CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER IN THE CONE CALORIMETER M. Janssens1 and C.

Gomez Southwest Research Institute 6220 Culebra Road, Building 143 San Antonio, TX 78238-5166 KEY WORDS: Cone Calorimeter; Convection; Material Properties; Piloted Ignition ABSTRACT The ignition properties of a material, i.e., surface temperature at ignition Tig and thermal inertia kc, are generally determined from an analysis of ignition times measured over a range of irradiances in a small-scale test such as the Cone Calorimeter. A number of procedures have been developed to perform this type of analysis. These procedures are invariably based on a simplified heat conduction analysis and assume that the net heat flux at the surface of the specimen consists of absorbed radiation from the heater minus convective and radiative heat losses to the surroundings. The radiative components are well characterized, but there is no consensus on how to quantify the convective losses. The objective of the study described in this paper is to determine the convection coefficient at the surface of a Cone Calorimeter specimen over a range of test conditions based on extensive directional flame thermometer (DFT) measurements. The DFT was developed at Sandia National Laboratories for measuring temperatures and heat fluxes in liquid pool fires. Two sets of measurements are reported in this paper. In the first set a DFT was positioned 25 mm below the heater base plate, i.e., where the Cone Calorimeter specimen is normally located, and exposed to a constant irradiance for 30 min. Experiments were conducted at irradiances of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, 50, 75 and 100 kW/m2. The second set of measurements was identical to the first set except that the DFT was mounted inside the edge frame that is often used in the Cone Calorimeter. Based on the data that were obtained, recommendations are made on how to best account for convective surface heat losses in the analysis of ignition data.
1

Author to whom correspondence should be sent

PILOTED IGNITION OF MATERIALS EXPOSED TO RADIANT HEAT Piloted Ignition Properties Two properties are commonly used to describe the piloted ignition behavior of a material. The first property quantifies a critical condition for ignition. The most common criterion is based on the assumption that ignition occurs when a critical temperature at the surface, Tig, is reached. The surface temperature at ignition of a thermoplastic is reasonably constant and independent of heat flux [1, 2]. The surface temperature at ignition of a charring material such as wood is also reasonable constant when the time to ignition is less than a few minutes, but increases dramatically at heat fluxes below 20-25 kW/m2 [3-8].
& min A quantity related to Tig is the minimum heat flux for ignition, q " . The minimum heat flux is just sufficient to heat the material surface to Tig for very long exposure times (theoretically ). It is not a true material property, because it depends on the rate of convective cooling from the surface. This, in turn, depends primarily on the orientation, size, and flow field around the exposed surface. Since these are different in a small-scale test vs. a real fire, the minimum heat flux determined based on test data is an approximate value. To make the distinction, the value & cr obtained from small-scale tests is referred as the critical heat flux for ignition, q" .

The second property is a measure of how fast the surface temperature of a material rises when exposed to heat. This property is usually referred to as the thermal inertia, kc. A material with lower kc will ignite faster than a material with higher kc and the same Tig when exposed to the same heat flux. Ignition properties can be determined by direct measurements. Tig can be measured with fine thermocouples attached to the exposed surface of ignition test specimens [1-9], by using an & cr optical pyrometer [6, 10, 11] or based on phosphorescence [12, 13]. q " can be determined by bracketing, i.e., by conducting experiments at incrementally decreasing heat flux levels until ignition does not occur within a specified period (usually 10 or 20 min). kc can be determined by measuring thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat separately. However, since k and c are temperature-dependent measurements at elevated temperature are needed. This is not trivial. Procedure to Calculate Ignition Properties from Cone Calorimeter Data Because it is very tedious to measure Tig and kc directly, it is much more common to determine ignition properties on the basis of an analysis of time-to-ignition data obtained over a range of heat fluxes. The analysis is usually based on a simple heat conduction model, which assumes that the solid is inert (negligible pyrolysis prior to ignition) and thermally thick (heat wave does not reach the back surface prior to ignition). A schematic of an ignition experiment in the Cone Calorimeter is shown in Figure 1. The model equations are as follows:

T 2T =k t x 2 Tt = 0 = T
2

(1) (2)

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Figure 1. Schematic of an ignition experiment in the Cone Calorimeter

k k where c T T t k hc Ts &e q"

&l q"

T 4 &e & net &e &l = q" h c (Ts T ) (Ts4 T ) q" = q" q" x x = 0 T =0 x x = = density (kg/m3) = specific heat (kJ/kgK) = temperature (K) = ambient (and initial) temperature (K) = time (s) = thermal conductivity (kW/mK) = surface emissivity/absorpitivity (-) = convection coefficient (kW/m2K); = surface temperature (K) = irradiance from the cone heater (kW/m2) = heat losses from the surface (kW/m2) = Boltzmann constant (5.6710-11 kW/K4m2) = specimen thickness (m)

(3) (4)

& net q" = net heat flux at the exposed specimen surface (kW/m2)

Janssens obtained numerical solutions of Equations 1-4 for a wide range of virtual materials and conditions [14]. His calculations showed that the expression in Equation 5 is suitable for correlating piloted ignition data of thermally thick solids. The total heat transfer coefficient at ignition, hig, is defined by Equation 6, which expresses a steady-state heat balance at the exposed & cr surface of the specimen after very long (theoretically infinite) exposure at q " .

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0.55 kc & & q e " = q cr " 1 + 0.73 2 h t ig ig

4 4 & cr q " = h c (Tig T ) + (Tig T ) h ig (Tig T )

(5)
(6)

The practical significance of Equation 5 is that for a thick material, ignition data points plotted as &e (1/tig)0.55 versus q " should fall on a straight line. The intercept of the line with the abscissa is & cr & cr q " . Once q " is found, Tig and hig can be obtained by solving Equation 6. Finally, kc can be calculated from the slope of the line. Actual ignition data usually show some scatter, but the &e linear trend in a plot of (1/tig)0.55 versus q " remains apparent, provided the material is thermally thick. A linear regression analysis is performed to find the best-fitting straight line through the & cr data. The intercept and slope of the line are used to obtain the best estimates for q " (and consequently Tig and hig) and kc.

CONVECTION COEFFICIENT IN THE CONE CALORIMETER The convection coefficient, hc, is the only test-apparatus-dependent parameter in Equation 6. Table 1 summarizes hc values for the Cone Calorimeter in the horizontal orientation taken from various ignition studies reported in the literature. Some investigators used a constant value while others reported hc values varying as a function of irradiance or surface temperature. The latter are consistently higher. However, most of the values in Table 1 are based on qualitative considerations rather than quantitative measurements.
Table 1. hc for the Cone Calorimeter in the horizontal orientation

hc (W/m2K) 10 10 11 11 12 14-34 15-32 16-33 17-23 18

Independent Variable None None None None None Surface temperature (300-700C) Irradiance (10-100 kW/m2) Irradiance (10-100 kW/m2) Irradiance (20-65 kW/m2) None

Reference Chen [15] Hopkins and Quintiere [16] Green and Samaraweera [17] Shields et al. [18] Ngu [19] Janssens et al. [20] Janssens et al. [21] Janssens et al. [20] Dietenberger [22] Spearpoint and Quintiere [23]

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Directional Flame Thermometer

This paper describes a systematic study to determine the convection coefficient at the surface of a Cone Calorimeter specimen over a range of test conditions based on extensive directional flame thermometer (DFT) measurements. The DFT was developed at Sandia National Laboratories for measuring temperatures and heat fluxes in liquid pool fires, and has recently been used to measure temperatures and heat fluxes in fire resistance test furnaces [24]. The DFTs used in the present study (see Figure 2) were identical in construction to the original design but slightly smaller in area, i.e. 100 100 mm vs. 140 140 mm. DFTs consist of 25 mm ceramic fiber blanket (Thermal Ceramics 128 kg/m3 CeraBlanket), compressed to a reduced thickness of 19 mm in between two 3 mm Inconel 600 plates. Before assembly, the plates are baked in an electric oven for 36 hours to develop a high-absorptivity oxide layer. A 1.6 mm O.D. Inconel-sheathed Type K thermocouple with ungrounded junction is attached to the interior surface of each plate. Inconel screws and spacers are used at the four corners to connect the plates and ensure the proper distance between them.

Figure 2. Schematic of the DFTs used in the present study DFT Measurements of the Convection Coefficient in the Cone Calorimeter

Two sets of DFT measurements were performed. In the first set the DFT was positioned 25 mm below the heater base plate, i.e., where the Cone Calorimeter specimen is normally located, and

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exposed to a constant irradiance for 30 min. Experiments were performed at irradiance levels of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, 50, 75 and 100 kW/m2. The second set of measurements was identical to the first set except that the DFT was mounted inside the edge frame that is often used in the Cone Calorimeter. The inverse heat transfer code IHCP1D developed by Beck [25] was used to calculate the net heat & net flux, q" , and temperature at the exposed DFT surface, Ts, from the measured plate temperatures and known properties and geometry of the DFT components. It was assumed that the heat transfer through the DFT is one-dimensional and the heat conduction through the screws and spacers was accounted for. The convection coefficient was determined from a heat balance equation at the exposed DFT surface: 4 & & net q " q " (Ts4 T ) 4 & net &e (7) q " = q " h c (Ts T ) (Ts4 T ) h c = e (Ts T ) & net Note that , the emissivity/absorptivity of heat-treated Inconel 600, depends on Ts and that q" and Ts (and therefore hc) vary as a function of time. Figure 3 shows the calculated hc as a function of time for the measurements performed without the edge frame at an irradiance of 50 kW/m2.

20.0

15.0

Convection Coefficient

10.0

5.0

0.0 0 300 600 900 Time (s) 1200 1500 1800

Figure 3. Example of calculated hc values vs. time (50 kW/m2, no edge frame)

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Figure 3 shows that the convection coefficient is reasonably constant after the initial five minute transient. Table 2 summarizes the average hc values calculated over the final five minutes of each experiment. The corresponding average surface temperatures are also given in Table 2. Figures 4 and 5 show the same data in graphical form. The convection coefficient appears to be reasonably independent of irradiance (or surface temperature) between 10 and 75 kW/m2 (250 and 700C). The corresponding mean hc values are equal to 13.5 and 16.0 W/m2K, without and with the edge frame respectively.
Table 2. Calculated hc values vs. irradiance and surface temperature

Heat Flux (kW/m) 5 10 15 20 25 35 50 75 100

No Edge Frame Ts hc (C) (W/mK) 162 9.3 249 12.1 319 13.1 379 13.4 427 14.2 511 14.3 607 13.9 725 13.6 813 13.8

With Edge Frame Ts hc (C) (W/mK) 148 11.0 229 14.6 297 16.1 360 16.1 412 15.9 493 16.7 591 16.8 715 15.5 810 13.8

25

Convection Coefficient (W/mK)

20

15

10

No Edge Frame With Edge Frame

0 0 25 50 Heat Flux (kW/m) 75 100

Figure 4. Calculated hc values vs. irradiance

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25

Convection Coefficient (W/mK)

20

15

10

No Edge Frame With Edge Frame

0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Surface Temperature (C) 700 800 900

Figure 5. Calculated hc values vs. surface temperature

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE A series of Cone Calorimeter ignition tests was performed with the edge frame on specimens of Western red cedar (thickness 17.5 mm, oven dry density 355 kg/m3). The measured ignition times are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Ignition data for Western red cedar
Irradiance (kW/m) 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 25.0 50.0 50.0 tig (s) NI 666 149 50 73 6 7 (1/tig) -0.5 (s )
0.55

0.0280 0.0638 0.1163 0.0944 0.3733 0.3429

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&e Figure 6 shows a plot of (1/tig)0.55 versus q " . The data points indeed seem to follow a linear trend as suggested by Equation 6. The critical heat flux follows from the intercept with the abscissa of a linear fit through the data points and is equal to 13.3 kW/m2. The corresponding surface temperature at ignition calculated from Equation 7 with hc = 16.0 W/m2K and = 0.88 [7] is equal to 339C. This compares well with the average Tig at 25 kW/m2 of 341C measured with fine thermocouples attached to the surface [20].

0.50 13.3 kW/m 0.40

(1/tig)0.55 (s-0.55)

0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0 10 20 30 Heat Flux (kW/m) 40 50 60

Figure 6. Ignition data for Western red cedar plotted as suggested by Equation 6

CONCLUSIONS Measurements were performed with DFTs to quantify convective heat transfer during piloted ignition experiments in the Cone Calorimeter. The convection coefficient appears to be reasonably independent of irradiance (or surface temperature) between 10 and 75 kW/m2 (250 and 700C). The corresponding mean hc values are equal to 13.5 and 16.0 W/m2K, without and with the edge frame respectively. These values are significantly lower than those obtained in previous studies at high irradiances and surface temperatures [20-22]. The discrepancies might be due to the fact that the present study did not account for heat transfer from the edges of the DFTs. Additional experiments are planned to explore this further. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The research described in this paper was funded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) under Grant No. 60NANB8D8106. The authors greatly acknowledge the support of the Building and Fire Research Laboratory at NIST for this work.

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REFERENCES
[1] [2] H. Thomson and D. Drysdale, "Flammability of Plastics, I: Ignition Temperatures," Fire and Materials, vol. 11, pp. 163-172, 1987. H. Thomson, D. Drysdale, and C. Beyler, "An Experimental Evaluation of Critical Surface Temperature as a Criterion for Piloted Ignition of Solid Fuels," Fire Safety Journal, vol. 13, pp. 185-196, 1988. M. Abu-Zaid, "Effect of Water on Ignition of Cellulosic Materials." East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1988. A. Atreya, "Pyrolysis, Ignition and Fire Spread on Horizontal Surfaces of Wood." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1983. A. Atreya, C. Carpentier, and M. Harkleroad, "Effect of Sample Orientation on Piloted Ignition and Flame Spread," presented at First International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, Gaithersburg, MD, 1985. J. Fangrat, Y. Hasemi, M. Yoshida, and T. Hirata, "Surface Temprature at Ignition of Wooden Based Slabs," Fire Safety Journal, vol. 27, pp. 249-259, 1996. M. Janssens, "Thermophysical Properties of Wood and their Role in Enclosure Fire Growth." Ghent, Belgium: University of Ghent, 1991. L. Yudong and D. Drysdale, "Measurement of the Ignition Temperature of Wood," Fire Safety Science, vol. 1, pp. 25-30, 1992. J. Urbas and W. Parker, "Surface Temperature Measurements on Burning Wood Specimens in the Cone Calorimeter and Effect of Grain Orientation," Fire and Materials, vol. 17, pp. 205-208, 1993. J. Urbas and W. Parker, "Surface Temperature Measurement in a Fire Environment Using an Infrared Pyrometer," presented at Eighth International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, Beijing, China, 2005. J. Urbas, W. Parker, and G. Luebbers, "Surface Temperature Measurements on Burning Materials Using an Infrared Pyrometer: Accounting for Emissivity and Reflection Of External Radiation," Fire and Materials, vol. 28, pp. 33-53, 2004. U. Gransson and A. Omrane, "Surface Temperature Measurements in the Cone Calorimeter Using Phosphorescence," presented at Interflam 2004, July 5-7, 2004, Edinburgh, Scotland, 2004. A. Omrane, F. Ossler, M. Aldn, J. Svenson, and J. Petterson, "Surface Temperature of Decomposing Construction Materials Studied by Laser-Induced Phosphorescence," Fire and Materials, vol. 29, pp. 39-51, 2005. M. Janssens, "Thermal Model for Piloted Ignition of Wood Including Variable Thermophysical Properties," presented at Third International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1991. F. Chen, "Radiant Ignition of New Zealand Upholstered Furniture Composites," University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ Fire Engineering Research Report 2001/2, 2001. D. Hopkins and J. Quintiere, "Material Fire Properties and Predictions for Thermoplastics," Fire Safety Journal, vol. 26, pp. 241-268, 1996.

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[17]

A. Green and A. Samaraweera, "Heat Transfer Coefficient Determination for Samples Tested in the NBS Cone Calorimeter," Department of Industrial Relations and Employment, Londonderry, NSW, Australia ARG/89/4, 1989. T. Shields, G. Silcock, and J. Murray, "Evaluating Ignition Data Using the Flux-Time Product," Fire and Materials, vol. 18, pp. 243-254, 1994. C. Ngu, "Ignition Properties of New Zealand Timber," University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ Fire Engineering Research Report 01/5, 2001. M. Janssens, J. Kimble, and D. Murphy, "Development of FDMS Tools to Generate Data for Fire Safety Engineering and Modeling," University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC Final Report for NIST Grant No. 60NANB1D0077, 2006. M. L. Janssens, S. Dillon, and S. Allwein, "Characterizing the Thermal Environment of the Cone Calorimeter for Analyzing Ignition Data of Materials," presented at 9th Interflam Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland, 2001. M. Dietenberger, "Ignitability Analysis Using the Cone Calorimeter and LIFT Apparatus," presented at 22nd International Conference on Fire Safety, Columbus, OH, 1996. M. Spearpoint and J. Quintiere, "Predicting the Piloted Ignition of Wood in the Cone Calorimeter Using an Integral Model: Effect of Species, Grain Orientation, and Heat Flux," Fire Safety Journal, vol. 36, pp. 391-415, 2001. N. Keltner, "DIRECTIONAL FLAME THERMOMETERS - A Tool for Measuring Thermal Exposure in Furnaces and Improving Control," presented at 11th Interflam Conference, London, England, 2007. J. Beck, "User's Manual for IHCP1D, a Program for Calculating Surface Heat Fluxes from Transient Temperatures Inside Solids," Beck Engineering Consultants Co., Okemos, MI 1999.

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