REPORT NO.

(1)
Chapter (2)

Summarized by \

Under Supervision \

2-1 OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN:

1. 2.

Appropriateness. Economy.

3. Structural adequacy. Structural adequacy involves two major aspects. (a) A structure must be strong enough to support all anticipated loadings safely. (b) A structure must not deflect, tilt, vibrate, or crack in a manner that impairs its usefulness. 4. Maintainability. A structure should be designed so as to require a minimum amount of simple maintenance procedures.

2-2 THE DESIGN PROCESS:

1. Definition of the clients needs and priorities. 2. Development of project concept. Based on the clients needs and priorities, a number of possible layouts are developed. Preliminary cost estimates are made, and the final choice of the system to be used is based on how well the overall design satisfies the clients needs within the budget available. 3. Design of individual systems. a structural analysis is carried out to determine the moments, shears, torques, and axial forces in the structure. The individual members are then proportioned to resist these load effects, must also consider overall aesthetics, the constructability of the design, coordination with mechanical and electrical systems, and the Sustainability of the final structure. The final stage in the design process is to prepare construction drawings and specifications.

Ultimate limit states:

(a) Loss of equilibrium. (b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure. (c) Progressive collapse.

(i) Controlling accidental events by taking measures such as protection against vehicle collisions or explosions. (ii) Providing local resistance by designing key members to resist accidental events. (iii) Providing minimum horizontal and vertical ties to transfer forces. (iv) Providing alternative lines of support to anchor the tie forces. (v) Limiting the spread of damage by subdividing the building with planes of weakness, sometimes referred to as structural fuses. (d) Formation of a plastic mechanism. (e) Instability due to deformations of the structure. This type of failure involves buckling (f) Fatigue. Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles of service loads may cause collapse.

Serviceability limit states:

(a) Excessive deflections for normal service. (b) Excessive crack widths (c) Undesirable vibrations.

Special limit states:

(a) damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes, (b) structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions, (c) structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, and (d) long-term physical or chemical instability (normally not a problem with concrete structures).

Limit-States Design:
1. the identification of all potential modes of failure. 2. the determination of acceptable levels of safety against occurrence of each limit state. 3. structural design for the significant limit states.

Basic Design Relationship:

resistances load effects Rn 1S1 + 2S2 + m Mn DMD + LML + V Vn DVD + LVL + P Pn DPD + LPL +

2-4 STRUCTURAL SAFETY:

1. Variability in strength. The actual strengths (resistances) of beams, columns,or other structural members will almost always differ from the values calculated by the designer. The main reasons for this are as follows: (a) variability of the strengths of concrete and reinforcement, (b) differences between the as-built dimensions and those shown on the structural drawings (c) effects of simplifying assumptions made in deriving the equations for member strength. 2. Variability in loadings. All loadings are variable, especially live loads and environmental loads due to snow, wind, or earthquakes. 3. Consequences of failure. A number of subjective factors must be considered in determining an acceptable level of safety for a particular class of structure These include: (a) The potential loss of lifeit may be desirable to have a higher factor of safety for an auditorium than for a storage building. (b) The cost to society in lost time, lost revenue, or indirect loss of life or property due to a failure (c) The type of failure, warning of failure, and existence of alternative load paths.