electrical installation practice according to IEC international standards

D
1. rules and regulations 2. electromagnetic disturbances
2.1 disturbances by conduction 2.2. radiation EMC1 EMC2 EMC8

3. cabling of equipment and systems

3.1 earthing 3.2 masses (non-conducting metal parts) 3.3 attenuating effects 3.4 installation and cabling rules 3.5 EMC components and solutions EMC9 EMC11 EMC15 EMC16 EMC17 EMC20

4. local network problems

low-voltage service connections - D581 Appendix EMC

1. rules and regulations

EMC
Legislation on EMC throughout the world is broadly divided into two philosophies. In "liberal" countries, any parasitic interference with radio reception is illegal, but no emission-level limit for the source of interference is imposed. However, in cases of litigation the methods of measuring, and the limits of emission level laid down by the CISPR, serve as reference. For example, Japan is a "liberal country" in which the VCCI standards (that correspond technically to the international publications of CISPR) assumes that the attitude of civic responsibility prevailing is adequate at the present time. For countries more rigidly "regulated", emission levels exceeding a standardized limit are illegal. For example, in the U.S.A., Automatic Data Processing (ADP) systems are protected by obligatory emission-level standards defined by the Federal law FCC part 15. Checking procedures differ, depending on whether the level for class A (procedure for "compliance") or class B is concerned. In the case for class B (domestic environment), certification is then required. European regulations are effectively placed between the two foregoing attitudes. The parasitic-emission level and an excessivelysensitive reception device are both illegal. Compliance with the EMC standards, although only constituting a presumption of conformity to the essential requirements, is, nevertheless, the preferred means of checking. Moreover, the European regulations are applicable to all apparatuses, systems and commercialised installations, without exception.

Appendix EMC - 1

2. electromagnetic disturbances

EMC
Problems of EMC (ElectroMagnetic Compatibility) often arise when equipment, which is highly sensitive to extraneous electrical disturbances (commonly referred to as "interference" or "parasites") is located in an environment subject to electromagnetic disturbances. Since sources of electromagnetic disturbance are numerous and inevitable, and desensitizing an equipment (generally electronic) to counter the effect of disturbances is difficult to achieve, consideration of the physical layout of the sensitive equipments and related cabling, relative to the sources of disturbance, becomes necessary. This is the principal means of ensuring a satisfactory degree of immunity for the large majority of sensitive electronic devices. There are two recognized modes of electromagnetic interference: c conducted disturbances propagated along cables, wires, etc. c radiated disturbances by stationary induction (magnetic or electrostatic fields*) and/or by electromagnetic (radio) waves travelling in space. The magnitudes of electromagnetic disturbances are expressed by four parameters: two for the conduction mode and two for the radiation mode. For the conduction mode, measurements are made in the traditional quantities, viz: volts (U) and amps (I). For the radiated electromagnetic waves the electric and magnetic field strengths are measured in volts per metre (E) and in amperes per metre (H), respectively. The frequency is one of the principal features that characterise an electromagnetic wave. In EMC studies the solutions adapted differ according to whether the disturbance is at low frequency (LF) or at high frequency (HF).
* Stationary (but changing in magnitude) magnetic and electric induction fields generally, are only significant in close proximity to the sources and are easily countered by placing sensitive equipment at a suitable distance from them. A notable exception is the case where some tens of thousands of amps, i.e. short-circuit fault currents, flow in a power cable.

2.1 disturbances by conduction

2.1.1 Disturbances by conduction: modes of propagation Electrical energy, whether useful signals or power, or unwanted parasites, propagate along a 2-wire circuit in one of two modes only, viz: in differential mode or in common mode. Differential mode The differential mode is the normal way of conducting current through a 2-wire circuit. This mode is sometimes referred to as series mode, normal mode, or symmetrical mode. In the differential mode the current flowing in one conductor is in exact phase opposition to that in the other conductor, i.e. flowing in the opposite direction at every instant. The voltage is measured between the two conductors.
I U I equipment
equipment I 2 U

Common mode The common mode is parasitic. It is sometimes also referred to as parallel mode, longitudinal mode or asymmetrical mode. Common-mode currents pass through all the conductors of a cable in the same direction. The return path for such currents is via the earth, earth-bonding connections and the protective earthing conductors, cable sheaths, etc. Since the earth is no longer used as a conducting medium for telefax, useful signals are no longer transmitted in the common mode through the associated cables. A potential difference in common mode is measured between the mass (local zero voltage reference terminal) and the mean value of potential of all the conductors of the cable circuit being tested. It may be present in the absence of any current flow.
I 2

fig. EMC-1: signal or disturbance in the differential mode. Differential mode disturbances are the most severe at low frequencies. By low frequencies (LF) it is understood in EMC studies to concern all frequencies lower than 9 kHz. This convention means that a very large number of electrical disturbances are considered as being LF phenomena. In electrical power networks disturbances in the differential mode are numerous. One may cite, for example, interruptions of supply of short or long duration, voltage fluctuations and dips, phase instability, lamp flicker, variations of frequency: harmonics and voltage spikes. The effect of an electromagnetic disturbance depends largely on its duration. Permanent (maintained) disturbances principally affect analogue-type circuits, while transient and impulsive disturbances interfere especially with digital circuits.
2 - Appendix EMC

fig. EMC-2: disturbance in common mode.

EMC
Electromagnetic disturbances couple readily with cables in the common mode, particularly at high frequencies (HF), since they act as radio antennae. Several kinds of coupling between neighbouring circuits can occur. The problems of common mode recur frequently in EMC cases. A conducting environment is always good for EMC, due to it equipotential quality. Only disturbances in the differential mode can be filtered locally, cable by cable. As indicated by its name, the common mode is common to all the cables of a given equipment. Common mode problems at HF are particularly critical in an insulated environment, or where the mass (the zerovoltage refernce for all electronic circuits) is "floating" with respect to earth (i.e. insulated from the earth). A common mode voltage is always detrimental. If it cannot be reduced, it is important, at least, to prevent it from developing into a differential mode disturbance. 2.1.2 LF disturbances by conduction LF disturbances include all types of parasitic interference of which the range of significant frequencies is lower than 9 kHz. The frenquency of 9 kHz is a conventional upper limit, below which electrical phenomena may be analysed in simple terms, using customary equivalent linear circuit techniques, based on resistances, inductances (self- and mutual-) and capacitances. By definition, a LF disturbance exists for a relatively "long" time (at least a hundred microseconds). The energy level of a conducted LF disturbance can be considerable and is very easily measured. The impedance of a cable at very low frequencies is practically equivalent to its resistance only. At several kiloherz most cables of small cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) and even at 50 Hz (for cables of large c.s.a.) the lineal inductance of a conductor is of the order of 1 H/m, and its impedance increases linearly with frequency. For example, large 1core cables at 50 Hz, installed in trefoil, have a lineal impedance of approximately 0.3 per km. This feature is important when considering harmonic frequencies in a network. Selecting a c.s.a. larger than 35 mm2 for a protective conductor would effectively reduce the heating of the conductor when carrying fault current (since its resistance would be lower) but would have a negligible effect on the equipotential distribution: the inductance of a cable being (as noted above) practically independent of its c.s.a. This is the role of insulated and/or symmetrical connections. A galvanic insulation is only effective at low frequencies. A symmetrical connection, also referred to as "balanced", can remain effective up to high frequencies. The dissymmetry of a differential connection originates mainly from its end circuits. An imbalance at an end circuit can be caused by an electrical and/or geometric dissymmetry. In any case, a connection by simple coaxial cable to transmit signals at low frequencies is not recommended. Correcting measures which may produce harmful secondary effects must be combined with other precautions in order that the system effectively counters the entire range of disturbances (LF and HF, of large and small amplitudes). The combination of the different corrective measures (galvanic separation, symmetrical connections and overvoltage protection) is referred to as coordinated protection.

Interruptions (long or transitory) An interruption is a total disappearance of the power-supply system voltage. In the case of a fault occurring on the HV network of a power-supply system, a consumer will normally experience a "voltage dip" sometimes followed by a brief interruption. This interruption will occur only if the HV system is an overhead-line (O/H line) system, and the consumer is being supplied from the section of line on which the fault has occurred. So-called "fleeting faults" on overhead lines are very common, and consist of flashovers (of insulators) to earthed metal by momentary overvoltage due to lightning or a short-circuit through a large bird, or again, directly to earth through, for example, a wet tree branch, etc. In more than 80% of these incidents such a fault will disappear during the brief period of automatic interruption, and normal supply will be restored. The automatic sequence for the elimination of fleeting faults on O/H lines is included in the protection scheme for the line. The interruptions in these schemes are normally limited to less than 0.5 seconds. An underground cable supply network reduces the number of interruptions to about 10% only of those of O/H line systems, but underground cable faults are not selfclearing, so that lengthy shutdowns are necessary to locate the fault and to effect repairs.

Appendix EMC - 3

2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)

EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Flicker Flicker describes a condition of small but frequently recurring voltage dips caused by loads which require relatively heavy current for brief and regularly repeated periods. The impedance of a LV network is made up mainly of cable impedance and the impedance of the HV/LV transformer supplying the network. The greater the kVA rating of the transformer, the lower its effective impedance. In public power-supply systems the flicker problem is more common on rural systems, particularly at the end of long lines. It is a problem on a line which is supplying arc furnaces, arc-welding machines and, generally, where heavy loads are frequently switched. Flicker creates an objectionable annoyance for persons working under incandescent lighting. The effect is purely physiological, no dysfunctioning of electronic equipment will occur due to flicker. Flicker is objectionable only where heavy overloads and frequent switching are combined, or where the impedance of the system is high. Standardized parameter limits and a flicker meter are described in IEC publications 1000-3-3 and 1000-4-15.
U/Un in %
3 2

drop of voltage, caused principally by switching loads which, at the instant of energization, require a greater current than the normal rated value, e.g. small-motor starting currents, the switching on of large resistive heating devices and incandescent lamps, etc. Such dips are transitory only, but are often more severe than those classed as flicker, generally exceeding 10%. The duration of a "dip" lasts from 10 ms to approximately 1 s. Voltage reductions which exceed 10% and 1 s, due, for example, to starting large motors, or, as previously described, due to system faults, are simply referred to as "voltage drop" and the extent of the drop and its duration are specified. Voltage fluctuations have little effect on electronic circuits generally. Sensitive, precision electronic-control devices, electronic calculators of early design, and electronic (HF) fluorescent lighting tubes, however, may be adversely affected. A well-designed electronic device can tolerate, without difficulty, voltage fluctuations up to + 8%. A voltage dip at a point on a HV system is generally due to a short-circuit fault elsewhere on the same network. The closer the fault to the point in question, the more severe the dip. The severity of the dip is defined by two parameters: the magnitude of the drop as a percentage of the system nominal voltage, and its duration in milliseconds. Voltage dips are generally due to wind-blown debris (tree branches, etc.), electric storms, or faults on the lines (broken insulators) or occur on the installation of a neighbouring consumer.
Ueff. most influenced beetween the three phase to phase voltages

0,5 0,3

400 V 360 V depth (% de Un)

10 100 1000

.5 .7 1

10

fig. EMC-3: number of variations per minute. For industrial installations subject to flicker, a modification to the installation is sometimes necessary. Among the possible corrective measures available, the most effective include: separate cables for heavy loads preferably with each large load supplied through an individual HV/LV transformer, division of the load, increase the time lags in automatic control systems, reduction in the work-cycle rate, time-wise staggering and spreading of operations which require impulsive power demands, together with the installation of a static reactive-power compensator. Technically, a reduction in the source impedance is an excellent solution. In final general-distribution circuits at LV, the 3-phase symmetrical short-circuit current is usually within the 500-5,000 A range. In industry, the short-circuit current at LV may exceed 10 kA on a circuit of large c.s.a. close to the source substation. This value never, however, exceeds 100 kA. Fluctuations and voltage dips A fluctuation of voltage is a rapid change of supply voltage not exceeding + 10% (the generally accepted limits at distribution level) during normal operation. A "dip" is a sudden
4 - Appendix EMC

clearing time = 0,3 s duration = 0,4 s time

fig. EMC-4: caracteristics of a voltage dip. Faults on VHV (very high voltage) transmission lines are rare and are usually due to lightning, or to exceptionally severe cold weather. The consequence of voltage dips (when followed by an interruption) is a complete loss of supply to electronic (and power) devices. Relays will drop out and motors controlled by electronic speed-variation and regenerativebraking devices will be deprived of brake control. Even if there is no supply interruption, a large and long (up to 1 second) voltage dip may cause similar malfunctions. Means of countering these problems at the least cost requires individual analysis of each case. To overcome the voltage-dip problem, many low-power electronic equipments have individual power packs with an autonomy of several hundred milliseconds for 100% loss of supply voltage. For heavy-duty power supplies, the period of autonomy amounts only to approximately 20 milliseconds, the limiting factor being the size of the energy-storing capacitors required. Rotating machines (motor/generators) have

EMC
sufficient autonomy to cope with voltage dips. Finally, uninterruptible power supply units can suppress voltage dips, and maintain the power supply during a period of complete interruption. Unbalance The amplitude of an ac voltage is expressed by its rms (root-mean-square) value. The voltage between a phase conductor and the neutral is referred to as the phase voltage, while that measured between any two phases is called the line voltage. The line voltage equals etimes the phase voltage, on a normally balanced 3-phase system (e= 1.732). A 3-phase system may be defined simply by the amplitude of 3 voltages, either line or phase values. In order to define a sinusoidal system which is in an unbalanced state, however, the values of current and voltage of each phase are then, in the general case, the sum of 3 rotating vector components. The three components of each phase are known as: c the positive phase-sequence component c the negative phase-sequence component c the zero phase-sequence component. A balanced 3-phase system is composed of positive phase-sequence components only. An unsymmetrical system is said to be unbalanced; its negative- and zero-phase sequence components are generally both present, together with the positive phasesequence component. A common cause of imbalance is that of different levels of loading on the 3 phases. Unbalanced loading results in unbalanced voltages being applied to 3-phase motors. Increased losses occur in the rotors of the motors, and in cases of excessive imbalance, motors can be destroyed by overheating. Single-phase (line-to-line) loads are not normally adversely affected by imbalance. Small degrees of imbalance (0.5-1%) are inevitable on LV 3-phase 3-wire networks, and up to 2 or 3% can be tolerated for several minutes by all loads. When an imbalance of voltage is considered to be excessive (> 2% for example), it is advisable to correct the balance of phase loading. Where it is not possible to improve the balance, the situation may be eased by increasing the fault level at the circuit concerned by changing the supply transformer. An average HV/LV distribution transformer (> 100 kVA) has a short-circuit voltage of 5-6%. Special transformers are available with interlaced windings which limit the leakage reactance to give a short-circuit voltage of approximately 2%. A low short-circuit voltage effectively means a low source impedance (with higher faultcurrent level) a situation which improves the voltage balance, and (incidentally) improves the form of the voltage wave (if it happens to be distorted) by reducing the harmonic content of the wave. A modern method of improving a condition of imbalance, though presently rather costly, is to install a static compensator. It consists of a system which stores energy in an inductor or capacitor, and restores this energy to the system at the appropriate instants. An active filter constitutes one of the preferred solutions for limiting disturbances generated by arc furnaces during the start-up phase. Frequency variations The European network performs, in practice, as an infinite system as far as frequency stability is concerned, in that load changes do not sensibly affect the frequency. On smaller private systems, and especially on single generators, where the rotational inertia is small and the regulating system of the prime mover is generally rudimentary, the frequency will vary (within reasonable limits) each time the load changes abruptly. Diesel engine prime movers are less stable, in terms of frequency, than turbines. Frequency variations do not unduly disturb electronic equipments. Converters based on current chopping principles are insensitive to frequency changes. All modern devices and components should be capable of correct performance during frequency changes of + 4% throughout a 10 minute period. Only very large systems with transformers operating at the limit of saturation may, when the system voltage is at its maximum, be subjected to overheating by a long-term lowfrequency condition. AC motors (locked to the frequency) will experience speed variations corresponding to those of the frequency. On the other hand, the inertia of motors tends to smooth out other sudden disturbances occurring on a network. Harmonics Any non-linear load (fluorescent lamp, Graetz bridge, arc furnace, etc.) takes a nonsinusoidal current from the network. Such a current is composed of a sinusoidal component at the frequency of the system and is known as the fundamental component, together with other sinusoidal components which are whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency. These latter are referred to as harmonic components. Conventionally, harmonics up to the rank of 40 only are considered in power systems, i.e. 2 kHz for 50 Hz systems and 2.4 kHz for 60 Hz systems. Supplies to electronic circuits, power regulators based on Graetz bridge, and fluorescent lighting equipment, are rich in harmonics. Distortion of a voltage waveform is onerous for associated equipments; it is expressed as a percentage. It is proportional to the harmonic content of the current and to the impedance of the source. The effect of distortion is to increase the heating losses in motors. In an ADP environment, a distortion of 5% may be considered to be normal. All electronic components can tolerate a global factor of distortion including possible interharmonics of at least 8%. An inter-harmonic current has a frequency which is not a wholenumber multiple of the fundamental (i.e. system) frequency. A distinction is made between "true" inter-harmonics generated at discrete frequencies, and those forming part of a continuous spectrum. Even-numbered harmonics are generated only by asymmetrical rectifiers and load currents which contain a dc component. A dc component can readily saturate a powersupply transformer. Most non-linear loads (satured transformers, fluorescent tubes, power supply circuits which use currentchopping techniques, etc.) only generate odd-numbered harmonics.

Appendix EMC - 5

2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)

EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Balanced 3-phase loads supplied from a 3-phase 3-wire system (i.e no neutral wire) do not generate 3rd harmonic currents or multiples of 3rd harmonic currents. A Graetz bridge or a hexaphase thyristor-controlled regulator behave as current generators, which are practically independent of the voltage distortion. Third harmonic currents and multiples of them (known as "triplen" currents) when generated in the phases of a 3-phase 4-wire system, present a particular problem in that, being of zero-phase sequence (i.e. in phase with each other), they add arithmetically and complete their circuit through the neutral conductor. The current in the neutral conductor due to this cause is at 150 Hz and can exceed, in unfavourable circumstances, the current flowing in the phase wires. This aspect should be borne in mind when considering supplies to ADP loads and loads made up of fluorescent lighting tubes. If the neutral is not distributed, i.e. the system is 3-phase 3-wires, then 3rd harmonic currents cannot flow. A transformer with a deltaconnected primary winding, however, allows the circulation of 3rd harmonic currents, a feature that practically negates the distortion of the LV voltage wave, which would otherwise contain a large 3rd harmonic component. Reduction of the source impedance is not always effective in reducing distortion : power-factor correcting capacitors can cause a problem, if, together with the source impedance (which is predominantly inductive) the combination should form a resonant (or partially resonant) circuit at one of the harmonic or inter-harmonic frequencies. The parallel combination of inductive reactance L and capacitive reactance C can present a high impedance at its resonant frequency, particularly at low-load periods. The distortion can therefore become excessive due to the amplification effect of the resonance. A harmonic filter is a series LC circuit connected in parallel with the source and acts as a short-circuit to currents at its resonant frequency. The capacitor and inductor must be capable of carrying the maximum value of the harmonic current, while the capacitor must withstand the elevated harmonic voltage plus the system normal-frequency voltage. The inductor is adjusted to cause the combination to resonate at the exact frequency of the harmonic in question. It must not saturate or overheat. The rating of a harmonic filter varies according to the size of the installation from some kvar to several Mvar. A problem with harmonic filters is that their resonant frequencies change from one point on the network to another due to cable inductance. The longer the cabling, the lower the frequency at which the filter resonates. It is advisable moreover, to check that the currents in a number of paralleled filters are satisfactorily shared. A modern means of limiting distortion is by the use of active filters. These filters are inverters based on PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) techniques, together with reactive-energy storage. The role of an active filter, triggered by an error function, is to inject into the network a harmonic current exactly equal, but in phase opposition, to that produced downstream. The principle of operation is comparable to that of a static compensator, but at a considerably higher chopping rate. An active filter can be called upon to compensate not only first (i.e. lower) harmonics, but also reactive power (var) and flicker ; it is simply a question of dimensioning. Overvoltages Overvoltages that affect industrial-supply power networks in the differential mode (between phases) can occur for numerous reasons. The energizing of a bank of capacitors can generate an overvoltage transient associated with an energy level of several hundred Joules. The inductance of the system and the capacitance of the bank behave as a series LC circuit which oscillates transiently at its natural frequency, typically below 1 kHz. The value of the first peak (the sum of the transient and system peaks) can reach almost twice the value of the power system peak voltage, i.e. the transient can have a peak value almost equal to the system peak. A second cause of overvoltage may occur on the blowing of a wire-type fuse. A sudden release of the magnetic energy stored in the system inductances can be as much as a thousand Joules, which, when converted into electrostatic form in the system capacitances, can raise the voltage sufficiently to damage associated equipment. The effect is considerably less with cartridge fuses or with a circuit breaker. Any manuvre on a power transmission system (opening or closing a circuit breaker, isolating switch, etc.) results in an operational disturbance. The energization of a transmission line is characterized by a wave front of voltage which (at approximately the speed of light) propagates and reflects along the line to produce a voltage-doubling phenomenon. The frequency of this highly-damped shortduration oscillation varies between 10 kHz and 1 MHz. The phenomenon is related to that of energizing a capacitor, but the frequency in this case is much greater (depending on the length of the line) while the energy level is lower. The risk of damage to equipment from this phenomenon is much less than that from overvoltages of longer duration, but the risks of malfunctions are greater. Overvoltages have little effect on electrotechnical equipments, but can disturb, weaken and even destroy electronic equipments. A LF overvoltage in common mode has no effect on supply circuits that are galvanically isolated, provided that the isolating dielectric can withstand the voltage stress without rupturing. At HF, principally by its common-mode component, an overvoltage can disturb (i.e. interfere with) sensitive electronic systems. The solution is simple: filter each equipment with respect to its own mass (metallic structure of the equipment).

6 - Appendix EMC

EMC
The installation engineer has practically only one way to protect the installation against overvoltages, and that is to install overvoltage limiting devices on the supply-circuit conductors. Overvoltages occurring on public LV distribution networks are lower in energy than those occurring in heavy-current industrial networks: the energy on public networks rarely exceeding 100 Joules. The only really dangerous case is that of a lightning stroke on a line close to the installation. New overvoltage surge arresters based on the use of varistors of high energy-dissipation ratings allow an effective protection of all LV systems and equipments downstream of the point of arrester installation. Failure of the zinc-oxide varistor will cause a thermal fusing element (which is connected in series with it) to blow, and open the circuit, thereby avoiding a short-circuit to earth via a faulty or damaged arrester. The cable from this device must be connected by the shortest possible route to the mass of the distribution board, i.e. the common earthing bar, and not to the earthing electrode, which is generally too far away (see Sub-clause L 1.4). HF spikes The range of frequencies which presents the greatest difficulties, both in radiation and in protection against the radiated energy, is the VHF band from 30 to 300 MHz, also referred to as the "metric" band. Almost all electric arcs, sparks, electrostatic discharges and starting contacts (such as dry contacts, starting contact for striking an arc in electroluminescent tubes, operation of circuit breakers and other switching devices on HV systems) generate impulses (spikes) which are conducted in common mode and radiated. The radiation spectrum covers the range of the above-mentioned VHF band. The amplitude of the HF current spikes can attain a peak of several tens of amperes. Digital circuits are particularly vulnerable to such spikes. Respecting the standard for immunity IEC 1000-4-4 is a highlyrecommended means of achieving satisfactory protection and EMC of an installation. Maintained HF disturbances Frequency converters, electronic speed controllers, Graetz bridges and electric-motor commutating brushes also generate common mode HF disturbances. The peak value of these disturbances can reach and even exceed 1 ampere. One solution is to install an efficient filter at the supply-source and/or at the disturbed equipment. Another solution is the use of power cables that include a screen, which is earthed at both ends. For sources of heavy interference, it is recommended to form a network of equipotential interconnections of all masses in the neighbourhood of the offending source, in particular all metallic cable ways, ducts, trays, etc.

2.1.3. HF disturbances by induction At HF i.e. conventionally above 1 MHz, interference phenomena become considerably more complicated. Power conductors become efficient antennae, electromagnetic fields, even when weak, produce considerable interference, all cables are affected, and some may resonate, etc. HF phenomena are severe, frequent, difficult to analyse and are cause to reconsider the established practices in electronics cable installation. The inductance of cables becomes more of a problem at HF than at low frequencies. The lineal inductance of any conducting structure following a sensibly straight route is approximately 1 H/m. Furthermore, an interconnection of a length exceeding a thirtieth (1/30) of a wavelength becomes practically incapable of ensuring equipotentiality between the two interconnected masses. Beyond /30, a conductor becomes an effective radiating antenna but, if radiating, it fails to perform correctly as an equipotential conductor. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 1 MHz is 300 metres. The distance between any equipment and the main earth bar being generally greater than 10 metres, one may deduce that the nature and the quality of the earthing is of no consequence at frequencies exceeding 1 MHz. A simple dictum: a large conductor is good, but a short conductor is better. HF disturbances by conduction in common mode through cables are, in fact, considered to be the principal problem for EMC specialists. The reduction of common mode disturbances at HF through cables can be achieved by one or more of the following three stratagems: 1 - attenuation effects: close interconnection (networking) by equipotential conductors of "masses" and/or screened cables 2 - filters between conductors and mechanical mass of each equipment 3 - ferrites on "problem" cables. An electronic circuit, e.g. a card supporting chips, etc., should never be allowed to "float" relative to its conducting envelope, a condition which is to be avoided at all costs in the presence of HF interference. The natural (so-called "stray") capacitances of the card components, less than a pico-farad, can be sufficient to cause interference with an electronic circuit. To limit rapidly varying voltages between an electronic circuit and its environment, the connecting of the filter 0 V (reference voltage) terminal to an enveloping metallic housing, connected to earth or not, is an excellent preventive measure.

Appendix EMC - 7

2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)

EMC
2.2 radiation
Electrical energy propagation is not only confined to conductors. It can also propagate in space without material support. Such propagation is referred to as electromagnetic fields or waves, or Hertzian waves. Such a wave is made up of an electric component E in volts per metre, and a magnetic component H in amperes per metre. These radiated fields, when encountering a 2.2.1 LF magnetic fields At low frequencies, only the magnetic field may cause problems. Whether it is impulsive (short-circuit, lightning, electronic flash...) or maintained, the field H is generally produced in close proximity to the affected equipment. Measurement of the field strength requires an oscilloscope and a loop probe only. The magnetic field at low frequency does not propagate, but remains in the close proximity of its origin (a transformer or an induction motor, for example) and its field strength initially decreases rapidly with distance from the source according to 1/D3. At greater distances, the rate of decrease is slower and approaches 1/D2. This latter value is often used when considering the field surrounding busbars or an overhead line. The magnetic-field strength of a rectilinear current with a return path at infinity (such as that due to lightning) decreases according to 1/D. Severe sources of magnetic fields are the zero-phase sequence currents in supply cables of a TN-C scheme. Loops formed between the phase conductors and currents diverted from the neutral conductor (through equipotential bonds) are sometimes very 2.2.2 HF electromagnetic fields At high frequencies, the E and H fields unite to form indivisible electromagnetic waves in space. At more than a sixth of a wavelength from a point source, the ratio E/H tends to a value of 120 = 377 ohms. It is sufficient, therefore, to give the value of one component in order to deduce the field strength. Numerous industrial, scientific or medical apparatuses use radio frequencies, most often in the 1 MHz to 3 GHz range. Radio transmitters have power-radiation capabilities ranging from several milli-watts for radiocontrol devices, to several mega-watts peak for radar systems. Walky-talkies, which can be used for transmission very close to electronic equipment, are sources of disturbance, particularly for low-power analog circuits. An effective way to reduce radio-transmitter field strength, as "seen" by sensitive electronic equipments, is to use antennae as remote from the equipments as possible, and located at the greatest height attainable. Since this principle cannot be applied to portable transmitters, their use must be restricted to areas sufficiently remote from sensitive equipments to ensure trouble-free operation of the latter. conductor (which acts as a receiving antenna), give rise to minute emfs and currents in the conducting material, i.e. in the form of disturbance by conduction. For cable circuits, these disturbances are in common mode. It is therefore possible to protect against these radiated fields by means of a Faraday cage arrangement or by (very often) low-pass filters. large; such currents can amount to several amperes. The undesirability of the TN-C scheme (in buildings) for this reason is shown in fig. F14 Chapter F, of the main text. During a short-circuit fault, the disturbance is evidently greater to a degree that depends on the fault-current magnitude. The most common consequence of a LF magnetic field is a distortion of the image of a cathode ray tube (jumps and wave-like movements of the image, and even changes of colour). A magnetically unscreened CRT (cathode-ray tube), an electron miscroscope, a mass spectrometer or a magnetic reading head, barely tolerates 1A/m at LF. Moreover, the "stray" loops formed through equipotential connections to masses are associated (naturally) with corresponding voltages. Magnetic screening from/of a magnetic field is very difficult at frequencies less than 10 kHz. The easiest solution is simply to place the sensitive equipment out of range of the offending field. Screening the sensitive equipment with a thick magnetic shield can reduce the field strength by a factor of the order 10.

Electronic equipments are rarely affected by a field-strength of less than 1 volt per metre. Field strengths exceeding 10 volts per metre, however, very often cannot be tolerated. The range of frequencies giving the most severe effects is, again, in the VHF band. At HF a common-mode current in a cable always produces a radiated wave. The reciprocal case is also true, i.e. the arrival of a HF wave will produce a common-mode current in a cable. The methods of protection against HF fields are the same as those adopted against disturbances by conduction at the same frequencies. The antenna effect of cables carrying HF current by coupling in common mode constitutes the principal problem in EMC.

8 - Appendix EMC

3. cabling of equipment and systems

EMC
In order to cable an electronic system correctly or to correct an unsatisfactory installation, it is often sufficient to apply some simple elementary rules. From experience, the most important factor is a clear understanding of the phenomena and the recognition of their limits. The strict observance of traditional rules for correct installation and cabling has become necessary. This is the price to pay for the achievement of EMC in modern electronic systems. Many practices which are satisfactory at LF have proved to be poor or even catastrophic at HF. Certain cabling options can be chosen with confidence. The interconnection of all the non-functional earths of a single site is one example. Factors which are always favourable should become standard practice.

3.1 earthing
The expressions "earth", "earth electrode", "earth plate", "earth rod" all refer to a conductor which is buried, and in intimate contact with the soil. The word mass refers to metal parts of equipment (electrical or not for example, water pipes) which, under normal conditions, are not intended to carry current. Bonding conductors, which are used to interconnect masses are also referred to as "mass". Although all masses in normal LF installation practice are connected to earth, the two words, "earth" and the above-noted equivalents should not be confused with "mass". "Mass" is commonly called "ground" in some countries. 3.1.1 the role of earthing The basic role of an earth electrode is to maintain all masses in an installation at a voltage close to zero, whether the power source is earthed or not. This is achieved in a properly designed installation, regardless of whether a faulty condition (which would otherwise raise the voltage of the installation masses) occurs in the installation circuits or on the power-supply network, or other sources external to the installation. The role of earthing, therefore, is that of the protection of persons against the dangers of electrocution. The severity of an electric shock is a function of the current which passes through the body, and equally important is the path of the current flow through the body. Established IEC rules of protection against electric shock set safe limits of voltage (referred to as conventional voltage limits) above which masses are considered to be unacceptably dangerous. For normal 50 Hz or 60 Hz power systems, these values are 50 Vrms for dry locations and 25 Vrms for wet locations, for example bathrooms and laundries (see Chapter L of the main text for more details). It is recognized that a low contact resistance of an earth electrode with the mass of the earth cannot always be obtained. Furthermore, its value is rarely constant, depending largely on soil humidity (and so prone to seasonal changes). An essential factor in maintaining safety to personnel in the event of a high earthing resistance, is that of the equipotential concept. If, for example, all masses are at a common (even normally dangerous) potential, and the earth below the building is at a similar potential, a person can touch any or several masses at the same time without danger. This is why electrical appliances with long leads (hedge trimmers, lawn mowers, etc.), which allow the user to leave the equipotential environment of the house, must be of Class II insulation level (i.e. doubly insulated). So-called normal leakage currents (no insulation is perfect) also include the minute capacitive currents of the wiring to earth. These currents, and short-circuit-to-earth fault currents, flow mainly through the protective earthing PE conductors (coloured with yellow and green stripes) and finally back to the source substation, via the earth (TT system) or via the earth path and (mainly) through the neutral conductor in parallel (TN system). Since, in the TN case, practically all of the fault (and leakage) currents return to the source via the neutral conductor, the resistance of the installation earth electrode is not of primary importance (unless lightning arresters are to be connected to it). For the protection of electronic equipments, it is strongly recommended that common-mode currents entering the building from external cables be diverted to earth at the point of entry. A simple galvanic isolation is often insufficient: the overvoltage withstand capability of a galvanic isolation transformer is typically less that 10 kV. This value is insufficient on days of intense electrical storms. The installation of non-linear voltage-limiting devices then becomes a necessity. It is important that all incoming metallic pipes, ducts, trunking, etc., be connected to earth at their entry into the building. This policy can avoid the circulation of currents (from outside the building) in the conductors bonding the masses. The installation of overvoltage-protection devices must be carried out with the minimum possible common impedance between the external circuit and the circuit to be protected. The length of conductor in series with the voltage limiter must, consequently, be the shortest possible. The residual voltage "seen" by the protected equipment is then independent of the impedance of the earth. Even with a "bad" earth, it is possible to protect an equipment effectively against external overvoltages: it is necessary and sufficient to connect the voltage limiter to the mass of the equipment using the shortest practical length of cable.
electric-power line voltage limiter earthing conductor protected electronic equipment

yes
protected electronic equipment

no
fig. EMC-5: a voltage limiter must be connected to the mass and not to earth.
Appendix EMC - 9

3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.1 earthing (continued)
When a voltage limiter is correctly connected to the mass, the impedance of the earth electrode is immaterial. A direct lightning stroke on the supply line close to the installation requires the dissipation of (typically) 10 kA to 100 kA of stroke current, most of which passes to earth through lightning arresters on the line external to the installation. Overvoltages within an installation where external arresters are provided rarely exceed 6 kV due to atmospheric causes.
direct-stroke current lightning protection conductors internal equipments must be maintained at equipotential

fig. EMC-6: the entire equipotential "cage" will be at a high absolute potential during the brief flow of stroke current. For transmission and distribution lines at high voltage, the fault current for one phase to earth returns to the source through the earth and (where provided) through the shielding conductors above the phase conductors of the lines. The provision of an equipotential condition on the surface of the ground at the base of transmission towers and, more importantly, at substations (the source of the fault current) is a primary concern of design engineers. The principle of equipotential bonding is identical to that required for a low-voltage installation in a building. A functional earth means an earth electrode which is designed to pass load current through the earth, i.e. the earth path acts as one of the circuit conductors. There are several installations around the world that utilise this method. In some countries, d.c. is used in this (economic) way to operate a service of facsimile transmission. It may be of interest to note that when telephone cables (which use paper insulation on the conductors) have a high degree of leakage current and consequently doubtful symmetry, a low earth resistance allows the quality of the transmitted signals to be preserved. Although the magnitude of telephone signals is low (millivolts to less than 1 volt), the quality of modern cables overcomes the constraints of a "good" earth. To summarise, the protection of persons does not depend directly on a low value of earth resistance*; it is rather the establishment of a condition of equipotential between masses that is of prime importance. Thus, an aircraft in an electric storm presents no danger to the passengers, who are in a metallic envelope which is (within a few volts) perfectly equipotential. For persons or animals, the danger is not the magnitude of the absolute potential, it is the difference of potential between metal parts which can be touched simultaneously that is dangerous.

An electronic equipment is not affected by the value of earth resistance. At worst, there is a risk of exposure to overvoltages from an external cable, if its protection is insufficient, or is badly cabled. So that the role of the masses is essential, and more important than that of the earthing. The only requirement for a satisfactory performance of the electronic equipments is a high degree of equipotentiality. It is evident that two earths are always less equipotential than one. Any separate earth, even if said to be interference free is always detrimental to equipotentiality, and so to the safety of persons and to the satisfactory functioning of interconnected equipments. Two non-functional earthelectrode systems on a common site should always be interconnected. In practice, care must be taken that there is no touch-voltage existing when working on an electronic equipment interconnection between two buildings (video, access control, local network, information technology (ADP) devices...) if the earthing systems of the two buildings are not solidly interconnected. It is, as already noted, not possible to be sure of the equipotentiality of two separate earths.
* This statement is not true in certain circumstances, notably in rural areas, where a small transformer supplies an isolated community, for example. The neutral earth electrode must necessarily have the lowest possible resistance in such cases. If not, potential gradients on the surface of the ground can be dangerously high in the vicinity of the electrode during an earth fault. Animals are frequently killed due to this cause.

10 - Appendix EMC

EMC
3.2 masses
The majority of malfunctions in electromagnetic devices, sometimes wrongly imputed to software problems or human error, are found to be due to an insufficient level of equipotentiality between interconnected units (probes, cards, actuators). There are two differences between a buried conductor and a mass conductor. A buried conductor will dissipate its common mode currents, but it is always too far from the equipments to be effective at HF. A mass conductor above ground level presents two essential virtues to the good performance of electronic systems, viz: it is physically close to the circuits, and it is accessible. The equipotentiality of equipments and their masses is a functional objective. As long as interference signals circulate in the masses and not in the electronic circuits, they are harmless. On the other hand, if the masses are not all equipotential and are connected to earth in star*, for example, HF interference currents will circulate through any available path, i.e. via signal cables. Some circuits will therefore be subjected to interference and even be destroyed. Networking the mass conductors to form a closely-connected low-impedance bonding system is the only economical way to ensure a satisfactory level of equipotentiality to install all sensitive equipments in a "Faraday cage" arrangement (a room enclosed in a mesh of conductors) would be technically ideal, but is generally not economically justified. By definition, a "mass" is any conducting material which can be touched by any part of a human body, that is not normally alive, but which may become alive as the result of a fault. Two masses which are accessible and within human reach must present a potential difference, under any conceivable fault condition, that does not exceed the IECrecommended conventional voltage (UL) 3.2.1. loops of mass and between masses A loop of mass is the area included between a working cable (metering cable, control cable, power-supply cable, local-network system cable) and the mass conductor (generally the nearest PE conductor). There are, therefore, as many loops of mass as there are cables. This is inevitable, whether the conductors are galvanically isolated or not. A galvanic isolation reduces the circulation of LF currents without, however, reducing the area of the loop. A loop can oscillate strongly at HF, so that large-area loops constitute the major problem in EMC.
equipment 1 signal cable mass loop nearest mass conductor equipment 2

safety limit (of 50 Vrms in dry locations and 25 Vrms in wet conditions for ac systems). These values are the maximum allowed that can exist indefinitely in specified conditions of external influences. A dangerous touch voltage can arise during a fault if the resistance of the equipotential conductors is not sufficiently low. In some cases, it is necessary to install supplementary equipotential conductors in parallel with existing conductors to satisfy the UL criterion. It should be noted that access to two (or more) masses is illegal, even if they are associated with different installations, if they are connected to different earthing systems which are not interconnected. The respect of safety rules is obligatory but not sufficient, in themselves, to ensure satisfactory EMC of an installation. In fact, the risk of electrocution only exists by a voltage of a high value and relatively long duration appearing between adjacent masses. An electronic equipment is sensitive to an extensive range of frequencies, or to very brief impulses. An electrostatic discharge, for example, is generally of no consequence for its source, but it could be catastrophic for an electronic device. Normal earths, commonly connected in star (i.e. radial) configuration for example, guarantee the safety of persons when the relevant standards are respected, but not the satisfactory operation of an installation which includes sensitive electronic components. It is certain that more and more electronic equipments are, or will be, connected to other apparatuses and devices for the exchange of information. The best way of ensuring a successful and durable installation performance is to establish a high degree of equipotentiality throughout the entire installation.
* i.e. by one of a number of conductors radially connected to the main earth bar, the ensemble resembling a "star".

If a current circulates around a mass loop, such a current in common mode may either superimpose noise (interference) on useful signals (in differential mode, by conversion from common mode to differential mode) or disturb the electronic circuits at each extremity. The risk is equally present for radiation from a loop as for reception of interference by the loop. The output stages of electronic circuits are as sensitive to interference as the input stages, and are more difficult to filter. The areas enclosed by mass conductors must not be confused with those referred to above as "mass loops". It is preferable to allow parasitic currents to propagate in the masses rather than in the signal cables. These loops between mass conductors are called "loops between masses".
equipment 1 signal cable mass conductor loop between masse mass conductor equipment 2

fig. EMC-7: there is an inevitable mass loop per cable.

fig. EMC-8.
Appendix EMC - 11

3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
If two neighbouring masses are not connected together, the differential potential difference between them may be significant. A direct connection from one to the other will always improve the equipotential condition. At least, the masses of all equipments which exchange data between them should be interconnected by mass conductors. An even more certain way of improving the state of equipotentiality is to interconnect all equipment masses, whether they exchange data or not. "Mass loops", also called "ground loops", should never be confused with loops between masses. A mass loop is never favourable, and its area must be reduced to the minimum attainable, to reduce as far as possible the interference effects of disturbing fields. On the other hand, it is always good practice to increase the number and reduce the areas of loops between masses. 3.2.2 unity of the mass network The mass must be unique to be equipotential. There are three methods of connecting masses which preserve this unity. 1 - Earthing connections in "star": each equipment has its own earthing cable, which terminates with all other individual earthing cables on a unique earthing bar. The more this policy is developed, the more effective is the resulting state of equipotentiality, both at LF and at HF. Connecting the masses to a mesh of interconnecting mass cables is always beneficial, regardless of the nature of the equipments concerned.
equipment 1 greater immunity against radiation fields by reduction of area of the mass loop equipment 2

greater immunity from conducted interference by multiplication and reduction in area, of loops between masses.

fig. EMC-9. Earthing in "star" can create a common impedance between two interconnected equipments. It is sometimes also assumed that the "star" system of earth connections suppresses the mass loops. Between two interconnected equipments, it is evidently not the case; the area enclosed by the mass loop can, in fact, be considerable. An electromagnetic field due, for example to a lightning discharge, will induce voltage in the mass loop greater than that occurring in any other method of earthing.
equipment 1 strong d.p.d. signal cable large area equipment 2

earth cables inevitably long

authorized method, but costly and not good for EMC, particularly for interconnected equipments earth cables radiating from the main earth bar, figuratively similar to a star

electromagnetic wave

fig. EMC-10. The justification of such a philosophy is oversimple: when an equipment develops a leakage current to mass, the remaining equipments are assumed to remain at earth potential. But "earth" potential has no real meaning in practical electronics, all potentials are relative one to another, the concept of absolute zero potential (i.e. "remote earth") is abstract. It is often assumed that the "star" configuration of earthing overcomes the problem of common impedance. It is, in fact, quite the opposite! Earthing in the "star" configuration increases the common impedance (that is, forms a point of common coupling) between interconnected equipments.
high value of differential potential equipment 1 difference equipment 2 (d.p.d.) disturbance on cable I mc PE Z signal cable

fig. EMC-12. This long-established "star" earthing method is now only possible for an equipment which is, and will remain, isolated from any other. The method can be suitable only for electronic analog systems (as opposed to digital systems) with floating sensors, and the electronic circuits completely isolated from any other. Such cases are becoming increasingly rare. With the generalisation of information-data transmissions over great distances, local networks, shared peripherals and, in general, the exchange of signals between equipments, the "star" method of earthing must be abandoned. Moreover, even if the earth connection of each equipment by an individual conductor is not detrimental, it still remains a costly method that requires large amounts of copper and many hours of installation work. The only reasonable application for the "star" arrangement of earthing (in fact, connection to mass) is the connecting cable between an equipment and power-supply socket-outlet, or the nearest distribution board. Thus, in an ADP environment, it is reasonable to use the green-and-yellow PE conductor of the powersupply circuits to connect each equipment to

PE

high impedance if the conductor is long I

fig. EMC-11.
12 - Appendix EMC

EMC
the general distribution board, located in the room. From the common earth bar of the board, a single protection cable is taken to the main earth electrode for the installation. This conductor can be common to other devices, and may, with advantage, be connected to neighbouring masses.
PE conductor for other installations main distribution board earth bar main earth terminal local mass earth-electrode system sensitive equipments

3 - The shortest connection to the nearest mass. This third method of connection to the nearest mass is better than those previously described. It is based on the mesh connection of masses. The areas of mass loops are reduced to the strict minimum and the degree of equipotentiality of the masses is excellent.

fig. EMC-13: a good earthing-system arrangement. Even if a strong source of interference is installed in the same environment as sensitive equipment, a separate earthing system for the sensitive equipment is detrimental and not recommended. At the most, it is desirable to supply the two incompatible systems on separate cables from the power-supply network. In any case, mesh-connecting the masses is favourable. Such a mesh of PE conductors has the merit of avoiding involuntary loops which can become catastrophic if not successfully countered. "Star"-system earthing can be accepted only for low-frequency installations that are, and will remain, independent and isolated from any other installation. 2 - Connection to the nearest PE conductor: a unique protection (PE) conductor, associated with several equipments.

structures of adjacent masses (mass grid, conducting false floor, cable trays, ducts, troughs, etc)

fig. EMC-15. Note: concerning the safety of persons, this type of local connection is not generally a substitute for PE conductors. It is appropriate, therefore, to superimpose the methods 2 (or even 1) for the safety of persons, and n 3 for EMC. Mesh connecting the masses is even more important as the area covered by the installation increases, with long interconnecting cables, or when the equipments are divided between several storeys. The mesh connecting of masses does not reduce the favourable policy of supplying sensitive equipments by different supply cables than those used to supply strongly polluting loads. However, the use of different supply cables does not signify "star" connected masses. The lengths of protective conductors (PE) mean that, at HF, their impedance is generally too high to effectively improve the equipotential situation. For example, a PE conductor 100 metres long is incapable of passing significant currents at frequencies exceeding 100 kHz. The PE conductors and earthing conductors alone are not sufficient to ensure the EMC of an installation. Additional conductors and short inter-mass connections are also necessary. PE cables, even long, and short-circuited at one end by a mass grid, function correctly at LF for the protection of persons. No interconnection between masses and no protective conductor should ever be removed, even if they appear to have become redundant following a careful meshing (close interconnection of equipments and other masses to form a "mesh") of all adjacent masses. A PE conductor is not to be considered as an earthing conductor but as a "bonding" conductor, or "earth-bonding" conductor, the principal function of which is to ensure that UL (i.e. the maximum allowable touch voltage) is never exceeded. Furthermore, there should never be more than one earthing system per installation (i.e. per site) similarly for the mass system which must be unique, and connected to the unique earthing system. If this policy is not adopted, then EMC problems will certainly be experienced via the inevitable links between adjacent installations (entry controls, video, alarms, safety measures, etc.).
Appendix EMC - 13

a single PE conductor

fig. EMC-14. By using this cabling scheme, the mass loops have a small area and the common impedance between interconnected equipments is less than that with a "star"connected earthing scheme. This economic method is also recommended for safety reasons. It is easy to prove that the touch voltage between two masses connected to the same PE conductor remains less than the conventional (UL) value. The risk of using the same PE conductor for earthing two systems, one "noisy" and the other sensitive, is not negligible. Although the low impedance of the PE conductors and the good level of immunity to LF interference in common mode together limit the risks, the HF currents generated by strongly polluting sources (power converters in particular) cannot be dissipated efficiently by a single PE conductor. In such cases, it is necessary to install additional (supplementary) PE conductors in the form of a meshed network.

3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
In practice, any conductor can be included usefully in the equipotential network of the masses: metallic tubes, pipes, drains, cabletrays and ladders, structural members (girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc.). Such a mesh of interconnected metal improves considerably the EMC of systems, as well as favouring the measures for safety of persons. The nature of the conductors has little importance in equipotentiality. A steel conductor at HF has approximately the same inductance as a copper conductor of equivalent cross-sectional-area and length. These connections to any and all masses in buildings are authorized and desirable. It is simpler, and ensures the best results, to interconnect all masses of every kind routinely, rather than to limit the interconnections to the masses of the equipments and devices, of the electrical and electronic systems only. In this way a "mesh of masses" or a "mass grid" (both terms are used) is formed. It is rarely useful to install an electrical conductor; it is sufficient to simply interconnect, at as many points as possible, all metallic pipes, tubes, ducts, structural girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc. It is recommended to connect every large rack, frame, or structure, to the mass grid at intervals of approximately 1 metre. In conclusion, an effective equipotential condition of all masses favours the satisfactory performance of any electronic system, especially for rapid or highly-polluting digital systems. Whether it be for the improvement in immunity from electromagnetic interference, or for the reduction of radiation from the equipments of the installation, the mesh connection of masses affords a simple, relatively inexpensive and efficient solution for frequencies up to several tens of megahertz. If the public power-supply system benefits from 3-phase star-connected operation, it is because the supplies are (and must remain) galvanically isolated each one from the others. It should be understood that factors which are favourable for phase conductors, are not necessarily so for the masses. A HF current cannot flow easily through a phase conductor: it is only possible at low frequencies. To divide the inevitable HF common-mode currents through the multiple paths of numerous conductors of a mass grid is a guarantee of protection for the signal cables. Experience shows that when a system functions correctly in the absence of HF interference, regardless of the cabling philosophy of its masses, the routine meshing of masses has no adverse effect on the correct operation of the system; on the contrary, it often decisively improves the system performance. Except for the installation of a (very costly) "Faraday cage" type of enclosure, the mesh connecting of masses is the only practical way to guarantee a sufficient level of equipotentiality to counter effectively all types of electromagnetic interference. The notion of equipotentiality is more and more localised as the frequency increases. The equipotential condition is only obtained at HF by the free circulation of the commonmode currents in all directions, i.e. by dispersion. Thus, in an industrial environment, it is recommended to connect routinely all conducting structures to neighbouring conducting parts of the building by the shortest possible "bonding" conductors and, where appropriate (e.g. in multi-storey buildings) in three dimensions. This is the most economic way to improve the equipotentiality of an installation at all frequencies, despite some inevitable currents in the masses. Only desk-top equipments in an office environment and not connected to a network have no need be connected to a mass grid. They must, on the other hand, be very carefully screened.

14 - Appendix EMC

EMC
3.3 attenuation effects
The attenuating effect of a conducting structure (mass) is defined by the amplitude of the common-mode interference appearing on a cable installed at a location remote from any masses, with respect to the amplitude of the interference on the same cable due to the same disturbance, but with the cable installed in close proximity (i.e. clamped firmly) to mass, throughout its length. lower strength than that of the original field. A cable in close proximity to conductive mass from end to end is therefore less exposed to the most severe type of interference, viz: that of common mode. Attenuation effects can be made more effective by arranging the mass, where possible, to envelop the conductors to be protected. In this way, a woven metallic screen, incorporated in signal cables and connected to mass, protects the envelopped conductors above a frequency of 1 MHz with an attenuation factor of at least 300. It is difficult and expensive to shield all the interconnections in a installation, but it is often easy to select cable routes which provide good attenuation. To benefit from the attenuation effect, it is sufficient to fix cables on conductive mass throughout the entire cable length. Such masses must be carefully bonded together electrically and to all nearby structural framework. The quality (i.e. the low impedance) of interconnecting bonds is of primary importance. The most efficient is a direct contact of sheet metal on sheet metal.
dB attenuation effect of a perforated steel sheet metal, type "dalle marine" direct contact, sheet metal on sheet metal
40

victim cable 10 V I mass conductor

victim cable I 2V

fig. EMC-16: example of attenuating effect (in this case equal to 5). The attenuating effect is one of the key factors in EMC, being effective and not too costly. In order to exchange signals in good conditions, i.e. in limiting the interference picked up by the signal cables, it is important to reduce common-mode coupling. Any metallic structure, close to, i.e. in contact with, and longitudinally parallel to a signal cable, from one end to the other, can provide two favourable effects: 1 - A more effective meshing of the masses. For d.c. currents, the mesh does not act as an attenuator; its role is to reduce the resistance between masses, not to provide a shielding effect. The galvanic effect of the mesh is independent of the proximity of the signal cables with the mass. 2 - An attenuation (shielding) effect. The effect of proximity adds to that mentioned in above, if the word "impedance" replaces "resistance". It is achieved by connecting equipments, which are interconnected to the mass of conducting structures which are close to the signal cables. The benefit is an efficient shielding which is practically costfree. The attenuation effect being directly attributed to mutual induction, there is no attenuation of d.c. interference, as noted in 1. It should be borne in mind that any cable is potentially an excellent wide-band antenna, especially in the metric range. In order to reduce its radiation ability, a simple, efficient and inexpensive method consists in placing the cable as close as possible to a mass structure throughout its length, i.e. close to a mass cable, metal ducting, structural girder, etc. The attenuation effect produced by a mass conductor close to a signal cable is simply explained, as follows. On the occurrence of an electromagnetic-wave disturbance, a current is induced in the mass conductor. This current generates, according to Lenzs law, a magnetic field which acts in the opposite sense to the field that produced the current. A signal cable close to the mass conductor will therefore be affected by the difference only of the original field and the reactive field of the mass-conductor current. The resulting field affecting the signal cable is known as the residual field and is evidently of

(same connection at 2 extremities)

20 10

metal flexible-connection tresses cable frequency (MHz)

1 3 10 30 100

0,1

0,3

fig. EMC-17. Electrical continuity from one end to the other, and the correct connection to mass at extremities, guarantee an effective attenuation factor. It is recommended to connect cable ways to conductive building structures at intervals along the cable route. The attenuation factor is not reduced by these additional contacts between masses, but the mass mesh is improved. In a single cable tray, in order to limit "cross-talk", power cables or, for example, cables of speed controllers should not be placed beside smallsignal cables. The ideal, in an industrial environment, would be to install three separate cable trays, i.e. one for measurements and similar functions, one for control and indication circuits, and one for power cables. A copper conductor provides an attenuation factor of the order 5 if it is installed throughout the entire length close to the protected signal cable. It is therefore an advantage to associate signal cables with interconnecting earthing cables in a common cable way (for instance, between two buildings). This is still true even if the earths are interconnected elsewhere. It is always possible to add a mass cable adjacent to a particularly sensitive signal cable if necessary. The mass cable is then referred to as a "cable of accompaniment". A buried cable which is passing an a.c. current in common mode creates a magnetic field in the surrounding soil. This (concentric) field gives rise to (Foucault) currents in the earth and the magnetic energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The common-mode
Appendix EMC - 15

3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.3 attenuation effects (continued)
currents are damped by this effect, which is not exactly the same as that of the attenuation described above, but is rather analogous to the action of a transformer with a resistive load. This damping action is particularly effective where the interference is due to repetitive trains of transient damped oscillations (i.e. "bursts"). The Foucault currents in the soil increase the degree of damping.

3.4. installation and cabling rules

To resolve the majority of EMC problems, it is sufficient to respect (rigorously) a few elementary cabling rules. The first requirement is to decide to which group each cable belongs. The following classes of cable groups cover most practical installations. Group n 1 - Measuring circuits (low-level analog signals) and supplies to analog probes. This group is sensitive. Group n 2 - Digital circuits. This group is also sensitive (especially to impulses and bursts). It can also interfere with the circuits of Group n 1. Group n 3 - Control and indication circuits, including all-or-nothing (AON) relays. This group will interfere with Groups n 1 and n 2. Group n 4 - Power-supply cables. These are power cables from the public distribution network, or from a private generating source (emergency power supply for example). Currents at this level are switched and chopped (by various power-electronics equipments, rectifiers, inverters, and so on...). In normal operation these functions generate HF current and voltage components, in and on the supply conductors. Such currents and voltages constitute a highly-polluted environment for Groups n 1, n 2 and n 3. It is recommended that the cables and wires of each Group have a distinctive and different colour to the other Groups. Rule n 1 - The "go" and "return" conductors of any circuit must always be placed as closely together as possible. This general rule applies also to powersupply cables. Do not supply in "star" (i.e. radially) two circuits that are not isolated, which exchange signals. It is necessary, even for the signals of AON relays with one common conductor, to "accompany" the active conductors with at least one common conductor per cable or per multi-core cable. For analog or digital signals, the use of two-core cables (or paired conductors) is the basic minimum precaution. allowed to move unduly in an equipment. Rule n 3 - It is recommended to use screened cables for noisy and for sensitive circuits. Screening is an effective protection against HF noise, provided that it is connected to mass at least at each end of the cable. It is quite possible to juxtapose two cables of different groups, provided that at least one (but preferably both) cable(s) is (are) screened and connected by a flexible woven metallic tress to mass at each extremity. Screened cables properly installed are immune to "cross-talk". Rule n 4 - Only conductors of the same Group can be routed together in a cable, or in the same bundle. For flat ribbon-type multi-core cables, the conductors carrying analog signals should separated from those carrying digital data by at least two conductors mass-connected to the reference voltage of each card. For digital conductors, connecting one wire out of two, of a flat ribbon-type cable, to the zero voltage at each end, reduces the HF cross-talk between lines by a factor of 5-10. Moreover, it is detrimental to use one multi-core connecting cable link for different Groups. In practice, spacing the cables by approximately 30 cm is generally sufficient, even in an isolated environment, to reduce the cross-talk to an acceptable level. Crossing two cables from different Groups provides the lowest possible mutual coupling if the two cables cross at 90. This practice should therefore be carried out routinely. Rule n 5 - Any free (i.e. unused) conductors of Groups n 2 or n 4 should always be connected to the mass of the chassis at both ends. By this means, the attenuation effect can often reach a factor exceeding 2. These connections to mass must be easily removed to free any cores which may be needed at a later date. For Group n 1 (at very low voltage and frequency) such a connection could be a disadvantage and is not recommended. Noise at the industrial frequency could cause unacceptable interference. Rule n 6 - The cables of Group n 4 need not be screened if they are filtered. It is generally necessary to filter power-supply cables at the point of entry of an equipment. On the other hand, it is difficult to filter power cables supplying speed-change controllers, especially when the peak current is high. It then becomes necessary to screen the cables by flexible metallic tresses or by a continuous metal tube connected to the mass at each end. The opposite case is also true: a cable which is well screened does not need filtering. In a common plinth, a screened signal cable has practically no problems of interference from neighbouring power-supply cables.

printed circuit

no

printed circuit

yes

_U+

_U+

fig. EMC-18. Rule n 2 - All internal-circuit interconnecting conductors, cables, etc. should be fixed in close contact with equipotential structures constituting the electrical mass. This measure ensures the benefit of interference attenuation previously described, at practically no cost. Ensure that unused wires, or cables or free cores are not
16 - Appendix EMC

EMC
Rule n 7 - Noisy equipments should be supplied by separate power cables. This rule will minimize the supply-system noise in differential mode. The rule should not be confused with the practice of radial connections of the masses previously discussed. The neutral conductor should not be connected to the mass, except at a single point. This is the fundamental difference between a neutral conductor and a PE (Protective Earth) conductor*.
* The TN-C scheme for power installations uses one conductor only for both PE and neutral functions. For obvious reasons, the TN-C scheme is never used where EMC is important.

that the masses (chassis) of the equipments are all maintained at the same potential: radial network for power supplies, meshconnected network for masses. The connection of the main earth bar at the main distribution board of an installation (see below) to the mass grid should preferably have an inductance of less than 1 microHenry (the lower the better). A single conductor of 50 cm or two parallel conductors (not too close) of 1 m each, etc.
main distribution board

L1 L2 L3 N

transformer

PE conductor transformer main earth bar

mass grid (equipotential mesh) noisy sensitive plant equipment to be avoided ! better ! excellent ! earth electrode

fig. EMC-20. Power supply and connections to masses of an electrical equipment For supplies to an installation, it is an advantage to locate the transformer as closely as possible to the items of load, while taking account of the effect of static magnetic-induction fields.

fig. EMC-19. Since the equipments receive their power supplies individually and are isolated one from the other, supplying different equipments by separate power lines is a prudent precaution. In any case, it is advantageous

3.5 EMC components and solutions

The EMC of systems requires the use of specific components. The following is an analysis of the conditions of use and the performance of such specific components, viz: electromagnetic screens, filters, overvoltage limiters, and screened cables. 3.5.1 electromagnetic screens An electromagnetic screen serves to isolate two regions of space: one requiring to be shielded from sources of electromagnetic radiations originating in the other. Electromagnetic shielding is always composed of a conducting envelope, which is generally metallic. At low frequencies, the fields E and H are rarely coupled. Shielding against the field E is always effective, even a conductive ink is sufficient. A field H however is very difficult to shield against at LF. It requires the use of materials of very high magnetic permeability (soft iron, mumetal) and/or low-resistant metals (copper or aluminium). In any case, magnetic screens have to be thick to be effective. For d.c. systems, protection can be afforded only by using magnetic materials. The screen must be placed as close to the item to be protected as possible, and the thickness of the screen must be augmented, the greater its volume. It is for shielding against HF disturbances that screens are most widely used. All microcomputers, and from now on all video games, are fitted with EMC shielding. The role of the screen is to limit the radiation from the digital circuits to the antennae of the radio receivers in the neighbourhood. A screen being a passive linear bilateral device, its action is perfectly reciprocal: its efficiency at a given frequency is identical whether protecting its inner space from external radiations or vice-versa. The primary action of an EM screen is that of a mirror by reflecting EM energy back towards its source. It is then, the reflection phenomenon. The part of the EM energy not reflected (no reflector is perfect) is propagated in the screening material, where it is dissipated as heat : this phenomenon is called absorption. If one, or other (or both) of these two features is (are) good, then the screen is fulfilling its purpose. A HF screen must be an efficient conductor (low resistance) but must, above all, present negligible leakage. Leakage used in this context refers to the penetration through the screen of radiated EM energy. A leak can be thought of as a small crack in the screen. The higher the frequency of the radiation, the shorter the wave-length, and the smaller the size of cracks which can be tolerated. Contrary to a widely-held belief, the nature of the materials used for shielding is of little importance at HF. The only feature which must be of the highest quality concerns the low resistance and electrical contacts: great care must be taken to avoid oxydation or other types of corrosion. For this reason, contacts are normally either tin- or nickelAppendix EMC - 17

3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.5 EMC components and solutions (continued)
plated. An electromagnetic shield need not necessarily be earthed to be effective. For a magnetic field simply its presence is sufficient. For electric fields, it is enough that the screen acts as potential reference for the input and output circuits. It may be concluded that a shield prevents the fields from penetrating the protected space, but also, and especially, prevents parasitic currents from entering. Thus, shields and filters are not rivals, but are complementary, one with the other. If a screen is of excellent quality, with no leakage, it is possible to install input and 3.5.2 EMC filters An EMC filter is a protection against interference by conduction and is generally made up of a combination of capacitors and inductors. Its role is to allow the passage of energy or signals within the band of useful frequencies and to reject parasitic frequencies. Filters in the power-supply circuits are all lowpass filters which allow power-frequency currents to flow, but which suppress currents of higher frequencies. For an interconnecting coaxial cable, a high-pass filter is antiparasitic: it allows the HF signal to pass, but rejects any LF interference current. The cable can then be connected to mass at both ends without any difficulty. A filter at the input to a radio receiver is a band-pass filter which rejects signals outside the band of frequencies required (as well as any interferences). Finally, a harmonic filter is a notch filter, which is tuned to act as a shortcircuit (generally phase/phase) at a harmonic frequency, usually two or more filters for the first several odd-numbered harmonics above the fundamental frequency, since these invariably have the greatest magnitude. An EMC filter being a linear circuit as long as the inductors remain unsaturated) and passive, is also bilateral. It is equally effective at a given frequency from the interior to the exterior, as in the opposite sense. A filter functions firstly by reflection, i.e. by sending the energy back towards the source, due to a mismatch of the filter/line impedances, then by absorption, i.e. loss of energy in the form of heat, as it passes through the filter. Since inductors are low-loss components at LF, the L-C filters function principally by reflection. The effectiveness of a filter also depends on the upstream and downstream impedances. If these impedances vary, the efficiency of the filter referred to as "insertion losses", will vary. Remark: if a filter can mismatch a line, there is the possibility that it may also match a line. This is a phenemenon which may be observed on LF power-supply line filters: a resonance (even partial) of the filter results in a deterioration, at LF, of the level transmitted, compared to that when no filter is present. It should be verified that the resonant frequency of the filter is not likely to be a problem (it should be below that of the current-chopping frequency, for example). Filters in power-supply circuits usually use inductors in common mode, also called "current-compensation coils" or "compensated inductors". output connectors at any convenient point. If, on the contrary, a screen performs badly, with excessive leakage (display, keyboard, printed-circuit board or disk reader) then, it is an advantage to group all the input and output connectors on a common chassis, remote from the leakage, the role of this chassis being that of a reference-potential point. It may be noted that all modern microcomputers have their cables grouped at the rear face, remote from the disk units which are mounted on the front face.

Such filters evidently present different degrees of effectiveness in common mode than in differential mode. If the inductor of a filter is saturated by the current flowing through it, the effectiveness of the filter is greatly impaired. In order to respect the EMC standards, a filter is practically obligatory in power-supply circuits. Where no filter has been installed, it is often necessary to select one having an efficacity in the order of 30 dB in common mode at 100 MHz. A power-supply filter must, in order to perform efficiently at HF, be installed according to three rules: 1 - Screw the filter sheet-metal to sheet-metal in order to limit its impedance to the mass. 2 - Arrange the supply cable to enter the filter at the opposite face to that of the output circuit, in order to limit common-mode upstream/downstream coupling. 3 - Fix the cables firmly (i.e. clamped) against the sheet-metal of the unit to limit radiation from the upstream conductors affecting the downstream circuit. Preferred practice is to install all filters of an equipment on the same metal base which serves as the potential reference. The notion of equipotentiality at HF is local: each equipment has to provide, by means of its conducting envelope, its own potential reference to the input and output filters and to shielded connection cables. The signal filters are often R-C combinations. A simple resistor of the order of 1 k in series with a sensitive line can suffice to reinforce its immunity. Small inductors in common mode can also be used, with 2, 4, or more, wires wound "two wires in hand". It is interesting to note that these components reduce common-mode interference, without affecting the useful signals transmitted in differential mode.

18 - Appendix EMC

EMC
3.5.3 overvoltage protection The role of an overvoltage limiter, sometimes referred to as "surge diverter" or "lightning arrester" (depending on its intended location) is to reduce the risk of destruction to components or entire equipments by interferences which may occur at excessive voltage levels. An overvoltage limiter is generally a nonlinear unilateral device: it limits the peak value of voltage at a level which is much lower than that of the incoming surge. This reduced level being, in principle, lower than the rated impulse withstand capability of all downstream plant and equipment. The limiting of the voltage peak, however, does not reduce the HF radiation field strength. Conversely, a low-pass filter does not limit the voltage peak, the duration of which, at half-peak level, considerably exceeds the response time of the filter. Thus, an efficient filter which suppresses frequencies above 10 kHz would have a risetime of about 35 s. This filter cannot limit an overvoltage due to lightning, the tail-time of which to half-peak is standardized at 50 s. The first voltage limiters used in telephone systems were gas-filled discharge devices. A gas-filled glass envelope contains two electrodes separated one from the other by a calibrated space. An overvoltage ionizes the gas which allows a discharge to occur between the electrodes, thereby reducing the potential and allowing the gas to de-ionize. Such a component is robust and has only a small parasitic effect. Its occasional failure, often by short-circuiting of the electrodes (i.e. following an overvoltage discharge, the ionized gas sometimes provokes a short-circuit at normal working voltage) means that its reliability cannot be guaranteed. In order to protect a public service supply line, the low arc-voltage, several tens of volts, requires the installation of a varistance in series, to extinguish the arc when the surge has been dissipated. Analogous components exist at high voltage ("horned spark-gaps" for example). At low voltage, "silicon spark-gaps" such as "Trisil" of Thomson (a triac controlled by a Zener diode in the trigger circuit) are well adapted to the protection of telecommunication lines and circuits. The highly non-linear metal-oxide varistance components are well adapted to the protection of supply-circuits. A disk of zincoxide becomes conductive when the voltage applied to its two faces exceeds a "knee-point" value. That voltage, proportional to the thickness of the disk, varies from some tens of volts to several kilovolts. The energy that a component can tolerate depends on the volume of the disk: from tens of Joules to some tens of thousand Joules. The main drawback of varistances is their degradation during periods of conduction. Zener diodes of very low dynamic resistance have a precise knee-point voltage and a short response time. Their low energy handling capacity, of a fraction of a Joule to several Joules, limits the use of these components to the protection of signal circuits. Failure of such a diode always occurs as a short-circuit, a condition that guarantees "fail-safe" protection for the circuits. In all cases, an overvoltage device in common mode should be connected directly at the mass of the item to be protected, and not, as is still often the case, by a long cable connected radially from a distant earth bar. The response time of an overvoltage limiting device depends on the length of its connections.

Appendix EMC - 19

4. local network problems

EMC
Local networks present at least one particular problem: the numerous equipments are spread out, relatively distant one from another, and are installed for user convenience rather than for EMC coordination considerations, are often supplied from different lines, and interconnected by conventional wiring practices.
I/t = 100 kA/s H t 400 m protected electronic equipment signal cable protected electronic equipment aera 300 m2

insulation stressed by 15 kV

I signal cable control unit peripheral

fig. EMC-22: lightning produces interference more often by induction than by a direct-stroke current. The current induced in a mass loop by the magnetic field of a lightning stroke has the same form as that of the stroke current; it can exceed 100 A in the case of a large loop. The best solution for limiting the risks of destruction is to bring together, for example in a common tray, the signal cables and the power-supply cables. A shielded cable, with its screen properly connected to mass at each end is free from cross-talk interference. The presence of a mass cable in intimate (e.g. clamped) contact with a cable (signal or power-supply) reduces typically by a factor of 3 or 4 the interference caused by lightning, provided that the mass cable is connected to mass (at least) at each end. A bolted metal cable duct throughout the entire route of a cable has an attenuation factor of the order 30. The woven metal screen of a shielded cable, with short, direct connections to mass at both ends, reduces the induced voltage by a factor of about 100. Local networks processing large amounts of data require that the characteristic impedance of interconnecting signal cables be matched to the input/output impedances of the interconnected equipments, in order to avoid losses by reflections due to mismatched impedances. If one of the two matching units of a long line is disconnected, transmission becomes impossible. A frequent problem on local networks, apart from software parameters, is the loss of availability caused by electromagnetic interference. The software "filters" errors, but the useful output is sometimes severely reduced. The user only notices these problems in the rare cases of permanent interference. The simple observance of the serveral EMC installation rules cited in the foregoing text is sufficient to resolve these problems.

field H

supply cable

supply cable

fig. EMC-21: interconnection of equipment forms loops with earthed conductors. Such an installation invariably creates a number of mass loops of very large area. The interconnection of equipments creates large mass loops. One of the most serious dangers for local networks is the magnetic field in the areas of the mass loops, created by the current from a lightning stroke. It may be noted that a surge induced in the interior of a building, on average once a year, gives rise to an overvoltage which can attain, or exceed, 100 volts per square metre of loop area. The meshing of masses should be carried out in the three dimensions (laterally and vertically), especially in multistorey buildings with network equipments on several floors. Two adjacent floors must be meshed together by all conducting metal work which passes through the intervening floor. The multiplication of these conductors affords the following advantages: 1 - Improvement of the "vertical equipotentiality" of the building by effectively reducing the value of loop inductances, and connecting them in parallel. 2 - Improvement of the "horizontal equipotentiality" of the building and the symmetrical flow of surge current directly to earth. 3 - Reduction of induction from the magnetic field in the interior of the building. At a point midway between two parallel conductors passing equal currents in the same direction, the magnetic field strength H is zero. Experience has shown that if the masses are ineffectively meshed, and interconnecting cables are without attenuation effects, some printed-circuit boards can be expected to be destroyed by the induction of even a distant lightning stroke. On the other hand, if the masses are reasonably well interconnected, with conducting cable trays screwed firmly to the equipment metal frames, a lightning stroke (even direct) produces minor interference, and causes no destruction of electronic circuits. In a badly-meshed environment, only equipments completely disconnected or well shielded are out of danger from lightning.

20 - Appendix EMC

list of "cahiers techniques"

EMC
N CT 114 141 144 145 147 148 149 150 152 154 155 156 158 159 160 161 162 163 166 167 172 173 179 Residual current devices Les perturbations lectriques en BT Introduction to dependability design Etude thermique des tableaux lectriques BT Initiation aux rseaux de communication numrique High availability electrical power distribution EMC: Electromagnetic Compatibility Development of LV circuit breakers to standard IEC 947-2 Harmonics in industrial networks LV circuit breaker breaking techniques MV public distribution networks throughout the world Sret de fonctionnement et tableaux lectriques BT Calculation of short-circuit currents Inverters and harmonics (case studies of non-linear loads) Harmonics upstream of rectifiers in UPS Automatic transfering of power supplies in HV and LV networks Les efforts lectrodynamiques sur les jeux de barres en BT LV breaking by current limitation Enclosures and degrees of protection Energy-based discrimination for low-voltage protective devices Earthing systems in LV Earthing systems wolrdwide and evolutions Surtensions et parafoudres en BT, Coordination de l'isolement en BT English X X French X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Spanish X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

Appendix EMC - 21