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Chapter 1
Introduction
Orthgonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has become an attractive technique and
gained more popularity recently. Many new communication systems have main reasons to use
OFDM because its good properties , e.g. it provides high spectral efficiency, robustness to
channel fading, immunity to impulse interference,capability of handling very strong echoes
(multipath fading). At the moment OFDM is mainly used in Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
(ADSL), Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video Broadcasting (DAB) and Local Area
Network standards IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.16, In Taiwan, The Directorate General of
Telecommunication (DGT) has announsed DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcasting for Terrestrial)
and Eureka-147 system to be the DTV and DAB transmission standard. These two systems have
used the OFDM technique and comparing this technique with the traditional analog technique,
the receiver has merit from using lower S/N, also uses emitting power to achieve the same
coverage of air waves, and it decreases business investment and equipment cost. OFDM is
known to suffer from the high peak to average power ratio, it occurs when a number of
independently modulated subcarrier adds up coherently. When N signals are added with the same
phase, they produce a peak power that is N times the average power, a high PAPR brings
disadvantages like an increased complexity of the A/D and D/A converts and reduced efficiency
of the RF power amplifier..
There are many solutions to reduce PAPR of an OFDM signal. In clipping technique, ODFM
signal peaks larger than some threshold are clipped off. Even though this is a simple technique, it
introduces in-band distortion and out of band noise. In Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS), data
block is divided into number of sub-blocks, orthogonality is implemented to each sub block and
appropriate phase weighting factors are multiplied to each sub-block to reduce PAPR. In
Selective Mapping (SLM) technique, the sequence with the lowest PAPR after making the
different phase changes on the same input data sequence is selected and transmitted. To recover
data, the receiver must know the generation process of OFDM signal and phase information. In
block coding, it use special forward-error correction code set that excludes OFDM symbols with
a large PAPR. Thought it is usefull to reduce PAPR, it becomes inefficient with the increasing of
the number of OFDM subcarriers[1][2].
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The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) and the Discrete Sine Transform (DST) have found wide
applications in speech and image processing. As well as telecommunication Signal processing
for the purpose of data compression, feature extraction, image reconstruction, and filtering. Now,
we proposed a new PAPR reduction method, which uses a Selective Discrete Sinusodial
Transform in the OFDM system to reduce PAPR, the input data of IFFT are concentrated in a
few components by the character of DCT and DST, The purpose of this thesis is to research how
to use Selective Discrete Sine Transform (SDST) to reduce PAPR and compared with the
simulation results.
With the emergence of more wireless methods of communication, OFDM is finding its foothold
in local wireless networks. The use of OFDM is common worldwide. Research result shows that
OFDM is widely being use in the applications such as, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), High
Definition Television Digital Video Broadcasting (HDTV-DVB), Wireless Local Area Network
and IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access system.
OFDM multi-carrier systems support high data rate wireless transmission using orthogonal
frequency channels. It requires no extensive equalization, yet still offers excellent immunity
against fading and inter-symbol interference (ISI). However it suffers from a high Peak-to-
Average power ratio (PAPR) also known as the Crest Factor.
Therefore in this project we need to find out the different techniques of Crest Factor reduction so
that we can reduce the high PAPR. From the outcome evaluation of the project; we will
understand the various techniques of CF reduction and which of the methods that were discussed
is possible to be implemented
1.2 Motivation for Work
Over the last decade a lot of research has been carried out in reducing the two major
limitations of OFDM for improving the performance of the system. The large variation in
envelope of OFDM signal, which causes high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) and the
sensitivity of OFDM signal against carrier frequency offset which causes inter-carrier
interference (ICI) are the focussed area of this research. Previously reported schemes like
clipping and filtering, selected mapping, partial transmit sequence, tone reservation, and tone
insertion provide PAPR reduction. Peak regrowth in clipping and filtering causes the transmitted
signal to exceed the clipping level at some points. In case of selected mapping and partial
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transmit sequence technique; the transmitter needs some side information. Overall it is noticed
that these techniques have large computational overhead. An ICI self-cancellation scheme causes
reductions in bandwidth efficiency. So there is a need to develop new technique which can
overcome those drawbacks of existing ones and also provide performance enhancement from
practical implementation point of view. It has developed into a popular scheme for wideband
digital communication, used in applications such as digital television and audio broadcasting,
wireless networking and broadband internet services. It has been standardized for Digital Audio
Broadcast (DAB) in Europe, enabling the mobile reception of high-quality audio combined with
data services with a total gross capacity of about 2.3Mb/s. OFDM has also been adopted for
Wireless Local Area Network (WLANs) to satisfy the high bit rate requirements of multimedia
services and it is officially included in IEEE 802.11a.
1.3 Literature Survey
OFDM is a special form multicarrier (MC) that dates back to 1960s. The concept of
multicarrier transmission was first explicitly proposed by Chang [1] in 1966. A detailed
description of multicarrier can also be found in [2] and [3]. In 1971, Weinstin and Ebert [4]
proposed time limited multicarrier transmission, which is what we call OFDM today. The
implementation of MC systems with equalization was investigated by Hirosaki etal.[5] and [6]
and Peled and Ruiz [7]. Zimmerman and Kirsch [8] published one of the earliest papers in the
application of MC in HF radio in 1967. More materials on the HF application of MC can be
found in [9]. In 1985, Cimini first applied OFDM in mobile wireless communications [10]. In
[11], Casas and Leung discussed the applicationof MC over mobile radio FM channels. Bingham
[12] studied the performance and complexity of MC modulation and concluded that MC has
higher potential in future. The application of original OFDM, clustered OFDM, and MC code-
division multiple access(CDMA) in mobile wireless systems can be found in [13]-[14] The
flexibility of OFDM provides opportunities to use advanced techniques, such as adaptive
loading, transmit diversity, and receiver diversity, to improve transmission efficiency. Shannons
classical paper in 1948 suggested that the highest data rate can be achieved for frequency-
selective channels by using an MC system with an infinitely dense set of sub-channels and
adapting transmission powers and data rates according to the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at
different sub-channels. Based on his theory, a waterfilling principle has been derived. Cioffi and
104204 Page 4

his group have extensively investigated OFDM with performance optimization for asymmetric
digital subcarrier line, which they discrete multiple tone (DMT). Some of their earlier inventions
on practical loading algorithms for OFDM or DMT systems were in [15][16]. More recently,
OFDM has been implemented in mobile wideband data transmission (IEEE 802.11a, Hyper LAN
II), high-bit-rate digital subcarrier lines
(HDSL), asymmetric digital subcarrier lines (ADSL), very high-speed digital subscriber lines
(VHDSL), digital audio broadcasting (DAB), digital television and high-definition television
(HDTV), IEEE 802.16 Wi-MAX standard and its predecessor multicarrier multipoint distribution
service (MMDS) [17] [18] [19].Despite the widespread acceptance of OFDM, it has its
drawbacks. One drawback is that OFDM systems are not robust in carrier frequency estimation
errors. Even small carrier frequency offsets destroy the orthogonality between the subcarriers
causing drastic error rate increases. The second drawback is that OFDM signals suffer from large
envelope variations. Such variations are problematic because practical communication systems
are peak power limited. Thus, envelope peaks require a system to accommodate an instantaneous
signal power that require lager power efficiencies or power amplifier (PA) saturation. This
problem is termed as Peak to Average Power Reduction. PAPR reduction was required for radar
and speech synthesis applications. In radar, PAPR reduction was important because radar
systems are peak-power limited just like communications system. And for communication
system a number of approaches have been proposed to deal with the PAPR problem. These
techniques include Clipping, Clipping and Filtering, Tone Reservation, Tone injection; Selected
Mapping and Partial Transmit Sequence.[20-27] Clipping is the most straight forward PAPR
reduction technique but can lead to significant out-of-band distortion. In order to alleviate such
effects filtering can be applied. However, this causes significant peak-regrowth. Distortion-less
techniques such as Tone Reservation also requires the receiver to know the location of the
reserved tones so as to disregard them when decoding the data signal. Selected Mapping (SLM)
is implemented by generating a set of sufficiently different signals from the original data signal.
The transmitter selects and submits the candidate signal having the lowest PAPR. Partial
Transmit Sequencing (PTS) is a similar technique in which sub-blocks of the original signal are
optimally combined at the transmitter to generate a transmitted signal with a low PAPR.
Although SLM and PTS are effective at reducing the PAPR, they require the use of side
information in order to decode the signal at the receiver. However, for inter carrier interference
104204 Page 5

(ICI) reduction a few techniques like frequency domain equalization, time domain windowing,
ICI self-cancellation are analyzed [18] [19] [20] . It is found that the first two methods are not so
efficient because they do not address the major cause of ICI which is due to the frequency
mismatch between the transmitter and receiver, and the Doppler shift. But the drawback of the
ICI self-cancellation method is that the same data is modulated into two or more carriers, thus
reducing spectral efficiency.





























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Chapter 2:
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

In OFDM system, the output is the superposition of multiple sub-carriers. In this case,
some instantaneous power outputs might increase greatly and become far higher than the mean
power of the system when the phases of these carriers are same. This is also defined as large
Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR).High PAPR is one of the most serious problems in OFDM
system. To transmit signals with high PAPR, it requires power amplifiers with very high power
scope. These kinds of amplifiers are very expensive and have low efficiency-cost. If the peak
power is too high, it could be out of the scope of the linear power amplifier. This gives rise to
non-linear distortion which changes the superposition of the signal spectrum resulting in
performance degradation. If there are no measures to reduce the high PAPR, OFDM system
could face serious restriction for practical applications.
To combat high PAPR, one intuitive solution is to adopt amplifiers to have larger trade-
off range. However, these types of amplifiers are generally expensive and have low efficiency
cost, and therefore are of no practical use. On the other side, certain algorithms were introduced
and been proved have a good performance of high PAPR reduction. Hence, in this thesis, some
currently promising PAPR reduction methods are studied and compared.















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Chapter 3:
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
3.1 Introduction

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has grown to a popular
communication technique for high speed communication in the last decade. Being an important
member of the multicarrier modulation (MC) techniques, Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM), is also called Discrete Multitone Modulation (DMT) [2]. It is based upon
the principle of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) where each frequency channel is
modulated with simpler modulation scheme. It splits a high rate data stream into a number of
lower rate streams that are transmitted simultaneously over a number of orthogonal subcarriers
[3]. Orthogonality is achieved by ensuring that the carriers are placed exactly at the nulls in the
modulation spectra of each other. The increase of symbol duration for the lower rate parallel
subcarriers reduces the relative amount of dispersion in time caused by multipath delay spread.
Therefore OFDM is an advanced modulation technique which is suitable for high-speed data
transmission due to its advantages in dealing with the multipath propagation problem, high data
rate and bandwidth efficiency [4]. Although OFDM principles have been developed over several
decades, its implementation for high data rate communications has only recently become popular
by the reduced cost and availability of suitable signal processing components which make it a
competitive technology for commercial applications also.
3.2 Evolution of OFDM
The evolution of OFDM [2] can be divided into three parts. These consist of Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM), Multicarrier Communication (MC) and Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing.
3.2.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) has been used for a long time to carry more
than one signal over a telephone line. FDM is the concept of using different frequency channels
to carry the information of different users. Each channel is identified by the central frequency of
transmission. To ensure that the signal of one channel does not overlap with the signal from an
104204 Page 8

adjacent one, some gap or guard band is left between different channels. This guard band leads to
inefficiencies which were exaggerated in the early days since the lack of digital filtering made it
difficult to filter closely packed adjacent channels.
3.2.2 Single carrier Communication
For digital signals, the information is in the form of bits a collection of bits will be
known as symbols.
The general structure of a single-carrier transmission system is depicted. The signal
representing each bit uses up the entire available spectrum. The single-carrier system modulates
information onto one carrier using any type of modulation schemes (BPSK, QAM etc). The
transmitted symbols are pulse formed by a transmitter filter. As higher bandwidth is used, the
duration of the symbols become smaller. As a result of this, the system will be more susceptible
to interference from adjacent carriers implying a large intersymbol interference (ISI).
3.2.3 Multicarrier Communication (MC)
The di f f er ence bet w een mul t i -car r i er syst em and t he si ngl e-car r i er syst em i s; r at her
t han t r ansmi t t i ng t he dat a on one car r i er w i t h a l ar ge bandw i dt h, t he dat a st r eam i s spl i t i nt o
many sub car r i er s w hi ch means t hat t he avai l abl e spect r um i s di vi ded i nt o m any nar r ow bands
w hi l e t he dat a i s di vi ded i nt o par al l el dat a st r eams each t r ansmi t t ed on t he separ at ed bands
cr eat ed f r om t he spect r um.Due t o t he pr ol onged di st ance i n bet w een t he t r ansmi t t ed symbol s,
t he i nt er symbol i nt er f er ence (ISI) f or each sub syst em i s r educed.

Fi gur e 3.1:M ul t i car r i er syst em
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In FDM syst em, si gnal s f r om mul t i pl e t r ansmi t t er s ar e t r ansmi t t ed si mul t aneousl y at t he same
t i me sl ot over mul t i pl e f r equenci es. Each sub car r i er i s modul at ed separ at el y by di f f er ent dat a
st r eam and a spaci ng (guar d band) i s pl aced i n bet w een t he sub car r i er s t o avoi d any si gnal
over l aps (see f i gur e 3.2).

Fi gur e 3.2: spaci ng i n bet w een t w o sub car r i er s

3.2.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
The hardware implementation of a multicarrier system like the OFDM signal based on
the set of transmitter and receiver is rather impractical due to the number of elements required.
But there is a simple method to modulate a high number of carriers and reversing. Discrete
Fourier transform (DFT) is one such method to perform modulation and demodulation there is
also an inverse transform of this Inverse Discrete Fourier transform (IDFT). For this project we
will use the fast implementation FFT for DFT and IFFT for IDFT.



104204 Page 10

FFT:

Figure 3.3(a)

Figure 3.3(b)

Figure 3.3(c)
Figure 3.3: b) Time domain view c) Frequency domain view
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Forward FFT takes a random signal, multiplies it successfully by complex exponentials over a
range of frequencies. The product is then summed and plotted as a coefficient of the frequency.
The coefficients are called spectrum and the results of FFT is a frequency domain signal


FFT equation
Here x(n) are the coefficients of the sine and cosine of frequency kn 2 /N, where k is the index of
the frequencies over the N frequencies and n is the time index, x(k) is the value of the spectrum
and x(n) is the value at time n for the signal.

IFFT:
The inverse FFT (IFFT) takes the above spectrum and converts it back to time domain
signal (Figure 3.4) by successfully multiplying it by a range of sinusoids.

IFFT equation

Figure 3.4: IFFT in a transmitter

=
+ =
1
0
1
0
)
2
cos( ) ( )
2
sin( ) ( ) (
N
n
N
n
N
kn
n x j
N
kn
n x k X

=
=
1
0
1
0
)
2
cos( ) ( )
2
sin( ) ( ) (
N
n
N
n
N
kn
k X j
N
kn
k X n x

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Parallel data streams are used as inputs to an IFFT. And the IFFT output is the sum of the signal
samples. IFFT does modulation and multiplexing in one step and the filtering and digital to
analog (D/A) of the samples will result in a baseband signal. Varying the complex numbers at
the IFFT input will result in the modulation of the sub carriers To create an OFDM signal with
the modulated signals, we add them using an IFFT. Differences between FFT and IFFT is the
type of coefficients the sinusoids take and the plus and minus between the real and imaginary.
The two processes are a linear pair. Using both together will reconstruct back the original signal
transmitted. To get the data represented in time domain, one method is to use each data point to
modulate a separate carrier as in Frequency Division Multiplexing. But this method is not
efficient. Therefore the alternative method is to use IFFT and FFT. FFT and IFFT also provide
an easy mechanism for assuring that the sub carriers are orthogonal. It allows us to generate
carriers that are orthogonal and that the members of an orthogonal set are linearly independent.
Therefore the role of the FFT is to modulate each sub-carrier onto the appropriate carrier




Figure 3.5: Time domain signal comes out as a spectrum out of a FFT/IFFT.
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Figure 3.6: Frequency domain signal comes out as a time domain in IFFT.


Figure 3.7: Both FFT/IFFT returns back the original signal

Figure 3.8: Both FFT/IFFT returns back the input no matter what the signal is.


Figure 3.9: FFT/IFFT is commutable so they can be reversed and will still return back to initial
input.
In OFDM, the data at the transmitter is treated as a frequency-domain representation of
the signal. It is a sampled digital signal, and it is defined such that the discrete Fourier spectrum
104204 Page 14

exists only at discrete frequencies. To get a signal that you can transmit; it has to be in time
domain. To get the data represented in time domain, one method is to use each data point to
modulate a separate carrier as in Frequency Division Multiplexing. But this method is not
efficient. Therefore the alternative method is to use IFFT and FFT. FFT and IFFT also provide
an easy mechanism for assuring that the sub carriers are orthogonal. It allows us to generate
carriers that are orthogonal and that the members of an orthogonal set are linearly independent.
Therefore the role of the FFT is to modulate each sub-carrier onto the appropriate carrier. It is
also noted that OFDM transmits a large number of narrowband carriers that are closely spaced in
the frequency domain. To avoid having a large number of modulators and filters at the
transmitter and having large complementary filters and demodulators at the receiver, it is more
desirable to make use of modern digital signal processing techniques such as FFT.

Figure 3.10: IDFT to generate OFDM signal
Each OFDM carrier corresponds to one element of this discrete Fourier spectrum. The
amplitudes and phases of the carriers depend on the data to be transmitted. The data transitions
are synchronised at the carriers, and can be processed together, symbol by symbol. OFDM uses
IFFT to break down a fast stream of data into many slower parallel data streams. These slower
streams are distributed over the bandwidth as individual sub carriers. The basic idea is that each
104204 Page 15

bit occupies a frequency-time window which ensures little or no distortion of the waveform. The
low data rate of the sub carriers allow a guard band to be added so that multipath reflections will
be prevented from causing inter-symbol interference (ISI).Fundamentally it is to slow down the
symbol rate while maintaining high data rate by IFFT which facilitates the transmission of slow
symbols in parallel rather than fast symbols in serial. In practice, it means that bits are
transmitted in parallel over a number of frequency-non selective channels.
The FFT sorts all the signal components out into the individual sine-wave elements of
specific frequencies and amplitudes a mathematical spectrum analyzer of a sort. Therefore it
makes FFT a good way to separate out all the carriers of an OFDM signal.
The FFT size is equals to the number of sub-carriers. The maximum number of carriers
used by OFDM is limited by the size of the IFFT. In order to generate a real valued Time Signal,
the OFDM carriers must be defined in complex conjugate pairs. These will be symmetric to the
Nyquist Frequency (Fmax). The Nyquist Frequency is just the symmetry point, so therefore it
cannot be part of a complex conjugate pair. The DC component of the signal will also have no
complex conjugate. They two points cannot be used as carriers so they are to be subtracted form
the total number of sub carriers available. If the sub carriers are not defined as conjugate pairs,
the IFFT will result in a time domain signal that has imaginary components.
OFDM is a frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme utilized as a digital multi-
carrier modulation method. FDM is a technology that transmits multiple signals simultaneously
over a single transmission path, such as a cable or a wireless system. OFDM-spread spectrum
technique distributes the data over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise
frequencies. These carriers known as orthogonal sub-carriers are used to carry data. The data is
divided into several parallel data streams or channels, one for each sub-carrier. Each sub-carrier
is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (QAM or PSK) at a low symbol rate, thus
maintaining a total data rate that is similar to conventional single carrier modulation techniques
in the same bandwidth.
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Figure 3.11: -OFDM transmission showing parallel transmission of sub-carriers that are
orthogonal to each other
This technique (OFDM) possesses many good qualities such as; it is tolerant of time
synchronization errors and multi-path delay spread. Not only is it bandwidth efficient it also has
high frequency spectrum efficiency. In OFDM system, the sub-carriers are orthogonal to each
other therefore channel spectrum overlapping is allowed. In this case limited spectrum resources
can be utilized maximally. Conventional system using equalization techniques become
complicated with high data rate, but OFDM multi-carrier systems can support high data rate
wireless transmission using orthogonal frequency channels yet offers good performance in the
presence of frequency selective fading channel. OFDM requires no extensive equalization
therefore it is relatively simple to realize but it still offers excellent immunity against fading and
inter-symbol interference (ISI).
Current wireless data services are often non-symmetrical which means downlink
channels carry more traffic than uplink ones. This requires a physical layer that supports non-
symmetric high speed data transfer. OFDM can use a different number of sub-channels to
provide different transmission rates between uplink and downlink.
However OFDM system is sensitive to phase jitters and frequency offset when compared
to a single carrier system. Frequency offsets impairs orthogonality and also will degrade
demodulation performance. Time offset can lead to OFDM symbol interference and amplitude
attenuation.
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OFDM system also suffers from a high Peak-to-Average power ratio (PAPR) also known
as the Crest Factor. It is known that in OFDM, the output is a superposition of sub-carriers.
When the phases of carriers are the same, it could lead to some instantaneous power outputs
which are higher than the mean power of the system (larger PAPR). Such cases will be out of the
range of linear power amplifiers thus giving rise to non-linear distortion. The superposition of
the signal spectrum could be changed too. This will render a straightforward simple system very
expensive and inefficient.
3.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Technology
In OFDM system, the bit stream that is to be transmitted is split into several parallel bit
streams. The available frequency spectrum is divided into sub-channels and each low rate bit
stream is transmitted over one sub-channel by modulating a subcarrier using a standard
modulation scheme, for example; PSK, QAM. The sub-carrier frequencies are chosen so that the
modulated data streams are orthogonal to each other, ensuring that cross talk between the sub-
channels is eliminated. Channel equalization is simplified by using many slowly modulated
narrowband signals instead of one fastly modulated wideband signal. The primary advantage of
OFDM is its ability to cope up with severe channel conditions, for example multipath and
narrowband interference without complex equalization filters. The performance of OFDM
system depends on several factors, such as the modulation schemes used, the amount of
multipath, and the level of noise in the signal. The performance of a single carrier transmission
will degrade rapidly in the presence of multipath. Before equalizers are developed parallel
transmission scheme was preferred for achieving high data rate despite its bandwidth
inefficiency and high cost due to several modulators and demodulators. Although OFDM is a
parallel transmission scheme, those problems are eliminated by using orthogonal sub-carriers N
instead of widely spaced sub-carriers (i.e., carriers with guard band between them).
Applying, IFFT and FFT algorithms for implementing the modulation and demodulation
operations. Orthogonality can be achieved by carefully selecting carrier spacing, such as letting
the carrier spacing be equal to the reciprocal of the useful symbol period. As the sub-carriers are
orthogonal, the spectrum of each carrier has a null at the center frequency of each of the other
carriers in the system. This results in no interference between the carriers, allowing them to be
spaced as close as theoretically possible. Mathematically
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(
*
( ) ( )
0
b
p q
a
k for p q
X t X t dt
for p q
=
=
=

. .........3.1

Where * indicates the complex conjugate and interval [a, b], is a symbol period. Since the
carriers are orthogonal to each other the nulls of one carrier coincides with the peak of another
sub-carrier
3.3.1 OFDM Modulation & Demodulation
The OFDM signal can, in general, be represented as the sum of N separately modulated
orthogonal subcarriers
1
,
0
( ) ( )
N
n k k s
n k
x t s g t nT

= =
=


.........3.2
Where g (t), k = 0,1,.......,N 1 represent the N carriers and are given by,

2
( ) , [0, ]
k
j f t
k s
g t e t T

= e

Fig 3.12 -OFDM Modulation
In equation 3.2,
, n k
s stands for the symbol that modulates the kth carrier in the nth signaling
intervals and each signaling interval is of duration Ts. From equation 3.2, we see that N
symbols are transmitted in Ts time interval. The symbol sequence
, n k
s , is obtained by converting
a serial symbol sequence of rate N/Ts (symbol duration=Ts/N) into N parallel symbol sequences
104204 Page 19

of rate 1/Ts (each with symbol duration Ts). As mentioned previously, the subcarrier frequencies
satisfy the following requirement
0
0
, 1, 2,................... 1
k
s
f
k
f f k N
T
f k
= + =
= +

The signal transmitted in the nth signaling interval (of duration Ts) is defined as the nth OFDM
frame, i.e.,
1
,
0
( ) ( )
N
n n k k s
k
x t s g t nT

=
=

.........3.3
Thus it is observed that the nth OFDM frame x (t) n consists of N symbols, each modulating one
of the N orthogonal sub-carriers. Since the carriers are orthogonal witheach other, it follows
that the scalar product

*
( ), ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
s
k i s k i s
T
g k g t T g t g t T k i < > = =

.........3.4


Fig 3.13 illustrates the N orthogonal subcarriers used in nth OFDM frame. Thus, the
orthogonality of the carriers can be used to demodulated each of the sub-carriers (without
inter-carrier interference) as follows

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Fig. 3.13 Sub-carriers in the OFDM spectrum

s
n,k
i
=
1
1
s
x( t) g
k
( t) Jt
( n+1) 1
S
n1
s
.........3.5
If there is zero inter-frame interference, then the above expression reduces to

s
n,k
i
=
1
1
s
x
n
( t) g
k
( t) Jt
( n+1) 1
S
n1
s
= s
n,k
...........3.6
Thus we are able to perfectly demodulate each sub-carrier in the transmitted signal and get back
the transmitted symbol sequence.

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Fig 3.14 -OFDM Demodulation

3.3.2 OFDM Modulation as IFFT
The number of sub-carriers N in OFDM systems is usually of the order of 100s; it implies that
the transmitter and receiver blocks become bulky and expensive to build. Also the oscillators (for
generating the carrier frequencies) have temperature instability. In [6], the Discrete Fourier
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Transform (IDFT) is used to solve the modulation and demodulation complexities discussed
above. In the following, the modulation process can be achieved by the IFFT operation as
explained below. If the OFDM frame represented by equation (2.5) is sampled at a rate N/Ts, the
resulting discrete-time signal is
,
. ( )
m
n n k
x N IFFT s =
After expanding the above equation

0
1
2 2
,
0
s
m mk
N
j f T j
m
n N
n n k
k
x e s e

=
=

.........3.7
If we assume 0 f =0, then the above equation reduces to

1
2
,
0
, 0,1,..... 1
mk
N
j
m
N
n n k
k
x s e m N

=
= =

.........3.8
The above equation can be expressed in terms of the IFFT as,
,
. ( )
m
n n k
x N IFFT s = .........3.9
Applying the FFT operation on both sides of the above equation,
, ,
( ) . ( ( ))
m
n n k n k
FFT x N FFT IFFT s s = = 3.10
Thus the OFDM modulation and demodulation can be accomplished using the computationally
efficient operations- IFFT and FFT respectively.
Fading and Spreading [2] [3]

The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create
multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the
superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each
signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while travelling
from the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference,
amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is
frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due
to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.

Multipath-fading results in a doubly dispersive channel that exhibits dispersion in both the time
and frequency domains. Time dispersion arises because the multipath components propagate
104204 Page 23

over transmission paths having different lengths and, hence, they reach the receiver antenna with
different time delays. Time dispersion causes inter-symbol interference (ISI) that can be
mitigated by using a time- or frequency domain equalizer in single-carrier systems, a RAKE
receiver in CDMA systems or frequency domain equalization in OFDM systems.
A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless
systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced
fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred
to as shadow fading.

The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change
imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the minimum
time required for the magnitude change of the channel to become uncorrelated from its previous
value. Alternatively, it may be defined as the maximum time for which the magnitude change of
channel is correlated to its previous value.
Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay
constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the
channel varies considerably over the period of use.
In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the
channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication to a
temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information
transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully transmitted bits during
other time instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered.

Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay
constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel
can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events
such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main
signal path between the transmitter and the receiver.


104204 Page 24

Doppler Shift:

When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity causes a shift
in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This phenomenon is known as
the Doppler shift. The frequency shift is related to the spatial angle between the direction of
arrival of that component and the direction of vehicular motion. If a vehicle is moving at a
constant speed V along the X axis, the Doppler shift f
m
of the mth plane-wave component is
given by
f
m
= (V/) cos(
m
) 3.10

where
m
is the arrival angle of the mth plane-wave component relative to the direction of
movement of the vehicle. It is worth noting here that waves arriving from ahead of the vehicle
experience a positive Doppler shift, while those arriving from behind the vehicle have a negative
shift. The maximum Doppler shift occurs at
m
= 0, assuming T
b
>> ( t)
c
for fast-fading
channel and T
b
<<(t)
c
for slow-fading channel.
Signals travelling along different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to
different rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different signal
components contributing to a single fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread.
Coherence time is related to Doppler spread of the channel.

The coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will
experience uncorrelated fading.

- In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the
signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the same
magnitude of fading.
- In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the
bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore
experience decorrelated fading. Since different frequency components of the signal are
affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be
simultaneously affected by a deep fade.

104204 Page 25

3.3.3 Guard Time and Cyclic Extension
One of the main advantages of OFDM is its immunity to multi-path delay spread that
causes Inter-symbol Interference (ISI) in wireless channels. Since the symbol duration is made
larger by converting a high data rate signal into N low rate signals), the effect of delay spread is
reduced by the same factor. Guard Time is introduced in order to eliminate the ISI almost
completely. If the guard time duration is made larger than that of the estimated delay spread in
the channel it is achieved. If the guard period is left empty, the orthogonality of the subcarriers
no longer holds and Inter Carrier Interference (ICI) comes into picture. In order to eliminate both
ISI as well as the ICI, the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended into the guard period as
illustrated in fig 2.4. This preserves the orthogonality of the subcarriers by ensuring that the
delayed versions of the OFDM symbol always have an integer number of samples within the
FFT interval [16]. Thus both ISI and ICI can be eliminated by cyclically extending the OFDM
symbol into the guard period and making sure that the guard time duration is larger than the
delay spread.

Fig. 3.15 - Guard Period Insertion in OFDM



104204 Page 26

3.3.4 Block Diagram of an OFDM system
After giving a brief introduction of OFDM system, this section provides the block diagram and
which briefly describes the system details. At the transmitter, the user information bit sequence is
first subjected to channel encoding to reduce the probability of error at the receiver due to the
channel effects. Usually, convolution encoding is preferred. Then the bits are mapped to symbols
of either 16-QAM or QPSK. The symbol sequence is converted to parallel format and IFFT
(OFDM modulation) is applied and the sequence is once again converted to the serial format.
Guard time provided between the OFDM symbols and the guard time filled with the cyclic
extension of the OFDM symbol. Windowing is applied to the OFDM symbols to make the fall-
off rate of the spectrum steeper. The resulting sequence is converted to an analog signal using a
DAC and passed on to the RF modulation stage. The resulting RF modulated signal is, then,
transmitted to the receiver using the transmit antennas. Here, directional beam-forming can be
achieved using antenna array, which allows for spectrum reuse by providing spatial diversity.


Fig 3.16 OFDM System Block Diagram
At the receiver, first RF demodulation is performed. Then, the signal is digitized using an ADC
and timing and frequency synchronization are performed. The guard time is removed from each
OFDM symbol and the sequence is converted to parallel format and FFT (OFDM demodulation)
is applied. The output is then serialized and symbol demapping is done to get back the coded bit
sequence. Channel decoding is, then, done to get the user bit sequence. Time and frequency
104204 Page 27

synchronization are very important for the OFDM based communication system. Without correct
frequency synchronization the orthogonality will not exist among the carrier which leads to an
increase in BER. Without correct timing synchronization it is not possible to identify start of
frames.

3.4 Advantages of OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has several advantages over
single carrier modulation systems and these make it a viable alternative for CDMA in future
wireless networks. In this section, these advantages are discussed.
3.4.1 Multipath Delay Spread Tolerance
OFDM is highly immune to multipath delay spread that causes inter-symbol interference
in wireless channels. Since the symbol duration is made larger (by converting a high data rate
signal into N low rate signals), the effect of delay spread is reduced by the same factor. Also by
introducing the concepts of guard time and cyclic extension, the effects of inter-symbol
interference (ISI) and inter carrier interference (ICI) are removed completely.
3.4.2 Immunity to Frequency Selective Fading Channels
If the channel undergoes frequency selective fading, then complex equalization
techniques are required at the receiver for single carrier modulation techniques. But in the case of
OFDM the available bandwidth is split among many orthogonal narrowly spaced sub-carriers.
Thus the available channel bandwidth is converted into many narrow flat fading sub-channels.
Hence it can be assumed that the sub-carriers experience flat fading only, though the channel
gain/phase associated with the sub-carriers may vary. In the receiver, each sub-carrier just needs
to be weighted according to the channel gain/phase encountered by it. Even if some sub-carriers
are completely lost due to fading, proper coding and interleaving at the transmitter can recover
the user data.
3.4.3 High Spectral Efficiency
OFDM achieves high spectral efficiency by allowing the sub-carriers to overlap in
frequency domain. At the same time, to facilitate inter-carrier interference free demodulation of
the sub-carriers, the sub-carriers are made orthogonal to each other. If the number of sub-
carriers in N, the total bandwidth required is
104204 Page 28

( 1)
total
s
N
BW
T
+
= 3.11
For large values of N, the total bandwidth required can be approximated as
total
s
N
BW
T
=
On the other hand, the bandwidth required for serial transmission of the same data is
2
total
s
N
BW
T
= .........3.12


Fig. 3.17 - Spectrum Efficiency of OFDM Compared to FDM


Because no guard-band is needed between the adjacent sub-channels, OFDM can achieve
spectrum efficiency close to Nyquist limit. Achieve a spectral gain of nearly 100% in OFDM
compared to the single carrier serial transmission case.
3.4.4 Efficient Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation and Demodulation of the sub-carriers are done using computationally
efficient IFFT and FFT methods respectively [4]. By performing the modulation and
demodulation in the digital domain, the need for highly frequency stable oscillators is avoided.
3.4.5 Robust to Impulse Noise
The duration of OFDM symbols is much longer than that of single carrier system for a
channel with strong impulse noise; the transmitted symbols can still be largely recovered since
only a small fraction of each symbol is interfered by noise. Thus OFDM is more robust to
impulse noise than single carrier systems.

104204 Page 29


3.5 Applications of OFDM
Wireless
- Digital Audio Broadcasting
- Terrestrial digital TV systems DVB-T and ISDB-T
- Terrestrial mobile TV systems DVB-H and ISDB-T
- HDTV
- Wireless LAN Networks
HIPERLAN/2
IEEE 802.11a
IEEE 802.11g
IEEE 802.11n
- IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access System
- IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access System
- The wireless personal area network (PAN) ultra-wideband (UWB) IEEE 802.15.3a
implementation suggested by WiMedia Alliance.
Cable
- ADSL and VDSL broadband access via POTS copper wiring
- Power Line Communication (PLC)
- DVB-C2, an enhanced version of the DVB-C digital cable TV standard
- ITU-T G.hn, a standard which provides high speed local area networking of existing
home wiring (power lines, phone lines, coaxial cables).
3.6 Major Limitations of OFDM
One major limitations of OFDM is the high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR)of the
transmit signal which occurs due to the summation of many subcarrier modulated signals. A high
PAPR requires a wide dynamic range for the power amplifier at the transmitter, or more
commonly the power amplifier needs to be backed off to accommodate high peaks. This results
in significant reduction of the transmission power which leads to very low power efficiency. It is
104204 Page 30

therefore preferable to reduce the PAPR of the signal. Several methods have been proposed by
researchers to reduce PAPR, such as Clipping, Clipping and Filtering, Selected Mapping, and
Partial Transmit Sequence [20].Clipping is the simplest technique for reducing the PAPR,
however it causes both in-band and out-of band distortion [21]. Filtering can be employed to
alleviate out-of-band distortion but results peak re-growth. Repeated clipping and filtering can
lead to degradation in BER. Windowing is another approach that offers reduced out-of-band
radiation but window has to be as narrow as possible in the frequency domain and the impulse
response in the time domain should not last too long, otherwise more signal samples are affected.
Tone reservation is also an effective technique for reducing the PAPR of OFDM signals but
causes a reduction in data through-put as data carriers are used to generate an effective
cancellation signal in the time domain to reduce high peaks. SLM and PTS schemes can handle
any number of subcarriers. But the drawback associated with the schemes is the overhead of side
information that needs to be transmitted to the receivers end [22] [23][24] [25]. The other major
limitation of OFDM is its sensitivity against carrier frequency offset which causes attenuation
and rotation of subcarriers, and inter-carrier interference (ICI) [28]. Because of the orthogonality
of the sub-carriers, we are able to extract the symbols at the receiver as they do not interfere with
each other. Orthogonality is preserved as long as sub-carriers are harmonics to each other. If at
the receivers end there is a change in frequency of the sub-carriers due to any reason, then the
orthogonality among them are lost and ICI occurs. As a result the signal degrades heavily. This
change in frequency is called frequency offset. There are two main reasons for frequencies offset
which are frequency mismatch between transmitter & receiver and Doppler Effect. The
undesired ICI degrades the performance which is discussed in [28]. Several methods have been
presented to reduce ICI, including self-cancellation schemes [29], frequency domain
equalization, and time domain windowing at the receiver. Among them frequency domain
equalization and time domain windowing methods are not so efficient because they do not
address to the major cause of ICI which is due to the frequency mismatch between the
transmitter and receiver, and Doppler shift. The drawback of the ICI self-cancellation method is
that the same data is modulated into two or more carriers, thus reducing the spectral efficiency.
Orthogonality:
To have several carriers is actually advantageous whenever they are mathematically
orthogonal. So carriers orthogonality is a constrain that can leads to a wrong operation of OFDM
104204 Page 31

systems if not respected. The orthogonality is provided by IFFT that a numerical manipulation,
an error of computation could change lightly spacing between to consecutive carriers and break
the orthogonality of the whole system. In this case OFDM loses all its efficiency, because the
notion of orthogonality is an absolute one.
Synchronization:
One of the crucial problems in the receiver is to sample the incoming signal correctly. If the
wrong sequence of samples is processed, the Fast Fourier Transform shall not correctly recover
the received data on the carriers. The problem is more embarrassing when the receiver is
switched on. There is therefore a need for acquiring timing lock. If the signal transmitted is really
time domain periodic, as required for the FFT to be correctly applied, then the effect of the time
displacement is to modify the phase of all carriers by a known amount. This is due to the time
shift theorem in convolutional transform theory.
However, the signal is not really repetitive, we have cheated and performed the mathematical
transform as if it were repetitive, but then chosen different symbols and transmitted them one
after the other. The effect of the time shift would then be not only to add the phase shift referred
to above, but also to add some intersymbol interference with adjacent symbols. This interference
could hardly degrade reception.
To avoid these problems, we decide to transmit more than one complete sequence of time
samples in order to increase the tolerance in timing. Its an additional data guard interval. It is
built by repeating a set as long as channel memory of last samples taken in the original sequence.
The longer the guard interval, the more rugged the system, but guard interval does not carry any
useful information and its transmission leads to a penalty of power.
One technique used to obtain good synchronization is to add between each OFDM
symbol a null (zero samples) symbol. This technique is used in DAB for time synchronization.





104204 Page 32


3.7 The model of OFDM System

The simulation model OFDM system is presented in fig 2.6. This model consists of a transmitter,
a channel and a receiver. A brief description of the model is provided below.

Fig 3.18 OFDM model

Random Data Generator
Random data generator is used to generate a serial random binary data. This binary data
stream models the raw information that going to be transmitted. The serial binary data is then fed
into OFDM transmitter
Serial to Parallel Conversion
The input serial data stream is formatted into the word size required for transmission, and
shifted into a parallel format. The data then transmitted in parallel by assigning each data word to
one carrier in the transmission.


104204 Page 33


Modulation of Data
The data to be transmitted on each carrier is then differential encoded with previous
symbols, then mapped into a Phase shift Keying (PSK) format. Since differential encoding
requires an initial phase reference an extra symbol is added at the start for this purpose. The data
on each symbol is then mapped to a phase angle based on the modulation method.
Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
After the required spectrum is worked out, an Inverse Fourier Transform is used to find
the corresponding time waveform. The guard period is then added to the start of each symbol.
Guard Period
The type of guard period used in this simulation is a cyclic extension of the symbol. The
length of guard period is then added to the start of each symbol.
Parallel to Serial Conversion
After guard period has been added, the symbol is then converted back to a serial time
waveform. This signal is the baseband signal for the OFDM.
Channel
A channel model is then applied to the transmitted signal. Hence both AWGN and
Rayleigh fading model are included for investigation. The AWGN is applied to the OFDM signal
by adding noise factor 10(-SNR/10) to the transmitted signal. In Rayleigh fading model the power of
a signal will very randomly according to a Rayleigh distribution. Multipath delay spread then
added by simulating the delay spread using an FIR filter. The length of FIR filter represents the
maximum delay spread while the coefficient amplitude represents the reflected signal magnitude.
The power clipping is applied to the OFDM signal by cutting the signal that higher than a certain
determined power value.
Receiver
The receiver basically does the reverse operation to the transmitter. The guard period is
removed. The FFT of each symbol is then taken to find the original transmitted spectrum. The
phase angle of each transmission carrier is then evaluated and converted back to the data word by
demodulating the received phase. The data words are then combined back to the same word size
as the original data.

104204 Page 34

4.REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF PAPR REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
4.1 Introduction
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a form of multi carrier modulation
technique with high spectral efficiency, robustness to channel fading, immunity to impulse
interference, uniform average spectral density capacity of handling very strong echoes and non-
linear distortion. Despite of its many advantages, OFDM suffers from two main drawbacks, i.e.,
high peak to average power ratio (PAPR) and inter-carrier interference (ICI). So researchers have
developed many schemes to overcome those over the years. Section 3.2 introduces the peak to
average power ratio in OFDM system. In section 3.3, a few important PAPR reduction
techniques are analyzed and the simulation results are presented to prove their effectiveness.
Section 3.4 explains the various parameters inducing ICI in OFDM system. Various ICI
cancellation schemes in section 3.5 and ICI self cancellation scheme is investigated. The
conclusion is presented in section 3.6.
4.2 Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM Systems
An OFDM signal consists of a number of independently modulated sub-carriers, which
can give a large PAPR when added up coherently. When N signals are added with the same
phase, they produce a peak power that is N times the average power of the signal. So OFDM
signal has a very large PAPR, which is very sensitive to non-linearity of the high power
amplifier. In OFDM, a block of N symbols {X , k = 0,1,....,N 1} is formed with each symbol
modulating one of a set of subcarriers, {f , k = 0,1,.....,N 1} . The N subcarriers are chosen
to be orthogonal, that is,
k
f k f = A , where Af =1/ NT and T is the original time period. The
resulting signal is given as
1
2
0
( )
k
N
j f t
k
n
x t X e

=
=

, 0<t<NT ..4.1
PAPR is defined as
2
2
max ( )
[ ( ) ]
x t
PAPR
E x t
= 4.2

Where E[.] denotes expectation operator

104204 Page 35


4.2.1 Distribution of PAPR
When the number of sub-carriers in an OFDM system is high, conventional OFDM signals can
be regarded as Gaussian noise like signals; their variable amplitude is approximately Rayleigh-
distributed, and the power distribution has a cumulative distribution function given by
( ) 1
z
F z e

= 4.3
Assuming the samples of OFDM symbol are mutually uncorrelated, the probability that PAPR is
below some threshold level which can be expressed as
( ) ( ) (1 )
N z N
P papr z F z e

s = = .4.4


Fig 4.1 Cumulative Distribution Function of PAPR35
Fig.4.1 shows the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) with varying the subcarrier N = 16,
32, 64, 128, 256, 1024. It shows that PAPR increases with the number of subcarriers.
Complementary CDF is the complement of CDF (CCDF=1-CDF). Commonly CCDF of PAPR is
plotted as a performance parameter instead of CDF because it emphasizes the peak amplitude
excursions, while CDF emphasizes minimum values.

104204 Page 36



4.2.2 Effect of High PAPR
High PAPR corresponds to a wide power range which requires more complicated analog-
to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters in order to accommodate the large range
of the signal power values. Therefore, high PAPR increases both the complexity and cost of
implementation. The power amplifiers at the transmitter need to have a large linear range of
operation. When considering a system with a transmitting power amplifier, the nonlinear
distortions and peak amplitude limitation introduced by the high power amplifier (HPA) will
produce inter-modulation between the different carriers and introduce additional interference into
the system. This additional interference leads to an increase in the bit error rate (BER) of the
system. One way to avoid such non-linear distortion and keep low BER low is to force the
amplifier to work in its linear region. Unfortunately such solution is not power efficient and thus
is not suitable for wireless communication. Hence a high PAPR in the system design should be
restricted.
4.3 PAPR Reduction Techniques
Researchers have suggested several techniques to reduce PAPR over the years [21] [22]
[23] [24] [25]. This research work presents the simulation study and analysis three PAPR
reduction techniques in this section.
a) Clipping and Filtering Technique
b) Partial Transmit Sequence Technique
4.3.1 Clipping and Filtering
Deliberate clipping is a simple approach and, since the large peaks occur with a very low
probability, clipping could be on effective technique for the reduction of the PAPR. However,
clipping is a nonlinear process and may cause significant in- band distortion, which degrades the
bit error rate performance, and out of band noise, which reduces the spectral efficiency. Filtering
after clipping can reduce the spectral splatter but may also cause some peak re growth. If digital
signals are clipped directly, the resulting clipping noise will all fall into in-band and cannot be
reduced by filtering. To avoid this aliasing problem, oversample each OFDM block by padding
the original input with zeros and taking a longer IFFT. Filtering after clipping is required to
reduce the out of band clipping noise. The other approach to clipping is to use Forward Error
104204 Page 37

Correcting codes and band pass filtering with clipping. This method improves the bit error rate
performance and spectral efficiency.
4.3.2 Partial Transmit Sequencing (PTS)
In the Partial Transmit Sequencing (PTS) scheme, subcarriers are partitioned into blocks
and each block is multiplied by a constant phase factor. These phase factors are optimized to
minimize the PAPR. These sub-blocks are then combined to minimize the peak. Optimal phase
factors are sent to the receiver as side information.
One of the method to reduce the PAPR is block coding. This technique, proposed by
Jones, Wilkinson and Barton uses a special block codes for subcarrier modulation rather than
allowing the data to modulate the subcarriers directly. This technique limits the set of possible
signals that can be transmitted as it only allows codes that generate lower envelopes to be
transmitted. Code words with minimum PAPR will be determined from a given set of codes
words. The reduction of PAPR is at the expense of a decrease in coding rate. This technique is
also not suitable for higher order bit rates or large number of subcarriers.
Block Coding scheme will not cause distortion to the data during encoding. Unlike
clipping Block Coding scheme, there is no delay during the process of encoding. While both
technique will add redundancy bits to the data, the Block Coding technique proven to be the far
better choice due to its non-delay encoding characteristic. Scheme where in-band distortion and
phase noise is introduced during the clipping process, Block Coding technique can even offer bit
error correction capability through the use of the added redundancy bits. In probability scheme,
delay will be caused by the looping search to find the most optimized phase factor so that the
sub-blocks upon combining will give a low PEP. This will create a long delay if the number of
subcarriers and data is large. Fortunately, for
4.4 Precoding based techniques
Precoding based techniques are simple linear techniques. These techniques can
reduce the PAPR up to the PAPR of single carrier systems (Slimane, 2007). Walsh-Hadamard
transform (WHT) precoding based techniques, discrete cosine transform (DCT) precoding based
techniques, discrete hartley transform (DHT) precoding based techniques are common examples
of precoding based PAPR reduction techniques (Slimane, 2007; Min & Jeoti, 2007; Baig & Jeoti,
2010).

104204 Page 38



4.4.1 Walsh-Hadamard Transform (WHT)
WHT is an orthogonal linear transform and can be implemented by a butterfly structure
as in FFT. This means that applying WHT does not require the extensive increase of system
complexity. The kernel of WHT can be written as follows:-






4.4.2 Discrete Hartley Transform (DHT)
DHT is a linear transform. In DHT N real numbers x0, x1, , xN-1 are transformed in to
N real numbers H0, H1, , HN-1. The N-point DHT can be defined as follows:-





Where
k=1, 2, 3 N-1.
The DHT is also invertible transform which allows us to recover the x
n
from and inverse can be
obtained by simply multiplying DHT of by
1
k
H
N
=
4.4.3 Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)
DCT matrix P of size N-by-N can be created by using equation




| |
1
1 H =
( ) 2
1
1 1
1 1
2
H

=
1
2
1
2
N N
N N
N
H H
H
H H
N

| |
=
|
\ .
cos sin cis i = +
1
0
1
0
1 2 2
cos sin
1 2
( ).
N
k n
n
N
n
nk nk
X x
N N N
nk
x n cis
N N

=

| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .

| |
=
|
\ .

,
1
0 1
2 (2 1)
1 1
2
0 1
i j
D i N
N
j i
COS i N
N N
j N

= s s
+
s s
s s
104204 Page 39

4.5 PAPR Calculation for OFDM Signal
An OFDM system with Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) modulation and a total
of N baseband-modulated symbol per OFDM block is considered in this paper. As shown in
figure the transmitter consists of a baseband (complex) modulator followed by a precoder and
the onventional OFDM modulator (IDFT). The incoming information data is first modulated in
baseband using a bandwidth-efficient modulation (Qam-type modulation). The baseband-
modulated stream, with data rate 1/Ts, is grouped into blocks of length N symbols each.

Fig 4.2 Model for a Precoded OFDM System and PAPR
Each block of symbols is then precoded by an L N precoding matrix, denoted P, and defined as

0 1 2 1
[ , , ...., ]
T
N
X X X X X

=
..4.5.1

Each block of symbols is then precoded by an L N precoding matrix, denoted P, and defined as
0,0 0,1 0, 1
1,0 1,1 1, 1
,0 ,1 1, 1
.......
.......
.
.
......
N
N
N N N N
P P P
P P P
P
P P P

| |
|
|
=
|
|
|
\ .

4.5,2.

104204 Page 40

Where
, i j
P s are the entries (complex numbers) of this precoding matrix, L = N + Np is the total
number of subcarriers, and Np is the extra subcarriers (overhead) used with 0 _ Np < N. When
no precoding is used, the matrix P reduces to an N N identity matrix, and no overhead is used.
0 1 2 1
[ , , ...., ]
N
X X X X X

= 4.5,3.
Which after serial to parallel conversin becomes
0
1
1
.
.
N
X
X
X
X



=



4.5,4.

( 2 / )
{0,1,.... 1}
j d M S
i
E
X e d M
T
+
= e 4.5,5.

And is some initial phase. The precoding process (matrix) transforms this vector into a new
vector of length L with
0
1
1
.
.
N
Y
Y
Y PX
Y



= =




Where
1
,
0
N
i i m m
m
Y P X

=
=

i=0L-14.5,6.
These Precoded symbols are then transmitted over the different subcarriers of the OFDM-
modulation scheme. In this case, the equivalent low pass of the OFDM transmitted signal can be
written as follows:
1
2 /
0
( )
L
j it T
i g
i
x t Ye T t T

=
= s <

..4.5,7
where T= NTs is the duration of the OFDM block, and Tg= GTs is a time guard interval
introduced between consecutive OFDM blocks at the transmitter to prevent the possible problem
of intersymbol interference, which can be caused by the communication channel, and to preserve
the orthogonality between the OFDM subcarriers. This guard interval is, in general, ignored at
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the receiver before demodulation and signal detection. The OFDM-band pass signal is related to
its equivalent low pass by the following expression:
2
( ) Re { ( ) }
c
j f t
s t al x t e

= ..4.5.8
Where fc is the carrier frequency. In the linear case (when no power amplifier is used) and for
large values of the number of subcarriers, the spectrum of conventional OFDM signals goes to an
ideal band-limited rectangular spectrum. This means that the OFDM signal within each block
appears as Gaussian with very high variations from one sample to the next. Thus, the power
spectral density of the modulated signal will be broadened by the nonlinear distortions of a high-
power amplifier. The PAPR is one way to measure such variation of the transmitted signal.
PAPR of precoded OFDM The PAPR of the precoded OFDM transmitted signal of equation
4.5.7 can be defined as follows
2
2
max ( )
{ ( ) }
x t
PAPR
E x t
= 4.5,9
The value of the above expression will depend on the kind of precoder used at the transmitter.
Our objective in this paper is to select a precoder that minimizes the above expression.
Combining equations 4.5.6 and 4.5.7 the equivalent low pass of the OFDM transmitted signal
can be rewritten as follows:
1
2 /
0
1 1
2 /
0 0
( )
( ) 0
L
j it T
i
i
N L
j it T
m i
m i
x t Ye
X Ye t T

=

= =
=
= s <

4.5.10
where we have ignored the guard interval, for now, since it is just an extension by periodicity.
Using the above equation in 5.9, we can relate the PAPR of the OFDM signal to the different
entries of the precoding matrix. For OFDM systems with MPSK modulation schemes and
uncorrelated symbols within each OFDM block, the PAPR of the OFDM signal at a given time
instant t can be upper bounded as follows:
1 1
2 / 2
,
0 0
1
[ ( ) ] 0
N L
j it T
i m
m i
PAPR p e t T
N

= =
s s <

4.5.11
and the maximum PAPR is then obtained as
max
1 1
2 / 2
,
0 0
max( ( )) 0
1
max[ ( ) ] 0
N L
j it T
i m
m i
PAPR PAPR t t T
p e t T
N

= =
= s <
s <

4.5.12
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Where we have assumed that
2
_____
m s
X E =
Where, m = 0,1,. . . . . . . . . ..,N-1, which represents the average-energy-per transmitted symbol.
Selection Criteria Of Precoding Matrix We notice that the PAPR of the OFDM signal is a
function of the size of the OFDM block and the entries of the precoding matrix. Since the size of
the OFDM block is fixed, one can reduce the PAPR of the signal by a proper selection of the
precoding matrix P. However, selecting the proper matrix is not an easy task because its entries
are complex numbers and they can take any value, which makes computer-search methods very
difficult to use. Thus, before doing any precoding design, we should take a closer look at the
PAPR expression given in equation5.13. From equation 4.5.14, we define a set of time limited
(complex) function {pm(t)} as follows:
1
2 /
,
0
, 0
( )
0 ,
L
j it t
i m
m
i
p e t T
P t
elsewhere

|
< <

..4.5.13
for m = 0, 1, . . . , N - 1. With the above definition, the PAPR of the precoded OFDM signal can
be rewritten in terms of pm(t) as
2
1
0
1
( ) ( )
L
m m
i
P t p t
N

| |
s
|
\ .

4.5.14.
We notice that the PAPR ratio is now related to the sum of N positive functions within the time
interval 0 _ t < T. This gives some hint on how to select the entries of the precoding matrix P. A
possible solution is to make sure that the peak amplitudes of the N functions |pm(t)|, m = 0, 1, . .
.,N -1 do not occur at the same time instant within the interval of definition. By ensuring that, the
peak power of the OFDM signal can be reduced without altering the average signal power. A
possible set of functions that avoids having the peak amplitudes to occur at the same time instant
can be obtained by selecting the different entries such that the different functions are cyclic shifts
of each other within the time interval 0 < t < T. In other words, we can impose the following
relation between the different functions:
1
2 / 2 /
0
( ) , 0
( )
0 ,
L
j im N j it T
i
m
i
p t e e t T
P t
elsewhere

|
< <

5,15.
It is clear that if p(t) has only one amplitude peak, then all the other functions will also have one
amplitude peak and all the amplitude peaks will not occur at the same time instant. Hence, this
104204 Page 43

format will certainly reduce the peak-to-average ratio of the Precoded OFDM scheme. We also
notice from the above expression that the entries of the precoding matrix are related to each
other. Furthermore, all the entries of the different columns of the precoding matrix are directly
obtained from the entries of the first column. This indicates that we only need to find the first
column of the matrix P, which will of course simplify the design of the Precoded considerably.
In fact, we notice that having a mother function p(t), we can extract all the entries of the
precoding matrix from p(t) With p(t) as any of the complex functions defined within the time
interval 0 < t < T.




















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4.6 Comparison of the PAPR Reduction Techniques

PAPR
Reduction
Technique

Implementation
Complexity

Distortion BER
Degradation

Bandwidth
Expansion

Power
Increase

Data
Rate
Loss
Clipping &
Filtering

LOW YES YES NO NO NO
Selective
Mapping

HIGH NO NO YES NO NO
Partial
Transmit
Sequence

HIGH NO NO YES NO YES
Precoding
Based
Techniques
LOW NO NO NO NO NO

Tabe 4.1: Comparison of the PAPR Reduction Techniques
The main characteristics of precoding based techniques are, no bandwidth expansion, no power
increase, no data rate loss, no BER degradation and distortion less.








104204 Page 45

Chapter 5 Simulation Results and Discussions
Transmitter:
There are 3 portions that we need to design for the transmitter portion of OFDM. Firstly,
we need to generate a random signal source to simulate the OFDM signal. We will make use of
RANDSRC to generate a random matrix

Fi gur e 5.1: No of dat a poi nt s gener at ed 512
Secondly, we need to modulate the signal that we have generated. We will use modem.qammod
to construct a 16 QAM modulator.

Fi gur e 5.2: Scat t er pl ot of 16 QAM
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Fig5.3:Scatter plot of a 64 QAM

Fig5.4: Scatter plot of a 128 QAM
104204 Page 47

And thirdly we need to do an IFFT on the modulated signal. We will make a randomly generated
data matrix where each column represents an OFDM block before cyclic prefix is added.
A Cyclic prefix is added as it performs the simple but crucial task of a transmission guard
interval protect system against multipath fading.
After IFFT has been done, we need to convert the data back into serial stream for transmission
through a channel.

Fi gur e 5.5: OFDM si gnal gener at ed
PAPR Calculation for the transmitted ofdm signal
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Fi gur e 5.6: OFDM si gnal and i t s cor r espondi ng PAPR

Fi gur e 5.7: OFDM si gnal and i t s PAPR
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Figure 5.8: PAPR plot of the OFDM signal

Fig 5.9:Ccdf plot comparing the transforms
104204 Page 50


PAPR FOR M-QAM
Type Of Modulation PAPR in db PAPR in db
(pre coded)
16-QAM 3.4320 2.5529
32-QAM 4.3217 3.6523
64-QAM 6.6541 4.1812
128-QAM 7.8734 5.2307
Tabe 5.1: Comparison of the PAPR(db) values for M-Qam



















104204 Page 51



Chapter 6 Conclusion and Further work
6.1 Conclusion
Crest Factor reduction is a major concern for wireless network equipment vendors due to the
power amplifier limitations imposed by the high peak to average ratio (PAR).
The performance limitations results in expensive equipment and large electrical bills to operate
the base stations. Finding a way to lower the PAR can result in an improvement in amplifier
efficiency and also reduce the overhead costs (both equipment, and resources), a topic which
large wireless network companies are actively looking into.
This project focuses on the performance evaluation of PAPR reduction techniques of OFDM;
namely Conventional and DTH Precoded . The implementation complexity of the proposed
technique is by far much low compared to previous methods.
6.2Further work
Peak Factor reduction using Peak Cancellation (PC)
Peak Reduction technique provides Peak Factor reduction which is similar to Noise Shaping.
However the difference between the two methods is; in Peak Cancellation, the regenerated
spectrally shaped signal is based on peak samples, this is then used to subtract the original peak
signal above the clipping threshold after a suitable delay process has been applied. As a result of
the simplified approach (using just the peak samples for subtraction); less distortion is resulted
and less computational burden is incurred. Peak Cancellation has another advantage; the
flexibility. It can support multiple air interface standards on the same system by suitably
changing the filters used to generate the pulse.
As only a small fraction of all the possible OFDM symbols has a bad PAPR, there is another
solution to resolving the Crest Factor problem coding. The Crest Factor can be reduced by
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using a code that only produces OFDM symbols with PAPR below the desirable level required.
Some of the mentioned coding methods available are the Golay complementary sequences,
Walsh-Hadamard coding and symbol scrambling just to mention a few.
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