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Proactive Personality and Job Performance: Exploring Job Autonomy as a Moderator

Assistant Professor of Management Louisiana Tech University

Jerry Bryan Fuller, Jr.

Professor of Management Arkansas State University

Kim Hester

Assistant Professor of Management McNeese State University As organizations attempt to cope with more dynamic competitive environments, there has been a growing interest in workers who are not only cooperative, but who are self-starting and proactive in helping their organizations function more effectively (Chan, 2000; Crant, 2000). Indeed, the competitive advantage and success of organizations is thought to be increasingly dependent upon personal initiative and proactive behavior (Crant, 2000; Fuller et al., 2007; Seiling, 2001). As a result, more and more organizations are beginning to hold employees accountable for behavior that contributes to constructive improvement in the workplace (Seiling, 2001). Griffin et al. (2007) note that work performance is no longer considered as simply completing required tasks proficiently and broader meanings of work performance are being examined. Consequently, a growing stream of research has focused upon gaining a greater understanding of people with proactive personalities. According to Rank, Pace, and Frese (2004), the trait components of personal initiative are captured by the proactive personality construct (Bateman and Crant, 1993). A person who has a proactive personality is one who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who effects environmental change (Bateman and Crant, 1993: 105). People with proactive personalities seek out opportunities to improve things, take action, and tend to persevere until they bring about
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meaningful change (Seibert et al., 1999: 417). People who are less proactive do not show personal initiative and do not identify or act upon opportunities to produce constructive change. Accordingly, people with proactive personalities tend to engage in constructive, change-oriented behavior and create situations that facilitate high job performance (Crant, 1995). Empirical investigations of the criterion validity of the proactive personality scale indicate that proactive personality is positively related to proactive behavior (e.g., Kammeyer-Mueller and Wanberg, 2003; Seibert et al., 2001; Thompson, 2005) and job performance (e.g., Crant, 1995; Pitt et al., 2002; Thompson, 2005). From a practical and theoretical perspective, the proactive personality construct is appealing and unique, in part, because it is what Locke and Latham (2004) call a strong personality trait. According to Locke and Latham, strong personalities are traits that should be less constrained by situations than weak ones (2004: 395). However, no research has examined the extent to which situational forces, such as job autonomy, might enhance or attenuate the positive relationship between proactive personality and job performance. This is unfortunate because in Bateman and Crants (1993) original article, there was a call for research to assess the extent to which situational strength influences manifestations of a proactive personality. Consequently, there has yet to be a complete critical evaluation of the proactive personality construct, and prior findings indicating a positive relationship with proactive behavior and performance should be considered incomplete (Thompson, 2005: 1016). Because part of the appeal of a trait-based measure of personal initiative is that it captures a tendency to persevere in enacting environmental change even when faced with substantial obstacles, an examination of the extent to which situational constraints suppress or reduce the performance of people with proactive personalities appears to be long overdue. Although Chan (2006) finds that the relationship between proactive personality and job performance was influenced by the individuals situational judgment effectiveness, this study differs from Chans research in that it assesses a characteristic of the work environment as a moderator rather than a characteristic of the individual as a moderator. In short, the purpose of this study is to provide the first critical test of the strong personality aspect of the proactive personality construct by assessing the extent to which one situational constraint, job autonomy, influences the relationship between proactive personality and job performance. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES The proactive personality construct is grounded in the social interactionist perspective (Bandura, 1977; Jones, 1983), which holds that people are not only influenced by their environment, but also are capable of creating or enacting their environment (Bateman and Crant, 1993). The essence of the proactive personality construct is that people differ in their need to manipulate and control their surrounding environment, which results in differences in their proclivity
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to initiate change-oriented actions (Bateman and Crant, 1993). People with proactive personalities are purported to identify and act upon opportunities, show personal initiative, and persist in their pursuit of constructive change (Crant, 1995). Non-proactive, or passive, people do not actively scan the environment for opportunities to change their surrounding environment nor do they take action when the opportunity arises--they are more likely to adapt to environmental change rather than enact it. Thus, proactive personality is thought to be a stable trait characterized by a tendency to take personal initiative in a broad range of activities and situations (Seibert et al., 2001: 847). According to Crant (1995), people with highly proactive personalities are likely to perform better than more passive individuals because they engage in behaviors that make important contributions to work-related tasks. For example, proactive people are purported to be persistent, which has been found to be related to job performance (e.g., Barrick and Mount, 1991). Crant further states that more proactive people can be expected to create situations and environments conducive to effective performance (1995: 532533). In discussing his finding that proactive personality is positively related to objective job performance, Crant (1995) suggests that future research is needed to more broadly assess criterion validity by studying both objective as well as subjective measures of job performance. Subsequent research examining the relationship between proactive personality and job performance has utilized subjective performance ratings. Utilizing survey questionnaires, Pitt et al. (2002) and Thompson (2005) use supervisors to evaluate their subordinates job performance. Both Pitt et al. (2002) and Thompson (2005) report a positive relationship between proactive personality and job performance. Therefore, research indicates that proactive personality predicts both objective and subjective job performance. These findings are important because meta-analytic research indicates that objective and subjective ratings of performance should not be viewed as interchangeable (Bommer et al., 1995). Therefore, research may benefit from examining performance measures that have elements of both subjectivity and objectivity. Multiple dimensional performance appraisal tools may offer such a benefit. However, researchers have yet to relate proactive personality to perhaps the most common and important measure of job performance--the employees formal performance evaluation. Research relating personality characteristics with job performance rarely utilizes results of the performance appraisal instrument used by the job incumbents organization (c.f. Taylor et al., 2004). This is unfortunate for several reasons. First, the outcome of the organizations performance appraisal process is likely to be the most important measure of job performance from the employees perspective. Performance appraisals are often the instrument used by not only management, but also the employee to gauge his/her performance. Employees understand that the rating received on the company performance appraisal affects their job security, opportunities
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for promotion, salary, and bonuses. Second, efforts to validate a personality variable as a selection tool are likely to be based upon the organizations performance appraisal data rather than on subjective supervisor performance ratings obtained by survey or an objective performance rating. Performance as assessed by the firm is much more likely to withstand legal scrutiny than other measures of performance. Third, performance appraisal instruments used by organizations often require supervisors to assess subordinates on dimensions of performance beyond that assessed by objective measures of performance (Duarte et al., 1994). For example, a salespersons performance appraisal may not only include the number of new accounts they acquired or units they sold in a certain period, but also the extent to which they serviced old accounts, helped new hires and other sales people, and assisted with non-sales-related duties. Consequently, it seems that performance as evaluated by a firms formal appraisal process is likely to be a more salient criterion measure than either solely objective measures or survey-based subjective measures of job performance. For this reason, the organizations formal performance evaluation was used to assess job performance in the present study. Hypothesis 1. Proactive personality has a positive relationship to job performance. Although we expect to replicate prior findings indicating a positive relationship between proactive personality and performance, this relationship may vary according to the degree of strength of the job environment. According to the situational strength hypothesis (Mischel, 1977), individual differences determine behavior more strongly in situations that are unstructured than in situations that are structured. Unstructured situations are considered weak because they do not provide clear expectations about appropriate behavior or provide incentives to perform desired behaviors (Mischel, 1977). On the other hand, structured or strong situations are likely to reduce the influence of individual differences on behavior because they constrain behavioral choice by creating invariant expectations of appropriate behavior or by providing strong incentives to perform only specified behavior. Research generally supports the view that the relationship between personality variables and outcomes such as behavior and job performance is strongest in weak psychological situations (e.g., Barrick and Mount, 1993; Lee et al., 1990). In organizational settings, job autonomy is often used to assess situational strength (Barrick and Mount, 1993; Lee et al., 1990; Peters et al., 1982). Hackman and Oldham (1975) define job autonomy as the degree of freedom one has to schedule and determine the method of how his/her work is to be accomplished. In situations where individuals have a high degree of job autonomy (i.e., a weak situation), behavior is more likely to be related to individual personality differences because there is discretion in the choice of behaviors used to accomplish assigned tasks or achieve specified goals. In jobs with low levels
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of autonomy (i.e., a strong situation), an individuals actions are likely to be constrained by a variety of factors including close supervision, machine-driven pacing, and detailed work rules. Therefore, in conditions of low job autonomy, personality is likely to play little or no role in the behavior of individuals because they have no discretion with regard to performance-related activities. Although Mischel (1977) specifically refers to behavior as the criterion variable in his situational strength argument, little research has been conducted examining the extent to which job autonomy moderates the relationship between personality and behavior. However, research has shown that job performance is a function of the interaction between job autonomy and a variety of individual difference variables including: Type A personality characteristics (Lee et al., 1990); conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness (Barrick and Mount, 1993); growth-need strength (Hackman and Lawler, 1971); and need for achievement (Steers and Spencer, 1977). While level of job autonomy is unlikely to affect the proactive behavior and job performance of passive individuals, it may have a significant effect upon people with proactive personalities. Individuals with proactive personalities may be less proactive when they experience low levels of job autonomy because some forms of proactive or performance- enhancing behavior may be either very difficult or even impossible to perform when freedom of behavior is severely curtailed (e.g., network building, information-seeking, altering or experimenting with processes and procedures). Further, explicit consequences for deviation from unambiguous behavioral demands may also deter proactive behavior in low job autonomy conditions. Alternatively, high levels of job autonomy have ambiguous expectations with regard to how and when tasks are performed as well as little in the way of negative consequences for deviating from traditional task behavior, thus providing people with a proactive personality the opportunity to try new ways of accomplishing their work assignments. This is consistent with recent theoretical models of work design which predict that job performance is likely to be a function of the interaction between proactive personality and work design characteristics such as job autonomy (Parker et al., 2006). To the extent this is true, the predictive validity of proactive personality may be substantially reduced in conditions of low job autonomy and substantially enhanced in conditions of high job autonomy. It may also be that high job autonomy is relevant to proactive personality in the sense that situations with high job autonomy offer cues for expressing proactive personality. Trait activation theory suggests that personality traits are expressed as responses to trait relevant situational cues (Tett and Burnett, 2003: 502). Situations with high job autonomy are likely to present cues that suggest it is acceptable or even desirable to alter the way work is performed (e.g., lack of supervision, limited task structure, no external pacing signals, co-worker communication). People with proactive personalities are likely to respond to these cues by experimenting with novel ways of performing tasks and implementing changes that enhance performance. People with passive
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personalities are likely to ignore cues suggesting work tasks may be performed in a variety of ways. In a situation with a low level of job autonomy, few cues are likely to be present signaling that personal initiative is acceptable or desired. Therefore, from a trait activation perspective, high job autonomy activates people with proactive personalities, while low job autonomy is likely to have low trait activation potential. Thus, trait activation may also be a factor that contributes to the relationship between proactive personality and job performance being moderated by job autonomy. Hypothesis 2. The relationship between proactive personality and job performance is moderated by job autonomy, such that the positive relationship is strongest when job autonomy is highest. METHODS Data and Sample Data were collected at a small utility company in the southern United States with 120 employees. Employees were informed that participation in the survey was voluntary and confidential. Employees were also informed that top management supported the research and was providing time during regular work hours for employees to complete the survey. The first survey collected data on control variables, proactive personality, and perceived job autonomy. The company conducted performance appraisals for all employees at the same timeduring the time period between the initial data collection and the collection of data from the supervisors. These performance appraisal data were drawn from company records immediately prior to the collection of the supervisor data. A total of 115 sets of matching subordinate-supervisor data were obtained, which represents a 95.8% response rate. With regard to job tenure, a majority of the respondents had been with the company less than 10 years (<1 year, 5%; 1-5 years, 30%; 6-10 years, 26%; 11-15 years, 11%; >15 years, 28%). With regard to education, a majority of the respondents reported some college education (some high school, 1%; high school degree, 35%; some college, 39%; college degree, 22%; graduate degree, 3%). With regard to age, the majority of the workers were 40 or younger (<20, 0%; 20-30, 26%; 31-40, 29%; 41-50, 29%; 51-60, 13%; >60, 3%). Measures Job Performance. Performance data were collected from company records. The organization used a common performance appraisal instrument for all employees except the chief executive officer. Supervisors were required to evaluate each of their subordinates on a number of different dimensions of job performance (i.e., job knowledge, dependability, behavioral expectations,
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communication skills, teamwork, external/internal customer relations, problemsolving, quality, organizational skills, continuous improvement, safety and attendance), with each dimension consisting of multiple items. Each subordinate was also required to perform a self-evaluation on the same dimensions and items. Each item was evaluated on a three-point scale (exceeds standards, meets standards, or below standards). When an item was rated exceeds standards or below standards by either supervisor or subordinate, they were required to include a comment justifying this rating. Further, employees were evaluated on the extent to which they achieved a variety of specific, measurable performance goals that had been established in the prior performance evaluation. Research indicates that this tends to minimize rating bias (Huber, 1989). Finally, supervisors were required to synthesize all of these data into an overall performance appraisal rating utilizing the same three-point rating scale (i.e., exceeds standards, meets standards, or below standards) and provide written comments justifying the overall performance rating. Supervisors were required to discuss the completed performance evaluation with their own supervisor and the human resources manager. In addition, supervisors were required to receive approval from both of these individuals before conducting the performance evaluation with the employee. Each employee was provided the opportunity to detail the extent to which he or she agreed or disagreed with the supervisors overall performance appraisal rating. The company provided the researchers with the overall performance evaluation assigned to the employee at the end of this evaluation process (i.e., below standards, meets standards, or exceeds standards). For the purposes of this study, job performance was coded for each individual as a 3 (exceeds standards), 2 (meets standards), or 1 (below standards). The organization used these performance ratings to make merit raise decisions. Proactive Personality. Proactive personality was assessed with Seibert et al.s (1999) 10-item scale by subordinates at time 1 (e.g., Wherever I have been, I have been a powerful force for change.). The response scale used for proactive personality was a Likert-type scale of 1 to 7 where 1 represented Strongly Disagree and 7 represented Strongly Disagree. Job Autonomy. Job Autonomy was assessed with Spreitzers (1995) threeitem scale by subordinates at time 1 (e.g., I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job.). Self-reports of perceived job autonomy were used in the present study because in person-situation interactional models, the psychological meaning of the situation for the individual is the important determining factor (Endler and Magnusson, 1976: 968). That is, individuals act upon their perceptions rather than objective reality (Jones, 1990). The response scale for job autonomy was a Likert-type scale of 1 to 5 where 1 represented Strongly Disagree and 5 represented Strongly Disagree. Control Variables. Based upon Edmondsons (1999) suggestion that trust promotes the belief that the situation is safe for risk-taking (i.e., psychological
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safety), trust in the organization was included as a control variable. Trust in the organization was assessed with Robinson and Rousseaus (1994) seven-item scale (e.g., In general, I believe my employers motives and intentions are good.). Consistent with Barrick and Mount (1993), the respondents job level within the firms hierarchy was included as a control variable. Job level within the firms hierarchy was included based upon the likelihood that individuals at higher levels of the organization would have more authority and responsibility to address problems and undertake improvement initiatives. Further, higherlevel jobs might have greater job complexity, and research has shown that the relationship between general mental ability and job performance is stronger at higher levels of job complexity than it is at low levels of job complexity (Hunter and Hunter, 1984). Based upon an organizational chart provided by the organization, individuals were grouped into three categories: lower-level (i.e., non-supervisory and first line supervisors, 83%), mid-level (i.e., mid-level managers, 13%), and top management team (4%). Finally, tenure, education, and age were included as demographic control variables. Analysis To test the studys hypotheses, moderated hierarchical regression analysis is used. In order to reduce the effects of non-essential ill-conditioning encountered in moderated hierarchical regression analysis, Aiken and Wests (1991) suggestion to center both main effects variables prior to creating the interaction term is followed. This involves subtracting the mean value of the variable from the score of each respondent, the result being a variable with a mean value of zero. Performing this transformation prior to creating the interaction term reduces the potential for multicollinearity among main effect variables to bias the interaction term and its interpretation (i.e., its statistical significance). RESULTS The summary statistics for the study variables are reported in Table 1. All of the latent variable scales exhibited acceptable reliability. The results presented in Table 2 indicate that proactive personality is positively related to the employees performance appraisal rating. These results provide support for Hypothesis 1 that proactive personality is directly related to job performance. The results of the analysis utilizing subordinate-rated job autonomy indicate that the relationship between proactive personality and employee performance appraisal is moderated by job autonomy, supporting Hypothesis 2. The additional four percent of variance accounted for by the interaction term is marginally larger than the 1-3% of incremental variance explained in most field studies (McClelland and Judd, 1993).
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However, the amount of incremental variance explained by an interaction term is an incomplete measure of the effects of a moderator variable (Champoux and Peters, 1980, 1987). Therefore, following Cohen et al.s (2003) recommendation, the regression of proactive personality on job performance was plotted at three values of job autonomy: the mean of job autonomy, one standard deviation above the mean, and one standard deviation below the mean. Figure I shows that this positive average effect is suppressed by low perceived job autonomy and enhanced by high perceived job autonomy. That is, proactive personality is strongly related to job performance for those individuals with high job autonomy, but unrelated to job performance for those individuals with low job autonomy.
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DISCUSSION The purpose of this research is to provide an initial examination of the extent to which job autonomy influences the relationship between the proactive personality trait and job performance. The results indicate that proactive personality is positively related to job performance. This study establishes, for the first time, criterion-related validity of the proactive personality construct utilizing the measure used by the workers organization to assess employee performance. This new finding provides an important contribution to the literature not only because it is based upon a more salient measure of performance (i.e., salient to the employee) than prior research, but also because it provides the missing component of a triangulation approach (i.e., objective performance, subjective performance, and actual performance as measured by the company) to validating the relationship between proactive personality and job performance. The magnitude of the relationship between proactive
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personality and job performance found in this study (r = +.19) is generally consistent with prior research utilizing other measures of performance (e.g., r = +.23, Crant, 1995; r = +.20, Thompson, 2005), although the correlation reported by Pitt et al.s (2002) study is somewhat larger than reported here (i.e., r = +.29). However, the main purpose of the present research is to provide an examination of the extent to which proactive personality is indeed a strong personality. This research is long overdue given that a plea was made by Bateman and Crant (1993) in the original article introducing the proactive personality construct for research evaluating the extent to which people with proactive personalities are, or are not, constrained by strong situations. The results indicate that low levels of job autonomy do attenuate the positive relationship between proactive personality and job performance, which suggests that job autonomy does serve as a significant workplace constraint for people with proactive personalities. Figure I reveals that low perceived job autonomy completely attenuates the relationship between proactive personality and job performance. Alternatively, high levels of perceived job autonomy appear to enhance the positive relationship between proactive personality and job performance. Thus, these results suggest that proactive personality is not a strong personality trait. Therefore, this study suggests there are other important performance-related behaviors that proactive people may be unable to perform in low job autonomy conditions. For example, if the design of the job restricts the employees movement within the workplace and interaction with other employees, then it may be difficult for even proactive people to engage in network-building activities which Thompson (2005) suggests may be important for increased levels of job performance. To the extent that this is true, then this studys results suggest that the relationship between proactive personality and other task- and performance-related behaviors are likely moderated by job autonomy. This is something that future research needs to examine in greater depth. Managerial Implications This research has implications for those organizations that wish to increase the level of personal initiative and performance in the workplace. If performance is what selection and classification procedures should be designed to maximize (Campbell, 1990: 715), then this studys results suggest that a proactive disposition may be a useful tool for human resource managers seeking to enhance adaptive behavior and job performance. However, given that there is support for the hypothesis that the relationship between proactive personality and performance is moderated by job autonomy, it would appear that Campbells (1990) distinction between selection and classification was particularly prescient with regard to maximizing the performance of people with proactive personalities. That is, the results suggest that performance
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maximization is not solely a function of selecting people with proactive personalities, but also a matter of assigning these individuals to jobs where they feel they have a relatively high degree of freedom to determine how they do their job. Practically, this means that personality-oriented job analysis should be an important part of any system designed to extract the most from people selected for their proactive personalities (Tett and Burnett, 2003). In addition, managers may facilitate expression of the proactive personality trait by providing appropriate and timely cues that reinforce the autonomy the worker has to employ new and untried work methods and engage in problem-solving (i.e., exhibit personal initiative). That is, managers may effectively motivate employees with proactive personalities based upon this trait, as trait expressive behavior tends to be intrinsically satisfying (Tett and Burnett, 2003). In short, organizations and managers have a degree of control over how jobs are designed and managed, including the level of autonomy allowed for a specific job and the cues that reinforce that autonomy. Therefore, job autonomy appears to be an important factor in extracting the most from proactive employees. Limitations In the present study, the predictor and criterion variables were drawn from multiple sources (i.e., employee self-report and company records) at different times, which should reduce the concern that common methods variance accounts for the relationships found in the data (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Concerns about representativeness are all but eliminated due to the very high participation rate of company employees (i.e., 96% response rate). However, caution should be used with regard to any conclusions about the causal nature of the relationships examined in this study due to its non-experimental design. It may also be the case that the significant interaction reported here may not generalize to other types of performance data (i.e., objective performance or survey-based subjective supervisor ratings of performance). Therefore, caution should also be used when generalizing this studys results to other types of performance measures. It may also be that the results here were influenced by the predominance of lower-level employees in the sample in that this may have constrained the variability of the autonomy variable to some degree. Further, controlling for job level in this studys analyses may have reduced the degree of variation in the autonomy variable. Even so, the differences in job autonomy were enough to moderate the relationship between proactive personality and job performance in the analysis. Future Research Future research should not only seek to replicate this studys results with the same outcome variable, but also with proactive behaviors such as voice behavior, taking charge, and more domain-specific behaviors such as issue selling and
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innovation. This research could also assess other contextual influences that might constrain proactive individuals from engaging in change-related behavior such as access to resources and access to strategy-related information. Further, research should investigate other features of work situations that are relevant to the expression of the proactive personality trait (e.g., innovation climate, supervisor personality, environmental turbulence/dynamism). To the extent that this is performed in future research, there should be greater understanding of the boundary conditions under which proactive people may or may not flourish. Future research should also focus upon more clearly determining the motivational processes that move people with proactive personalities to take personal initiative in enacting positive change. For example, prior research suggests that the relationship between conscientiousness and job performance is partially mediated by autonomous goal setting and goal commitment. Investigations of the types of goals and self-management strategies associated with proactive personalities would be beneficial.

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JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL ISSUES Vol. XXII Number 1 Spring 2010

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