Page 6 answers

D. Because Seismic Waves have uniform density. Seismic rays drawn perpendicular to the wave fronts follow straight lines. Seismic velocities would increase steadily with depth and rays would follow a curved path.

E. Through the analysis of a seismogram, the Outer Core comprises the continents and ocean basins. The crust has a variable thickness, being 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins. The crust is composed mainly of alumino-silicates.

F. According to seismologists, It is liquid iron, as it is hotter than iron's melting point. The true intrigue is why the inner core is solid. which is due to the extremely high pressures at the centre of the earth, which hoist up the melting point. The outer core is at less pressure, and so achieves the melting point of iron.

G) 1. F. 2. D. 3. C. 4. E. 5. A. 6. B.

Page 9 Activity: MINERALS

A) 1. G. 2. H. 3. E. 4. F. 5. A. 6. C. 7. D. 8. B.

B) 1. D. 2. F. 3. A. 4. E. 5. C. 6. B.

C. Hardness is measured by the resistance which a smooth surface offers to abrasion. The degree of hardness is determined by observing the comparative ease or difficulty which which one mineral is scratched by another. The Mohs hardness scale places ten common or well-known minerals on a scale from one to ten. One is the softest mineral and ten is the hardest.

Page 12 Activity: VOLCANISM

I. 1) A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from below the surface. 2) Lava refers both to molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption and the resulting rock after solidification and cooling. 3) Pyroclast is composed chiefly of rock fragments of volcanic origin. 4) Lahar is a type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water. 5) Fumaroles are openings in a planet's crust, often in the neighborhood of volcanoes, which emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen sulfide. 6) A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption, such as the one at Yellowstone National Park in the US. They are sometimes confused with volcanic craters.

II. Parts of a Volcano: Magma Chamber A magma chamber is a large underground pool of molten rock sitting underneath the Earths crust. Lava Lava is the rock expelled from a volcano during an eruption. Main Vent A volcanos main vent is the point in the Earths crust where hot magma has reached the surface. Crater A volcanic crater is a circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity. Pyroclastic Flow Pyroclastic flows are fast moving currents of hot gas and rock with travel down hill from a volcano, reaching speeds of 700 km/hour. Ash Cloud Volcanic ash consists of small pieces of pulverized rock and glass created during volcanic eruptions. Volcanic Bombs Volcanic bombs are chunks of lava blasted into the air which solidify before they reach the ground. Secondary Vent On large volcanoes, magma will reach the surface through several different vents, and not just the main vent. This can form cones, eject

lava, and cause destruction. Secondary Cone Secondary cones build up around secondary vents on larger volcanoes.

III. 1) Solid Ejecta: Lapillus, Tephra 2) Liquid Ejecta: Bomb, Lava 3) Gaseous Ejecta: Volcanic ash, Recoil

IV. 1) Pahoehoe is form of lava flow of basaltic rock, usually dark-colored with a smooth or ropey surface. 2) A'a' lava is the most common appearance type of lava flows that cool down forming fragmented, rough, sometimes spiny, or blocky surfaces. 3) Pillow lavas are lavas that contain characteristic pillow-shaped structures that are attributed to the extrusion of the lava under water, or subaqueous extrusion. 4) Lava tunnels are natural conduits through which lava travels beneath the surface of a lava flow, expelled by a volcano during an eruption.

V. 1) ignimbrite 2) Nuee ardente

Page 13 (continuation...)

VI. 1) Pumice 2) Lapilli

3) Blocks 4) Ash and Dust 5) Cinders

VII. 1) A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named for their large size and low profile, resembling a warrior's shield. Example: Mauna Kea, Hawai a shield volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii. i, 2) Composite volcanoes are tall cone-shaped mountains that are typically steeply-sided, symmetrical cones of large dimensions. Example: Mt. Rainier - Washington State 3) A cinder cone or scoria cone is a steep conical hill of volcanic fragments that accumulate around and downwind from a volcanic vent. Example: Mount Elephant, Victoria -Australia

VIII. 1) Pacific Ring of Fire 2) Alpide belt 3) Mid-Atlantic Ridge

IX. 1) Main Vent 2) Lava flow 3) Magma Chamber 4) Ash Cloud

Page 14 Activity: DIASTROPHISM

A. 1) Folding is the process of forming bends in (a stratum of rock) 2) Faulting occurs when shear stress on a rock overcomes the forces which hold it together. 3) Trenching is a type of excavation or depression in the ground. 4) Uplift is a geological process most often caused by plate tectonics which increases elevation. 5) Subsidence is the motion of a surface (usually, the Earth's surface) as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea-level.

Page 15 B. 1) Horst is the raised fault block bounded by normal faults or graben. A horst is formed from extension of the Earth's crust. 2) Syncline is a fold, with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. 3) Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core.

C. A folded mountain is created when two tectonic plates come together . This causes them to rise out of the earth. These mountains are formed by compression while Block mountains form when faults or cracks in the earth's crust force some materials or blocks of rock up and others down. Instead of the earth folding over, the earth's crust fractures (pulls apart). It breaks up into blocks or chunks. Sometimes these blocks of rock move up and down, as they move apart and blocks of rock end up being stacked on one another.

D. 1) Paleoclimatic evidence and fit of the continents

2) Fossil Evidence 3) Rock type and structural similarities

E. 1) Convergent Plate Boundary - A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving toward each other. If the two plates are of equal density, they usually push up against each other, forming a mountain chain. 2) Divergent Plate Boundary - A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving away from each other and new crust is forming from magma that rises to the Earth's surface between the two plates. 3) Transform Plate Boundary - is a unique formation in plate tectonics. It occurs when two tectonic plates slide past each other rather than diverge or subduct.

F. 1) transform plate boundary 2) convergent plate boundary 3) transform plate boundary 4) convergent plate boundary 5) divergent plate boundary

Page 16 G. 1) E. 2) A. 3) C. 4) B. 5) F. 6) D.

Page 22 Activity: GREENHOUSE EFFECT

A. 1) Greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. 2) Greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. 3) Ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 9799% of the Sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging to the life forms on Earth.

B. THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT: - Heat (infrared energy) radiates outward from the warmed surface of the Earth. - Some of the infrared energy is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which re-emit the energy in all directions. - Some of the infrared energy further warms the Earth. - Some of the infrared energy is emitted into space.

C. 1) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Examples: burning of solid waste, trees 2) Methane (CH4) Examples: production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil

3) Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Examples: agricultural and industrial activities 4) Ozone (O3) Examples: preparation of pharmaceuticals, synthetic lubricants, and many other commercially useful organic compounds 5) Water vapor Examples: respiration in plants and animals, Radar and satellite imaging

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D. 1) Natural Warming 2) Amplified Warming 3) Global Warming

E. 1) ozone 2) nitrous oxide 3) methane 4) carbon dioxide 5) water vapor 6) carbon dioxide 7) nitrous oxide 8) ozone 9) ozone

Page 26 Activity: EUTROPHICATION

A. Eutrophication is the movement of a body of waters trophic status in the direction of increasing plant biomass, by the addition of artificial or natural substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system.

B. 1) Autotrophic organisms 2) Heterotrophic organisms

C. 1) An ecosystem or environment is said to be oligotrophic if it offers little to sustain life. 1.1) describe environments of water, ice, air, rock 1.2) Not sufficient enough to sustain life 1.3)describe environments of soil with very low nutrient levels 1.4) special interest for the alternative energy sources and survival strategies upon which life could rely

D. 1) Eutrophic body of water, commonly a lake or pond, has high primary productivity due to excessive nutrients and is subject to algal blooms resulting in poor water quality. 2.1) rich in organic and mineral nutrients 2.2) suporting an abundant plant life 2.3) reduces the dissolved oxygen content

F. 1) Collaboration of the government, its people and communities. However government must lead facilitation 2) transparent research and monitoring activities 3) Biological Control

G. Steps in Wastewater Treatment: Pretreatment Often the first step in wastewater treatment is coarse screening to remove large materials (rags, logs and other large objects) from the wastewater that could interfere with the treatment process. Grit Chambers The next step is to remove smaller objects (such as sand, broken glass, silt and pebbles). Comminutors Comminutors are mechanical devices with revolving cutting bars. Comminutors are placed downstream of the grit chambers to cut and shred any remaining solids. Flow Equalization Wastewater seldom flows into wastewater treatment plants at the same rate throughout each day. To even out these periods of high and low flow, large basins are constructed at some wastewater treatment plants to store the wastewater flow from peak periods and release it for treatment. Primary Treatment After screening the solids and removing the grit, the wastewater still contains light organic suspended solids. Some of these can be removed by gravity in a sedimentation tank. Secondary Treatment Secondary treatment removes soluble materials that require oxygen for decay, as well as further removal of suspended solids. Trickling Filters

A trickling filter is a bed of coarse stone or perforated plastic material over which wastewater is sprayed. Activated Sludge Activated sludge is another method of providing secondary treatment to wastewater, whereby a mixture of wastewater and biological sludge (microorganisms) is agitated and aerated. The biological solids are then allowed to settle out. Secondary Clarifiers Wastewater leaving trickling filters and activated sludge aeration tanks is then sent to secondary clarifiers (settling tanks) where the microorganisms settle out. At this point, the wastewater treatment process is nearly completed. Disinfection The next step in secondary wastewater treatment is disinfection. In the United States, the most common method of disinfection is chlorination. Chlorine is injected into the wastewater and the wastewater is held in a basin for about fifteen minutes to allow the chlorine to react with any remaining pathogens. Since chlorine is toxic to fish, the chlorine is often removed from the wastewater as a last step. The treated wastewater can then be released into a stream.