Water

1. Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and gas

1.1 Define the terms solute, solvent and solution. Solvent is a substance in which others substances can dissolve. Solute is a substance which dissolves in a solvent. Solution is the mixture of a solvent and one or more solutes. 1.2 Identify the importance of water as a solvent. Allows biological processes to occur in aqueous solutions. Serves as a transport system for nutrients and waste products in living things. Water carries waste products away from cells. Dissolves oxygen and carbon dioxide important for aquatic animals and all plants; also modifies the greenhouse effect Used as a base in cleaning products, paints, etc. Used in many household products. Referred to as a universal solvent. Its ability to act as a solvent for many solutes is a particularly important property. Water dissolves, at least to some extent, oxygen, various salts and nutrients, and is therefore important in supporting plant and animal life. 1.3 Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere % of water State of water 70% Liquid Water of crystallisation Solid ice Lithosphere Variable Liquid Solid ice Hydrosphere 96-100% Liquid Atmosphere 0-5% Gas

1.4 *Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of water as: - A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism - A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats - An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and solid - A natural resource for humans and other organisms A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and raw material in metabolism Raw material (used in the chemical reactions that constitute life) Solvent in which life processes (reactions) occur Transport medium for bringing nutrients to cells and carrying waste products

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Thermal regulator by smoothing out sudden and large temperature variations Cellular Constituent o Water comprises of about 70% of cells. It functions as a solvent and a raw material for metabolism. o Important biological functions of water that help maintain life include: As both chemical and biochemical reactions do not occur fast enough in solid state, liquid water acts as an excellent medium in which ions and molecules can react in. Water acts as a transport medium for minerals, nutrients, respiratory gases and wastes in multi-cellular organisms. Acts as temperature buffer to large temperature fluctuations. Water transfers heat energy from the cells respiration to the skin where the heat energy escapes. Essential reactant in photosynthesis for green plants. Oxygen is released which is derived from the water molecule in photosynthesis Gives rigidity and shape/support to cells and tissues Metabolic water, which is produced through a cells respiration, is important source of water among living things. Habitat o Water has high heat capacity meaning it can absorb relatively large amounts of heat energy with small temperature change o Heat Capacity = quantity of heat required to raise temperature by 1 kelvin o Oceans and lakes help to moderate large temperature changes that occur in terrestrial habitats o As water freezes, the molecular structure of the water molecules expands. Thus ice is less dense than liquid water and explains why ice floats on top of water. Ice on the surface of liquid water provides an insulating layer that allows aquatic life to survive in water habitat until the ice melts. o Water has high heat of vaporisation which the amount of energy required to convert a particular amount of water from liquid to gaseous state. o Eg. Perspiration: Through sweating, water can absorb relatively large amounts of heat energy before evaporating, thus cooling down and maintaining the bodys temperature in the process Weathering in the Lithosphere o Water plays an important role in the weathering of landforms and production of soil o The constant motion of water often carrying suspended particles is responsible for the weathering of rock formations due to the physical and chemical breakdown and decay of rocks o In instances of large temperature fluctuations the constant expansion and contraction of water as it freezes and melts respectively, can cause cracks and tiring of joints in rocks

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

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o New minerals are produced through the weathering of rocks by water. Over long periods of time, water dissolves or reacts with some of the minerals in rocks and this produces new minerals. This process is called chemical weathering. Erosion refers to the transportation of rock fragments by rivers, oceans and the wind. This movement of water shapes the landscape as the suspended particles in water erode existing rocks to produce specific landforms and these sediments and rock fragmentations are carried by the wind or current and deposited to produce altering landscapes. Such instances may include the formation of beaches or rock platforms. Ice, in the form of glaciers, also plays a role in the shaping or landforms. As glaciers move, the abrasive ice erodes the grinding of underlying rocks to produce rich soils when the glaciers melt in the warmer climatic seasons.

A Natural Resource o Water plays a large and significant role to mankinds existence o A constant and reliable source of clean water is vital to humans. This water is used for cleaning, irrigation, drinking, industrial etc. purposes.

2. The wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a consequence of its molecular structure and hydrogen bonding
2.1 Construct Lewis electron dot structures of water, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide to identify the distribution of electrons. o In a Water Molecule there are 1) 2 bonding pairs of electrons 2) 2 non bonding/lone pairs of electrons o Water is described as being bent or have a V shape o The shape of the molecule depends of the arrangement of the electron pairs surrounding the central atom in the molecule o To determine the shape of a molecule, VSEPR or valence shell electron pair repulsion is used. o VSEPR is the idea that valence electrons repel each other and so are placed on the molecule as far away from each other as possible due to like charges repel theory. These include both bonding and lone electrons o Another method n determining the shape of a molecule is to use experimental methods such as infrared spectroscopes o Diagram (Black dots are electrons):

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Hydrogen Fluoride Molecule o A molecule containing only 2 atoms, as shown by Hydrogen Fluoride, must be drawn linear, irrespective of the arrangement of bonding or lone electrons. Diagram:

Ammonia (NH3): o Ammonia has 4 electron pairs around the central atom, but only one of these pairs are lone pair. The arrangement will be tetrahedral but the arrangement of the atoms is pyramidal. o The Nitrogen atom is at the apex, with the three hydrogen atoms forming the base o Diagram: Hydrogen Sulphide; o This molecules shape is very similar to waters because for this molecule there are also 2 lone pairs of electrons. o The arrangement of the electron pairs will be tetrahedral but the atoms will be arranged in bent shape. o Diagram: The repulsion from the two lone electrons will be stronger than the repulsion from the bonded electrons

2.2 Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, the differences in their molecular shapes and in their molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points. Water Molecule Diagram Properties Bent Shape Bond Angle (Degrees): 104.5 Melting Point (Degrees Celsius): 0 Boiling Point (Degrees Celsius): 100

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Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) Diagram Properties Bent Shape Bond Angle (Degrees): 92 Melting Point (Degrees Celsius): -86 Boiling Point (Degrees Celsius): -60

Ammonia (NH3) Diagram Properties Pyramidal Bond Angle (Degrees): 107 Melting Point (Degrees Celsius): -78 Boiling Point (Degrees Celsius): -33

From these tables, we can see that water has significantly higher MP/BP. Generally, melting point tends to increase with molecular weight. Hydrogen Sulphide is the heaviest and it should have the highest MP/BP. Water has high MP/BP because of its bonding and molecular polarity.

2.3 Describe hydrogen bonding between molecules.

Hydrogen bonding only occurs when H atoms of one substance is attracted to F, O or N atoms of another substance. This is the cause of high melting and boiling points of a substance.

A strong form of a dipole-dipole attractive force, which can only occur between a relatively low electronegative hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom, which is oxygen in a water molecule. The highly electronegative oxygen atom of the molecule strips the hydrogen atom of its only electron and so the hydrogen atom virtually becomes a partially positive charge. The partially positive hydrogen atom then attracts an unshared electron pair of an oxygen atom in a neighbouring molecule. 2.4 Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule

- Polar molecules occur when the molecule has a net dipole - A molecule has a dipole when there is uneven distribution of charge in the molecule

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- The uneven distribution of charge results from a difference in electronegativity of atoms in the molecule The greater the difference in electronegativity, the larger the dipole - The element with the higher electronegativity pulls the shared pair of electrons closer to it resulting in one side becoming slightly negative and the other slightly positive

Shared pair pulled closer to F because of greater electronegativity Results in the right side being slightly more negative

- The dipoles in the molecules add up to produce a net dipole If a molecule has a net dipole, it is called a polar molecule - Polar solutions will be attracted towards charged rods - Whether a molecule has a net dipole is determined by i. The electronegativity difference between the atoms in the molecule ii. The shape of the molecule (i.e. do the dipoles add up or cancel out)

2.5 Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces Dipole-dipole attractive forces: occurs between the polar water molecules. The positive hydrogen end or pole of one molecule is attracts the negative oxygen end or pole of a neighbouring molecule, and the negative oxygen end or pole of one molecules attracts the positive hydrogen end or pole of another molecule. Dipole-Dipole Forces o If two polar molecules approach each other, they will tend to orient themselves in such a way that the slightly positive end of one atom will attract the slightly negative end of another opposing atom.

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o o o This orientation is the result of dipole-dipole bonding This type of bonding is more prominent in solid state as in liquid state there is higher kinetic energy The dipole-dipole attraction is relatively weak compared to the electrostatic attractions between positive and negative ions in an ionic lattice. Thus these forces are very weak as shown by their melting points.

Dispersion Forces o Intermolecular forces between non-polar molecules arise from the fact that at any instant, in a molecule there may be a build-up of electrons orbiting on one side. This build-up of electrons would produce a negative force and the opposite side will retain a positive force, thus creating a weak intermolecular force. This build-up of electrons is a result of the electrons in the atom or molecule is not symmetrically distributed. o Thus when this atom with a build-up of electrons on one side and none on the other approaches a similar atom with the same condition, a weak force attraction will occur. This is called dispersion force and it the weakest of the intermolecular der Waal forces. o This form of attraction only exists for an instant in time as the build-up of electrons will quickly dissipate. o These forces are most prominent in gases. o The dispersion force will only increase as more electrons are present in the atom. Thus, a greater atomic mass or molecular size will aid in determining the strength of the dispersion force. o Dispersion forces exist between all molecules. In the case of highly polar molecules, dipole-dipole forces are much stronger and the effects of dispersion forces are not as significant. However for other non-polar molecules, or slightly polar, the dispersion forces are the main attractive forces the atom possesses.

2.6 Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces: - Surface tension - Viscosity - Boiling and melting points Surface tension The water molecules at the surface of a beaker of water are not surrounded by other water molecules in the same way as those molecules in the centre of the beaker. The result is that the molecules on the surface have an overall attractive force downwards into the rest of the water. This downward force creates a tension on the surface of the water, so that it behaves like a tightly stretched skin. This is known as surface tension and is a property of all liquids. The strength of the surface tension is directly proportional to the strength of the forces between the particles of the

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liquid, so water has a relatively strong surface tension. It is this property that allows many insects to walk on water and a paper clip to float.

Viscosity Viscosity refer to how easily a fluid (gas or liquid) flows, and is defined as the resistance of a fluid to flow. A thick fluid such as honey is said to have a high viscosity. Blood and motor oil have somewhat lower viscosities. The viscosity of water is lower again, but is higher than that of many other liquids and, of course, air. When poured, viscous fluids flow more slowly than less viscous fluids. Viscous fluids offer more resistance to movement than less viscous fluids. For example, it is more difficult to move through water than air. Viscosity is another property that relates directly to the strength of the forces between the particles of the fluid and to the size of the particles. These forces determine how easily the molecules of the fluid move past each other. The viscosity of water is greater than many other liquids such as kerosene, petrol or acetone because the intermolecular forces are much stronger in water than in other liquids. Viscosity decreases as temperature increases, due to the increased motion of the particles. For this reason motor oil contains additives that change shape on heating. This compensates for the decrease in viscosity of the oil that occurs due to heating.

Melting point and boiling point The melting and boiling points of water are much higher than would be anticipated for a molecule of its size. The melting and boiling points of water are much higher than for molecules of similar mass, therefore reflecting the strength of the hydrogen bonds between its small polar molecules. In an ice crystal the covalently bonded molecules are arranged in a regular patter, with each molecule being hydrogen bonded to four other water molecules. When ice melts, heat energy is absorbed, increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules so they can break free of the relatively strong hydrogen bonds in the ice lattice.

3. Water is an important solvent

3.1 Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the following types of chemicals interact with water: - a soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride - a soluble molecular compound such as sucrose - a soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine, oxygen or hydrogen chloride - a covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide - a substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene

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3.2 analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar nature of the water molecule

4. The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together
4.1 Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates, using solubility data 4.2 Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and precipitation occur 4.3 Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution 4.4 Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using:

4.5 Explain why different measurements of concentration are important

5. Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids

5.1 Explain what is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance

Specific heat capacity, also called specific heat, is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1 Kelvin. The unit for specific heat capacity is J g-1 K-1 (or KJ kg-1 K-1).

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5.2 Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents Water has a high specific heat capacity, which makes it very useful in cooling systems such as car radiators and also home heating systems.

Substance

Specific heat capacity (J K-1 g-1)

Substance

Specific heat Capacity (J K-1 g-1)

Water Ethanol Ethylene glycol Glycerol Acetone

4.18 2.44 2.39 2.38 2.17

Ethyl acetate Hexane Chloroform Mercury Gallium (I, >30oC)

1.94 2.26 0.96 0.14 0.37

5.3 Explain and use the equation H=-mCT 5.4 Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in chemical reactions 5.5 Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and give examples 5.6 Describe dissolutions which absorb heat as endothermic and give examples 5.7 Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life on earth generally 5.8 Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a body of water is affected by thermal pollution