JavaFoil Analysis of Airfoils

About JavaFoil
JavaFoil is a new implementation of my previous CalcFoil program. Like SimProp, CalcFoil was written solely for my web pages using the "C" language.

After rewriting SimProp using the "Java" language, I started to write JavaFoil for the same reasons (see my JavaProp pages).

Sun Microsystems

Theoretical Background

JavaFoil is a relatively simple program, which uses several traditional methods for airfoil analysis. The following two methods build the backbone of the program:

The potential flow analysis is done with a higher order panel method (linear varying vorticity distribution). Taking a set of airfoil coordinates, it calculates the local, inviscid flow velocity along the surface of the airfoil for any desired angle of attack. The boundary layer analysis module steps along the upper and the lower surfaces of the airfoil, starting at the stagnation point. It solves a set of differential equations to find the various boundary layer parameters. It is a so called integral method. The equations and criteria for transition and separation are based on the procedures described by Eppler [13, 14, 15]. Compared with CalcFoil, this module has been completely rewritten and cleaned up.

A standard compressibility correction according to Karman and Tsien has been implemented to take mild Mach number effects into account. As long as the flow stays subsonic (V below V* in the Velocity diagram), the results should be fairly accurate. Usually this means Mach numbers between zero and 0.5. You cannot analyze airfoils in supersonic flow with the methods in JavaFoil. During the latest upgrade in August/September 2002, the capability to handle multi-element airfoils and ground effect has been added. These additions are not extensively tested and may still contain a few bugs. Some additional tools for creation and modification of airfoils have been added to fill the toolbox. If supplied with the right food, the computer code will examine your airfoil. First it will calculate the distribution of the velocity on the airfoil surface

which can be integrated to get the lift and the moment coefficient. Then it will calculate the behavior of the flow close to the airfoil surface (the boundary layer). The boundary layer data can be used to calculate the friction drag of the airfoil. Both steps are repeated for the given range of angle of attacks, which yields a complete polar of the airfoil for one fixed Reynolds number. The calculations are performed by a computer code of my own, not by the Eppler or the XFOIL program. Only the boundary layer module was based on the method which is also found in the initial version of the Eppler program. Additions include new stall and transition models.
Limitations

As said above, JavaFoil is a relatively simple program, with some limitations. As with all engineering computer codes, it is up to the user to judge and to decide how far he wants to trust a program. BecauseJavaFoil does not model laminar separation bubbles and flow separation, the results will be incorrect if either of these occur. Flow separation, as it occurs at stall, is modeled to some extent by empirical corrections, so that maximum lift can be predicted for "conventional" airfoils. If you analyze an airfoil beyond stall, the results will be quite inaccurate. It is questionable, whether a two dimensional analysis method can be used at all in this regime, as the flow field beyond stall is fully three dimensional with spanwise flow and strong vortices. Please read all (yes, if I say all, I really do mean all!) the comments, instructions and tips - this may spare you time and trouble and lead to more realistic results. You might want to print out some pages for easier reading.

The Boundary Layer Method

In order to calculate the friction drag of an airfoil for a given flow condition (angle of attack, Reynolds number), an analysis of the viscous boundary layer is necessary. From the momentum loss in this small layer on the surface of the airfoil the drag can be derived. As the velocity distribution changes with angle of attack, the drag changes too. Also, the thickness of the boundary layer changes with Reynolds number. The boundary layer module uses the velocity distribution derived by the panel method and performs its calculations based on the formulas presented in [14, 15, 16]. The method is a so called integral boundary layer method, which does not handle laminar separation bubbles or large scale separation (stall). The boundary layer module works best in the Reynolds number regime

between 500'000 and 20'000'000. The results of the boundary layer module are also used to correct lift, drag and moment coefficients empirically, if separation occurs. Additionally, a blending to separated, flat plate coefficients is performed for very high angles of attack. The procedure starts at the stagnation point and marches along each surface, integrating simplified boundary layer equations. The integration follows a 2nd order Runge-Kutta scheme with stabilization by automatic step reduction. This can be a bit slow some times, but works more reliable than the simple Newton method used before. During the way towards the trailing edge, the method checks, whether transition from laminar to turbulent or separation occurs. The following empirical transition criteria have been implemented and can be selected by the user:
Method Eppler 1[14] Eppler 2 [17] Michel 1 [35] Michel 2 Here, an additional local pressure gradient parameter K is used ("Pohlhausen parameter") Re > 5x106 Transition assumed when Recommen dation Re > 1x105 Re > 1x105

Re > 2x106 Re > 2x106

Granville

Instability is assumed when K > Kinstability

In regions of instability, transition is assumed when K > Ktransition

approximation of n Drela en transition can occur when approximat ion (Xfoil pre 1991)

Drela en approximat ion approximation of n (Xfoil post 1991) transition can occur when [36]

Note: Depending on the version of Xfoil, The last constant in the second equation has been changed several times between 0.62 and 0.7. approximation of n transition can occur when Arnal en approximat ion by Wrz

Note: The coefficients ai and bi can be found in [37] (as well as an interesting discussion of empirical transition models).

If laminar separation is detected, the method switches to turbulent flow and continues. When turbulent separation is found, the boundary layer integration is stopped and an empirical drag penalty depending on the length of the separated region is added to the result.
Flow State Separation assumed when laminar turbulent

The drag is applied by examining the boundary layer parameters at the trailing edge, using the so called Squire-Young formula. Tabular Output The tables produced on the Boundary-Layer card contain the following columns:

symbol description x/l normalized x-coordinate y/l normalized y-coordinate v/V normalized surface velocity 1 displacement thickness 2 momentum loss thickness 3 energy loss thickness Cf local friction coefficient H12 shape factor 1/2 H32 shape factor 3/2 flow state laminar, turbulent, separated the first cell height required for y+=1 (multiplied by 100 resp. in %) y1 This value can be useful for grid generation for Navier-Stokes solvers

For abbreviations see the quick reference page

Users Manual
JavaFoil presents itself in a single window or in a single applet area in your browser. It contains a row of tabs on top and a card area below. Each tab shows its associated card which contains input and output elements for a certain topic. The cards are divided in topics like Geometry, Modify, Velocity, Flow Field, Boundary Layer, Polars and Options. Most of these cards have a button bar at the bottom, which contains command buttons acting on this specific card. Depending on the security settings of your Java system, some of these buttons may be inactive (see Applet or Application). Each card is described in more detail in the following sections. Some cards have a "Tear Off" button, which pulls the card from the card stack and shows it in a window of its own so that you can access it while working on another card. When you close the card window, it will be put back onto the card stack. In JavaFoil you work with a single "virtual" working airfoil. This means, that you have one airfoil, which can be designed, analyzed, modified and analyzed again an so forth. All modifications like flap deflection, importing a new blade geometry will alter this virtual airfoil. You might want to save intermediate airfoils. Usually most data are normalized (e.g. chord length = 1.0). In all other cases, the unit system is metric for input data and results. Some conversion factors for metric and imperial units are given on the Tips and Tricks page.

Language and decimal character: JavaFoil uses your systems language settings to select the strings used for any textual output as well as to define the decimal character. See the description of the Options Card below..
Geometry Card
The Geometry card is used to prepare the coordinates of your current airfoil. This is the geometry which is used by all tools in JavaFoil.

It shows a list of coordinates and a plot of the resulting. airfoil shape. You can enter or paste arbitrary coordinates into this field and press the "Update View" button to copy the coordinates into the working airfoil. Remember that the coordinates must be ordered trailing edge > upper > nose > lower > trailing edge. Additionally it contains an area to create standard airfoils from Note about all x-y graphs: several families, namely:
1. You can copy most of the graphs to the clipboard or save

4-digit series, like NACA 2415, based on o maximum thickness and its x/c location o maximum camber and its x/c location 5 digit series like NACA 23015, based on o maximum thickness and its x/c location o design lift coefficient o x/c location of maximum camber 16-series like NACA 16-

them to a file in AutoCad DXF, Adobe Illustrator encapsulated Postscript or SVG vector graphics format by pressing the right mouse button while the mouse pointer is located over the graph (context menu). Paste the test into a text editor, save as filename.dxf, .eps/.ai or .svg and import into your favorite graphics, CAD or word processing program. 2. If you have allowed the applet to write files, or if you run JavaFoil standalone, you can also export the graphics directly to a file, without using the clipboard. 3. Additionally, you can import numerical data into a graph to enhance it. For example you can import test results into the the polar plot for comparison. Import works only, if the graph already contains some data, so that the axis system is already set up. The data is lost when the graph is cleared for a new calculation, though.

412, based on o maximum thickness and its x/c location o design lift coefficient 6-series like NACA 64412, based on o maximum thickness and its x/c location o design lift coefficient o camber line specification (a=...) o A-Modification Note that the 6series sections are only approximated, for correct data use tables from NACA reports. TsAGI "B" series airfoils, based on o maximum thickness NPL "EQH" series airfoils, based on o maximum thickness symmetrical Circular Arc airfoils, based on o maximum thickness symmetrical Double Wedge airfoils, based on o maximum thickness and its x/c location Cambered Plate airfoils, based on o maximum thickness o maximum camber and its x/c location Van de Vooren conformal mapping airfoil, based on

maximum thickness o trailing edge angle Newman airfoil, based on o maximum thickness Helmbold-Keine airfoil, based on o maximum thickness and its x/c location o trailing edge angel o radius at center of airfoil o leading edge radius Note that only a subset of possible parameters leads to reasonable shapes.

These NACA airfoils are still used in a lot of applications, but most of them are not top performers by today's standards. As the original definition creates airfoils with open trailing edges, an additional option is provided to close to airfoils smoothly.

Modify Card
Here you find tools to modify the geometry of the current airfoil.

You can create a new distribution of points, change the camber and the thickness or deflect a plain flap. A scaling and rotating option is also available to transform the airfoil. The result of any modification is shown at the bottom of the card and is also transferred back to the Geometry card. Each transformation is executed when you press the button to the left of the corresponding

text entry field. Before a modification is performed JavaFoil saves a copy of the current geometry on top of a stack and you can either use the "Undo" button to back up to the previous configuration or select the desired configuration from the combo box. It is recommended to enter a name which reflects your modificationbefore pushing the "Modify" button (e.g. "NACA 0010 / F+10" for a 10 flap deflection). To reduce memory overhead, the number of undo steps is currently limited to 10. Each additional modification will drop one saved geometry from the bottom of the stack.
Deflection of a simple Flap

Notes:

1. Changes to the camber are performed by scaling an

existing camber line. Thus it is not possible to camber a symmetrical airfoil, as this would additionally require the specification of a camber line shape. Changes act on the selected airfoil element(s) (in case of multi-element airfoils).

2.

Uses the given a flap chord and deflection angle (positive = trailing edge down) to rotate the coordinate points covered by the flap. No points are added to the convex side of the airfoil, so any initially coarse distribution might lead to a poor representation of the flapped airfoil. Also some points on the concave side are deleted if they would move inside of the flapped airfoil.

Modification of Thickness and Camber Creates a new shape based on the camber distribution and the thickness distribution of the current airfoil. Both distributions are derived by analysis of the y-coordinates for a given x station - the thickness distribution is not applied at right angles to the camber line. This will introduce a small error where the camber line has a larger inclination. The extracted distributions are then scaled with the ratio of prescribed to current maximum value. The x-axis is defined to be the straight line from the trailing edge to the coordinate point having the largest distance to the trailing edge.

Scaling Scaling is always performed with respect to the origin of the coordinate system (0/0). X and Y coordinates are multiplied with the given factor.

Trailing Edge Gap The upper and lower surface of the airfoil are rotated around the leading edge point to open or close the trailing edge.

Rotation and Translation x/y Allows arbitrary modifications to the position of the airfoil.

Duplicate Creates a copy of the selected airfoil element. You have to move and/or rotate it afterwards so that it does not overlap its parent.

Delete Deletes the selected airfoil element.

Flip Y Mirrors the selected airfoil element along the x-axis (upside down transformation).

Copy (Text) Copies a text buffer to the clipboard if your system security settings allow this. The buffer contains the coordinates of the camber distribution (xc/yc) and the coordinates of the thickness distribution (xt/yt) for the current airfoil.

Design Card
This card can be used to design an airfoil based on a prescribed target pressure (coefficient) distribution. Such a method is called "inverse design" - the geometry of the airfoil is a result of the given pressure distribution.

Pressing the "Setup" button initializes the design procedure by copying the current airfoil. This airfoil is then analyzed at the given angle of attack and produces an initial target pressure distribution. Now you can modify this pressure distribution either by using a smooth distortion of the target Cp or in a single Notes: point mode. Simply grab a point on the target distribution 1. When "symmetric Cp modification" is checked, the Cp and drag it up or down to curves for upper and lower surfaces are modified in the modify the curve. same manner. This results in a global modification of the
airfoil thickness.

After you are satisfied with the target Cp-distribution, you can run several design cycles and check the result. The current solution is overlaid on the previous results to allow for convergence check. You can "Redraw" the screen to clear the intermediate results. Instead of viewing the Cpdistribution in the usual way Cp=f(x/c) you can "unfold" the distribution by plotting Cp=f(s). Here s is the arc length measured along the airfoil surface (the order is upper surface, nose, lower surface). This representation

2. When "anti-symmetric Cp modification" is checked, the

Cp curves for upper and lower surfaces are modified with reversed signs. This results in a global modification of the airfoil camber. 3. When none of both options is checked, you can modify the Cp values for single points, which is useful for smoothing wavy airfoils. 4. The method is not foolproof and may diverge if the changes are too large. Problems may occur if modifications close to the leading and trailing edges are performed. This is because the stagnation point region is very sensitive to small changes in overall circulation. 5. The tool tries to translate any arbitrary Cp-distribution into a shape. If the target distribution is "ill posed", it may happen that no shape exists which creates such a distribution! 6. Markers on the airfoil shape indicate the results of the boundary layer analysis: green: transition, red: separation.

makes it easier to modify the leading edge region. When this viewing mode is active, a slider can be used to enlarge the leading edge or trailing edge regions. A relaxation factor helps to stabilize the procedure and to smooth the geometry changes usually a value between 10% and 25% is sufficient. Typically, the number of design steps should be between 10 and 50 steps. You can repeat the design until JavaFoil has reached the target. The analysis takes into account the effects of ground proximity as well as multiple elements. Note that the design procedure only acts on the first element of multiple elements. You have to change the order on the Geometry card if you want to design another element. If you want to define the target pressure distribution by numbers, you can use the "Details..." button to open a window where you can enter or paste x/c, y/c, Cp triples. From these data, JavaFoil only reads the Cp values, changing x/c or y/c will have no effect.

Velocity Card
This card can be used to calculate the velocity distribution on the surface of the airfoil for several angles of attack. As usual, all angles are counted from the xaxis of the airfoil.

The graph shows the velocity on both sides of the airfoil and can be used to smooth airfoils. If the velocity distributions show wiggles and zig-zag waves, any subsequent boundary layer analysis on thePolars card will probably create unrealistic results. To smooth an airfoil, go back to the Geometry card and change single y-coordinate values or use the Design card to modify the velocity distribution directly. Then re-analyze. Yes, this is slow, but possible and Notes: probably better than an automatic global smoother 1. The Mach number from the Options card will be used for which would smooth over the a compressibility correction on all cards. The corrections whole airfoil. work reasonably well for Mach numbers below 0.75. If You can display either the distribution of the local velocity v/V or the resulting local pressure coefficient Cp. If a Mach number other than zero is specified on the Options card, the critical velocity ratio V* respectively the critical pressure coefficient Cp* is plotted also. The distributions are corrected for compressibility effects by the Karman-Tsien rule, but one must be aware of the fact that such corrections are valid only for Mach numbers below approximately 0.7.
supersonic flow occurs somewhere on the airfoil surface, the code will not fail, but you would need a different type of analysis code for transonic and supersonic flow. 2. The table in the upper right of the card lists force and moment coefficients which are determined for the Reynolds number taken from the boundary layer card. However, the velocity distribution shown is for the inviscid flow. i.e. will not be affected by Reynolds number. 3. The table also shows the critical Mach number for each angle of attack. If the onset flow exceeds this Mach number, supersonic flow will occur somewhere on the airfoil. This Mach number is also known as the "Critical Mach number". As usual you can copy it using the context menu.

Flow Field Card

If you want to get an impression of how the flow around the airfoil looks like, this card is for you. The panel analysis method works with the surface of an airfoil only, but when the surface velocity has been determined, potential flow theory can be used to calculate the flow velocity and direction anywhere in space.

You can specify a regular x-y grid and an angle of attack. After solving for the surface velocity distribution, an evaluation is performed for each point on the grid. The buttons in the control bar at the bottom of the card perform the following actions:
Analyze It! performs the analysis of Notes: the flow field at all grid points plus any additional 1. As each evaluation can be time consuming, it is post-processing like recommended to start with the coarse default grid and streamlines or iso-Cp refine depending on the power of your computer and the amount of time you wish to spend. lines. 2. The rectangular grid is simply placed on top of the airfoil.
It is not adapted to the airfoil shape. While interior points are excluded in the calculation, a coarse grid will create a rough outline of the airfoil only. The graph shows, how the airfoil affects the whole flow field, not only the immediate neighborhood of the section.

Print... Sends a copy of the picture to the printer, if your system security settings allow this.

3.

Save... Creates a text buffer which contains the

coordinates and the velocity vector for each grid point (x, y, vx, vy and v). This text buffer is saved to a file if your system security settings allow this. The format is suitable for the commercial plotting program Tecplot (by Amtec Corp.).

Copy (Text) Like the Save... command, but the text buffer is copied to the clipboard if your system security settings allow this. You can select from the following display options:

tufts ... shows a black "tuft" at each grid point, which is aligned with the local flow direction. colored cells ... colors a rectangle around each grid point according to the local pressure. This makes for a nice picture of the pressure field around the airfoil and shows how far the pressure is changed due to the airfoil. iso Cp ... plots lines of constant pressure, like altitude lines on a map. Cp-Vectors ... plots pressure vectors normal to the airfoil surface. stream lines ... black stream lines are drawn starting at the left border. The result resembles the injection of smoke into a wind tunnel. timed stream lines ... the stream lines are dashed to show the distance traveled during equal time intervals. Models something like a pulsed smoke generator. You will notice that particles arriving side by side at the leading edge will NOT meet again at the trailing edge. higher accuracy ... this option controls the calculation of the stream lines only. When selected, a 4th order Runge-Kutta scheme and a smaller time step are used, otherwise simple forward differencing is employed. The results are more accurate in regions where the streamlines are highly curved - calculation time is increased by a factor of 5, though.

Boundary Layer Card

This card is a source of information for the experts. It shows all important boundary layer parameters like thickness and shape functions. Additional parameters are available in the listings. The abbreviations and symbols can be found on the quick reference card page. A fixed transition location can be defined on the Polars card (see below).

More details...

Polars Card
When you have created or imported a sufficient smooth airfoil shape, you can calculate lift and drag on this card.

After specification of the desired Reynolds number and angle of attack range as well as selecting a surface roughness you can start the analysis. For each Reynolds number / angle of attack condition,JavaFoil will first calculate the velocity distribution and then perform a boundary layer analysis. The resulting lift, drag and moment coefficients as well as location of transition and separation will be presented in graphs and tables. A transition strip can be simulated by specifying a transition location x/c for both sides of the airfoil (the default setting of 100% corresponds to natural transition).

The user can select between different stall and transition models (the transition models are describedhere).
Note: It is not necessary to use the Velocity Card before calculating polars.

Aircraft Card
The Polars card analyzes your airfoil for constant Reynolds numbers. For an aircraft in flight the lift coefficient depends on the flight speed and hence on the Reynolds number.

The Aircraft card makes it possible to analyze airfoils in an aircraft oriented way. It does not analyze and aircraft, though! Instead of specifying a Reynolds number range you specify a range of wing loadings. Additionally you define the mean chord length and of course a range for the angle of attack. For each wing loading / angle of attack condition, JavaFoil will now find the matching Reynolds number. Like on the Polars card, the resulting lift, drag and moment coefficients as well as location of transition and separation will be presented in graphs and tables. Note that the kinematic viscosity and the density are taken from the Options card. For different altuitudes you have to adjust these values accordingly.

Options Card
This card offers some information about your Java system and it contains a combo box to select a different country setting. The country setting also affects the decimal separator. Initially, the language will be selected automagically, based on your system settings (or according to your command line parameters). The default language is English, but if you prefer your native language, contact me by eMail to receive a file with the character strings to translate.

You can save and restore the current state of JavaFoil to revert later to a previous project (seesecurity settings). Also you can specify some properties of the fluid where you want the airfoil to operate. The kinematic viscosity is needed for the calculation of the local Reynolds number and the speed of sound is needed for the Mach number. Currently, these parameters are currently only required for the Aircraft card. The aspect ratio is used for an approximate correction of the results on the Polar and Aircraft cards for a finite wing. First the 3D lift coefficient CL is determined by adapting the 2D Cl. Mach number and aspect ratio are taken into account. Then the 3D drag coefficient CD is calculated by adding the induced drag coefficient for a wing with elliptical lift

distribution to the Cd of the airfoil. Finally, the scripting facility can be used to automate simple command sequences.

Wing in Ground Proximity (WIG)

From the beginning, JavaFoil had the basic capability to handle multi-element airfoils. This capability was hidden, though. Based on these foundations it was relatively easy (within a few days) to add a ground effect simulation. Internally this option works by creating a mirror image of the current airfoil below the ground, which is assumed to be at y=0. This creates a system of multiple airfoils which is symmetrical about the y=0 plane. The flow around this system can be analyzed using the panel method and the usual boundary layer analysis can be performed to calculate the friction drag. Note: For highest performance, one would implement such features like ground effect or a cascade option by adapting the calculation of the aerodynamic influence coefficients inside the panel method. Thus one would keep the equation system to be solved at the same size as for a single airfoil. In JavaFoil, the way of actually duplicating the airfoil for the WIG simulation has been chosen. This leads to a more straightforward coding scheme and fits the multi-element option perfectly.
In order to analyze the flow at different angles of attack, the geometry has to be rebuilt for each angle of attack because the geometry of the system must stay symmetrical (see pictures at left). This requires a new panel analysis for each angle of attack, which makes the analysis slower than the plain airfoil analysis. JavaFoil does all this behind the scenes so all you have to do is to toggle the ground effect switch on the Options card.

= 0

= -5

During the WIG simulation the angle of attack of the airfoil is changed by rotating the airfoil around the point (0.25/0). This point is located on the ground as shown at the left. While the example below shows a downforce application, ground effect can also be used to increase lift without increasing drag excessively. This results in an improved ratio of L/D for lifting applications. Such devices have been employed in vehicles traveling with reduced power over flat surfaces, mainly over water. Starting in the 1960s, Alexander Lippisch was probably one of the first to exploit this phenomenon in his various ground effect machines. The results of wind tunnel tests for one of his designs (the X-114) are presented at the left. They show an increase in L/D from about 6 to 10 for the complete aircraft (tests were conducted at the German Aerospace Research Center DLR in 1979).

The largest machines of this type were built in the former Soviet Union, though.

An Example: Front Wing of a Race Car

The following example shows, how JavaFoil can be used to analyze the effect of ground proximity on the downforce of an airfoil. Such a condition could occur on the front wing of a race car. As this is only a simple example, the results should not be taken as general. It is clear that an airfoil must be designed and optimized to work efficiently in ground effect. If you want to use this feature in JavaFoil, it is recommended to plan exactly what you want to analyze and which steps you have to perform in order.

Geometry Card

Create a NACA 4412 airfoil section with negative camber (-4%). JavaFoil will create the name "NACA -4412" as the camber is negative. Alternatively, you could also create a positively cambered section and "Flip" it in ydirection on the Modify card.

Modify Card

Rotate the airfoil by -10 for a more realistic setup. Note: the current geometry always represents an angle of attack of 0 as the rotation of the airfoil has become part of the geometry. Translate the airfoil upwards by 20% of its chord. The 25% chord point of the airfoil is now located at the point (0.25/0.20). This creates the required free

space between airfoil and ground (which is always at y=0). Make sure that there is no intersection with the ground.

Flow Field Card

Perform flow field analysis without ground effect for comparison. You can analyze the flow at different angles of attack - see remark about the 0 angle above (Modify card).

Note: for "free flight", the y=0 axis is always located at the center of the graph.

Options Card

Check the "ground effect" option. This activates the simulation of a flat floor, located at y = 0 (this is why we have moved the airfoil upwards by 20% of its chord).

Flow Field Card

Perform another flow field analysis with ground effect. The picture clearly shows the low pressure field (high velocity) between the lower surface and the ground. Again, you can analyze the flow at different angles of attack.

Note: with ground effect activated, the y=0 axis is always located at the lower edge of the graph.

Velocity Distribution Card

You can compare the velocity distribution for any angle of attack without and with ground in effect. The picture clearly shows the high velocity level on the lower surface in presence of the ground (square symbols). The steep velocity drop towards the trailing edge (pressure rise) may lead to separation and increased drag. On the upper

surface (lower curves), a small difference occurs mainly at the leading edge, as the stagnation point is shifted downstream by the ground effect.

Polar Card

To check the airfoil for different angles of attack, you can analyze an complete polar for different angles of attack and Reynolds numbers. The angle of attack is changed by rotating the airfoil around the point (0.25/0), which will change the height of the airfoils 25% chord point above ground somewhat. The comparison shows that the downforce increases from CL = -1.7 for the free airfoil to -5.7 due to the ground effect! It is also clearly visible that in our example the drag coefficient increased largely, though. L/D went

down from about 100 for the free flow field to 60 due to the presence of the ground.

Critical Issues:

If you forget to shift the airfoil upwards, it will intersect with the ground plane. In this case JavaFoil will fail and probably create no results at all. If you perform the analysis of a Lift-Drag polar, the airfoil may intersect the ground at large angles of attack. If this occurs, JavaFoil stops the angle of attack loop and displays an error message. As JavaFoil does not take any displacement effects of the boundary layer into account, the results will be inaccurate if the distance of the airfoil from the ground is small (maybe smaller than the five times the displacement thickness 1, which depends on the Reynolds number see results on the Boundary Layer card for 1). For a full size craft, it is recommended to base the actual 3D design on more complex methods like Navier-Stokes Solvers. Also one should try to verify the results by experiments.
Last modification of this page: 27.01.07

[Back to Home Page] Suggestions? Corrections? Remarks? e-mail: Martin Hepperle. Due to the increasing amount of SPAM mail, I have to change this e-Mail address regularly. You will always find the latest version in the footer of all my pages. It might take some time until you receive an answer and in some cases you may even receive no answer at all. I apologize for this, but my spare time is limited. If you have not lost patience, you might want to send me a copy of your e-mail after a month or so. This is a privately owned, non-profit page of purely educational purpose. Any statements may be incorrect and unsuitable for practical usage. I cannot take any responsibility for actions you perform based on data, assumptions, calculations etc. taken from this web page. 1996-2006 Martin Hepperle You may use the data given in this document for your personal use. If you use this document for a publication, you have to cite the source. A publication of a recompilation of the given material is not allowed, if the resulting product is sold for more than the production costs. This document may accidentally refer to trade names and trademarks, which are owned by national or international companies, but which are unknown by me. Their rights are fully recognized and these

companies are kindly asked to inform me if they do not wish their names to be used at all or to be used in a different way. This document (http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/jf_wig.htm) is part of a frame set and can be found by navigating from the entry point at the Web site http://www.MH-AeroTools.de/. Impressum und weitere rechtliche Hinweise fr Deutschland