters a high level of adaptation and innovation by emphasising talent, youth and
team problem-solving, although excessive individual independence can lead to irresponsibility.
Task cultures are expensive organisations that require highly paid experts driven to analyse
organisational problems in depth. High cost drives organisations to construct routines and adopt
a greater Apollonian work mode.
Task cultures are often short lived. Ad agencies and consultancies reflect a dominant Athenian
culture.

DIONYSIUS or Existential Culture:
Organisations exist for individuals to achieve their goals. Employees see themselves as
independent professionals who have temporarily lent their services or skills to the organisation.
Management is considered an unnecessary counterweight and given the lowest status. Decision
making occurs by consent of the professionals.
The Dionysius culture can lead to poisonous, ideological wars among its professionals.
Universities and professional service firms reflect the dominant Dionysian culture.





Handy had no preference for any of the four archetypes since they co-exit in most
organisations. To reflect his point of view, he named the four cultures after ancient Greek
gods who were worshipped simultaneously.
The Handy model helps consultants and managers become aware of the different cultures
within the client organisation. Effective interventions must aim at striking a balance between
the four cultures while remaining faithful to an organisation's dominant culture.




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Left side of iceberg = employee inputs (and employer needs).
Right side of iceberg = rewards given by employer (and employee needs).
Above the water level: factors mostly visible and agreed by both sides.
Work | Pay = visible written employment contract.
Black arrows = mostly visible and clear market influences on the work and pay.
Red arrows = iceberg rises with success and maturity, experience, etc., (bringing invisible
perceived factors into the visible agreed contract).

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Below the water level: factors mostly perceived differently by both sides, or hidden, and not
agreed.
Left side of iceberg = examples of employee inputs, which equate to employer expectations -
informal, perceived and unwritten.
Right side of iceberg = rewards examples and employee's expectations.
Blue arrows = influences on employee and employer affecting perceptions, mostly invisible or
misunderstood by the other side.
8. Organisational culture:
Attempts to define organizational culture have adopted a number of different approaches. Some
focus on manifestations the heroes and villains, rites, rituals, myths and legends that populate
organizations. Culture is also socially constructed and reflects meanings that are constituted in
interaction and that form commonly accepted definitions of the situation.

Culture is symbolic and is described by telling stories about how we feel about the organization. A
symbol stands for something more than itself and can be many things, but the point is that a symbol
is invested with meaning by us and expresses forms of understanding derived from our past
collective experiences. The sociological view is that organizations exist in the minds of the members.
Stories about culture show how it acts as a sense - making device.

Culture is unifying and refers to the processes that bind the organization together. Culture is then
consensual and not conflictual. The idea of corporate culture reinforces the unifying strengths of
central goals and creates a sense of common responsibility.

Culture is holistic and refers to the essence the reality of the organization; what it is like to work
there, how people deal with each other and what behaviours are expected.

All of the above elements are interlocking; culture is rooted deep in unconscious sources but is
represented in superficial practices and behaviour codes. Because organizations are social organisms
and not mechanisms, the whole is present in the parts and symbolic events become microcosms of
the whole.



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Classifying culture:

One way of exploring cultures is to classify them into types.

1. Role Cultures are highly formalized, bound with regulations and paperwork and authority and
hierarchy dominate relations.

2. Task Cultures are the opposite, the preserve a strong sense of the basic mission of the
organization and teamwork is the basis on which jobs are designed.

3. Power Cultures have a single power source, which may be an individual or a corporate group.
Control of rewards is a major source of power.

Handy points out that these types are usually tied to a particular structure and design of
organization. A role culture has a typical pyramid structure. A task culture has flexible matrix
structures. A power culture has web like communications structure.
The Cultural Web

The Cultural Web identifies six interrelated elements that help to make up what Johnson and
Scholes call the "paradigm" the pattern or model of the work environment. By analyzing the
factors in each, you can begin to see the bigger picture of your culture: what is working, what isn't
working, and what needs to be changed. The six elements are:
Stories
This refers to the past events and people talked about inside and outside the company. Who and
what the company chooses to immortalize says a great deal about what it values, and perceives as
great behaviour.
Rituals and Routines
This refers to the daily behaviour and actions of people that signal acceptable behaviour. This
determines what is expected to happen in given situations, and what is valued by management.

Symbols
This refers to the visual representations of the company including logos, how plush the offices are,
and the formal or informal dress codes.
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Organizational Structure
This includes both the structure defined by the organization chart, and the unwritten lines of power
and influence that indicate whose contributions are most valued.

Control Systems
This refers to the ways that the organization is controlled. These include financial systems, quality
systems, and rewards (including the way they are measured and distributed within the organization.)

Power Structures
This refers to the pockets of real power in the company. This may involve one or two key senior
executives, a whole group of executives, or even a department. The key is that these people have
the greatest amount of influence on decisions, operations, and strategic direction.

These elements are represented graphically as six
semi-overlapping circles (see Figure 1 below), which
together influence the cultural paradigm.

Source: Johnson, G. and Scholes, K., (2002). Exploring
Corporate Strategy, 6th Edition. Pearson Education
Ltd.













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Organisational Structure

The Formal and Informal Organisation Structure

Organisations have a formal structure which is the way that the organisation is organised by
those with responsibility for managing the organisation. They create the formal structures that
enable the organisation to meet its stated objectives.

Often these formal structures will be set out on paper in the form of organisational charts.
However, in the course of time an informal structure develops in most organisations, which is
based on the reality of day-to-day interactions between the members of the organisation. This
informal structure may be different from that which is set out on paper.

Informal structures develop because:

o People find new ways of doing things which they find easier and save them time

o Patterns of interaction are shaped by friendship groups and other relationships

o People forget what the formal structures are

o It is easier to work with informal structures.

Sometimes the informal structure may conflict with the formal one. Where this is the case the
organisation may become less efficient at meeting its stated objectives. However, in some
cases the informal structure may prove to be more efficient at meeting organisational
objectives because the formal structure was badly set out.

Managers need to learn to work with both formal and informal structures. A flexible manager
will realise that elements of the informal structure can be formalised i.e. by adapting the
formal structure to incorporate improvements which result from the day-to-day working of the
informal structure.

All of the organisations that appear in the Times 100 will have some form of formal structure
which is usually set out in organisation charts (for example see the Coca-Cola structures in
Edition 10). However, these organisations also benefit from informal structures based on
friendship groups. When managers nurture these informal groups and mould them into the
formal structure this can lead to high levels of motivation for the staff involved.

Read more: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/business-theory/operations/the-formal-and-
informal-organisation-structure.html#ixzz1vfm8FvY0

(The Times 100 Business Case Studies)
Organisation Variations in Structure

Weber offer a single model of efficient organisations, the bureaucratic ideal type.

Social scientists came to find a variety, not a single unified type.

Tom Burns and G.M. Stalker (1961), studied British firms in textiles, heavy industry, and
electronics industries and found they varied depending on whether the firm operating in a
stable or fast changing environment.

Organisations that conformed to traditional bureaucratic model were defined as
Mechanistic. In this relatively predicable environment centralised decision-making,
specialisation, sharply defined duties, formed rules, and hierarchical control were efficient
ways in which to organise activity.

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In contrast Organic systems found in the electronics industry for example, are highly
dynamic, with job descriptions and boundaries between functions were more flexible, rules
were less formalised, employees exercised more discretion, and hierarchy was less
pronounced.

Both management systems are rational in that they may both be explicitly and deliberately
created and maintained in order to exploit the human resources in the most efficient manner
possible.

Mechanistic: Highly formal, highly complex, centralised, suited to large routine environments,
best in relatively stable environments, focus on control, low trust.

Organic: Flexible, adaptable, low complexity, decentralised, low levels of formality, high trust,
quick response to change, suitable for uncertain environments.

Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) pursued this theme of the appropriate structure for
organisations, looking at the degree to which the stability and predictability of markets and
technology varied between firms, e.g. What type of organisations are the most effective
under different environmental conditions? They inferred that firms achieve higher levels of
performance when managers align organisational properties with environmental properties.
Agreeing with Burns they extended the principle to departments within organisations that
faced differing levels of change and uncertainty, coining the term contingency theory to
describe the idea that a successful firm is contingent on the kind of environment or other
conditions in which they function.

Woodward (1965) assessed the effect of technology, specifically, of production technology
on organisations, grouping production systems into eleven categories, classifying
technologies on the basis of their complexity and level of sophistication: unit and small batch;
large batch and mass production, and continuous process production. She found
organisations using mass production technology were more bureaucratic and production jobs
were more Taylorised and less skilled. Organisations using continuous process technologies
were more organic with jobs more skilled with more responsibility.

Woodward, like Burns and Stalker, believed that historical trends favoured a less rigid and
alienating form of organisation than mechanised bureaucracy offers.

Pugh (1973) developed the idea that context determines the form of organisation, examining
the variables or dimensions on which organisations differ. Six dimensions were selected:

o Specialisation degree to which organisations activities are divided into specialized
roles.
o Standardisation the degree to which an organisation lays down the standard rules
and procedures.

o Standardisation of employment practices the degree to which an organisation has
standardisation employment practices.

o Formalisation the degree to which an instructions and procedures are written
down.

o Centralisation the degree to which authority to make certain decisions is located at
the top of the management hierarchy.

o Configuration the shape of the organisations role structure (for example, whether
certain chain of management command is long or short, and the breadth of span of
control for managers).

The research found that no two organisations were alike but similarities existed and context
and its relationship with size, technology and location of the organisation, is the determining
factor, shaping the structure of organisations.
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To conclude: a universally applicable bureaucratic model of organisations does not exist and
that the appropriate structure for a particular organisation is partly contingent on variables
such as environmental uncertainty and complexity, technology, and size.

Contingency theory has it critics; Childs (1997) argues that management has a wide
discretion in choosing the organisational form that suits it preferences and philosophy.
Contingency theory neglects the role of power, choice, historical accident, fashion, ideology,
norms, and values in influencing structure, with some difficult to measure, e.g. environmental
uncertainty.

Some contempary writer have announced the coming demise of bureaucracy and hierarchy
due to the decentalisation and more democratic systems of control, which offer most viable
alternative to the confines of bureaucracy and tight authoritarian control.

See appendix for more on Contingency Theory









Human Resources Revision Organisational Structure
How organisations may be categorised in terms of their structure and design, and the link between
organisational structure, culture and functionality.

Highlights

Taylorism: The rationale of making work more efficient and making jobs better for people.

Scientific management: The principles to make the job simpler and cheaper, or redesigning
jobs to make them more challenging and interesting.

Bureaucracy: The continual drive towards rationalisation and efficiency in organisations.

Max Weber: believed that the modernity meant rationality and the spread of a scientific
approach to living, of which principles of bureaucracy was the embodiment.

Mintzberg (1979) proposed every organisation has five parts; Technical Core, Top
Management, Middle Management, Technical Support and Administrative Support.

Hochschilds (1983) research on emotional labour, shows how recurrent training for flight
attendants is aimed at reinforcing the inside-out smile, i.e. the work of creating a particular
emotional state in others, often by manipulating your own feelings. This is termed emotional
work.

Gabriel (1988) documented the experience of working in a fast-food restaurant, finding that
the jobs offered little intrinsic satisfaction and very few people found their jobs enjoyable,
where breaking the rules broke the drudgery of work.

George Ritzer (1998) argues that fast-food restaurants such as McDonalds are the new
model for rationalization, which built on many ideas found in bureaucratization; McDonalds is
an extreme version of the rationalisation process.

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Tom Burns and G.M. Stalker (1961), studied British firms in textiles, heavy industry, and
electronics industries and found they varied depending on whether the firm operating in a
stable or fast changing environment. (Defining mechanistic and Organic forms)

Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) pursued this theme of the appropriate structure for
organisations, looking at the degree to which the stability and predictability of markets and
technology varied between firms. Coining the term contingency theory.

Contingency theory is a behavioural theory that claims that there is no single best way to
design organizational structures. The best way of organizing e.g. a company, is, however,
contingent upon the internal and external situation of the company.

Woodward (1965) assessed the effect of technology, specifically, of production technology
on organisations.

Pugh (1973) developed the idea that context determines the form of organisation, examining
the variables or dimensions on which organisations differ. The research found that no two
organisations were alike but similarities existed and context is the determining factor, shaping
the structure of organisations.


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Summary of Key Points

Identity and Purpose of Structure

The established pattern of relationships between the component parts of an organisation,
outlining both communication, control and authority patterns.

Structure distinguishes the parts of an organisation and delineates the relationship between
them.

The right Structure

o Structure must support strategy.
o Structure must be appropriate reflecting the goals and environment of the organisation.
o Structure must remain flexible.
o Structure must enable communication.
o The formal and informal need to be inline.

John Child (2005) - Key distinction between organising and organisation:

Organising is the process of arranging collective effort so that it achieves an outcome
potentially superior to that of individuals acting or working alone.

Organising involves some division of labour, with different people or groups concentrating on
different activities that have to be integrated / coordinated to achieve a successful result.

Organising requires a degree of control, so as to monitor progress against original intensions.

A form of hierarchy normally develops, with one or more people taking the lead in formulating
instructions, providing coordination and controlling results.

The form of organising usually persists in a recognisable form.

Together these forms of organising are commonly termed organisation.

There are three main organising processes:

1. Integrating: ensuring that the various complementary activities undertaken by the
organisation are coordinated.

2. Control: setting, implementation, and monitoring of attaining goals.

3. Reward: attempts to motivate employees to contribute to the achievement of
organisational goals by attracting people with the requisite skills and knowledge and
thereafter engaging their commitment.

Boundary crossing is focused upon achieving internal organisational integration between
various roles and units in order to generate creativity and synergy, using networking,
outsourcing to sub-contractors, and strategic alliances with other organisations.

In summary organisation is concerned with establishing a set of provisions with which the
processes required for collective activity can proceed.

John Child (2005) Basic Structure and Procedures

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Basic structure distributes responsibilities among members of the company, contributing to
the successful implementation of objectives by allocating people and resources to necessary
tasks and designating responsibility and authority for their control and coordination.

This division of labour has both vertical and horizontal aspects. Vertical aspects set
specialization of discretionary decision-making responsibilities through specifying levels in a
hierarchy. Horizontal aspects set specialisation of task according to functional speciality,
business focus, or geography.

Example: organisational charts, job description, codes of conduct, and committees.

Procedures focus on influencing behaviour through rules and standard to clarify to
employees what is expected of them and attempt to ensure consistency and equity in dealing
with staff (pay and rewards).

Bureaucracy is designed to install rationality and eliminate emotionality. It can be viewed as
organisational structure that is, a rational design for efficiency. From this point of view the
discussion about structure is abstract and depersonalised, rather than human focused,
considering only task, job division, performance and control.

Therefore here bureaucracy is about how we might design an organisation to make it more
rational and efficient.

Organisational Design

Max Weber (1964-1920) German rational systems theorist Study of bureaucracy focused
on historical surveys of administrative functions.

The most enduring organisational design framework is the bureaucratic form.

Weber believed that the modernity meant rationality and the spread of a scientific approach to
living, of which principles of bureaucracy was the embodiment.

Rationalisation is a process whereby the means chosen to pursue ends can be determined by
logical and rational calculation.

The continuous drive towards greater rationalization and efficiency, according to Weber, is
clear in every sphere of social, economic, and political life. With this process, relations
between people increasingly come to take the form of calculations about the exchange and
use of capabilities and resources. On key place this happens is in bureaucracies.

Bureaucracies are enterprises, or political parties, or other organisations in which people
discharge functions specified in advance, according to rules. Authority is wielded as tasks are
allocated, coordinated and supervised. Tasks are regulated through organisational structure.

Weber starting point is Authority. Authority gives those who have the right or legitimacy to
give orders. Claims to legitimacy of authority come from three sources:

1. Legal authority: based on rational grounds the belief in the rules and rights of those
in authority to issues commands, e.g. found in bureaucracy.

2. Traditional authority: is based on the traditional grounds the sanctity or
sacredness of tradition and legitimacy of status, e.g. that of a monarch or feudal lord.

3. Charismatic authority: based on the charismatic grounds a devotion to the
sanctity, heroism, or character of an individual.

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Weber formulated a series of principles / characteristics that underpinned the ideal type
bureaucracy:

1. The presence of a clear hierarchy of offices.

2. The specialisation of job roles among the managers and administrators who are the
holders of those offices.

3. The importance of impersonal considerations in reaching decisions.

4. The widespread use of formal rules and procedures to govern the conduct of office
holders. The most notable feature of bureaucratic organisation concerns the attempt
to coordinate and control organisational activities through managerial hierarchies and
formal rules.

(Also see Wilson p.261)

Weber considered the pure type of bureaucracy to the most superior form of organisation,
stating:

from a purely technical point of view, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency and
is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control
over human beings
(Weber, 1947)

Rational: The concept of rationality that underpins the ideal-type bureaucracy holds that
organisations will choose the most logical and efficient means for realizing their goals. This is
exemplified by the important role played by formal rules and procedures in providing
impersonal and objective criteria for determining organisational action.

Bureaucratic principles exercise an important influence over the management of people in
organisations. The existence of formal rules and procedures for dealing with issues and
problems can contribute to the effectiveness with which human resource management is
undertaken.

Organisations use procedures for recruitment and staff selection, managing equal
opportunities and diversity issues, handling grievances and disciplinary issues.

The ideal-type of bureaucracy is governed by a formal set of rules and procedures that
ensures that operations and activities are carried out in a predictable, uniform and impersonal
manner. Personal relationships are excluded from organisational life.

Advantages of Bureaucracy

Using procedures can help legitimate management decision-making as they are
made in a fair manner.

Procedures are an important source of consistency in management decision-making.

Example equal opportunities employees are treated fairly and not subjected to
detriment on the basis of some aspect of their social characteristics.

(Gilmore)

Bureaucracies technical superiority over other forms of organisation, with precision,
speed, lack of ambiguity, knowledge of files, continuity, discretion, unity and
uniformity, strict subordination, reduction of friction and reduction of material and
personal costs with each raised to an optimum level in a bureaucratic organisation.
60 | P a g e


There are calculable rules so there is calculability in consequences.

Scientific management has a role to play, providing the vehicle for imposing
discipline, e.g. Taylors Shop cards specify daily routine for employees.

And business is discharged without regard for the person; the division for labour in
administration is put into practice according to purely objective criteria, removing
irrational and emotional sentiments.

With rationalisation comes the use of calculative devices and techniques that is,
formally rational means, including the division of labour, sets of rules, accounting
methods, money, technology, technology, and other means for increasing that
rationality.

(Wilson)

Disadvantages of Bureaucracy

Bureaucratic dysfunctionalism how adopting the bureaucratic approach can
subvert organisational goals, e.g. goal displacement occurs when managers over-
concentrate on following procedures to ensure bureaucratic targets are met. For
example target waiting times at hospitals, leading to falls in the standards of
cleanliness which are not target based.

Bureaucracy tends to be associated with inflexibility. Formal procedures reduce
flexibility of manager to deal with HRM issues as they see fit.

(Gilmore)

Bureaucracy can threaten individual freedom, becoming a iron cage (Weber, 1930).

Weber focused on the ideal bureaucracy (an ideal-type being the purest, most fully
developed version or benchmark). Work of Merton (1936), Selnick (1949) and
Gouldner (1954) focused on the menace of bureaucracy, questioning the ideal type
and discussing whether the opposition between organisational efficiency and the
freedom of the individual was possible.

See Wilson p.262 for Gouldners gypsum factory example.
(Wilson)
Bureaucracy and the Holocaust

Bauman (1989) showed the importance of bureaucratic organisation in the death camps
in Nazi Germany, showing the genocide was an extreme application of bureaucratic logic,
with a system of rules, uniformity, impersonality, and technical efficiency.

Bauman suggested that rather being specifically a German problem was a result of
modernity and bureaucracy. Modernity and bureaucracy created unintended conditions
that led to the demise of moral responsibility. However moral responsibility and
perception played their part, while the killing involved technical efficiency, uniformity and
impersonality, the methods were perceptually stressful for those carrying out the
shootings, solved with the introduction of the gas chambers, where the perpetrators need
not see, hear, or fell the human consequences of their actions.

TODO: Gender and emotion

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Rationality and the Service Sector

The routinization of human interaction is disconcerting, but explicit rules have become a
significant feature of employment contacts in many mass service industries.

Example: Walt Disney or the smile factory, Feeling rules: a friendly smile or courteous
phrase.

Staff, do try to resist these feeling rules taking illegitimate breaks etc.

Values and attitudes can be constructed and influenced through training programmes and
corporate culture.

Hochschilds (1983) research on emotional labour, shows how recurrent training for flight
attendants is aimed at reinforcing the inside-out smile, i.e. the work of creating a particular
emotional state in others, often by manipulating your own feelings. This is termed emotional
work. She concluded that the attendants became alienated from their feelings, their faces
and their moods.

Disadvantage: rationalisation can have untended outcomes. Smiling is not always interpreted
as intended and call centres are not setup to bear obscene phone calls.

Increased rationalisation of the workforce is not always negative. Tight scripting, clarity of
good work and routines can act as shields against the insults and indignities that the worker
might have to accept from the public.

Also customers know how to behave with service workers in order to fit the organisational
routines, e.g. self-service at petrol stations, self check in at airports etc.

McDonalds and Taylorism

The routinization to be found at McDonalds hows the a close link with the logic of Taylorism
That is, maximising managerial control of work and breaking work down into its constituent
tasks, which can be pre-planned.

The key to McDonalds success is its uniformity and predictability: customers know exactly
what to expect, served quickly, courteously, and with a smile.

The principles of scientific management, coupled with centralized planning, centrally designed
training programmes, approved and supervised suppliers, automated machinery, meticulous
specifications and systematic inspections.

Routinization and Taylorism are clearly evident at McDonalds.

McDonalds issues strict rules about safety, hygiene and uniform.

This, then, is the bureaucracy- that is, the set of rules, routinisation, and standardisation that
helps constitute this organisation; its structure and its everyday functioning.

Gabriel (1988) documented the experience of working in a fast-food restaurant, finding that
the jobs offered little intrinsic satisfaction and very few people found their jobs enjoyable,
where breaking the rules broke the drudgery of work.



62 | P a g e

McDonaldisation

Ritzer (1998) argues that fast-food restaurants such as McDonalds are the new model for
rationalization, which built on many ideas found in bureaucratization; McDonalds is an
extreme version of the rationalisation process.

Defining it as a process the principles are working into other sectors.

According to Ritzer, four dimensions lie at the heart of the success of McDonalds.

o McDonalds offers efficiency.
o It offers food and service that can be easily quantified and calculated.
o It offers predictability.
o Control is exerted over human beings, especially through the substitution of non-
human technology for human, with technology replacing human labour.

The basic dimensions of McDonaldisation efficiency, calculability, predictability, and
increased control through technology.

Ritzer believes that through rules, scripts, regulations, prevent people working in these
systems to think intelligently. Central planning and the considerable control that is exerted
over franchises, employees, and customers brings us back to a Weberian image of an iron
cage of rationalization.

Ritzer believes that McDonalds have influenced even academia, medicine and law, as
consumers view the services as consumers looking for low price, convenience, efficiency and
absence of hassle.

Changing Organisation Structures

TODO: SBUs and Virtual or Networks

TODO: Competing Networks


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Organisation Chart Types

Functional organisation structure

Geographic-based structure

Product/service-based structure

Matrix structure

Organisational Configuration

Key Points

Mintzberg (1979) proposed every organisation has five parts; Technical Core, Top
Management, Middle Management, Technical Support and Administrative Support.

These will vary in size and importance depending on the organisations particular
environment, its technology and other factors.

Organisation managers should design the organisation with the five basic parts, so that the
adequately perform the subsystem functions of the production, maintenance, adaptation,
management and boundary spanning.

A balance should exist to work efficiently.

In real life the five parts are not readily distinguishable and may serve more than one sub-
system function.

Managers may be involved in administrative and technical support.

Some may be involved in boundary scanning functions e.g. HR are responsible for interacting
with external as well as internal labour markets to find quality employees. R&D will work
directly with outside organisations to learn about new technology developments.

Technical Core (Operating Core)

o People who do the basic work.

o It performs the production system functions and actually produces the product and the
service output of the organisation.

o Where inputs are transformed into outputs.

o Example: Production department in a manufacturing firm, teachers in a class or medical
service activities in a hospital.

Technical Support (Techno structure)

o Technical support employees scan the environment for problems, opportunities and
technical developments.

o Responsible for creating innovations in technical core, helping organisations change and
adapt.

o Examples: R&D and marketing research.

Administrative Support (Staff Support)

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o Responsible for smooth operation and upkeep of the organisation, including physical and
human elements.

o Includes HR activities (Recruitment, compensation, benefits, employee training and
development as well as maintenance of buildings and machine repairs.

o Examples: HR and maintenance staff.

Management Top and Middle

o Top

- Responsible for directing and co-ordinating other parts of the organisation.

- Providing: Direction, Strategy, Goals and Policies.

o Middle

- Responsible for implementing and co-ordinating at a department level.

- Traditionally middle management is responsible for mediating between top
management and the technical core, such as implementing rules and passing
information up and down the hierarchy.

(Organization Theory and Design by Daft, Richard L. Daft, J. Murphy, H. Willmott)

Links

The Times 100 Business Case Studies
http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/business-theory/operations/the-formal-and-informal-organisation-
structure.html

Mintzberg
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s6MAkpcuaZQC&pg=PA16&dq=Mintzberg+five+organisational+p
arts&hl=en&ei=lTq5T7fiLYr2sgbmqejWBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CDoQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Mintzberg%20five%20organisational%2
0parts&f=false

65 | P a g e

Appendix

Contingency Theory

Contingency theory is a behavioural theory that claims that there is no single best way to design
organizational structures. The best way of organizing e.g. a company, is, however, contingent upon
the internal and external situation of the company.

The contingency approach to organizational design tailors the design of the company to the sources
of environmental uncertainties faced by the organization. The point is to design an organizational
structure that can handle uncertainties in the environment effectively and efficiently.

Therefore, previous theories such as Weber's theory of bureaucracy and Taylor's scientific
management approach sometimes fail because they neglect that effective management styles and
organizational structures are influenced by various aspects of the environment: the contingency
factors. Therefore, there can not be ONE optimal organizational design for every company, because
no companies are completely similar, and because every company faces its own set of unique
environmental contingencies that result in different levels of environmental uncertainties.

Some important contingencies for companies are listed below:

o Technology
o Suppliers and distributors
o Consumer interest groups
o Customers and competitors
o Government
o Unions

When making an analysis of the contingencies in the environment, a PESTEL analysis could also be
very helpful.

Contingency theory has historically sought to develop generalizations about the formal structures that
would fit the use of different technologies. This focus was put forward by Joan Woodward (1958), who
argued that technologies directly determine organizational attributes such as span of control,
centralization of authority, and the formalization of rules and procedures.

Theorists such as P.R. Lawrence and J. W. Lorsch found that companies operating in less stable
environments operated more effectively, if the organizational structure was less formalized, more
decentralized and more reliant on mutual adjustment between various departments in the company.
Likewise, companies in uncertain environments seemed to be more effective with a greater degree of
differentiation between subtasks in the organization, and when the differentiated units were heavily
integrated with each other.

On the other hand, companies operating in more stable and certain environments functioned more
effectively if the organization was more formalized, centralized in the decision-making and less reliant
on mutual adjustment between departments. Likewise, these companies do probably not need a high
degree of differentiation of subtasks and integration between units.

Tom Burns and G.M. Stalker found similar results in their research, where organizations operating in
more stable environments tend to exhibit a more mechanistic organizational structure, where
companies operating in more dynamic and uncertain environments tend to show a more organic
organizational structure.

Business leaders should therefore look at the contingencies of the environment, and assess whether
or not the organization is capable of handling the uncertainties of the environment, and whether or not
the organization is able to process the required amount of information.

(Source http://www.businessmate.org/Article.php?ArtikelId=11)

66 | P a g e

Human Resources Revision
Organisational Culture

The nature and identity of organisational culture/s and how they impact on behaviours.

Highlights

Morgan (1997) Images of Organisations, each chapter using a different metaphor to
describe culture.

Drennan (1992) Culture is how things are done around here. It is what is typical of the
organisation, the habits, the prevailing attitudes, the grown up pattern of accepted and
expected behaviour

Furnham and Gunter (1993) Culture represents the social glue and generates a we
feeling, thus counteracting processes of differentiations which are an unavoidable part of
organisational life.

Hofstedes (1980) work looks at the relationship between national and organisational
cultures, claiming to have uncovered the secrets of entire national cultures.

Ouchi (1981) was a pioneer in introducing interactional leadership theory in has application of
Japanese-style management to corporate America.

Schein (1985) claims the term culture, should be reserved for the deeper level of basic
assumptions and beliefs that are shaped by members of an organisation, that operate
unconsciously, and that define in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisations view of
itself and its environment.

Lecture notes and Wilson

Introduction

Culture, as a concept, implies a stabilizing force that preserves the status quo but organisations
are seldom static. They are created, influenced, and transformed by many, not only by
management, and are therefore not as susceptible to manipulation and control as many authors
and management consultants might have us believe.

The Concept of Culture

Deal and Kennedy (1982) define culture as; The way we do things round here

Hofstede (1991) defines culture as; The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes
the members of one organisation from another.

Schein (1985) claims the term should be reserved for the deeper level of basic assumptions and
beliefs that are shaped by members of an organisation, that operate unconsciously, and that
define in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisations view of itself and its environment.

As defined by Schein (1990) as:

a) a pattern of basic assumptions,
b) invented, discovered, or developed by a given group,
c) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration,
d) which has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore,
e) is to be taught to new members as the
f) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.

67 | P a g e

(Slide 11) The culture of a particular group or organisation can be distinguished at three levels at
which the culture manifests itself:

1. observable artefacts
2. values
3. basic underlying assumptions

Understanding Culture

Schein (1985) argues that we can gain some understanding at a superficial level of any culture by
analysing artefacts produced and consumed by that culture. These are visible, and can be
deciphered or decoded by observations and analysis. To get a better feel for the idea and
orientations that have shaped the character and form of these artefacts, we need to understand
the deeper value system. A value system is like a code of practice or behaviour; artefacts offer
us clues to this deeper value system. Beneath the level of values, there is deeper level of taken-
for-granted, unconscious assumptions. Unlike values and beliefs that exist at a conscious level,
and which may there be challenged, the cultural forms and our ideas are not open to challenge.
The unconscious shapes our norms, such as standards of behaviour, dress, personal interaction,
and our values and beliefs. Schien has been criticized, for implying that cultural norms and values
act as templates for thought and action, and appear not to be open to change; in fact the
unconscious assumptions must be open to change and negotiation. They should be thought of as
dynamic and social phenomena that will tend to evolve and change as people attempt to
negotiate and bend the rules.

There is a lack of consensus to what culture is and a lack of ability to manage it, however despite
that management consultants will sell the idea that it can be managed and strong cultures can be
manufactured.

(Wilson)

Lecture Introduction (Handy Video) Presents the idea of multi-cultures in one
organisation.

o Organisations talk about culture not cultures and waste time in trying to apply something
that is universal applicable across the organisation. Culture is created by the people
youve got in different locations, with different types of organisations requiring different
types of personalities. Therefore its inevitable of culture clashes between them.

o Bureaucratic and mundane organisations require people with an attention to detail.

o In some parts of the organisation you require people to follow rules to the letter but in
other parts people must think outside the box pushing boundaries. Therefore there are
differences with the same organisation.

o Very difficult to mange the culture within an organisation.

o You have a broad culture approach across the organisation, which you want the client /
customer to see but within it there will be pockets where cultures are different but they are
still there.

(Slide 1) What is an organisation Dont forget that the shape of the organisation has been
chosen by someone, they dont evolve. Deciding what the social arrangement is going to be
e.g. matrix, flat and the extent to which they want to control peoples performance within the
organisation, some are more control freakier than others and the extent to which we are
working toward collective goals.


Defining an organisation

A social arrangement for achieving controlled performance in pursuit of collective goals.
68 | P a g e


Key aspects

o Social arrangements
o Collective goals
o Controlled performance

Three separate dimensions that would be more or less important to an organisation
depending on their cultural values. In some organisations the conformity is all-important, with
other its how you achieve those goals sometimes at the expense of the collective. Again
someone has chosen the structure, particularly at its inception. They are reluctant to change it
shape and culture particularly e.g. an entrepreneur at the centre of an organisation making
the key decision who are reluctant to change, delegating, is difficult for them to accept or the
move away from a large company structure / culture to more a task based structure is very
difficult as it very bureaucratic.

(Slide 2) Organisational behaviour Theoretical areas, looking at how a number of factors
impact on the way organisations behave and the way that culture is created and the way
culture effects the way the culture behaves as a whole.

(Slide 3) Interventions and control - The way organisation use cultures, techniques and
interventions to control certain activities and behaviours within the workforce. Some cultures
are stronger on these intervention activities than others. So the sorts of things used include:

o Training and development
o Psychometric assessment trying to get the right people psychological fit with the
individual and the type of organisation they are in.
o Employee communications where its is one way or two way, some is regarded as
top down, team briefings, with no real dialog, which could be argued is more
information giving.
o Job design
o Teambuilding
o Re-structuring largely to restructuring is trying to get the organisation to fit in with
the environment in which it exists.
o Organisation development and change
o Culture change often giving the individual the skills and abilities.

The provide a range of interventions we are using in the form of interventions attempting to
control:

o Knowledge and skill
o Types of people employed
o Understanding and compliance
o Motivation, commitment, performance
o Cohesion, team performance
o Response to external uncertainty
o Adaptability, conflict levels, resistance
o Values, attitudes, beliefs, goals.

(Slide 4) Metaphors for Organisations Morgan (1997) Images of Organisations, each
chapter using a different metaphor to describe cultures, e.g. organisations as machines. If you
take a bureaucratic organisation (Weber) good way to get things done. The down sides are
when people hide behind bureaucracy to not get things done.

o Machine - sees every part of the organisation as a component, with every part having
a role to play, every bit is linked to other parts of the machine, so every part must
work efficiently otherwise the machine doesnt work.
o Organism having the organisation as living beings, which are constantly evolving to
cope with changes in the environment.
69 | P a g e

o Brains with everyone in the organisation representing a brain cell, contributing to
the overall cogitative ability of the organisation to live and function.
o Cultures Morgan talks about culture in the laboratory sense, i.e. growing a culture,
which evolving over a period of time. Starting with one person as the initial culture,
with the culture evolving as new people come and go.
o Political Systems Most organisations have political elements, games you need to
play to get things done.
o Psychic Prisons mentally and psychologically constrain people, i.e. you are not
paid to think just do as youre told or where managers are reluctant for people below
them to have good ideas, they think its the manager that should have the good idea.
If you recognise that you can use that to your benefit as you are managing the team.
o Instruments of Domination where you keep people down or suppress them, make
them know who is in control, very authoritarian.
o Flux and Transformation where they are in a constant state of evolution.

(Slide 5) Organisational Culture What is culture:

o Drennan (1992) - Culture is how things are done around here. It is what is typical of
the organisation, the habits, the prevailing attitudes, the grown up pattern of accepted
and expected behaviour

o Also something that gives a sense of cohesiveness in a collective sense.

o Furnham and Gunter (1993) Culture represents the social glue and generates a
we feeling, thus counteracting processes of differentiations which are an
unavoidable part of organisational life.

(Slide 6) Concept of Culture - when it became important and part of HRM, was around
1980s and 1990s so that it could be managed and get people to get inline with the goals of
the organisation (e.g. TQMs) but it was identified decades before back to the 1950s
(Ecuishine?).

Example BA in the 1980s: Changing the corporate culture away from something very
militaristic, as some were ex-military, loving the structure and uniform, as it made them feel at
home, which was fine when it was supported by the public sector and supported by the
subsidies, but had to change in the move to privatisation. This lead to years of sustained
consolidation and culture change through training courses etc to become more customer
focused.

(Slide 7) The Concept of Organisational Culture Every organisational culture is unique
and represented by its own Paradigm (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). Looking at the way we
can identify a culture:

o Organisational structure, in Handys case, each of the cultures are structurally
different.
o What Control systems do we have in place, how do we know if people are work or
not.
o Rituals and Routines we go through i.e. committees that have rituals and routines,
or the armed forces that use rituals and routines as part of the socialisation process,
breaking you down to build you back up psychologically.
o The Stories and Myths about the organisation,
o Symbols those are important to organisations.
o Where does Power lay.

These are all the indicators that tell about what that organisation is like to live within.

The national side of culture covered in Wilson but worth noting that the impact of national
culture on organisations, as you find taking eastern vs western cultures, does influence the
way the organisations culture will behave. Difficulties arise when you have international
mergers and acquisitions.
70 | P a g e


(Slide 8) Culture and control


(Slide 9) Organisational culture and national culture

Hofstedes (1980) work looks at the relationship between national and organisational
cultures, claiming to have uncovered the secrets of entire national cultures. Using employee
attitude surveys within IBM subsidiaries in sixty-six countries, Hofstede studied the
differences in work-related values by analysing national cultures along five main dimensions:

o Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of organisation
and institutions such as families, expect and accept that power will be distributed
evenly. Those societies with high power distance scores tend to exhibit more
authoritarian management styles.

o Individualism/collectivism In cultures high in individualism, ties between individuals
tend to be loose and there is an expectation that individuals are responsible for their
own well-being. In collectivist societies, there is a high degree of social solidarity,
making it less acceptable to dismiss workers for economic reasons.

o Masculinity/femininity masculine forms of society males are expected to be strong,
tough, competitive, and assertive while women are expected to be meek, gentle,
modest, caring, and nurturing. IN more feminist societies men and women are
expected to demonstrate a degree of modesty and a concern for the quality of life.
More feminine organisations would operate using intuition and negotiation while
masculine would use assertion and competition.

o Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which members of a culture feel
threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity. Those with high scores tend to have
obvious routines and need to be busy.

o Confucian dynamism the extent to which societies adopt a short-term or long-term
approach to life. Those with a short-term approach demand quick results, yet
respectful of traditions and social obligation. Those with a long-term approach also
respect traditions, but would argue that they have to be adapted to meet modern
contexts.

For Hofstede, culture is mental programming, software of the mind, subjective and territorially
unique. The inhabitants of a particular nation individually carry a unique national culture, which is
itself a common component of a wider culture that contains both global and sub-national
constituents.

(Slide 10) Is culture something an organisation has or is? Does it matter? Yes it does
matter, as what is different between these two things comes down to whether or extent to
which you can control culture. If it something the organisation has then the belief is you can
own and control it. If you believe the organisation culture is; there is a kind of evolutionary
controllable element to it, that it just develops, in its own way and you can shape it slightly
cosmetically, but you can completely dominate and control the culture. (Handy) Problem is
organisations believe there is one culture, i.e. the one that they declared.

Culture could be seen as an organisational personality.

Categorising an organisations culture is very difficult. A particular type of structure underlines
Handys work, with difficulty in separating the two. Does the structure create the culture or
visa versa. Sometimes changing the culture requires changing people, which Handy alludes
to, either through transformational change, changing the attitude/behaviour of the person and
the other is exchange that is you replace them with a better model, as trying to change the
culture around some people can be impossible.

71 | P a g e

(Slide 11) Culture Characteristic Schein (2004) doesnt provide concrete labels for an
organisations culture. (Alf)

Schein (1985) claims the term should be reserved for the deeper level of basic assumptions
and beliefs that are shaped by members of an organisation, that operate unconsciously, and
that define in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisations view of itself and its
environment.

As defined by Schein (1990) as:

a) a pattern of basic assumptions,
b) invented, discovered, or developed by a given group,
c) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration,
d) which has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore,
e) is to be taught to new members as the
f) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.

(Slide 11) The culture of a particular group or organisation can be distinguished at three
levels at which the culture manifests itself:

1. observable artefacts
2. values
3. basic underlying assumptions

(Wilson)

Artefacts are the phenomenon that you would see, hear and feel when you encounter a new
group with an unfamiliar culture. Artefacts include, visual products; architecture of its physical
environment, language, its technology and products, style, clothing, manners of address,
myths and stories told about the organisation, values, rituals and ceremonies.

Observed behaviour is also an artefact as are the organisational processes by which such
behaviour is made routines. Structured elements such as charters, formal descriptions of how
organisations work and organisational charts also fall into the artefact level.

At this level the culture is easy to observe but difficult to decipher.

TODO: Values and Basic Assumptions

Any groups culture can be studies at three levels the level of its artefacts, the level of its
espoused beliefs and values, and the level of its basic underlying assumptions. If you do not
decipher the pattern of basic assumptions that may be operating, you will not know how to
interpret the artefacts correctly or how much credence to give to the espoused values. In
other words, the essence of a culture lies in the pattern of basic underlying assumptions, and
after you understand those, you can easily understand the other more surface levels and deal
appropriately with them.
Though the essence of a groups culture is its pattern of shared, basic taken-for-granted
assumptions, the culture will manifest itself at the level of observable artefacts and shared
espoused values, norms, and rules of behaviour. In analyzing cultures, it is important to
recognize that artefacts are easy to observe but difficult to decipher and that espoused beliefs
and values may only reflect rationalizations or aspirations. To understand a groups culture,
you must attempt to get at its shared basic assumptions and understand the learning process
by which such basic assumptions evolve.

Leadership is originally the source of the beliefs and values that get a group moving in the
dealing with its internal and external problems. If wha leaders propose works and continues to
work, what once were only the leaders assumptions gradually come to be shared
assumptions.

(Schein, 2010)
72 | P a g e


(Slide 12) Levels of Culture

Some of the confusion around culture comes from the not differentiating the levels at which it
manifests itself, ranging from the tangible overt manifestations that you see and feel to the
deeper embedded unconscious, basic assumptions, that Schein defines as the essence of
culture.

In between these layers are various espoused beliefs, values, norms and rules of behaviour
those members of the culture use as a way of depicting the culture to themselves and others.
Values tend to be open for discussion and people can agree to disagree about them.

Basic assumptions are those taken for granted and treated as nonnegotiable.

Organizational Culture and Leadership by Edgar H. Schein (2010)

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cFOhqWMB3XoC&pg=PR15&dq=organizational+culture
+and+leadership+2004&hl=en&ei=8QnCT81VxNCyBqOBqdUK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=bo
ok-
thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CEgQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=levels%20of%20culture&f=false

(Slide 13) The Origin of Culture

The origin of culture within and organisation.

(Slide 14) Culture: the Focus of Researchers

Cultures in Organizations: Three Perspectives by Joanne Martin

Martins work focuses on the culture with OZCO, however the focus of researchers is
centered around cultural forms, informal practices, formal practices, content themes.

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0vPciFlNA_QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=culture+in+orga
nizations&hl=en&ei=ljnCT66nKYnEswbYlfC6Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=2&ved=0CEoQ6wEwAQ#v=onepage&q=culture%20in%20organizations&
f=false

(Slide 15 / 16 / 17) Organisational culture and theory of Management

The Gods of Management by Charles Handy (1978)

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cG6f-
mxkJo0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+gods+of+management&hl=en&ei=ujvCT67GJpDesgb
D1KDsCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CDcQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20gods%20of%20manage
ment&f=false

(Slide 18) Cultural Indicators Feedback and Reward

Deal and Kenedy (1982) provides the timescale for feedback and reward and level of risk
involved. Probably as scientific as Handys work. Handy based his work on Harrisons (1972)
adding the Gods to make it more interesting and good for consultants as it s quick fix to
cultural classification but it remains a loose framework, which a frustrating aspect of culture
and the way in which we interpret it. It is very difficult to be objective when assessing culture.
Once you can see patterns of culture through an organisation, with certain behaviours
becoming normalised, then you can say it cultural.
(Alf)

(Slide 19) The Four Cultures Deal and Kenedy (1982)

73 | P a g e

(Slide 20) The Z Organisation

Ouchi (1981) was a pioneer in introducing interactional leadership theory in has application of
Japanese-style management to corporate America. Theory Z, the term Ouchi used for this
type of management is an expansion of McGregers Theory Y and supports democratic
leadership. Characteristics of Theory Z include consensus decision making, fitting employees
to their jobs, job security, slower promotions, examining long-term consequences of
management decision making, quality circles, guarantee of lifetime employment,
establishment of strong bonds of responsibility between superiors and subordinates, and
holistic concern for the workers. Ouchi was able to find components of Japanese-style
management in many successful American companies. Theory Z lost favour with many
management theorists, as American managers were unable to put the theory into practice,
instead continuing to make people do what they wanted them to do. Theory Z neglects some
of the variables that influence leadership effectiveness, failing to recognise the dynamics
between worker and leader.

Leadership Roles and Management Functions in Nursing: Theory and Application
By Bessie L. Marquis, Carol Jorgensen Huston

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=38mzZLwcOe0C&pg=PA41&dq=Theory+Z&hl=en&ei=_D
zCT4fNDIzwsgax4sHNCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=6&ved=0CEwQ6wEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Theory%20Z&f=false

(Slide 21) Organisational Socialisation

Organisational socialisation is the process by which employees learn about and adapt to their
workplace, including new responsibilities and roles and the organisational culture. Schein
goes on to describe five elements of this process:

1. Accepting the reality of the organisation (that is, the constraints governing individual
behaviour).
2. Dealing with the resistance to change (that is, the problems involved in getting personal
view and ideas accepted by others).
3. Learning how to work realistically in the new job, in terms of coping with too much or too
little organisation and too much or too little job description (that is, the amount of
autonomy and feedback available).
4. Dealing with the boss and understanding the reward (that is, the amount of independence
given and what organisation defines as high performance).
5. Locating ones place in the organisation and developing an identity (that is, understanding
how an individual fits into the organisation).

The five elements combine together to give an individual a certain orientation towards the
organisation.

The knowledge, values and skills that individuals learn from being socialised differ for two
reasons. First, individuals are different, holding contrasting values and attitudes and having
acquired and developed varying levels of skill. The values, attitudes and skills level of
different people will strongly influence the way they each view the new organisation, their new
job and new colleagues. Second, the actual experience of induction and socialisation into the
organisation will vary according to the prevailing circumstances.

Working in Organisations by Andrew Kakabadse, John Bank, Susan Vinnicombe

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VNnBMS1bX40C&pg=PA38&dq=organisational+socialisa
tion&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1kXCT4zqMYLJtAaIsvCrCg&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=org
anisational%20socialisation&f=false

Article: Pascale (1985) The paradox of organizational culture: reconciling ourselves to
socialization.

74 | P a g e

http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/folder?sid=b072676d-dd9c-4126-ab40-
733d21121383%40sessionmgr4&vid=8&hid=24

(Slide 22) Socialization Dimensions

o Goals and values
o People
o Politics
o Performance and proficiency
o Language
o History

Conclusion

Culture is a concept used to describe a company, a rationale for peoples behaviour, and
many other features of organisational life.

Culture can be witnessed or researched as observable facts, meanings, norms of
behaviour, symbols values, beliefs, structures, and underlying assumptions.

While managers may wish to see culture as a variable, subject to their manipulation and
control, and management consultants have been keen to sell the idea that culture can be
made stronger and managed, critics have argued that culture cannot be managed. Others
have accepted that it may be malleable-but argue that change can be unpredictable, and
fraught with difficulties and ethical dilemmas.

Hofstede has looked at relationships between national and organisational cultures. His
work has been criticized mainly because of his presuppositions and methodology.

While some management consultants may claim to be able to manage and change
culture with positive outcomes, organisational researchers have focused on how best to
describe culture (examining the occupational culture, the corporate image, the language,
the symbolic order of gender or race, or the metaphors and myths to be found in the
organisation), or on the outcomes of culture or culture change.


Human Resources Revision
Organisational Culture

The nature and identity of organisational culture/s and how they impact on behaviours.

Highlights

Morgan (1997) Images of Organisations, each chapter using a different metaphor to
describe culture.

Drennan (1992) Culture is how things are done around here. It is what is typical of the
organisation, the habits, the prevailing attitudes, the grown up pattern of accepted and
expected behaviour

Furnham and Gunter (1993) Culture represents the social glue and generates a we
feeling, thus counteracting processes of differentiations which are an unavoidable part of
organisational life.

Hofstedes (1980) work looks at the relationship between national and organisational
cultures, claiming to have uncovered the secrets of entire national cultures.

75 | P a g e

Ouchi (1981) was a pioneer in introducing interactional leadership theory in has application of
Japanese-style management to corporate America.

Schein (1985) claims the term culture, should be reserved for the deeper level of basic
assumptions and beliefs that are shaped by members of an organisation, that operate
unconsciously, and that define in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisations view of
itself and its environment.

Lecture notes and Wilson

Introduction

Culture, as a concept, implies a stabilizing force that preserves the status quo but organisations
are seldom static. They are created, influenced, and transformed by many, not only by
management, and are therefore not as susceptible to manipulation and control as many authors
and management consultants might have us believe.

The Concept of Culture

Deal and Kennedy (1982) define culture as; The way we do things round here

Hofstede (1991) defines culture as; The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes
the members of one organisation from another.

Schein (1985) claims the term should be reserved for the deeper level of basic assumptions and
beliefs that are shaped by members of an organisation, that operate unconsciously, and that
define in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisations view of itself and its environment.

As defined by Schein (1990) as:

g) a pattern of basic assumptions,
h) invented, discovered, or developed by a given group,
i) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration,
j) which has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore,
k) is to be taught to new members as the
l) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.

(Slide 11) The culture of a particular group or organisation can be distinguished at three levels at
which the culture manifests itself:

4. observable artefacts
5. values
6. basic underlying assumptions

Understanding Culture

Schein (1985) argues that we can gain some understanding at a superficial level of any culture by
analysing artefacts produced and consumed by that culture. These are visible, and can be
deciphered or decoded by observations and analysis. To get a better feel for the idea and
orientations that have shaped the character and form of these artefacts, we need to understand
the deeper value system. A value system is like a code of practice or behaviour; artefacts offer
us clues to this deeper value system. Beneath the level of values, there is deeper level of taken-
for-granted, unconscious assumptions. Unlike values and beliefs that exist at a conscious level,
and which may there be challenged, the cultural forms and our ideas are not open to challenge.
The unconscious shapes our norms, such as standards of behaviour, dress, personal interaction,
and our values and beliefs. Schien has been criticized, for implying that cultural norms and values
act as templates for thought and action, and appear not to be open to change; in fact the
unconscious assumptions must be open to change and negotiation. They should be thought of as
dynamic and social phenomena that will tend to evolve and change as people attempt to
negotiate and bend the rules.
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There is a lack of consensus to what culture is and a lack of ability to manage it, however despite
that management consultants will sell the idea that it can be managed and strong cultures can be
manufactured.

(Wilson)

Lecture Introduction (Handy Video) Presents the idea of multi-cultures in one
organisation.

o Organisations talk about culture not cultures and waste time in trying to apply something
that is universal applicable across the organisation. Culture is created by the people
youve got in different locations, with different types of organisations requiring different
types of personalities. Therefore its inevitable of culture clashes between them.

o Bureaucratic and mundane organisations require people with an attention to detail.

o In some parts of the organisation you require people to follow rules to the letter but in
other parts people must think outside the box pushing boundaries. Therefore there are
differences with the same organisation.

o Very difficult to mange the culture within an organisation.

o You have a broad culture approach across the organisation, which you want the client /
customer to see but within it there will be pockets where cultures are different but they are
still there.

(Slide 1) What is an organisation Dont forget that the shape of the organisation has been
chosen by someone, they dont evolve. Deciding what the social arrangement is going to be
e.g. matrix, flat and the extent to which they want to control peoples performance within the
organisation, some are more control freakier than others and the extent to which we are
working toward collective goals.


Defining an organisation

A social arrangement for achieving controlled performance in pursuit of collective goals.

Key aspects

o Social arrangements
o Collective goals
o Controlled performance

Three separate dimensions that would be more or less important to an organisation
depending on their cultural values. In some organisations the conformity is all-important, with
other its how you achieve those goals sometimes at the expense of the collective. Again
someone has chosen the structure, particularly at its inception. They are reluctant to change it
shape and culture particularly e.g. an entrepreneur at the centre of an organisation making
the key decision who are reluctant to change, delegating, is difficult for them to accept or the
move away from a large company structure / culture to more a task based structure is very
difficult as it very bureaucratic.

(Slide 2) Organisational behaviour Theoretical areas, looking at how a number of factors
impact on the way organisations behave and the way that culture is created and the way
culture effects the way the culture behaves as a whole.

(Slide 3) Interventions and control - The way organisation use cultures, techniques and
interventions to control certain activities and behaviours within the workforce. Some cultures
are stronger on these intervention activities than others. So the sorts of things used include:
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o Training and development
o Psychometric assessment trying to get the right people psychological fit with the
individual and the type of organisation they are in.
o Employee communications where its is one way or two way, some is regarded as
top down, team briefings, with no real dialog, which could be argued is more
information giving.
o Job design
o Teambuilding
o Re-structuring largely to restructuring is trying to get the organisation to fit in with
the environment in which it exists.
o Organisation development and change
o Culture change often giving the individual the skills and abilities.

The provide a range of interventions we are using in the form of interventions attempting to
control:

o Knowledge and skill
o Types of people employed
o Understanding and compliance
o Motivation, commitment, performance
o Cohesion, team performance
o Response to external uncertainty
o Adaptability, conflict levels, resistance
o Values, attitudes, beliefs, goals.

(Slide 4) Metaphors for Organisations Morgan (1997) Images of Organisations, each
chapter using a different metaphor to describe cultures, e.g. organisations as machines. If you
take a bureaucratic organisation (Weber) good way to get things done. The down sides are
when people hide behind bureaucracy to not get things done.

o Machine - sees every part of the organisation as a component, with every part having
a role to play, every bit is linked to other parts of the machine, so every part must
work efficiently otherwise the machine doesnt work.
o Organism having the organisation as living beings, which are constantly evolving to
cope with changes in the environment.
o Brains with everyone in the organisation representing a brain cell, contributing to
the overall cogitative ability of the organisation to live and function.
o Cultures Morgan talks about culture in the laboratory sense, i.e. growing a culture,
which evolving over a period of time. Starting with one person as the initial culture,
with the culture evolving as new people come and go.
o Political Systems Most organisations have political elements, games you need to
play to get things done.
o Psychic Prisons mentally and psychologically constrain people, i.e. you are not
paid to think just do as youre told or where managers are reluctant for people below
them to have good ideas, they think its the manager that should have the good idea.
If you recognise that you can use that to your benefit as you are managing the team.
o Instruments of Domination where you keep people down or suppress them, make
them know who is in control, very authoritarian.
o Flux and Transformation where they are in a constant state of evolution.

(Slide 5) Organisational Culture What is culture:

o Drennan (1992) - Culture is how things are done around here. It is what is typical of
the organisation, the habits, the prevailing attitudes, the grown up pattern of accepted
and expected behaviour

o Also something that gives a sense of cohesiveness in a collective sense.

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o Furnham and Gunter (1993) Culture represents the social glue and generates a
we feeling, thus counteracting processes of differentiations which are an
unavoidable part of organisational life.

(Slide 6) Concept of Culture - when it became important and part of HRM, was around
1980s and 1990s so that it could be managed and get people to get inline with the goals of
the organisation (e.g. TQMs) but it was identified decades before back to the 1950s
(Ecuishine?).

Example BA in the 1980s: Changing the corporate culture away from something very
militaristic, as some were ex-military, loving the structure and uniform, as it made them feel at
home, which was fine when it was supported by the public sector and supported by the
subsidies, but had to change in the move to privatisation. This lead to years of sustained
consolidation and culture change through training courses etc to become more customer
focused.

(Slide 7) The Concept of Organisational Culture Every organisational culture is unique
and represented by its own Paradigm (Johnson and Scholes, 2002). Looking at the way we
can identify a culture:

o Organisational structure, in Handys case, each of the cultures are structurally
different.
o What Control systems do we have in place, how do we know if people are work or
not.
o Rituals and Routines we go through i.e. committees that have rituals and routines,
or the armed forces that use rituals and routines as part of the socialisation process,
breaking you down to build you back up psychologically.
o The Stories and Myths about the organisation,
o Symbols those are important to organisations.
o Where does Power lay.

These are all the indicators that tell about what that organisation is like to live within.

The national side of culture covered in Wilson but worth noting that the impact of national
culture on organisations, as you find taking eastern vs western cultures, does influence the
way the organisations culture will behave. Difficulties arise when you have international
mergers and acquisitions.

(Slide 8) Culture and control


(Slide 9) Organisational culture and national culture

Hofstedes (1980) work looks at the relationship between national and organisational
cultures, claiming to have uncovered the secrets of entire national cultures. Using employee
attitude surveys within IBM subsidiaries in sixty-six countries, Hofstede studied the
differences in work-related values by analysing national cultures along five main dimensions:

o Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of organisation
and institutions such as families, expect and accept that power will be distributed
evenly. Those societies with high power distance scores tend to exhibit more
authoritarian management styles.

o Individualism/collectivism In cultures high in individualism, ties between individuals
tend to be loose and there is an expectation that individuals are responsible for their
own well-being. In collectivist societies, there is a high degree of social solidarity,
making it less acceptable to dismiss workers for economic reasons.

o Masculinity/femininity masculine forms of society males are expected to be strong,
tough, competitive, and assertive while women are expected to be meek, gentle,
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modest, caring, and nurturing. IN more feminist societies men and women are
expected to demonstrate a degree of modesty and a concern for the quality of life.
More feminine organisations would operate using intuition and negotiation while
masculine would use assertion and competition.

o Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which members of a culture feel
threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity. Those with high scores tend to have
obvious routines and need to be busy.

o Confucian dynamism the extent to which societies adopt a short-term or long-term
approach to life. Those with a short-term approach demand quick results, yet
respectful of traditions and social obligation. Those with a long-term approach also
respect traditions, but would argue that they have to be adapted to meet modern
contexts.

For Hofstede, culture is mental programming, software of the mind, subjective and territorially
unique. The inhabitants of a particular nation individually carry a unique national culture, which is
itself a common component of a wider culture that contains both global and sub-national
constituents.

(Slide 10) Is culture something an organisation has or is? Does it matter? Yes it does
matter, as what is different between these two things comes down to whether or extent to
which you can control culture. If it something the organisation has then the belief is you can
own and control it. If you believe the organisation culture is; there is a kind of evolutionary
controllable element to it, that it just develops, in its own way and you can shape it slightly
cosmetically, but you can completely dominate and control the culture. (Handy) Problem is
organisations believe there is one culture, i.e. the one that they declared.

Culture could be seen as an organisational personality.

Categorising an organisations culture is very difficult. A particular type of structure underlines
Handys work, with difficulty in separating the two. Does the structure create the culture or
visa versa. Sometimes changing the culture requires changing people, which Handy alludes
to, either through transformational change, changing the attitude/behaviour of the person and
the other is exchange that is you replace them with a better model, as trying to change the
culture around some people can be impossible.

(Slide 11) Culture Characteristic Schein (2004) doesnt provide concrete labels for an
organisations culture. (Alf)

Schein (1985) claims the term should be reserved for the deeper level of basic assumptions
and beliefs that are shaped by members of an organisation, that operate unconsciously, and
that define in a basic taken-for-granted fashion an organisations view of itself and its
environment.

As defined by Schein (1990) as:

g) a pattern of basic assumptions,
h) invented, discovered, or developed by a given group,
i) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration,
j) which has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore,
k) is to be taught to new members as the
l) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.

(Slide 11) The culture of a particular group or organisation can be distinguished at three
levels at which the culture manifests itself:

4. observable artefacts
5. values
6. basic underlying assumptions
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(Wilson)

Artefacts are the phenomenon that you would see, hear and feel when you encounter a new
group with an unfamiliar culture. Artefacts include, visual products; architecture of its physical
environment, language, its technology and products, style, clothing, manners of address,
myths and stories told about the organisation, values, rituals and ceremonies.

Observed behaviour is also an artefact as are the organisational processes by which such
behaviour is made routines. Structured elements such as charters, formal descriptions of how
organisations work and organisational charts also fall into the artefact level.

At this level the culture is easy to observe but difficult to decipher.

TODO: Values and Basic Assumptions

Any groups culture can be studies at three levels the level of its artefacts, the level of its
espoused beliefs and values, and the level of its basic underlying assumptions. If you do not
decipher the pattern of basic assumptions that may be operating, you will not know how to
interpret the artefacts correctly or how much credence to give to the espoused values. In
other words, the essence of a culture lies in the pattern of basic underlying assumptions, and
after you understand those, you can easily understand the other more surface levels and deal
appropriately with them.
Though the essence of a groups culture is its pattern of shared, basic taken-for-granted
assumptions, the culture will manifest itself at the level of observable artefacts and shared
espoused values, norms, and rules of behaviour. In analyzing cultures, it is important to
recognize that artefacts are easy to observe but difficult to decipher and that espoused beliefs
and values may only reflect rationalizations or aspirations. To understand a groups culture,
you must attempt to get at its shared basic assumptions and understand the learning process
by which such basic assumptions evolve.

Leadership is originally the source of the beliefs and values that get a group moving in the
dealing with its internal and external problems. If wha leaders propose works and continues to
work, what once were only the leaders assumptions gradually come to be shared
assumptions.

(Schein, 2010)

(Slide 12) Levels of Culture

Some of the confusion around culture comes from the not differentiating the levels at which it
manifests itself, ranging from the tangible overt manifestations that you see and feel to the
deeper embedded unconscious, basic assumptions, that Schein defines as the essence of
culture.

In between these layers are various espoused beliefs, values, norms and rules of behaviour
those members of the culture use as a way of depicting the culture to themselves and others.
Values tend to be open for discussion and people can agree to disagree about them.

Basic assumptions are those taken for granted and treated as nonnegotiable.

Organizational Culture and Leadership by Edgar H. Schein (2010)

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cFOhqWMB3XoC&pg=PR15&dq=organizational+culture
+and+leadership+2004&hl=en&ei=8QnCT81VxNCyBqOBqdUK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=bo
ok-
thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CEgQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=levels%20of%20culture&f=false

(Slide 13) The Origin of Culture

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The origin of culture within and organisation.

(Slide 14) Culture: the Focus of Researchers

Cultures in Organizations: Three Perspectives by Joanne Martin

Martins work focuses on the culture with OZCO, however the focus of researchers is
centered around cultural forms, informal practices, formal practices, content themes.

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0vPciFlNA_QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=culture+in+orga
nizations&hl=en&ei=ljnCT66nKYnEswbYlfC6Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=2&ved=0CEoQ6wEwAQ#v=onepage&q=culture%20in%20organizations&
f=false

(Slide 15 / 16 / 17) Organisational culture and theory of Management

The Gods of Management by Charles Handy (1978)

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cG6f-
mxkJo0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+gods+of+management&hl=en&ei=ujvCT67GJpDesgb
D1KDsCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CDcQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20gods%20of%20manage
ment&f=false

(Slide 18) Cultural Indicators Feedback and Reward

Deal and Kenedy (1982) provides the timescale for feedback and reward and level of risk
involved. Probably as scientific as Handys work. Handy based his work on Harrisons (1972)
adding the Gods to make it more interesting and good for consultants as it s quick fix to
cultural classification but it remains a loose framework, which a frustrating aspect of culture
and the way in which we interpret it. It is very difficult to be objective when assessing culture.
Once you can see patterns of culture through an organisation, with certain behaviours
becoming normalised, then you can say it cultural.
(Alf)

(Slide 19) The Four Cultures Deal and Kenedy (1982)

(Slide 20) The Z Organisation

Ouchi (1981) was a pioneer in introducing interactional leadership theory in has application of
Japanese-style management to corporate America. Theory Z, the term Ouchi used for this
type of management is an expansion of McGregers Theory Y and supports democratic
leadership. Characteristics of Theory Z include consensus decision making, fitting employees
to their jobs, job security, slower promotions, examining long-term consequences of
management decision making, quality circles, guarantee of lifetime employment,
establishment of strong bonds of responsibility between superiors and subordinates, and
holistic concern for the workers. Ouchi was able to find components of Japanese-style
management in many successful American companies. Theory Z lost favour with many
management theorists, as American managers were unable to put the theory into practice,
instead continuing to make people do what they wanted them to do. Theory Z neglects some
of the variables that influence leadership effectiveness, failing to recognise the dynamics
between worker and leader.

Leadership Roles and Management Functions in Nursing: Theory and Application
By Bessie L. Marquis, Carol Jorgensen Huston

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=38mzZLwcOe0C&pg=PA41&dq=Theory+Z&hl=en&ei=_D
zCT4fNDIzwsgax4sHNCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-
thumbnail&resnum=6&ved=0CEwQ6wEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Theory%20Z&f=false

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(Slide 21) Organisational Socialisation

Organisational socialisation is the process by which employees learn about and adapt to their
workplace, including new responsibilities and roles and the organisational culture. Schein
goes on to describe five elements of this process:

6. Accepting the reality of the organisation (that is, the constraints governing individual
behaviour).
7. Dealing with the resistance to change (that is, the problems involved in getting personal
view and ideas accepted by others).
8. Learning how to work realistically in the new job, in terms of coping with too much or too
little organisation and too much or too little job description (that is, the amount of
autonomy and feedback available).
9. Dealing with the boss and understanding the reward (that is, the amount of independence
given and what organisation defines as high performance).
10. Locating ones place in the organisation and developing an identity (that is, understanding
how an individual fits into the organisation).

The five elements combine together to give an individual a certain orientation towards the
organisation.

The knowledge, values and skills that individuals learn from being socialised differ for two
reasons. First, individuals are different, holding contrasting values and attitudes and having
acquired and developed varying levels of skill. The values, attitudes and skills level of
different people will strongly influence the way they each view the new organisation, their new
job and new colleagues. Second, the actual experience of induction and socialisation into the
organisation will vary according to the prevailing circumstances.

Working in Organisations by Andrew Kakabadse, John Bank, Susan Vinnicombe

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VNnBMS1bX40C&pg=PA38&dq=organisational+socialisa
tion&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1kXCT4zqMYLJtAaIsvCrCg&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=org
anisational%20socialisation&f=false

Article: Pascale (1985) The paradox of organizational culture: reconciling ourselves to
socialization.

http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/folder?sid=b072676d-dd9c-4126-ab40-
733d21121383%40sessionmgr4&vid=8&hid=24

(Slide 22) Socialization Dimensions

o Goals and values
o People
o Politics
o Performance and proficiency
o Language
o History

Conclusion

Culture is a concept used to describe a company, a rationale for peoples behaviour, and
many other features of organisational life.

Culture can be witnessed or researched as observable facts, meanings, norms of
behaviour, symbols values, beliefs, structures, and underlying assumptions.

While managers may wish to see culture as a variable, subject to their manipulation and
control, and management consultants have been keen to sell the idea that culture can be
made stronger and managed, critics have argued that culture cannot be managed. Others
83 | P a g e

have accepted that it may be malleable-but argue that change can be unpredictable, and
fraught with difficulties and ethical dilemmas.

Hofstede has looked at relationships between national and organisational cultures. His
work has been criticized mainly because of his presuppositions and methodology.

While some management consultants may claim to be able to manage and change
culture with positive outcomes, organisational researchers have focused on how best to
describe culture (examining the occupational culture, the corporate image, the language,
the symbolic order of gender or race, or the metaphors and myths to be found in the
organisation), or on the outcomes of culture or culture change.