FINAL REPORT: BATTERY STORAGE FOR POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT EPSRC GRANT GR/M03405/01 BACKGROUND One of the major

issues in improving power quality on electrical power supply networks is the prediction and mitigation of voltage sags. A voltage sag is a momentary decrease in the rms voltage magnitude lasting between half a cycle and a few seconds, and may be accompanied by a phase-angle jump. It is usually caused by a remote fault on the network or the starting of a large motor load. Unless appropriate protection measures are implemented then sags, and the accompanying phase jumps, can cause customers equipment to malfunction and hence interrupt industrial processes. Although sags occur at all points in the network, typically an industrial consumer might experience 15-20 sags per year, they are commercially particularly significant for very high values process loads such as semi-conductor fabrication plants and paper mills. There are a number of approaches to mitigating the impact of voltage sags. These include (1) modifying the power system to reduce the frequency of faults, (2) redesigning load equipment to make it less susceptible to sags, (3) using un-interruptible power supplies (UPS) on individual loads and (4) providing a power electronic device to support the voltage for a number of loads. The research undertaken in this project was to investigate how best to use battery energy storage as a source of real power for the mitigation of voltage sags. The Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) was chosen for the interface as it allows mitigation of many sags with lower power and energy ratings than either a UPS or a shunt connected STATCOM. The DVR is a series conditioner based on a pulse-width modulated (PWM) voltage source inverter (VSI), which is capable of generating or absorbing real and reactive power independently at its ac output terminals. It injects three single-phase ac voltages in series and in synchronism with the upstream voltages in the distribution system. Other energy storage systems such as Superconducting Magnetic Energy Systems and Flywheel Energy Storage Systems are being developed for power quality improvement. However, battery energy storage system using lead-acid batteries is an attractive, potentially low cost choice when complete voltage support is necessary for the compensation of voltage sags. Batteries had not previously been investigated for this application and the research attracted international interest with papers presented at international conferences in the USA, Canada, Holland and the UK. In the project, three parallel, integrated Themes of research were carried out successfully and are described in turn. THEME 1:EVALUATION OF VOLTAGE SAGS AND REQUIREMENT FOR REAL POWER SUPPORT [1,2] Theme 1 was to evaluate the requirement for power to mitigate voltage sags and phase jumps. This was important as, while the current and voltage ratings of the
Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

converter determine the reactive power that can be provided, the battery performance controls the real power that can be injected. The sag duration is, of course, determined by protection clearing times. Two techniques, one analytical and one simulation based, were developed to predict the number and characteristics of voltage sags at any busbar in a power system over a given time horizon, taking into account the distribution of faults across the network and the variation in generation patterns. The analytical technique determined a full description of the voltage sags at each busbar in terms of probability density functions. It is particularly useful when a fast assessment of voltage sags on a large network is required and can be applied easily to study the impact of various conditions and future network development. However it considers only three phase, balanced, faults. The simulation technique, based on the use of symmetrical components, allows the determination of the real and reactive power requirements to mitigate voltage sags using a DVR connected energy store. It considers three phase, single phase to ground, line to line and double line to ground faults. The formulation was extended to take into account the probabilities of faults occurring across the network as well as variations in system generation (and hence short-circuit level). A full description of the real power requirements in the form of a probability density function is obtained after a large number of simulations with a statistical application of faults to the network. The approach was applied to a large distribution network. Theme 1 addressed the Objectives (1) and (2) of the original proposal. Two new tools were successfully developed to meet these objectives and were applied on a realistic distribution network. The benefits of real power injection and energy storage were demonstrated clearly. The overall result (although location and network specific) indicates that the DVR real power rating should be around half that of the total load protected. The tools are now available for use to assess the characteristics and frequency of sags at any busbar in a power system as well as the power requirement for their mitigation. The work was reported in IEE Proceedings Generation Transmission and Distribution [1] and at the CIRED Distribution conference in Amsterdam [2]. A PhD was awarded, based on this work, in January 2002. The research formed an important foundation for a new EPSRC Grant Power quality: customer damage assessment and effect on network design GR/R040265/01 commenced October 2001. THEME 2: CONVERTER TOPOLOGY, CONNECTION ARRANGEMENTS, AND CONTROL STRATEGY, HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE MODELLING [3-11] Theme 2 was to investigate the best converter topology, connection arrangements and control strategy as well as to develop software and hardware models. This addressed Objectives (3) and (4) of the original proposal. 2.1) Converter topology [3,4] In a DVR system, the inverter rating can be relatively low in voltage and high in current due to the use of step-up injection transformers. There is generally no need for extensive multilevel topologies as the device only operates infrequently (during sags) and the losses can be limited by operating the system in a standby mode when it is not
Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02 2

required. Thus a conventional 2-level inverter was chosen using a three-phase Graetz bridge inverter. The use of a split capacitor arrangement on the DC side allowed the correction of both balanced and unbalanced sags. 2.2) Connection arrangements [4,6,7] The power circuit of the DVR (Figure 1 of Appendix) can be divided into four parts: a three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI), three single-phase injection transformers, passive filters, and battery energy storage units . The three single-phase transformers can be connected to the distribution line with a star/open winding or a delta/open winding. The star/open winding allows the injection of positive, negative and zero sequence voltages whereas the delta/open winding allows injection of positive and negative sequence voltages only. However, the delta/open winding maximises the use of the dc link voltage of the inverter when compared to the star/open winding. Both arrangements were investigated experimentally. To avoid saturation under all conditions, the injection transformer was sized to handle at least twice the normal steady-state flux requirement at maximum rms. injection voltage without saturation. The filtering scheme in the dynamic voltage restorer can be placed either on the high-voltage-side or the inverter side of the series injection transformer. There was considerable investigation of the preferred location and design of the filters as they influence the dynamic behaviour of the DVR. In the models developed, three simple RC filter branches were located on the high-voltage side of the series transformers and three inductors were connected directly to the output terminals of the PWMVSI inverter to provide a combination of high voltage and inverter-side filtering. 2.3) Control strategy Most of sags experienced at a busbar are asymmetrical and often accompanied by a phase jump. Several control techniques have been proposed for compensation using real power injection such as pre-sag compensation, in-phase compensation and an energy optimisation technique. In this project, a new approach using a continuous tracking software phase-locked loop (SPLL) was implemented. The SPLL, used to track the basic positive component of the utility voltages, is described briefly in the Appendix and in more detail in [5 & 12]. By adjusting the time constant of the SPLL, the DVR can restore the instantaneous voltage waveform in the sensitive load side to the same phase and magnitude as the initial pre-sag voltage as shown in Figure 2. This technique had the advantage of providing protection of the sensitive load against both sags and phase jumps but also of limiting the energy requirements of the battery. The compensation strategy was implemented using a feed-forward control technique as it leads to a more rapid response. For 3-phase 3-wire inverter control, the voltage space-vector pulse width modulated (VSVPWM) method was implemented in a fully digital control system. For a 3 phase 4 wire system a corresponding voltage space vector PWM algorithm based on a 3-dimensional 0 voltage space was implemented [6,9].
Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02 3

2.4) Software and hardware models Extensive simulations were carried out using the PSCAD/EMTDC simulation program and a wide range of converter topologies, connection arrangements and control strategies investigated. A 10 kVA IGBT DVR lab prototype was built and extensive tests on this hardware model were carried out in order to study the dynamic response of the DVR together with behaviour of the lead-acid battery. The control algorithm was implemented with two digital signal processors (TMS320c44). The switching frequency of the IGBT IPM device was 2.4 kHz. Experimental results demonstrated the proposed control method [4,8,9,11]. The work of Theme 2 was reported in 6 conference publications and a paper in the IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. One PhD has been awarded based on this work and a second will be submitted in October 2002. Theme 3: BATTERY MODELLING, OPERATING CONDITIONS AND CHARGING CONTROL [3,4,13] Theme 3 was to investigate suitable battery models as well as charging control. During the investigation it became apparent that the conditions experienced by the battery during the operation of the DVR were important and these were also investigated. The project benefited particularly during this Theme from the expertise of Dr Barry Culpin of Hawker Batteries and Dr Alan Ruddell of Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. 3.1) Battery Modelling [4,13] Two electrical models of lead-acid batteries, a short-term discharge model and a long-term integrated model, were found in the literature and used to describe the system performance of a battery supported dynamic voltage restorer (DVR). The short-term model is based on a simple equivalent circuit representation of the battery. It provided an effective description when the DVR compensates voltage sags over a short period (up to 5 seconds). The more complex integrated model can predict accurately the terminal voltage, state-of-charge, battery capacity, and gassing current. It gives a good description of the battery response during both discharge and charge over periods of hours. Parameters of both models can be determined easily from measured battery output voltages obtained from load step response tests. Both models were successfully implemented in EMTDC/PSCAD and interfaced with the digital model of the 10kVA DVR physical prototype. To determine the parameters and verify the models, a series of measurements were carried out at UMIST and at the test laboratories of Hawker Batteries. Discharge currents ranging from 20 to 1200 amps were used. After the model parameters are determined, the equivalent circuits of the model were implemented in the EMTDC/PSCAD program and validated against test results.

Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

3.2 Battery operating conditions [3,4] The software and hardware modelling demonstrated that the DVR with the leadacid battery provided good dynamic compensation for voltage sags. However, most voltage sags are due to single-phase and two-phase faults, and so the sensitive load will experience unbalanced voltage sags. Correcting these unbalanced sags results in the DVR drawing power from the battery at twice the mains frequency and, depending on the severity of the sag and the characteristics of the load, this 2nd harmonic ripple may exceed the ac current limit set by the battery manufacturer. When the power factor of sensitive loads is low, the 2nd harmonic ripple will make part of the current cycle fall below zero. This micro-cycle changes the battery current from discharging to charging state during a few milliseconds. There is a limited literature describing the effect of micro-cycles on lead acid batteries. In most applications, charging currents seldom interrupt the discharging process. However in DVR and UPS applications, the battery current will suffer from microcycles in the case of non-linear loads as well as with unbalanced supplies. The most important impact of micro-cycles is that they may reduce the battery capacity and battery life as the microstructure of the battery active masses, particularly the size of the leadsulphate crystals, has been changed. Also, higher-order harmonic currents are produced by the switching actions of the PWM inverter. It is expected that these high-order switching harmonic components will have very little impact on the battery capacity and battery life in the DVR application during its short period of operation. However, capacitors were fitted on the DC link in order to filter these high-order currents away from the battery units. Due to the limited periods of operation of the DVR, the impact of these conditions on the life and performance of the battery was considered to be negligible. However for an alternative application, e.g. a battery supported STATCOM, that is in continuous operation then further investigations will be necessary. 3.3 Battery charging [4] In most of DVR applications, an auxiliary AC supply with a rectifier and a DC/DC converter is used to charge the energy storage unit. An alternative self-charging technique was developed as a way of reducing system complexity and costs. The DVR converter was arranged to act as a battery charger without the use of external sources such as the diode rectifier. When no disturbance is seen in the circuit, the DVR was used to absorb active power from the power supply to recharge the batteries, and provide simultaneously the reactive power to maintain the voltage level at 1.0 p.u. at the load-side [4]. The power factor of the sensitive load determines the operating conditions of the inverter that are required for self-charging. Theme 3 successfully addressed Objectives (5) and (6) of the original proposal. The results of the research have been reported partially in conference publications [4,9,10] and a full record made in a paper submitted to the IEE Proceedings, which is currently under revue. A PhD thesis with a complete description of the work will be submitted in
Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02 5

October 2002. The work of Theme 3 also provided important background for the new industrially funded research project. Additional research: ENERGY STORAGE FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS In addition to the main focus of the project (i.e. protection of sensitive loads against occasional voltage sags) two applications of lead acid, battery energy storage for improving the performance of renewable energy systems were considered. Compensation of continuous voltage fluctuations (using a STATCOM and energy storage), such as may be caused by wind turbines or wave energy devises, and also stability improvement of large wind turbines were investigated using simulation. The models described earlier, with significant additional input from RAL, were used to investigate the required injection/absorption of power. Although the lead acid battery is well suited to the compensation of occasional sags, the renewable energy applications required significant absorption of power and so the battery capacity, permissible charge rate at various statesof-charge and application lifetime become important issues. Proposals for specification of improved batteries and use of other storage technologies were included in an internal project report. PROJECT PLAN REVIEW All three Themes of the project were completed successfully although there were some initial difficulties in staffing. Dr Angus McDougall of Chemistry Department took early retirement during the project and Dr Rob Dryfe kindly took his place. It was not possible to recruit a PhD student from Chemistry and after one years delay a student from Electrical Engineering was recruited. The RA originally appointed failed to arrive and so an alternative, exceptionally gifted candidate was appointed after some months delay. Two other PhD students, funded from the Asian Development Bank and an EPSRC quota award, were associated with the project as well as an Academic Visitor. This gave the critical mass to the project team that led to the successful completion of the research. RESEARCH IMPACT In addition to the satisfactory completion of the original work programme the following advances may be emphasised. 1. Two techniques, one analytical and one simulation based, were developed to predict the number and characteristics of voltage sags and the power requirement for their mitigation at any busbar in a power system. They take into account the distribution of faults across the network and the variation in generation patterns over a given time horizon. 2. A continuous tracking compensation strategy based on a software phase-locked loop algorithm was proposed and demonstrated for the dynamic compensation of voltage sags with a phase jump. A voltage space vector PWM algorithm based on a 3dimensional 0 voltage space was also developed.

Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

3. 10 kVA hardware laboratory and EMTDC/PSCAD simulation models were built up to investigate the system performance of the DVR supported by lead-acid batteries. Simulation and experimental results demonstrated the proposed control strategies. 4. Two electrical models of a lead-acid battery, a short-term discharge model and a longterm integrated model, were successfully implemented in EMTDC/PSCAD and interfaced with the digital model of a 10kVA DVR physical prototype. 5. A self-charging control technique was also developed to replenish energy into the lead-acid batteries. Simulation and experimental results demonstrated the proposed control method.

6. The project has led to 2 PhD theses being awarded and 3 more will be submitted in October 2002. 7. Nine conference papers and two Journal papers have been published. Two more Journal papers are under review FURTHER WORK Research in the areas of power quality and the use of energy storage in the power system is being pursued vigorously at UMIST. The test rig developed during this project is now in use by continuing PhD students to investigate shunt connected compensation techniques, with energy storage, as well as improved approaches to the detection and characterisation of voltage sags in real time. A new EPSRC Grant Power quality: customer damage assessment and effect on network design commenced in October 2001 and UMIST is also receiving direct industrial funding in this area. Two proposals to investigate aspects of the use of energy storage on the power system, particularly with the integration of renewable energy, were submitted to the Framework 5 call of the CEU on 14th December 2001. The experience gained during this project supported the UMIST Expression of Interest in December 2001 to the EPSRC Supergen Initiative. PUBLICATIONS Publications arising directly out of Grant 1. S. Lim, G. Strbac: Analytical Approach to Probabilistic Prediction Of Voltage Sags on Transmission Networks. IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Vol.149, No1, 2002, pp7-14. 2. C. P. Fitzer, Y. S. Lim, C. Zhan, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins (2001): Mitigation of Voltage Sags Embracing a Prediction Technique and the use of a Dynamic Voltage Restorer. CIRED2001 conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 18-21 June 2001, Paper 2.17. 3. C. Zhan, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, C. Fitzer, S. Kromlidis, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins, (2001): Dynamic Voltage Restorer Based on Voltage Space Vector

Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

PWM Control. Proceedings of IEEE APEC2001, Anaheim California, USA. 2001, pp 1301-1307. 4. C. Zhan, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, C. Fitzer, S. Kromlidis, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins: Dynamic Voltage Restorer Based on Voltage Space Vector PWM Control. IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 37, No 6, November/December, 2001 pp1855-1863. 5. C. Zhan, C. Fitzer, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins (2001): Software Phase-locked Loop Applied to Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter2001, Columbus Ohio, USA. 2001. 6. C. Zhan, A. Arulampalam, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, C. Fitzer, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins (2001): Novel Voltage Space Vector PWM Algorithm of 3-phase 4-wire Power Conditioner. Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter2001, Columbus Ohio, USA. 2001. 7. C. Zhan, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A. Arulampalam, C. Fitzer, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins (2001): Universal Custom Power Conditioner (UCPC) with Integrated Control. Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter2001, Columbus Ohio, USA. 2001. 8. C. Zhan, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, C. Fitzer, A. Arulampalam (2001): Dynamic Voltage Restorer Based on 3-Dimensional Voltage Space Vector PWM Algorithm. Proceedings of IEEE PESC2001, Canada. 2001, pp 528-533. 9. C. Zhan, M. Barnes, V. Ramachandaramurthy, N. Jenkins (2000): Dynamic Voltage Restorer with Battery Energy Storage for Voltage Dip Mitigation. IEE PEVD2000 conference, London, UK, 2000, pp 360-365. 10. V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, C. Zhan, M. Barnes and N. Jenkins (2000): Dynamic Voltage Restorer for Voltage Sag Mitigation. UPEC2000 conference, Belfast, UK, 2000. 11. D Gregory, C Fitzer and M Barnes The static transfer switch operational considerations, IEE PEMD 2001 Conference, Bath, June 2002. Journal Papers submitted and under review 12. V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, C. Zhan, C. Fitzer, M. Barnes, N. Jenkins: Control of a Battery Supported Dynamic Voltage Restorer. IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Distribution, (Submitted August 2001) 13. C. Zhan, X. Wu, S. Kromlidis, V. K. Ramachandaramurthy, A Ruddell, M Barnes, N. Jenkins: Two Electrical Models of the Lead-acid Battery Used in a Dynamic Voltage Restorer. IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Distribution 2001, (Submitted May 2001)

Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

APPENDIX: Diagrams and brief description of compensation strategy

other loads
Fault

Filter

Dynamic Voltage Restorer

Power Supply
delta / Y open Y /delta
Battery

Feeder
3-phase 3-wire PWM inverter

Figure 1 (a). Circuit configuration of a 3-phase 3-wire DVR

415V System side

K1 A

(1 ohm ) R f

C f (47uF )

Load side

K2 a

*
1:2

* *
B
1:2

* *
C
1:2

Rc

K3 E (100V ) Vdc Cdc

Lf

(50uH )

Driving Signals Interface & Protection Board

Dual DSPs Control System (TMS320C44s)

Figure 1(b). Laboratory hardware DVR using a 3 phase PWM VSI inverter

Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

sensitive

loads

Z line

Z DVR DVR

Vinj

i load

Supply

Vs

V load

Z load

Figure 2 (a) Equivalent electrical circuit diagram of the DVR

beta

dpre-sag

qsag

V Vload s,pre Vinj

dsag

pre-sag

V s,sag 0 iload
0.9 p.u. 1.0 p.u. 1.1 p.u.

alpha

Figure 2 (b) Compensation strategy of the DVR for voltage sags with a phase jump Figure 1(a) shows the basic circuit configuration of the battery supported DVR with a fault occurring on an adjacent feeder, giving rise to a voltage sag at the sensitive load. The DVR equivalent circuit and its mode of operation is shown in Figure 2(a). The injected v v voltage, Vinj , is added to the source voltage, Vs , to restore the load voltage to its pre-fault
Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

10

value. The particular advantage of energy storage (using batteries in this case) is that the injected voltage can be at any angle with respect to the load current and so, by supplying both real and reactive power, the DVR system can compensate for any combination of voltage sag and phase jump. Figure 1 (b) shows the schematic diagram of the hardware model that was constructed. Figure 2 (b) shows how, by adjusting the time constant of the software phase locked loop (SPLL), the DVR can restore the instantaneous voltage waveform in the sensitive load side to the same phase and magnitude as the initial pre-sag voltage, and v then track to the new source voltage. The source voltage vector Vs , pre during the pre-sag stage is represented as on the d pre sag axis in the Synchronous Rotating Frame (SRF), in which the rotating phase angle is obtained from the SPLL. At this time, the load voltage v v vector Vload is the same as Vs , pre and assumed to be 1.0 p.u., if the voltage drops across the series transformers are neglected. When a voltage sag occurs, the actual source v v v voltage vector Vs will be moved as Vs , sag , which has a phase shift with Vs , pre . For v v restoring the load voltage vector Vload , an injected voltage vector Vinj of the DVR should be provided immediately. However, the SPLL keeps tracking the phase information of the source voltages and gradually reduces the phase shift angle . As a result, the DVR will v gradually change the injected voltages and restore the voltage vector Vload close to the d sag v v v axis. Finally (after typically 200-500ms) the voltages Vs , Vinj and Vload are on the d sag axis in the steady state. If the phase jump is reversed, when the fault is cleared, then a similar compensation takes place until a new steady state condition is reached.

Final report of EPSRC Grant GR/M03405/01 N Jenkins, UMIST, 05/23/02

11