AERO3630 Lifting Line Theory Lecture

AERO3630 Lecture on : Lifting Line/Finite Wing Theory
You are now starting to learn how to

determine lift on a wing (3D)

Start from where you left off in Thin Airfoil
Theory
Imagine the wing is made up of infinitesimal
airfoil sections spanning a distance b

Make the same Assumptions:
Ideal Flow (Potential Flow)
Incompressible flow
Further assumptions:
Low angle of incidence
Negligible airfoil thickness
Using thin airfoil theory obtain the total Circulation for each
section so that the circulation varies in the y direction ,

) ( y I = I
In the thin airfoil theory, i.e., for infinite wing
span, the camber line was replaced by a string
of line vortices of infinitesimal strengths

Now in a similar manner we are looking for a
vortex strength distribution produced by the
flow field around a 3D lifting body

Now a Wing can be replaced by a system of
vortex systems:
Starting Vortex
Free Trailing Vortex
Bound Vortex

The starting vortex is created when
the wing starts its motion or when air starts to flow
over a wing.

The free trailing vortex is also created during the
motion

Hence, starting and trailing vortices are physical
entities and can even be seen if conditions are right

The difficulty lies with bound vortex.

The Bound vortex is a concept that had to be
introduced to satisfy the mathematical
condition, the theorem of Helmholtz.

We wont go into the difficult maths involved
here.

All we will consider is that:
The bound vortex system is a hypothetical
arrangement of vortices which replaces the
real wing in every way except that of
thickness.

It is largely concerned with developing the
bound vortex system which simulates
accurately or at least a little distance away, all
the properties, effects, disturbances, force
systems etc., due to the real airfoil.

WARNING!
Do not interpret the representation of the
wing by a bound vortex system to be a
rigorous model. What it does is to allow a
relationship to be established between the:
physical load distribution for the wing
trailing vortex system

Prandtl hypothesised that:
Each section of the wing acts as though it is an
isolated 2D section provided the span wise
flow is not great.

Let us now see how the vortex system that
replaces the wing looks like in the next slide


Now further assumptions:
We can always argue that after a long time the
starting vortex system will be pushed away at such a
great distance from the wing that its effects would
have been mitigated by viscosity and other factors
and become negligible

Let us see how this looks like in the next slide
Note: Pay attention to the lifting line and the nature
of the Circulation distribution on this line


We are now going to apply some logical argument
based on practical observations to justify the nature
of circulation in the span wise direction

The flow is going to behave :
more like a 2D flow at the centre of the wing , i.e.,
Circulation is maximum at the middle or mid-span.
and less 2D or become more 3D as it moves
towards the wing tip
Since the flow has to break away at wing tip, the
Circulation will be zero at wing tip

) ( y I = I
Then:
The Maximum is at mid point, i.e., at y=0

And at the two ends , i.e., at the tips:

and

) (
0
y I = I
0 ) ( = I = I s
s
0 ) ( = I = I
s
s
Now since this is finite wing, according to Newtons Laws
every action has an equal and equal and opposite reaction.
This reaction is essentially the measure of the induced drag or
the downwash created.
Using Biot-Savart law, the flow velocity induced or associated
with a 3D vortex filament element can be expressed as:

Or

r
y
y w
i
t 4
) (
) (
I
=
) ( 2
1 ) (
2
1
) (
0
y y dy
y d
y dw
i
I
=
t
If the origin is taken at the centre of the bound
vortex, then the velocity at any point y along the
bound vortex induced by the trailing semi infinite
vortices is:

Or

) 2 / ( 4
) (
) 2 / ( 4
) (
) (
y b
y
y b
y
y w
i
+
I
=
t t
2 2
) 2 / ( 4
) (
) (
y b
y
y w
i
I
=
t
Let us now see how the effects of the trailing vortices
can be superimposed on the lifting line graphically.

We will see that this looks like a horse shoe vortex
system in the next slide



Now we are in a position to work out the lift and
induced drag on a finite wing

Obtain the circulation for each wing section (airfoil).
Place the total circulation on the quarter chord
length of each airfoil section on the wing.
The locus of these points is the Lifting Line

Let us see how this looks like in the next slide


Once the circulation distribution and the induced velocity
distribution are known or defined, By putting the co-
ordinate system at the centre of the wing:
the total lift and the drag for the wing can be obtained in
the following manner

Where s and s are the semi span or b/2 and b/2

I =
s
s
dy y U y L ) ( ) ( p

I =
s
s
i i
dy y y w y D ) ( ) ( ) ( p
CONSIDR AN EXAMPLE:
The lift and induced drag for:
Elliptic Lift Distribution

So that:

And:

2
1 ) (
|
.
|
\
|
I = I
s
y
y
o

|
.
|
\
|
I =
s
s
dy
s
y
U y L
2
0
1 ) ( p

|
.
|
\
|
I =
s
s
i
dy
s
y
y w y D
2
0 1
1 ) ( ) ( p
Similar to thin airfoil theory, it is better to work in angles:

Where , the location of any point on the lifting line is given by

o cos =
s
y
o
dy s U y L
s
s
o o p sin ) cos 1 ( ) (
2
0

I =
0
2
0
0
4
sin ) ( I = I =

U b d s U y L p
t
o o p
t
The lift co-efficient then becomes:

Where S is the wing area

0
2
I =
S U
b
C
L
t
Before working out the induced drag let us first work out
the total downwash velocity:

So that:

dy
y y y s
y
s
w
s
s
i

I
=
) (
4
0
2 2
0
t
dy
y y y s
y
s dy
d
s
s

I
=
I
) (
0
2 2
2
0
dy
y y y s
y
y y y s
y y
s
w
s
s
i

I
= )
) (
)
) (
(
4
0
2 2
0
0
2 2
0 0
t
Integrating between -s and s with respect to y:

Note: The value is constant across the span

t
t
t
t s s
w
i
4
) 0 (
4
0 0
I
= +
I
=
s
w
i
4
0
I
=

Now:

Where, for elliptic distribution:

giving:

Or:

|
.
|
\
|
I =
s
s
i i
dy
s
y
y w D
2
0
1 ) ( p
s
w
i
4
0
I
=
2
0
8
I =

p
t
i
D
I
I
=

t
o o o p
0
2
0
0
sin cos 1
4
d s
s
D
i
Now:

Where S is the area of the wing

Recalling, aspect ratio is given by: b
2
/S

S U
C
i
D
I
=
2
0
4
t
Recalling, aspect ratio to be given by: b
2
/S

This is the expression for minimum induced drag

2
2 2
2
0
2
4 4
|
.
|
\
|
=
I
=

b
S U C
S U S U
C
L
D
i
t
t t
) (
2
2
2
AR
C
b
S C
C
L L
D
i
t t
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
Some other points of note:
The resultant induced velocity at a point is, in general in the
downward direction, and is called downwash, where
Or

i
o
i
c

=
U
w
U
w
y y
i
) ( tan
1
o

The downwash has the effect of tilting the undisturbed air,
so the effective angle of attack of the aerodynamic centre
(i.e., the quarter chord) is

Where is the effective angle of attack (3D)

is the downwash angle or induced angle

is the angle of attack (2D)

i e
o o o =
e
o
i
o
o
The downwash has the effect of tilting the undisturbed air,
so the effective angle of attack of the aerodynamic centre
(i.e., the quarter chord) is

i e
o o o =
e
o
i
o
o
The lift curve slope relations are:

) (
1
2
2
3
AR
a
a
d
dC
a
D
D L
D
t
o
+
= =
AERO3630 Lecture on : Techniques for General Circulation Distribution

Consider a span wise circulation distribution than can be
represented by a Fourier sine series consisting of n terms

Then:

Note, here too applies:

and

o cos =
s
y
] sin [ 4 ) (
1
o o n B sU
n
n
= I
] sin [ 4 ) ( ) (
1
2
o p o p o n B U s U L
n
n
= I =
But:

And

Replacing by

) (
2
o I =
c U
C
L
) (
0 3
o o =
e D L
a C
L
C
) (
2
o I
c U
) ( )] ( ) ( [
) (
) ( 2
0
o c o o o
o
o

=
I
U a U
a c
e
But

Then:

dy
y y
dy
d
w U
s
s
I
= =
) ( 4
1
0
t
c
o
o
sin
sin
1
=
n
n
n nB
U w
=
I
)] ( ) ( [
) (
) ( 2
0
o o o
o
o
a U
a c
e o
o
sin
sin
1
n
n
n nB
U

Since:

Substituting and rearranging:

Let

And rearranging:

This is the Mono-plane equation

] sin [ 4 ) (
1
o o n B sU
n
n
= I
o n B
ca
s
n
n
e
sin
8
1
)] ( ) (
0
o o o a =
o
o
sin
sin
1
n
n
n n B
)] ( ) ( [ sin
0
o o o o u a
s
ca
e
8
= u
) sin ( sin
1
o u o + =
n n nB
n
n

2 2
4

U s p
o o o
t
d n B
n
sin sin
0
= L
If we consider the symmetrical loading distributions, only odd terms of the
series need considering:

......] 5 sin 3 sin ] sin [ 4 ) (
5 3 1
+ + + = I

o o o o B B B sU
= L
2 2
4

U s p
t
o o
0
1
4
2 sin
2

+ B
2 2
4

+ U s p
t
o o
0
3
1
) 1 sin(
1
) 1 sin(
+
+
n
n
n
n
B
n
n
Now:

And:

Giving:

But

Giving

2 4
2 sin
2
0
1
t o o
t
=
+ B
1 , 0
1
) 1 sin(
1
) 1 sin(
0
3
= =
+
+
n
n
n
n
n
B
n
n
t
o o
t p
1
2 2
)
2
1
)( 4 ( B U s L

=
S U C L
L
)
2
1
(
2

= p
) (
1
AR B C
L
t =
Similarly for Induced drag:

But

Thus:

I =
s
s
i i
dy y y w D ) ( ) ( p
=
t
0
2 2
4 U s D
i
o od n B
n
n
sin
1
t
0
o n nB
n
n
sin
1
o od n B
n
n
sin
1

=
n
n
nB
1
2
2
t
) ( AR C
i
D
t =

n
n
nB
1
2
Now recall:

Giving

But

Hence:

Or

) (
1
AR B C
L
t =
) (
1
AR
C
B
L
t
=
) ( AR C
i
D
t =

n
n
nB
1
2
) (
2
AR
C
C
L
D
i
t
=

n
n
B
B
n
1
2
1
) (
) (
2
AR
C
C
L
D
i
t
= .......)]
7 5 3
( 1 [
2
1
2
7
2
1
2
5
2
1
2
3
+ + + +
B
B
B
B
B
B
Remember: If we consider the symmetrical loading distributions, only odd terms of
the series need considering:

So that

Or

where:

And [can you guess why??]

Then:
What is the minimum induced drag condition and for what circulation distribution?

) (
2
AR
C
C
L
D
i
t
= .......)]
7 5 3
( 1 [
2
1
2
7
2
1
2
5
2
1
2
3
+ + + +
B
B
B
B
B
B
) (
2
AR
C
C
L
D
i
t
= ) 1 ( o +
0 > o
.......)
7 5 3
(
2
1
2
7
2
1
2
5
2
1
2
3
+ + +
B
B
B
B
B
B
= o

AERO3630 Lifting Line Theory Lecture

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AERO3630 Lecture on : Lifting Line/Finite Wing Theory

You are now starting to learn how to

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