CHAPTER 5 BRICKS/MASONRY CONCRETE BRICKS Introduction Used as a partition walls, cladding and facings, perimeter and garden wall,

, and pavings and floorings. Bricks can also serve as external and internal load bearing wall or load bearing column. It eliminates costly formwork and reinforcing steel, and achieve speedier construction process because frame are less or not required at all. Bricks are defined as solid masonry unit composed of inorganic nonmetallic materials hardened/burned by heat/chemical action. Building bricks may be solid or it may have cored openings not exceed 25% of its volume. Produced in a wide variety of colors, shapes and textures. Bricks & blocks are differ in cubical shape; blocks are generally larger than bricks
CALCIUM SILICATE BRICKS SAND CEMENT BRICKS

Variety of clay bricks i. Common o For general building work o No attractive appearance o Have good load bearing properties o Available in various crushing strengths o Widely used for foundations o Generally make an ideal backing for rendering, plaster & color wash ii. Facing o For acceptable appearance. o To combine attractive appearance with structural strengths & good resistance to exposure o Available in very wide range of strengths, colours and textures iii. Engineering o for high strength and/or low water absorption(durability). o Generally further sub-divided into Facing & Common according to their appearance properties o To qualify as Engineerings bricks must posses both required strength and absorption properties

CLAY BRICKS

ENGINEERING BRICKS

BRICKS

Clay bricks Made from mudstone, shale and slaterange from soft & plastic surface deposits to hard. The essential requirementsmaterial should be capable to shape (moulding, extrusion @ pressure) after being ground & tempered with water The shape obtained should retained without undue shrinkage, warping or cracking when the bricks are dried and fired.

Quality of clay bricks Internal quality bricks suitable for internal use only. Ordinary quality less durable than special quality, but normally durable in the external face of the building. Special quality durable even when used in situations of extreme exposure where structure may become saturated and be frozen e.g. retaining walls, sewerage plants or paving.

Types of clay bricks Solid

If holes passing through @ nearly through <25% of its vol. OR frogs (depressions in the bed face) <20% of its vol. Holes in brick must be <20mm wide OR <500mm2 area and Holes up to 3 larger holes must be < 3250mm2 each may be incorporated as handling aids within 25% Perforated Cellular

holes are large than the small holes defined (in solid) > 25% of its volume

holes are closed at one end and > 20% of its volume Special shapes

Hollow

If holes passing through >25% of its vol. Holes up to 3 larger holes must be < 3250mm2 each may be incorporated as handling aids within 25% Tests have shown that their strength & absorption characteristics are comparable to those similar solid special shape other than normal rectangular prism, whereas standard special are special shapes that are in general use e.g squints, radial and bullnose

Properties of clay bricks 1. Water absorption, Porosity and Suction. 2. Density. 3. Compressive Strength. 4. Efflorescence and Soluble Salt. 5. Moisture Expansion. 6. Thermal Properties. 7. Resistance to chemical attack. 8. Behavior under fire conditions. 1. Water absorption, Porosity and Suction Water absorption of a clay brick is the percentage of the increase in weight of a clay brick when it has been saturated. Water absorption of the brick used: in a wall affects the mode of rain penetration through the outer leaf of a cavity wall to define the flexural strength used in lateral load design. Porosity, water absorption and suction depend on clay composition, duration and temperature of curing. 2. Density Solid density depend on clay composition. It varies from 2250 to 2800 kg/m3. Commonly close to 2600 kg/m3. With perforation and frog standard bricks varies from 1.8 kg to 3.8 kg in weight. 3. Compressive Strength Compressive strength decrease with increasing porosity and is influenced by clay composition and firing. It is subjected to creep at normal temperature. Youngs Modulus lies between 5 and 30 N/mm2, Compressive strength is limited by brittle fracture and sensitive to flaws associated to: a) Large particles b) Fissured formed during shaping c) Shrinkage crack

4. Efflorescence and Soluble Salt Brickwork develop efflorescence of white salt brought to the surface by water and deposited by evaporation. The soluble salts which may be present in the bricks are sulphates of sodium, potassium magnesium and calcium. It is not harmful to bricks and disappears after certain period. Efflorescence should always be dry brushed away before rendering or plastering a wall. The risk of efflorescence may be reduced by using bricks of low soluble salts content. 5. Moisture Expansion Fired brick ceramic exhibit long-term expansion on exposure to moist air. Expansion is progressive and continues indefinitely at diminishing rate. Brick expand on being warmed and shrink when cooled. 6. Thermal Properties Thermal conductivity is controlled by proportions of crystalline and glassy constituents and porosity. Higher bulk density has higher conductivity. Rises sharply with increasing moisture content. Coefficient of thermal expansion lies between 5 to 7 x 10-6 per oC 7. Resistance to chemical attack Brick ceramic is very resistant to alkalis acids and can counter chemicals under extreme conditions. Useful in chemical plants e.g. clay pipes for acid affluent

8. Behavior under fire conditions It is fired material, the performance under fire generally excellent. Thermal stresses may produce small spalling in certain types. Severe fires may cause slight of fusion of exposed faces. Perforated has lower resistant. Calcium silicate bricks Calcium silicates bricks constitute a well established class of building material, distinct both from clay bricks or blocks, and concrete bricks or blocks. The term calcium silicate brick or more correctly known as autoclaved calcium silicate-bonded brick includes sandlime and flintlime bricks are produced in a high pressure steam-hardening process. Raw material siliceous aggregates, high calcium lime and water. Sandlime described bricks in which only natural sand is used with the lime Flintlime bricks contain a substantial proportion of crushed flint. Application Calcium Silicate Brick Being substantially similar in application to clay bricks, calcium silicates bricks are used for an equally wide range of loadbearing and non-load bearing structures. All calcium silicate bricks except those that should not used in wet condition are resistant to attack by most sulphate salts in soil ground water. Principles of the process Use of steam under pressure. Principle as the domestic pressure cooker autoclaving. Silica (constituent sand/flint) reacts slowly with hydrated lime (Calcium hydroxide) + water Calcium hydrosilicates.

All the autoclaving time is used up by this reactionresultant calcium, hydrosilicates envelop each grain of sand more @ less completely & form bridges between them. An excess of binder would lower the strength. Method of manufacturing

Sand-cement bricks Main material Portland cement and sand. BS 1180:Nov.:1972 specified sand-cement brick according to its compressive strength.

Engineering bricks Very hard, dense and true in shape. Normally impervious and absorb very little moisture and usually used for load bearing members. In order to qualify as Engineering Bricks, both the required strength and absorption properties must be obtained and also it must attained the standard durability. Engineering bricks was developed in respond to the demand for structural material with very high load bearing capacity. Dimensions Brick sizes may be specified in either or both of two ways. The work size which is the actual size of the brick with allowances for manufacturing tolerances. The format sizes which is the actual sizes + the thickness of the mortar joints. The standard size used at present are:Work size 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm Format size 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm (i.e. assuming a 10mm joint) Many manufacturers are also able to supply alternative sizes and special shapes. Frog ... A depression in one (or sometimes both) of the bed surfaces of a pressed back. Arris ... The sharp edge formed by any two surfaces meeting at an angle. Head ... The short surface of a brick which may or may not be exposed in a wall. Face ... The long surface of an exposed brick, or the exposed surface of a wall.

Stretcher brick laid horizontally, flat with the long side of the brick exposed on the outer face of a wall. Header brick laid flat with the short end of the brick exposed. Soldier brick laid vertically with the narrow ("stretcher") side exposed. Sailor brick laid vertically with the broad side exposed. Rowlock brick laid on the long, narrow side with the small or "header" side exposed. Shiner brick laid on the long narrow side with the broad side exposed

Applications of engineering bricks Internal and external load bearing walls. Load bearing piers and column. Partition walls. Cladding and facings. Foundations Perimeter and garden walls. Paving and floorings. Manufacturing process

1. Winning and storage Wining means obtaining the raw material for the brick production. Clays are mainly composed by silica and alumina. Alumina is the soft and plastic part of the clay. This will readily absorbs water, and makes the clay plastic, and melts when burned. There 3 types of clay, namely: i. Surface clay ii. Shale iii. Fire clays The most suitable material for brick making is the clay with 30% sand and silt. The presence of sand will reduce the shrinkage occurring during the burning. Besides that, the clay also should have sufficient plasticity (after adding water), in order to ease the molding and shaping process. 2. Preparation The clay is crushed to break up large chunks and remove stones and ground prior to mixing the raw material. Most plants then screen the clay, passing it through inclined vibrating screens to control particle sizes. Bricks Production and Process 1. .Steam Method Adjust the autoclaving time and steam pressure get the performance characteristics. 2. Pressing Method Used for producing solid and hollow bricks Press in mould using dynamic presshead.

There are five basic stages in brick manufacture, though many of the operations are interdependent - a particular brick will follow through these stages in a way designed specifically to suit the raw material used and the final product: 1. Winning and storage 2. Preparation 3. Forming 4. Drying 5. Firing and cooling

3. Forming Tempering, the first step in the forming process, produces a homogeneous, plastic mass ready for molding. It is most commonly achieved by adding water to the clay in a pug mill (a mixing chamber with one or more revolving shafts with blades). After pugging, the plastic clay mass is ready to go to the forming step. There are three principal processes for forming brick: Stiff-mud process Soft-mud process Dry press process Stiff-mud process Also known as EXTRUSION PROCESS or WIRE-CUT PROCESS The clay is mixed with just enough water to produce plasticity (usually about 12 - 15% water by weight) The clay is extruded through a "die", producing a horizontal column of clay which passes through an automatic cutter Cutter-wire spaces and die sizes are precisely calculated to compensate for shrinkage during drying and firing Textures can be applied by die attachments that cut, scratch, roll, brush, or roughen the surface as the column leaves the die The green bricks are then stacked by hand Bricks are stacked with care to allow sufficient airspace between them to create even coloring and uniform strength during drying and firing Most of the bricks and structural clay tiles are manufactured using this process, and they are THE HARDEST AND MOST DENSE

Soft-mud process Also called as molded brick or hand made bricks. The clay contains too much water to be extruded (about 20 - 30% water by weight) Instead of extrusion, individual molds (often wood) are utilized, and are lubricated with either oil, water ( it is called water-struck bricks) or sand (it is called sand-struck bricks) to prevent the clay from sticking. If sand is used, grains with a maximum diameter of .5mm are sprinkled on the mold surfaces after being immersed in water If oil is used, it will be absorbed by the brick and burned during firing The soft-mud process can be done by hand and by machine. The hand-made bricks have more specialized, "architectural" shapes. There will be three person working together in producing the hand made bricks. One lumps the processed material to a brick-sized volume, another molds and applies sand to the clay, and the third washes and prepares the mold for re-use. In the machine-driven soft-mud process, the bricks don't have to be touched until they are dried. The bricks are more standard and are produced in mass quantities Both soft-mud bricks go into the same dryer, but different from the dryer for extrusion (stiff-mud process).

 Dry press process The DRY-PRESS PROCESS is adaptable for clays of very low plasticity (not more than 10% water by weight). Instead of wooden molds, the clay is formed with steel molds and is put under high pressure to create a very compact, dense brick. Hydraulic or compressed air-rams generate pressures ranging from 3 - 10 N/mm2. This process is not as common as the soft-mud and stiffmud. This is because; the bricks achieves more or less the same results with the other previous method, but with more technology and more money. 4. Drying When wet clay units comes out of mold or cutting machines, they contain about 7 to 30 percent moisture (depending on the forming method). Before the firing process begins, most of this water is evaporated in dryer chambers at temperatures ranging from about 380C to 2040C. The drying time, which varies with different clays, is usually from 24 to 48 hr. Although heat may be generated specifically for dryer chambers, it is more commonly supplied as exhaust heat from firing kilns. Heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to avoid excessive cracking in the ware. 5. Firing Firing (burning), is one of the most specialized steps in the manufacture of brick, requires from 40 to 150 hours, depending upon kiln type and other variables.

Several kilns are in use, the chief types being tunnel and periodic kilns and the fuel may be natural gas, coal, oil, sawdust, propane or combinations of these fuels. A periodic kiln is one that is loaded, fired, allowed to cool and unloaded, after which the same processes are repeated. In a tunnel kiln, units are similarly loaded on special cars which pass through various temperature zones as they travel through the tunnel. The heat conditions in each zone are carefully controlled and the kiln operates continuously. Firing may be divided into six general stages: 1. water-smoking (evaporating free water), 2. dehydration, 3. oxidation, 4. vitrification, 5. flashing, and 6. cooling. The actual temperatures will differ with the clay or shale. However, in general the temperature are: water-smoking takes place at temp. up to about 2040C dehydration from about 1490C to 9820C), oxidation from 5380C to 9820C vitrification from 8710C to 13160C 6. Cooling After the temperature has reached the maximum and is maintained for a prescribed time, the cooling process begins. For periodic kilns: the cooling period is 48 to 72 hours. For tunnel kilns: the cooling period is more than 48 hours. The rate of cooling has a direct effect on color and besides that the excessively rapid cooling will cause cracking Therefore, cooling is an important

Types of kiln There are four basic types of kiln: 1. Clamps 2. Intermittent Kilns 3. Continuous Kilns 4. Tunnel Kilns Clamps Is the centuries old firing method still used for some stock & hand-made bricks Formed by building up green bricks, in special close, stacked formations on a layers of fuel @ rough breeze laid on a base of burned bricks The fuel or breeze is ignited by small fires started in the fuel mixed in the green bricks. The clamp is usually left to burn itself out and cool down. Control is dependenton amount of fuel added bricks may vary considerably in quality. Intermittent kilns Are still used for the firing of special bricks and other requirements which do not justify large-scale production. They are heated by fires in grates in the outer walls the bricks being set when the kiln is cold, and temperature gradually raised to cover each stage of the firing cycle in succession. The kiln then is allowed to cool slowly until the bricks can be handled and withdrawn.

Continuous kilns Consists of a number of chambers connected in such a way that fire can be led from one to another stationary bricks are heated, fired and cooled. All stages of firing from setting & drying to cooling & drawing can take place concurrently and continuously in different parts of the same kiln. Fire is made to progress around the kiln by feeding fuel usually coal, oil, or gas to zones via equi-distant openings in the crown. The kiln usually consist of 2 parallel sections connected at the ends the chambers form a continuous tunnel. When large output is required, OR when even closer control over the firing is needed, the chambers are built as a series of arched structures arched are arrange transversely to the main direction of gas flow. Inter-chamber openings are provided to maintain the continuity of the system. The modern continuous kiln is a highly efficient unit which combines excellent quality and large output with economy operation. Tunnel Kiln Are more recent innovation kiln In tunnel kilns it is bricks that move while the fire stay still. The brick will be carried on kiln car, pass along a tunnel through preheating, firing and cooling zones. The temperatures and track speed are controlled to provide optimum conditions in each zone and may varied to produce a specific functional and appearance quality. Are mostly gas or oil fired, although some utilize solid fuel which is normally fed to the mouths at the top or side.

Concrete blocks Made of several material but the most common is concrete. Due to the high compressive strength and ease to handling individual blocks. Assorted in sizes and shapes. The size of a concrete block is specified by nominal dimensions Solid concrete block must have at least 75% of its cross section made up of concrete. Block having over 25% of its cross sectional area empty is classified as hollow block. The usual hollow concrete block has a core area making up to 40 to 505 cm2 of its cross section. The most common nominal size of standard block is 8 x 8 x 16 in (20 x 20 x 40 cm). Available as either heavyweight or lightweight block depending on the type of aggregates used.

Types of mortar joint

Types of brick tie

Special shape bricks Squint brick

Radial brick

Bullnose brick