II.2 Derivation of Language and Language study Origin of language: We have no exact knowledge of the origins of language.

But we can suggest how such language might be obtained. There are some theories of the origins of language: 3 - The bow-wow theory: the people started imitating the sounds of the environment, like animal calls. The main evidence would be the use of onomatopoeic words. 3 The pooh-pooh theory: the people made instinctive sounds of pain, anger, or other emotion. The main evidence would be the universal use of sounds as interjections. 3 The ding-dong theory: the people produced sounds which in some way reflected or were in harmony with environment. The main evidence would be the universal use of sounds for words of certain meaning. 3 The ye-he-ho theory: while people worked together, their physical efforts produced communal, rhythmical grunts, which developed into chants, and thus language. The main evidence would be the universal use of prosodic features, especially of rhythm. 3 The la-la theory: language arose because of the sounds associated with love, games and feelings. 3

The paleontological evidence shows that ancient humans started producing shouts and sounds with no meanings. Then they learned how to use these sounds to communicate between them. 4 AGES OF LANGUAGE: 4 Paleoglothic and Mesoglothic: 1 000 000 years ago They used sounds, shouts, gestures, imitation. Their communication was similar to babys or animals communication. There was more than one tongue, but less than 100 worldwide. The paleoglothic is the longest age of language. They started to paint objects. Diversity of sounds: tone, duration, volume, repetition, imitation, emotions. They used their throats, noses, mouths, tongues, lips, teeth and jaw. Some ancient elements: Pek - bone Tek- hand
1

Nek- eye, light Kep- head Pet- feet, walk Tet- teeth, eat Pen- pen, feather Nem- name, tongue Wet- water Wen- want

Neoglothic The first language. 10 000 years ago Lots of languages Simple word+ Simple word = new and complex word Graphic

Different ways to represent the words on rocks, paper, plants Writing Sumer writing Greeks alphabet Rome Latin

Some subjects about language are classified as sciences, some are usually not. The linguistic studies the bridge that links the sciences and arts. The studies that pay more attention to language include physiology, psychology, logic, communication, anthropology, philosophy, and sociology. 5 The objective of the scientific study of language is to figure out how languages work and how language, in general, works. Studying language scientifically, means to construct a theory of how language works, and to derive from it methods for describing languages. The theory is based on the observations of language activity. The statements should be scientific, so they must be: 5 Rigorous Consistent And objective The idea that language can be the object of scientific study is not new. It has only become popular because people found out that it has important applications. The main application of scientific study of language is teaching. 5 The term linguistics sciences covers two subjects: linguistics and phonetics. They are related because they look to the same material. But they are different because they study the language from different points of view. The language is an activity of four basic kinds: 5 Production Perception

 Speaking Writing

- Listening - Reading

The processes of speaking and writing can be observed and measured, but not the reading or listening processes. 5 Linguistics is the study and description of languages structure and nature. The linguistic science is derived in three principal levels: 5 Substance: the substance is the raw material of auditory (phonic substance) or visual (graphic substance). It is called the material too. Form: the form is the internal structure. It is called the structural too. Context: the context is the relation of the language to other features of the situations in which language operates. It is called the environment too. The study of phonic substance is called phonetics. The language is considered as an organized system of sounds and noises, so the phonetics studies the sounds, and the linguistics, the organization. 5 II.3 Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans 6 The languages around the world are grouped in families, so they can be studied. These are some families: Italic Celtic Germanic Baltic Slavic These families have affinities with Aryan languages, which were spoken in faraway India. They share a common ancestor: The Indo-European. The linguists are trying to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary. This reconstruction is followed by a brief description of some of the main features of the Proto-Indo-European language and the people who used to speak it: the IndoEuropeans. The Indo-European languages have similarities in words between them. These similarities provide evidence for the phonetic shape of the Proto-Indo-European language. No single language in the family preserves a word intact; they have been altered over time. The comparative linguistics and etymology study the regularity of sound correspondences. The comparative method explains the different forms in this variety of languages by the reconstruction of a unitary common prototype; a common ancestor. PROTOINDO-EUROPEAN GRAMMAR: SOUNDS AND FORMS

The success of the comparative method with the Indo-European family is the number and precision of the similarities in sound and morphology among the languages. SPEECH SOUNDS THEIR ALTERNATIONS The system of sounds in the Proto-Indo-European was rich in stop consonants and poor in continuants. The Proto-Indo-European sounds were: Stop consonants o Unvoiced series: p, t, k, kw o Voiced series: b, d, g, gw o Voiced aspirate or murmured series: bh, dh, gh, gwh. Pronounced like the voiced series but followed by a puff of breath. Continuant consonants: such as English f, v, th, s and z. Nasal consonant: m and n Liquids: r and l. Glides: w and y could function as consonants and vowels (u and i). Vowels: a, e, o, i, u. Diphthongs: ei, oi, ai, eu, ou, au. The diphthongs got modified with the sound //. The sound is preserved in cuneiform documents from the second millennium B.C. Apophony or ablaut: it was the system of vocalic alternations characteristic of the Indo-European. The vocalic alternations express the present and the past tenses; they changed the /e/ to /o/. GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND SYNTAX The Proto-Indo-European was an inflected language. The words had a lot of variations in their endings. Nouns had different endings for subject, direct object, possessive, singular, plural, etc. The verbs had different endings for each person, numbers, active, passive, tenses, moods, etc. Practically none of these variations are preserved in modern English, but they are in Germanic, Latin and Greek. Structure of all = ROOT + 1 or more SUFFIXES (verbal /nominal) + ENDING Inflected words The root plus the suffix or suffixes constituted the stem. The stem represented the basic lexical stock of Proto-Indo-European. The Proto-Indo-European had very few prefixes. The composition was the combining of two words or notions into a single word. SEMANTICS

It is perhaps harder to reconstruct the meaning than to reconstruct the linguistic form. It can only be extrapolated from the meanings of its descendants. LEXICON AND CULTURE Language is a social fact, so we talk about an existence of a prehistoric society, a speech community, the society of Indo-Europeans. The language is expression of culture and a part of it. The reconstruction of vocabulary gives nonmaterial culture. To reconstruct the abstract concepts as religion the archeologists examine the temples, sanctuaries, idols, etc. By this way we have got the basic vocabulary. GENERAL TERMS Proto-Indo-European ENGLISH es- bheu Be TereGo Ed- p(i)Eating and drinking w g ei Live NewoNew YeuYouthful Ten thin w leg hLight SuGood/well DusBad Eg/ meme WeWe YuYou ThThis, then Dwo2 Trei3 w k etwer4 w penk e5 S(w)eks6 NATURE AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIROMENT We also may know about the time, weather, seasons and natural surroundings of the Indo-Europeans homeland. Proto-Indo-European ENGLISH YerYear WetWeather GheiWinter Wes-rSpring SemSummer MensMonth, moon SawelSun SterStars Wes-peroWest nekw-tNight w sneigh hSnow

All of these words give us a landscape about was the weather and vegetation (in some cases). We know that there used to snow there because they create a word for that event. PEOPLE AND SOCIETY They had, for human beings themselves, a number of terms were employed, with different nuances of meaning. We can imagine how their familiar life and relation was. Proto-Indo-European ENGLISH ManMan DentTooth OusEar NasNose LebLip PedFoot KerdHert PterFather MaterMother AwonAunt DhughterDaughter SunuSon BhraterBrother SwesorSister ECONOMIC LIFE AND TECHNOLOGY They lived with the principle of exchange and reciprocal gift-giving. The gift must be equivalent. They practiced the agriculture and the cultivation of cereals (gr-nograin). They used to have meal (mel-). They had cows (gwou-) and horses (ekwo-). They used to cook (pekw) and sew (syu). The Indo-Europeans knew metal and metallurgy of bronze, iron, gold, silver, etc. They adopted the wheel transportation and wagon. The archeologists found some vestiges in Europe to the latter part of the 5th millennium B.C., the latest possible date for the community of Proto-Indo-European proper. IDEOLOGY There are also words for ideas, abstractions and relations. The Indo-Europeanprotolanguage is particularly rich in such vocabulary. The poetry and tradition of poetics are also common patrimony in most of the Indo-Europeans. They used a lot of metaphorical expressions. They believed in the immortality. Proto-Indo-European ENGLISH MenMind, remembering, thinking MedMeasure RegKing LeghLaw PrekPray w Seng hSing KailoHoly

Sak-

Sacred

THE INDO-EUROPEAN ORIGIN OF ENGLISH: 7 We have named Indo-European to the linguistic family that includes most of the languages of Europe, past and present, as well as those found in a vast area, and half of the Indian subcontinent. The comparison of this ancient tongue with the two classical languages revolutionized the perception of linguistic relationships. The linguists have one fact and one hypothesis. The one fact is that certain languages present similarities among themselves which are so numerous and so precise that they cannot be attributed to chance and which are such that they cannot be explained as borrowings or as universal features. The one hypothesis is that these languages must then be the result of descent from a common original. Other similarities may reflect universal or near-universal features of human language: Names derived from the noise the thing makes Baby talk Casual or chance contact The Languages require us to assume that they are the continuation of a single prehistoric language. The languages are Indic, Iranian, Greek, Armenian, Slavic, Baltic, Albanian, Celtic, Hittite, Anatolian, Italic and Germanic. The Indo-European family is one of many language families that have been identified around the world, comprising several thousand different languages. The English is the most prevalent member of that family. It is the second language in the world. The speakers of the Indo-European languages amount to approximately half the population of the Earth. English evolution: Indo-European Prehistoric Common Germanic West Germanic Old English Modern English Linguistic heritage, while it may well tend to correspond with cultural continuity, does not imply genetic or biological descent the transmission of language might be by conquest, assimilation or migration. The comparative method remains today the most powerful device for elucidating linguistic history. The linguists have obtained the reconstruction of the 50% of the basic roots of the Indo-European. They reconstructed features, sounds, forms, words, sentences structure (grammar and lexicon) of the language spoken before the human race had invented the art of writing. II.4 The early history of Indo-European languages 8 The linguistic science has being reaching the protolanguage which all the IndoEuropean super family languages come from. The half of the worlds population speaks an Indo-European language as first language.

The linguists have that the protolanguage originated more than 6000 years ago in Anatolia (western of Asia). The daughter languages have differentiated in the migrations which began to the east and then to western. For this research the linguists must seek correspondences in grammar, syntax, vocabulary and vocalization in different languages so they can reconstruct the original tongue. This is kind of easy to identify in living languages, but the dead languages are harder to compare, even more if they did not survive in a written form. The linguists may use of different tools, like the science of phonology. The sounds are more stable than the meanings of the words. The Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic families have affinities with Aryan languages spoken in faraway India. Those families might share a common ancestor. The linguists relied on Grimms Law, which says that consonants displace one another over time en predictable and regular fashion. This rule is used to reconstruct the Indo-European language. Before this researching, the origin of language was placed in Europe, but now it is placed in the western of Asia (Anatolia). The official language in Anatolian might be one of the first languages to come into writing. The Anatolian protolanguages might depart from the Indo-European parent language around the fourth millennium B.C., even earlier. We must consider all the human migrations and the pathways of linguistic derivations, if we want to know the protolanguage and its homeland. Some derivations of language produce the lacking of some sounds. The canons of phonology said, for example, that in the labial consonants (which are b, p and v), the most suppressed is b. But recent studies show that if some consonants are missing, the one that survives is b.

There is a classical theory and of consonant system for language and a new system developed by researchers called Indo-European glotallic system: Stop consonants
[Those which are sounded by the interrupting overflow of breath.] Classical system Voiced: (b), d, g Voiced aspirates: bh, dh, gh Voiceless: p, t, k Indo-European glotallic system Glottalized: (p), t, k Voiced/ aspirates: b/bh, d/dh, g/gh Voiceless aspirates: p/ph, t/th, k /kh

With this new system, they show that the most likely suppressed consonant is p not b. These also demonstrate that the protolanguage is closer to the Germanic, Hittite, and the Armenian than to the Sanskrit, which was considered the original sound system. So the Germanic might be older than the Sanskrit language. This

system show easier and more probable changes in daughter languages than the classical one. The migrations of people were pushed by the old technology as chariots, wheels and domestication of horses. We can note some similarities in the use of these techniques among different cultures, for example Mesopotamia, Asian and IndoEuropeans. The increase of population and technology promote the migration and the appearing of daughter languages. The migration of the Aryans started in Eurasia, passed around Himalayas, Afghanistan and settle down in India. New languages started to appear, and some died. This group is the Greek-Armenian-Indo-Iranian speakers dialect. Two groups of Indo-Iranian speakers appeared. The first group consisted in the speakers of the Kafiri languages. The second group spoke a dialect form which India languages are descended. The speakers of ancient Europe settled down in the north of the Black Sea. Among the third and first millennium B.C. ancient Europeans spread into Europe. The native European dialects contributed too in the emergence of the European families. The anthropometry, the genetics, phonology and linguistics will contribute in the research of the protoindo-european language and its homeland. II.5 World Linguistic diversity 9 The advances in archeology, genetics and linguistics opened the way for the diversity of the worlds languages. For more than 200 years, linguists have recognized that some languages have similarities in vocabulary, grammar and sounds, so they concluded these languages must have a common ancestor. This alliance is named language family. The most important family is the Indo-European which includes the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Persian. The linguists use the similarities between the languages to reconstruct a hypothetical ancestor tongue called protolanguage. The evolution of a language has also similarities with biological evolution. The evolution changes occur in a constant rate; as time passes, a language get some differences, until a new language arise. The convergence occurs when contemporaneous languages influence one another through the borrowing of words, phrases and grammatical forms. There are two opposing schools of thought; The splitters: they tend to emphasize the differences that make languages seem unrelated and to split the classification into small, independent units. They said that no languages can be grouped into families until important similarities are demonstrated to exist between them. The lumpers: they allow lumping many languages together into few families. Some of them reconstruct protolanguages. The most important families are: Indo-European

 Afro-Asiatic Uralic. In 1963, Greenberg classified the languages using the system of multilateral analysis which is a method that simultaneously examines a number of words in many languages rather than comparing words in just a pair of languages. He classified the languages of Africa into just four dominant macrofamilies: The Afro-Asiatic The Khoisan The Niger-Kordofanian The Nilo-Saharan The languages of America are divided in three macrofamilies: The Eskimo-Aleut Na-Dene Amerind. The evolution of species shares similarities with the evolution of our culture. The hominids appeared five million years ago in Africa. They migrated to Asia and Europe. By 40 000 years ago modern people had colonized the Levant, Asia, Europe, Australia and New Guinea. By 16 000 years ago the Asian pioneers had crossed the Bering Strait and settled down in the New World. All these people were speaking a language or languages, but we may have no clear idea what these languages were like. Four principal processes exist by which a language can come to be spoken in a given territory: Initial colonization of an unoccupied region Divergence Convergence Language replacement The replacement can take place when a few families have attained their present extent through the influence of elite dominance. If replacement had never occurred, then divergence would represent the primary cause of change. Large areas are occupied by single language families. Each language would differ markedly from its neighbors. The reasons of population dispersals are the introduction of farming and the ecological-climate changes. When the population spread, the languages did too.

Languages were spread by four processes: Initial migrations: early humans spread forma Africa to the rest of the world about 100 000 years ago. Farming Dispersal (Demographic expansions of farmers): the farming caused the expansion of the population. Late climate-related dispersal (late incursions into subarctic): global warming opened regions north of the 54th parallel. People, who arrived there, developed their language into families. Elite dominance (Wide-ranging conquest): complex societies started to conquest other populations. They also imposed their language. The language family begins as a single tongue spoken by foragers. They develop a farming culture as sedentary. As the population increases, the predominance of their language begins. In the north-western Europe the process was less one of population movement than of acculturation, but the linguistic effects may have been ultimately the same. The prehistoric languages didnt leave archeological vestiges. There are no reliable systems for dating protolanguages. Molecular genetics found out the genetic distance between the human beings around the world. Agricultural dispersals of population left genetic traces. Language replacement by elite dominance also involves gene flow but in a very limited scale. The farming in Europe shows a geographic distribution of gene frequencies, from southeast to northwest. These farmers came from Anatolia. This does not prove that those farmers spoke the original protolanguage. Other language familys distribution may be explained by agricultural dispersal. The researchers found a similar correspondence to genetic evidence. The correlation between genetic and linguistic data may be observed in some similarities in studies about the genetic tree and the family tree of languages. We can note the hypothetical existence of more embracing macrofamilies, such as Amerind and Indo-Pacific. Their origins lie well beyond 20 000 years ago. Other linguists say that the Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Dravidian, Altaic and Uralic can be classified together within a single macrofamily they called Nostratic, which is itself derived from a Proto-Nostratic language spoken in the Middle East some 15 000 years ago. Greenberg defined this macrofamily as Euro-Asiatic. These macrofamilies also has a correlation with genetic, archeological, and agricultural evidence. The archeological and genetic evidence harmonize well with some conclusions of the lumpers. The Euro-Asiatic comes from the ultimate protolanguage spoken by our remote African ancestors in their homeland. Linguists arguments for monogenesis do not contradict the evidence from archeology, bioanthropology and molecular genetics for an out-of-Africa origin for our species. There are two kinds of language areas:

Spread zones are large areas occupied by just one or two language families Europe, North Africa.

Residual zones which are smaller, although each one harbors a number of long-established language families Caucasus and New Guinea. The residual zones are the relics of earlier initial dispersals.

II.6 The Origins of Indo-European languages 10 The archeology has tried to explain the problem of the relations that link nearly all the Indo-European languages. The spread of the Indo-European languages holds that an Ur-language is the ancestor of all others. This Ur-language was spoken by nomadic horsemen who lived in what is now Russia in the beginning of the Bronze Age. They conquered the indigenous population and imposed their own proto-Indo-European language. According a different point of view, the conquest was not necessary for the spread of the Indo-European languages. It is more probably that the spread of the IndoEuropean languages was linked to the spread of the agriculture from Anatolia. The languages of Europe are related. These connections can be seen in vocabulary, grammar and phonology. This problem about the origin of the IndoEuropean is about linguistics, but it is related to archeology too. It is possible to reconstruct some characteristics of the original proto-language. The branches of the Indo-European family can be studied as a family tree. The common ancestor of this family is named the proto-Indo-European. This tree was pioneered in the 1860s by August Schleicher. The development of language represented in the family tree is the divergence. The divergence occurs when languages become isolated from one other, they differ increasingly, and dialects gradually differentiate until they become separate languages. But divergence is not the only possible tendency in language evolution. Johannes Schmidt introduced the wave model. The wave model explains that the linguistic changes spread like waves leading to convergence. Convergence is the growing similarity among languages which were initially different. The archeology assumed that the most important cultural changes are the result of migrations of entire tribes. The culture is a specific assemblage of artifacts which could document a specific tribe of people with their own language. The main problem of the origins of the Indo-European languages is finding their original homeland and tracing their dispersals, using the record of archeological cultures. For most of this century German scholars have preferred an IndoEuropean homeland in northern Europe (a master race of Aryans in Germany). In 1926 Gordon Childe argued for a homeland in the steppe areas north of the Black Sea (Russia) between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age by 3000 B.C. He used both archeological and linguistic arguments. He established a core vocabulary (which was common to many Indo-European languages) that had survived from the proto-Indo-European language spoken in the homeland. Core words for plants and animals can give us an image of the homeland.

Childe proposed that the Indo-Europeans were groups of nomadic pastoralists, armed and on horseback, who migrated from their homeland (Black Sea) in Bronze Age. He based his hypothesis in the core words for horse and wheel, which are actually part of a protolexicon prior to generalized dispersal. The traditional arguments tend to equate a given assemblage of artifacts with a supposedly well-defined group. The equation with supposed tribes is problematic. The equation between a people and particular language is much less than a straightforward proposition. The analysis should focus on processes of cultural change; the social, economic and demographic processes that are correlated with changes in language, and how they are reflected in the archeological evidence. MODELS OF HOW LANGUAGE CHANGE OCCURRED Process of initial colonization: an uninhabited territory becomes populated; its language naturally becomes that of the colonizers. Process of divergence: the linguistic arises from separation or isolation. This could explain the complex pattern of relations seen among the European languages. Process of convergence: it is the growing similarity among languages which were initially different. Linguistic replacement: In many areas of the world the languages initially spoken by the indigenous people have come to be replaced, fully or partially, by languages spoken by people coming from outside. This has a key role to play in explaining the origins of the Indo-European languages. There several ways one language might replace another in a specific region: Demographic and Economic process. There is an existing population is wellestablished, but a group of newcomers is to establish itself by peaceful means. The incoming population expands enough so their language begins to predominate. Elite dominance: the incoming group is well organized and possesses superior military technology, so they dominate by force and impose their own language. It has yet to be shown that either the incoming invaders or inhabitants of Europe were sufficiently highly organized before the Bronze Age. System collapse. When a highly centralized society collapses, people formerly kept under control beyond the frontier can take advantage of the power vacuum and move in. Lingua Franca. When long-distance trade builds up in an egalitarian society, a trading language (lingua franca) often develops. A pidgin language (a

simplified version of a language originally spoken outside the territory in question) begins to be spoken as a mother tongue is an example. THE COMING OF FARMING The coming of farming is an event wide-ranging and radical enough in its effect to be a candidate for explaining the language changes. The coming of farming is intimately linked to the formation and distribution of present-day languages. In the 7000 B.C. a novel agricultural economy began to spread across Europe. It comes from the central Anatolia (Turkey). It is explained with the wave of advance model: The agricultural The farming Each farmer moves economy was carried could have 18 km in a random by local movements of increased the direction, and The farmers agriculture would have spreadpopulation across Europe as a wave processing at an and their established average velocity of 1km/year. Itd have taken about 1500 years for the farming economy to reach northern Europe from Anatolia. But no single model could adequately describe a social process as complex as the coming of farming to Europe. Perhaps some tribes might adopt the farming from their neighbors, but they didnt have to adopt their language too. The reality was a mixture of these two processes. But there is archeological evidence that shows that Anatolia wasnt the only region where early agriculture took place. There are other zones of origination: Anatolian lobe (atal Hyk) Indo-European Second lobe (Jericho) Egypt and North of Africa languages Third lobe (Ali Kosh) languages of India and Pakistan The details of the entry of agriculture into specific regions provide a coherent alternative of how the Indo-European languages came to Europe. Its immigrants come from Anatolia rather than from the steppes in 6500B.C. or so. The first IndoEuropean speakers were peasant farmers whose societies were basically egalitarian and who in the course of an entire lifetime moved perhaps only a few kilometers. The whole early history Europe appears as a series of transformations and evolutionary adaptations on a common proto-Indo-European base augmented by a few non-Indo-European survivals. The hypothesis that the spread of language is linked to the spread of farming has a lot of implications outride this continent. The expanded wave of advance model has effect of situating the ancestral languages of the Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, and Dravidian groups closer together in the Near East about 10 000 years ago. This is supported on linguistics and genetics. They are related in a superfamily called the Nostratic. Modern humans were probably spreading out of Africa and populating large regions the globe. This biological evolution and dispersal provides the framework within which human language and linguistic diversity must be explained. The spread of farming from Anatolia into Europe will prove to be a significant part of the history. II.7 Development of the English language

Even that Linguistic sciences has not be able the certain origins of language, it has made possibly the reconstruction of some protolanguages. The linguists have used the comparative study of existing languages, earlier forms of those languages, and records of languages no longer spoken. 11 The Indo-European language is the ancestor of the English and the most of the languages of the western civilized world. The Indo-European is supposed to be spoken in the Neolithic period. The end of the Indo-European culture means the beginning of the differentiation of the Indo-European language into a number of dialects. It is often placed around 2500 B.C. 11 Proto-Indo-European Germanic West Teutonic Anglo-Frisian English 1 When the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invaded the island of Britain in the 5 th century, they imposed their languages and their customs. Their language became the standard speech of England. The first knowledge of English goes back just about thousand years. 11 OLD ENGLISH (449-1100) Old English is different from Modern English in its sounds, grammar, and vocabulary. The spelling is the most consistent of any other period. 11 When English separated from the Germanic family, it is recognized as a different language. Before that time it is known as pre-Old English. 1 The English migrated from the Continent to Britain in the fifth century. By that time, the island was already inhabited: the Celtic people had been there before 55 B.C. (when Julius Caesar invaded Britain). The Emperor Claudius wanted to make Britain a part of the Roman Empire. But the British Celts continued to speak their own language. Many of them learned to speak and write the language of the Romans too. 1 The Celts were invaded by the Scots and Romans. The Roman army included many non-Italians who were helped to keep the order in the empire. In the fourth century, some Roman forces already included some Angles and Saxons. 1 The Old English period begins with date of the first landing: 449. With it we may in a sense begin thinking of Britain as England: the land of the Angles. Some tribes and their descendants are the Jutes, Saxons and Frisians. 1 There were 4 principal dialects were spoken in Anglo-Saxon England: 1 Kentish West Saxon Mercian: Modern English is in large part a descendant of Mercian speech. Northumbrian The development of English is called West Saxon or classical Old English. The Old English period spans somewhat more than six centuries. In a period of more than 600 years many changes are bound to occur in sounds, in grammar, and vocabulary. 1 The vowels in Old English were: a, e, i, o, u, y. ,

 The consonants in Old English were b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, p, , w, x, z. The vocabulary of Old English is characterized by two important aspects: 1 There were relatively few loanwords; most of the word stock has a native Germanic origin. The gender of nouns was more or less arbitrary rather than determined by the sex or sexlessness of the thing named. One of the principal grammatical differences between Old English and Modern English is the amount of the inflection in the noun, the adjective, and the demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. 1 Old English Syntax: Old English syntax has an easily recognizable kinship with that of Modern English. There are some important differences: 1 Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns had fuller inflection for case than their modern developments do. Adjectives agreed in case, number, and gender with the nouns they modified. Old English had no articles. They used the infinitives in the passive voice. Old English had a number of impersonal verbs used without a subject. The subject could be omitted. The negative adverb ne (not) comes before the verbs. MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (1100-1500) By 1100, many changes had occurred to justify the creation of a new period to study the transition from the English of the early Middle Ages (Old English) to that of the ancient printed books. This English had some certain superficial differences, but is essentially the same as the Modern English. 1 Changes that occurred during this period: 1 Sounds Meanings The nature of its word stock: Old English words New French words Pronunciation: unaccented inflectional endings Grammar

Almost at the end of the Old English period, the great catastrophe of the Norman Conquest was the last invasion of England. After this event, French was the language of the governing classes in England. 1 There was a dialectal diversity in the Middle English period. The majority of these dialects did not leave written proves: 1 The Northern dialect corresponds to Old English Northumbrian. The Midland dialects, subdivided into East Midland and West Midland, correspond roughly to Old English Mercian. The southern dialect, spoken of the Thames, similarly corresponds roughly to West Saxon, with Kentish a subdivision.

Middle English showed influence of the Norman and French idiom in the word stock. Many French words became part of the English vocabulary. Some words replaced the English words. 1 A structural change of great importance occurred in the Middle English. The number of distinct inflectional endings in English was reduced, so Middle English became a language with few inflectional distinctions. 1 The Middle English lost its grammatical gender. Nouns acquired the same plural ending. The neuter article the supplanted the masculine and feminine forms. 1 The prose of the Middle English period has the same word order as Modern English. 1 MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD (1500-1800)

The fifteenth century marks the beginning of a new period in English history. In this period the language had the most important phonological changes in its history. The old spelling was maintained stereotyped. The majority of the vowels changed, but not in the written form. 1 The written Standard English language that we know today was established in this period. The standardization of the language was the first need of the central government. 1 Modern English develops some important changes in syntax and word inflection. They continued the trend established during the Middle English times that changed our grammar from a synthetic. 1 The es extended to the majority of the nouns as a genitive singular and caseless plural suffix. Most nouns had only two forms: singular and plural. The use of the apostrophe was adopted until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 1 Adjectives used er and est for comparatives and superlatives. Adverbs did not used ly suffix in early Modern English times. The pronouns had no important changes. 1

The contracted verbs forms nt in writing occurred in the eighteenth century. It seems that the contractions were used before they were written down. They were very nature in colloquial but they were considered unsuitable for writing. Some people still consider them inappropriate. The verb to be, as in passive voice and progressive times, appeared in the eighteenth century. 1 The first dictionaries appeared in this period. The publication of Johnsons Dictionary was the most important linguistic event of the eighteenth century. It established a standard for the use of words and fixed English spelling and. 1 These are the conjugation of the verb to find during the three periods. 1

II.8 The English Language in America

The English language was brought to America by the colonists from England who settled along the Atlantic seaboard in the seventeenth century. The first expedition from England to the New World was in 1584. It was a failure. The explorers conflict with the native people and had to return to England. 12 The first permanent English settlement dates form 1604, and they arrived in Chesapeake Bay. Settlements quickly followed along the coast, and also on the nearby islands, such as Bermuda. 12 There were two settlements: one in Virginia and the other in New England. They had different linguistic roots. The southern colonists came from Englands West Country. They brought their characteristics accent: the Zummerzet voicing of s sounds, and the r strongly pronounced after vowels. These Tidewater accents have changed a little for 300 years. They said that it is the closest language to the sound of Shakespeares English. 12 The Plymouth colonists came from countries in the East of England. Their accents were different. They lacking an r after vowels. They were the dominant influence in the area. The tendency not to pronounce the r is still a feature of the speech of people from New England. 12 The later population movements across America largely preserved the dialect distinctions. The New England people moved to the Great Lakes, the southern moved along the Gulf Coast and into Texas; and the midlanders moved to Mississippi and ultimately into California. 12 There are many mixed dialect areas, but the main divisions are: North Midland South They are still found in America today. 12 During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, new immigrants brought variety of linguistic into the country: the Quakers and the Scots-Irish. Their accent was described as broad. 12 The Sunbelt accent emerged in the nineteenth century. It was from Virginia and California. It is the accent most commonly associated with present-day American speech.12 It was not only England which influenced the American English language. The Spanish, French, Dutch, and black people also changed some words. The English language maintained the unity in the country during the cultural diversification. Some minority groups preserve their cultural and linguistic heritage; even they are in a society which is monolingual. 12 II.9 The importance of English in our world

The English is a global language. You can hear it on television. You may see English signs and advertisements all over the world. 12 A language became global when it is recognized in every country. The language must have a special role in the entire world. The notion of special role has many facts: Countries must have large numbers of the people speak the language as a mother tongue. In the case of English, these countries are USA, Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and several Caribbean countries. 12 The language has to be in a special place in other countries around the world. Sometimes they use it as a second language. 12 This language must have priority in a countrys foreign- language teaching. English is the language most widely taught as a foreign language. 12 There is a great variation in the reasons for choosing a particular language as a foreign language: 12 Historical traditions Political expediency Commercial contact Cultural contact Technological contact. It is inevitable that a global language will be used by more people than any other language, like English is. Nearly a quarter of the worlds population is already fluent or competent in English, and this figure is steadily growing. 12 The present world status of English is the result of two factors: The British colonial expansion The emergence of the USA as the leading economic power. 12 When a new technology arises, new linguistic opportunities are brought. English is the main language used in industries as the press, advertising, broadcasting, motion pictures, sound recording, transport and communications. 12 It is difficult to foresee any developments which could seriously reduce the stature if English. 12 II.10 Areas of usage For an English teacher is important to know the language diversity. The variation includes regional and social accents and dialects. It also includes what is often called stylistic variation; that is different styles or varieties which are appropriate to different purposes, topics, social contexts, and so on. 13

The American English has great impact on other world Englishes. It varies from one region to another and is difficult to generalize. Words travel easily around the world and become popular rapidly. New Americanisms which are spread include Hi or truck, and adolescent slang and fashion terms like man and cool. 14 The word level is often used to define the kinds of English used in different situations. But it sometimes suggests a higher or lower social position. The terms higher and lower mean 'better' or 'worse', 'more desirable' or 'less desirable,' and similar comparative degrees of excellence or inferiority in language. But we know that every kind of language is useful in different situations, so there is not one better than other and the classification do not depend on the cultural status of the users. 15 According to these cultural levels are included: Lower levels: Illiterate speech Narrowly local dialect Ungrammatical speech and writing Excessive and unskillful slang Slovenly and careless vocabulary and construction

Higher level: Cultivated and clear language Grammatical writing Pronunciation used by the cultivated people.

The different cultural levels may be changed to two general classes instead; substandard and standard. 15 Murrays diagram of different varieties of English, included in the preface to the Oxford English Dictionary, shows the varieties of English. 16

A standard language is the chosen one by the speakers to use it in majority of places and purposes. The Standard English is one variety of the English language. It is also known as edited English. It has some important characteristics: 1 - It enjoys high prestige. This style is known as good language. It is the one used in dictionaries, books and periodicals. It is the language taught in schools. It is not intrinsically better than other varieties (clearer, more logical or prettier)

Formal English is the one which is: 15 - Used in written forms Used in formal situations as business, government and office documents Used in literary texts Taught in the schools as a formal science It has a grammar highly organized

Informal English is described as the typical language of an educated person going about his everyday affairs. 15 Colloquial is in general any variety which is used in informal situations. This is not written down. It is not properly designated to a substandard cultural level of English. It is a functional variety of Standard English which is used chiefly in

conversation. Literary English, Formal Colloquial, and General Colloquial are not cultural levels, they are only functional varieties of Standard English. The last two, Popular English and Vulgar English, belong in a different classification, cultural levels, without regard to function. 14, 16 Technical language is different from general academic language. The tone, voice, and mood of your text are all elements that differentiate science writing. 15 II.11 Applied Linguistics Linguistics is the study and description of languages structure and nature. 5 The theory helps us to state absolute restrictions of what may or may not occur. The description of language is the formulation of such prediction. 5 The objective of having a theory is to use it. A theory is not only a set of rules for a language. The theory increases our understanding of language. 5 The application of the linguistic theory does not count as an application of linguistic. Applied linguistic starts when a description is specifically made, or an existing description used for a further purpose which lies outside the linguistic sciences. 5 Application of linguistics: 5 The principal application of linguistic is the translation. Teaching of the native language Teaching of the foreign language Linguistic is helpful to teachers and students of foreign languages, for such insights provide an understanding of the enormity of the task they are attempting to accomplish. 17 Linguistics its not a classroom presentation of a formal grammar. KNOWING ABOUT THE LANGUAGE STRUCTURE IS NOT THE SAME THAN KNOWING THE LANGUAGE ITSELF. 17

II.12 The teaching and learning of foreign language Foreign languages are taught and learned tow main ways: 5 The teaching of a language by teaching in that language: the language is used as a medium of instruction. Some lessons about geography, history or arithmetic are taught in the language you want the children to learn. It is effective in teaching a new language. The students acquired new grammatical patterns and new vocabulary items. The teaching of a language by teaching about that language: it is easier to carry out. You can make use of different grammar books. Teaching a language involves conjoining 2 essential features: 5

1. The learner must experience the language using it in the spoken or writing form. 5 2. The learner must himself have the opportunity of performing, of trying out his skills, of making mistakes and being corrected. 5 *Teaching about a language does not contribute directly to either of them. 5 The student must be able to understand the basic language skills: 5 - Understanding speech (listening) Speaking Reading Writing

One way of acquiring these skills is by experiencing, using, and associating them in a real situation in the foreign language. To learn a foreign language, we also have to learn about that the literature in that language. 5 The grammar-translation method of language teaching seems to be a formal description of the language. It consists in the translation into and out of the mother tongue. The method would be more effective if the grammar used were linguistically more valid. Much of the grammar taught in this method is pedantic or archaic, or even erroneous. In the conventional pattern of foreign language teaching, translation alternates with formal grammar as the main activity in class and homework. 5

II.13 The physiology of learning Your childs brain18 Everytime you play with a baby, you are stimulating his neural connections. When a baby is born, his neurons are waiting to be wired. The first functions which are already wired since the fertilized egg, are: - Commanding breathing Controlling heartbeat Regulating body temperature Producing reflexes

Near to trillions of neurons are potential to form connections with other neurons and become integrated in the bran circuits. If they are not used, they die. The early experiences of a child are powerful and have a strong influence in his grown up behavior.

The brain has more than 100 trillion connections. There are like 100 billion of neurons connected to other thousands of neurons. Some of these connections are already established by the genes, but the environment determines the other ones. According to the neurobiologist Carla Shatz, there are two broad stages of wiring: - Early period: the circuits connect the retina to the neural cortex. In the early childhood, the sensory areas have matured. Puberty: the emotional limbic system is wired. At the age of 16 the seat of understanding (frontal lobes) is developed.

They researchers say that with the right stimulus any skill might be developed: Language: The newborn first learn simple phonemes (as baas, daas, ees, lls, ssss). These sounds form neuronal connections in his auditory cortex. These connections make the perceptual map. Different neurons respond to different sounds. The perceptual maps are different for each language. Children are kind of deaf to sounds they have never heard. This map is complete at the first year old. It is important to expose the children to a lot of words and other languages, so they can record different sounds in their map, not only those of their mother tongue. The neurons lose their ability to connect with others after this age, so a kid who learn a second language in his later childhood, will never speak like a native speaker. The connections made by new sounds, also work with words. The vocabulary is acquired after repeated exposure to new words. Music: The music rewires the neural connections in the somatosensory cortex. If some children learn to play an instrument in the early childhood, their cortex will be more developed, than other kids. Math and Logic: The music improves the learning of math and logic too. This is important because the children will not be interested in complex equations, but in songs and music. They also develop their spatial ability (drawing, puzzles, geometric shapes, patterns of color). The neurons of the cortex also work with mathematical processes. Emotions: The parents can play back a childs inner feelings. This process is called attunement. The trunk lines for the circuits controlling emotion are laid down before birth. The brain uses the same electrical connections and chemical signs to generate and respond to an emotion. These connections are reinforced when the emotion is reciprocated. Some babies, whose mothers never paid attention to their emotional signs, became passive children. If the parents

reciprocate the neuronal activity for calming down, the baby will calm herself down. Neurons in the rational prefrontal cortex are forming connections in the emotional region. Some circuits stress and threats are centered in the amygdale. The impulses from the eye and ear reach first the amygdale than the rational neocortex. So the emotional reaction comes before the brain knows what is going on. Then the cortex has little problems developing complex information (p.e. language). Movement: The baby starts moving before the birth. The neurons start to wire up, but they do not form functional circuits in the cerebellum at the age of two. If you restrict any activity in the babys routine, you will restrict the neuronal connection too. The more he moves, the stronger the circuit will be. The human brain adds an astonishing 250 000neurons per minute during the gestation. The neurons have a fiber called axon. The axon carries the electrical signal until it reaches other neuron. The axons form the brains circuits. The majority of these ways are established by the genes. Some neurons follow the same ways, but others establish new paths. Active neurons respond better to trophic factors than those which are inactive. The childrens IQ gains fade after three years. If the children are well stimulated during the earlier years, they will develop their language, social and motor abilities. This occurs even if they are stimulated with simple activities. We continue learning throughout the life, but the windows of the mind are closed before the secondary school. We can learn in the adulthood but in a deeper level than children who are stimulated before the kindergarten. If they are well stimulated they can develop all their abilities successfully. The language-based learning disabilities (LLD) occur when the children are unable to distinguish short, staccato sounds, as d and b. This might be de result of ear infections during the childhood. If the children do not hear sounds, they will not be able to associate the sound to the letter. Finally the children develop problem in reading too. WE ARE BORN WITH A WORLD POTENTIAL AND IT WILL BE REALIZED IF IT IS TAPPED BRAIN Logical Language Musical Skill Math and logic Language Music Learning window 0-4 years 0-10 years 3-10 years We know that - The circuits are in - The circuits are in - Circuits in the the cortex the auditory cortex sensory cortex. - Music lessons help - More words - It is harder to learn to develop it how to play music great vocabulary in the adulthood - Hearing problems decrease the matching of sound-letter

We can

- Play Mozarts CDs - Talk to children - Play games with a - Introduce a 2nd toddler language - Learn one-to-one - Treat ear relationships infections

- Sing with children - Play music - Let them learn how to play an instrument.

Why do schools flunk biology?19 The main problem in the schools is that they still have the 19 th century ideas. The advances in brain sciences can make a change in the system: - The schedules would change. The foreign language and geometry would be taught to younger children. Music and Gym would be imparted daily. Reading, writing and memorization activities would be replaced by manual works. The teachers would be more interested in the childrens emotional connection to the subject.

The music develops higher forms of thinking in the brain, as spatial intelligence which will evolve into complex math and engineering skills. But most of schools have only one teacher per 500 students. The exercise is good for the heartbeat and brain nutrition. The glucose feeds the brain and it improves neuronal connections. The children learn in an easier way. Being more physically active in the classroom connects the knowledge to the children in an emotional and physical way. The brain remember the active experiences more than the theoretical ones. Some researchers also propose to start the school later, at 9 oclock. The teens sleep at the same hour, no matter how early they will wake up, so if they went to school later, they would be awake. The schools do not exploit all the children capacities. The younger brains are ready to get new information. It is easier to them to learn a foreign language. But the decisions are usually taken by noneducators who are in charge of the educational system.