PHL 2 LOGIC Philosophy Gk term philo and Sophia which means love of wisdom - Pythagoras Study of general and

and fundamental problems such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind and language Importance: People can clarify what they believe Stimulate to think about ultimate questions History Ancient Philosophy Greek 400s and 300s BC Socrates, Plato and Aristotle; our ideas in the fields of metaphysics, science, logic and ethics originated from them Pre-Socratic Philosophers o Anaxagoras o Anaximander o Anaximenes o Empedocles o Parmanides o Pythagoras o Thales o Zeno of Elea SOCRATES Socratic Method o Question-and-answer method Developed the inductive method of reasoning Socratic Irony Devotion to ethics Linking knowledge to happiness Rationalism Considered as the Father of Philosophy Willingness to call everything into question first clear exponent of critical philosophy His teachings: o Ironic Modesty o Questioning habits Dialectal mode of reasoning Miletus chief acusor o Devotion to truth An unexamined life is not worth living o Dispassionate reason o Open awareness of his own ignorance

PLATO Idealism o Only ideas are real and that all other things only reflect ideas Most important idea: idea of good Tried both to pass Socratic Style of thinking and to guide the students progress through mathematical learning to the achievement of abstract philosophical truth After death of Socrates: o Traveled to Egypt and Italy o Studied with students of Pythagoras o Spent several years advising the ruling family of Syracuse o Establish Academy THE DIALOGUES Early Dialogues o Socrates is the central character; believed to be expressing his own views; Socratic dialogues Middle Dialogues o Plato begins expressing his own views in the guise of Socrates o Symposium & Republic most important works in this period Late Dialogues o Deeper developments of the philosophy expressed o Characters argue of a topic by asking questions to each other --- allows Plato to rise different points of view and let the reader decide which is Valid Dualism Division between ideal world and physical world ARISTOTLE Realism o Reality is concrete Nature philosophy natural world The PhilosopherThomas Aquinas The nature of each thing is determined by its purpose, and all things seek to fulfill their natures by carrying out these purposes Nichomachean Ethics Natural desire to achieve happiness Described the operation of human volition and moral deliberation

Developed a theory of each virtue as the mean between vicious extremes Discussed the value of three kinds of friendship and defended his conception of an ideal life of intellectual pursuit o Friendship for Pleasure Two people have common interest in an activity which they can pursue together o Friendship grounded on utility Two people can benefit in some way by engaging in coordinated activity o Friendship for Good Two people engaged in common activities solely for the sake of developing overall goodness of the other

o Creation and principles of art and beauty o Studies our thoughts, feelings, and attitudes when we see, hear, or read something beautiful Basic Logical Concepts Logic as an ART o Guides mans reason so he can proceed with order and ease and without error in the constructive activity of making propositions, syllogisms and the like Logic as a SCIENCE o Certain or precise o Systematized knowledge of principles governing correct thinking o Investigates, discovers, expresses, systematizes and demonstrates or explains the laws of correct thinking What is thinking? Highest mental activity present in man What is correct thinking? Correct thinking = logical thinking Must follow those principles, laws and methods for the accurate and secure attainment of truth History of Logic CHINA o Mozi Master Mo Founding the Mohist School whose canons dealt with issues relating to valid inference and the conditions of correct conclusions o Mohist Gongsun Long Logicians school which was interested in resolving logical puzzles ANCIENT GREECE o Pythagoras Associated geometry in demonstrating a conclusion concerned with questions of shape, size and relative position of figures and with properties of space Certain prepositions must be accepted as true without

THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Metaphysics o Encompasses everything that exists, as well as the nature of existence itself o It says whether the world is real or merely an illusion Epistemology o Study of methods of acquiring knowledge o Reason is our method of gaining knowledge and acquiring understanding. Logic is our method of consistency within our set of knowledge Logic o Study of principles and methods of reasoning o Explores how we distinguish between good (or sound) reasoning and bad (or unsound) reasoning Ethics o Human conduct, character and values o Studies the nature of right and wrong; & the distinction between good and evil o Explores the nature of justice and of a just society, and also ones obligations to oneself, others and society Aesthetics

demonstration that all other prepositions of the system are derived from these and that the derivation must be formal o Plato What Property be called true and false? Nature of the connection between the assumption of a valid argument and its conclusion? Nature of definition? STOIC LOGIC Traces its roots back to the late 5th century BC Philosopher Euclid of Megara o Megarians (4th BC) Diodorus Chronus Philo Chrysipus Modality Conditional statements Meaning and truth Aristotle (Six treaties) Organon or Instrument of Knowledge The Categories primitive term Interpretation categorical propositions Prior Analytics syllogism Posterior Analytics mature views on logic Topics - dialects Sophisms fallacies Post-Aristotelean Logicians Theophrastus o Hypothetical syllogism Eudemus o Grammatical and logical functions of the sentence The Scholastics

o Dialectal reasoning to extend knowledge by inference o St. Thomas Aquinas INDIA o 5th century BC o Belief: Obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to be released from suffering o The Nyanya The science of right or just reasoning Initial premise Reason Example Application Conclusion

Statements and Propositions Statements declarative sentence that is either true or false; Signaling symbols: Eitheror; If.then; *Conditional and disjunction Proposition meaning of the declarative sentence that affirms or denies something; *Quantifiers (All, several, etc) Arguments, Premises, Conclusion, Syllogism Argument asserts something; declarative Premise reason Conclusion statement that purports to follow from another or others premises by means of an argument Syllogism deductive argument Validity, Truth, Soundness Validity if and only if the truth of its premises entails the truth of its conclusion logical connection Soundness arguments are valid and the premises should be true 1. Interchange S & P 2. Reduction 3. Order Deduction, Induction Deduction an argument whose premises are claimed to provide conclusion evidence for the truth of its conclusion; the conclusion

follows from the premises with absolute necessity Induction asserts that the truth of the conclusion is supported by the premises; *asserting only some degree of probability

APPREHENSION Awareness or understanding of something by mind Products: o Symbols o Ideas Thoughts formed by mind through the process of ideation Human capacity to contemplate ideas is associated with ability of reasoning, self-reflection o Terms Words or group of words that may serve as subject or predicate of a proposition Classification: *Comprehension *Extension *Quality *Object Connotation o Idea expressed by term o Subjective o Varies according to context or usage Denotation o Object referred by term o Enumerative o Demonstrative Meaning o UNIVOCAL Words having different sound or spelling but expressing the same meaning

o EQUIVOCAL words with the same spelling or sound but different meanings Opposition o Contradictor y they mutually oppose o Contrary they admit a middle possibility