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9.2 Space

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1. The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects both on it and around it.
Students learn to: Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field Weight is a force. It is the product of mass and the acceleration due to gravity, given by the equation: Where: - m is the mass - g is the acceleration due to gravity Extra: The strength of a gravitational field of a planet is defined as:

Where: G is the gravitational constant ( M is the mass of the planet r is the radius of the planet

The value of g varies, depending on the following factors: Geographical location The actual value of the acceleration due to gravity, g, that will apply in a given situation will depend upon geographical location. Minor variations in the value of g around the Earths surface occur because: The Earths crust or lithosphere shows variations in thickness and structure due to factors such as tectonic plate boundaries and dense mineral deposits. These variations can alter local values of g. The Earth is not a perfect sphere, but is flattened at the poles. This means that the value of g will be greater at the poles, since they are closer to the centre of the Earth. The spin of the Earth creates a centrifuge effect that reduces the effective value of g. The effect is greatest at the Equator and there is no effect at the poles. As a result of these factors, the rate of acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth varies from a minimum value at the Equator of 9.782 ms2 to a maximum value of 9.832ms2 at the poles. The usual value used in equations requiring g is 9.8ms2. Altitude the value of g varies, depending on the altitude. The value of g can be solved by using the following equation: ( )

Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done Gravitational potential energy is the energy an object possesses due to its position in a gravitational field. Gravity is a force of attraction. For the object to move away from the Earths gravitational field, work must be done to the object. In other words, when work is done on an object to move the object, the kinetic energy from the object is converted into gravitational potential energy.

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Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object from a very large distance away to a point of gravitational field

Gravitational potential energy is the energy an object possesses due to its position in a gravitational field. Gravitational potential energy is expressed in the following equation:

Where: G is the gravitational constant. M1 is the mass of the planet M2 is the mass of the object r is the distance between the planet and the object Due to the equations relationship with the inverse square law, gravitational potential energy is zero only at an infinite distance away. The value of Ep is reduced if work is done by the object to move from zero to the point of gravitational field (GPE is converted back into other forms of energy such as kinetic energy), hence why Ep is negative.

2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch, maintain a stable orbit and return to earth.
Students learn to: Describe a trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the Earths gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical components A trajectory of a projectile is the path that it follows during flight. The trajectory of a projectile has a parabolic shape, assuming that air resistance is negligible. The trajectory of a projectile consists of two components: constant vertical acceleration motion and constant horizontal velocity motion. For example, if an object is dropped vertically and another is thrown at the same time, both objects will land at the same rate as the vertical acceleration is constant. Extra: For a projectile to achieve a maximum range, its angle of launch must be . For a projectile to reach its maximum height, the launch angle must be perpendicular to the ground. While the ball is in the air, the only external force acting on the object is gravity acting downwards, so there is a constant vertical acceleration. The net horizontal force is zero, so the horizontal velocity is constant. Describe Galileos analysis of projectile motion Galileo stated that the trajectory of a projectile is parabolic. He also reasoned that the trajectory of a projectile consisted of two components; a constant vertical acceleration motion and a constant horizontal velocity motion. This means that all objects, regardless of mass and size, will fall at the same rate. 2|Page

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Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of: - Gravitational constant - Mass and radius of the planet Mathematically, the relationship between kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy can be shown:

The equation above shows that the kinetic energy of an object must be larger than its gravitational potential energy. The escape velocity of an object can be derived from the equation above. Since the mass of the object is irrelevant to the escape velocity, it can be cancelled:

Here, the equation shows that the escape velocity is mathematically dependent on the universal constant, G, and the mass and radius of the planet. In other words: And Outline Newtons concept of escape velocity Newton stated that for every given altitude, there is a specific velocity required for any object to achieve a stable circular orbit around a planet. If an object is thrown vertically, it would fall back down to the Earth once it reaches a certain height. If the object was fired at the specific velocity at a high mountain top, to object will go into orbit. If the object was fired faster than the specific velocity, it would escape the planets gravitational field. Identify why the term g-forces is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut during launch The term g-forces is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut during launch. g-force is defined by the equation:

The thrust of the rocket will exert a force in a downward direction while the floor in the interior of the rocket will exert a force in an upward direction. This increases the sensation the astronauts will experience. The astronauts apparent weight will be heavier than his/her actual weight, expressed in g. Discuss the effect of the Earths orbital motion and its rotational motion on the launch of a rocket As the Earth is rotating at 464km/s in an easterly direction, the equator would be the best launch site because it is faster at the equator. If the rocket is launched at an easterly direction with the Earth, the Earths orbital speed and rotational speed will be added onto the speed of the rocket. This will produce a higher orbital velocity of the rocket relative to the sun. This reduces the use of fuel as the rocket is already picking up the Earths rotational speed. 3|Page

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Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the: - Law of Conservation of Momentum - Forces experienced by the astronauts The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that during a launch, the momentum of the gases exerted by a system will be equal to the momentum of the system itself in the opposite direction. This means the momentum is conserved. As the system exerts gas, fuel is burnt. This decreases the mass of the system, increasing the acceleration of the system. This refers to Newtons second law:

If the mass of the rocket decreases during flight and the thrust remains constant, the acceleration of the rocket (and astronauts) increases. Thus the force experienced by the astronaut increases. Extra: Modern rockets can use either solid or liquid propellants. Solid rocket propellant is a manufactured mixture of a fuel, such as a mixture of hydrogen compounds and carbon, with an oxidiser, or oxygen supply, being a mixture of oxygen compounds. The dry, solid propellant is packed into an insulated cylindrical vessel, usually with a hollow core through its middle. The hollow core is not necessary, but it increases the surface area available for burning, and therefore the thrust. The end of the cylinder is fitted with a nozzle. Finally, an igniter built into the cylinder sparks off the rapid burning of the propellant. Hot gases are produced at an extreme rate and are forced out through the nozzle. Liquid-propellant rockets keep both the liquid fuel, such as kerosene or liquid hydrogen, and the oxidiser, usually liquid oxygen, in separate storage tanks. Pumps force each liquid from their tanks and spray them into a combustion chamber where they mix as they burn, producing the hot gases that are expelled out through a nozzle. The thrust of a solid-fuel rocket engine cannot be varied once started, since the fuel is ignited and burns at the maximum possible rate until it is exhausted. The thrust of a liquid-fuel engine can be throttled to some extent, by varying the amount of fuel and oxidiser that enter the combustion chamber, allowing some control over the thrust delivered by the engine and the resultant rate of acceleration. Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects, including satellites orbiting the Earth Objects, such as the Earth and a satellite in orbit, undergo a uniform circular motion. The forces involved are centripetal force as the forces are acting towards the centre of a circle the object creates. Astronauts in orbit feel weightless. This is because the astronaut is under a state of free-fall. As there are no forces acting ON the astronaut, the astronaut will not notice the gravitational field around him/her. Extra: Newton stated that wherever there is a net force acting on an object, there is an association with acceleration. Since the only force acting on an object in circular motion is centripetal force, we can say that:

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As centripetal force acts towards the centre of the circular path, so does the centripetal acceleration. Compare low Earth and geo-stationary orbits Low Earth orbit Altitude between 250 to 1000Km Used for spy satellites Period of less than 23 hours Has a polar orbit

Geo-stationary orbit Altitude of 36000Km Used for communication Period of 23 hours and 56 minutes Has an equatorial orbit

Define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and qualitative relationship between orbital velocity, the gravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass of the satellite and the radius of the orbit using Keplers Law of Periods Orbital velocity is the instantaneous direction and speed of an object in circular motion along its path. For uniform circular motion, its magnitude is constant and s inversely proportional to the orbital period, which is defined by the equation:

Where: r is the distance between the central body and the satellite T is the period of the satellites orbit Keplers Law of Periods is used to calculate the period in which an object orbits around a planet. This law can be defined by the equation:

Where: r is the distance between the orbiting object T is the orbital period M is the mass of the central body G is the gravitational constant Mathematically, the relationship between orbital velocity and Keplers Law of Periods can be shown:

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The result above shows that: The orbital velocity is directly proportional to the mass of the planet The orbital velocity is inversely proportional to the root of the radius The orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the satellite Extra: Orbital Energy: Any satellite travelling at a stable circular orbit at a given orbital radius has a characteristic total mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy (due to its orbital velocity) and gravitation potential energy (due to its height) of an object.

Specific orbital energy:

Account for the orbital decay of satellites in low Earth orbit All satellites in low Earth orbit are subjects to atmospheric drag. The friction between the satellite and the atmosphere results in a loss of energy. This loss of energy is converted into heat. The loss of energy will result in a decrease in speed of the satellite. Due to the atmospheric drag, the satellite will lose more energy as it descends closer to the surface of the Earth, decreasing the speed of the satellite even further. The satellite will eventually fall back down to the Earth. Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earths atmosphere and landing on the Earths surface Heat is one of the major problems associated with safe re-entry. Objects which re-enter the Earths atmosphere result in downward force acting on the object. The friction between the object and the atmosphere results in a loss of energy, slowing the object down. This loss of energy is converted into heat. 6|Page

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The shape of the spacecraft will influence the spread and dispersion of the heat that the spacecraft experiences. Blunt noses are preferred over sharp noses. This is because spacecraft with blunt noses create a shockwave which absorbs most of the heat. Also the heat is spread out more rather than focused on one particular point. Ionisation blackouts are another problem discovered in early space travel. As heat builds up when the space-shuttle re-enters the Earths atmosphere, the atoms in the air become ionised, forming a layer around the spacecraft. This causes an ionisation blackout as radio signals cannot penetrate this layer, preventing communication between the ground and the spacecraft. All telemetry and verbal communication will be cut off during the duration of the ionisation blackout. Identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a manned spacecraft into the Earths atmosphere and the consequences of failing to achieve this angle The angle of re-entry must be 5.1 to 7.1 (that is, 6.11) as the Earths atmosphere is opened to a small window. If the angle is too shallow, the spacecraft will skip back into space. If the angle is too steep, the heat created would be too much for the crew to survive (that is, the spacecraft would burn up and disintegrate).

3. The Solar System is held together by gravity.

Students learn to: Describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive object in terms of its affect on other masses in it A gravitational field is a region in which an object experiences a gravitational force. All objects with mass will generate a gravitational field. Hence, objects with mass will attract other objects with mass. The gravitational force of any object is: Directly proportional to the masses of the objects Inversely proportional to the distance squared Define Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation

Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation states that all objects with mass will attract other objects with mass. Newtons law also states that the gravitational force of any object is: Directly proportional to the masses of the objects Inversely proportional to the distance squared

Discuss the importance of Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation in understanding and calculating the motion of satellites Satellites must have a certain velocity to remain in orbit with a planet. The orbital velocity of an object is affected by the force of the gravitational field of a planet, as shown in the equation:

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The orbital motion of the satellite is also affected by the forces acting on the satellite.

Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes The slingshot effect is the effect space probes exploit to increase speed. It allows satellites to change speed and direction. The change in direction is due to the gravitational field which applies a force to the space probe which changes its direction. The satellite can also be sped up or slowed down. There is an increase in speed is because, relative to the sun, the passing space probe has gained velocity from the moving planet. Gravitational slingshots involve gravitational potential energy being converted into kinetic energy. Some of the angular momentum and kinetic energy of the planet is transferred to the space probe.

4. Current and emerging understanding about time and space has been dependent upon earlier models of the transmission of light.
Students learn to: Outline the features of the aether model The aether model: Permeated all matter and yet was completely permeable to all material matter Fills all of space Has great elasticity to support the propagation of light waves Have an extremely low density Describe and evaluate the Michelson-Morley attempt to measure the relative velocity of the Earth through the aether Michelson and Morley performed an investigation to determine the relative velocity of the Earth to the aether, depending on the direction it is travelling through the aether. An apparatus was set up as shown:

The apparatus was placed on a large rock which floated on a pool of mercury. The rock was an attempt to remove any vibrations from any external sourceas it would create a blur in any light pattern. Floating the apparatus on the rock enabled them to rotate it to try to detect any interference patterns from different directions. The interferometer used by Michelson and Morley reflected light from a common source in two 8|Page

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directions and then back to an observation point. If the aether existed, there would be a shift in the interference pattern between each light ray. The Michelson and Morley was thorough, widely accepted, and while not disproving the existance of the aether, changed the direction that scientific thought had been bogged down in for 100 years and started scientists looking at alternate ideas for the first time in years.

Discuss the role of the Michelson-Morley experiment in making determinations about competing theories Many scientists accepted the null result as evidence that the aether did not exist. Others still searched for the aether, blaming that the null result had resulted from inaccurate equipment. One suggestion was that a large object such as a planet could drag the aether along with it. Another suggestion was that objects contract in the direction of the aether wind. The aether supporters saw the null result as the need to improve the model. The Michelson-Morley experiment was repeated by many, using more sensitive equipment in different locations. No evidence of an aether has ever been found in all of the repetitions. Outline the nature of inertial frames of reference An inertial frame of reference is one which is at rest or is travelling at a constant velocity. Only steady motion or no motion is allowed. An example of an inertial frame of reference is a spacecraft travelling at a constant velocity. A non-inertial frame of reference is one which is accelerating. An example of this is a spacecraft taking off.

Discuss the principle of relativity The principle of relativity states that no mechanical experiment can be performed in an inertial frame of reference to determine motion. This is because all motion is relative. Motion cannot be detected in an inertial frame of reference without reference to an outside source. For example if you were in a spacecraft that was on its way to the moon with its rocket engines turned off. Then the spacecraft is an inertial frame of reference (neglecting the minute forces of gravity). If you close all the windows and stand inside then there is no way of you knowing how fast you are travelling or if you are moving at all. This is the principle of relativity, that is, there is no way of detecting inertial motion without reference to an outside point. So in the example, you can only detect the motion of the spacecraft you are in when you open the windows and look outside and see the Earth getting smaller and the moon becoming larger. To detect your motion you are referring to an outside reference point. However according to the principle you can only measure the relative velocity between the two frames, no frame is preferred and you cannot measure your absolute velocity. Describe the significance of Einsteins assumption of the constancy of the speed of light If the aether permeates all matter, measurements of the speed of light made from an object travelling at a constant velocity will give different values, depending on the direction of the object is travelling. This will enable the observer to determine whether they are in an inertial or non-inertial frame of reference. This violates the principle of relativity. So in conclusion, the speed of light must be constant.

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Identify that if c is constant then space and time become relative Length and time taken for an object depends on the motion of the observer. Length and time become relative as they can no longer be considered as separate concepts. In order to define the position of an object within its frame of reference, four co-ordinates must be considered in the space-time continuum; x, y, z, and time. Discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms of time in contrast to the original metre standard The metre as a unit of length was first defined in 1973 when the French government decreed it to be times the length of the Earths quadrant passing through Paris. Three platinum standards and several iron copies were made. When it was discovered that the quadrant survey was incorrect, the metre was redefined as the distance between the two marks on the bar. In 1985, SI units were introduced so that the definition became more formal. There was a need for accuracy of a unit of measure to keep pace with improvements in technology and science, so the metre has since been redefined twice. The current definition of the metre uses the constancy of the speed of light and the accuracy of the definition of one second (9129631770 oscillations of the atom) to achieve both highly accurate and consistent with the idea of space-time. The current definition of the metre is defined as:

Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequences of special relativity in relation to: the relativity of simultaneity the equivalence between mass and energy length contraction time dilation mass dilation - The relativity of simultaneity: Einstein contended that if an observer sees two events occurring simultaneously, in relative motion to the first, the events will not be judged as being simultaneous. In other words, simultaneous events in one frame of reference are not necessarily observed to be simultaneous in another frame of reference. For example, there is an observer in a train with two light-operated doors (on the front and back of the train). There is another observer, stationary on a platform outside of the train. The train is travelling at the speed of light. The observer in the train switches on the lights and the doors open simultaneous to the observer inside the train. To the stationary observer, however, sees a different event occurring. The door on the back had opened before the door on the front of the train. This is because the distance from the light to the backdoor decreases as it passes the stationary observer. - The equivalence between mass and energy: As an object approaches the speed of light its mass approaches infinity. This is an enormous increase in mass that prevents any object from exceeding the speed of light. This is because an applied force is required 10 | P a g e

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for the object to accelerate. But here lies a problem- if a force is applied to an object, then work must be done on the object. Energy is also given to the object, but where is the energy going? As the object approaches the speed of light, the energy given to the object is converted into mass. This can be expressed in the equation:

- Length contraction: Observers in differing frames of reference will perceive length differently; that is, lengths that are parallel to the direction of motion. The length measured within its rest frame is called its proper length, Lo. A measurement of length in a moving frame of reference is called L. This length is always shorter than the proper length. Length contraction is expressed in the equation: Where: v is the relative speeds of the two frames of reference c is the speed of light - Time dilation: Observers in differing frames of reference will perceive time differently; that is, the time taken for an event to occur within its rest frame is called its proper time (to). Observers in different reference frames in relative motion will always judge the time taken (tv) to be longer. Time dilation is expressed in the equation: Where: v is the relative speeds of the two frames of reference c is the speed of light - Mass dilation: Another consequence of the theory of Special Relativity is that the mass of a moving object increases as its velocity increases. This is the phenomenon of mass dilation. It is another expression of the mass-energy equivalence and is represented mathematically as: Where: mv is the mass of the object in the moving frame of reference mo is the rest mass v is the velocity of the object c is the speed of light Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and length contraction for space travel Mass increase means that spacecraft cannot travel at or above the speed of light. It also means that the faster the spacecraft gets, the heavier it will be and thus the more force needed to accelerate it. This means 11 | P a g e

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that the spacecraft cannot simply allow constant acceleration to increase the speed at a constant rate for as long as they want. This limits the speeds spacecraft can travel at, and it limits them to low speeds relative to . However time dilation and length contraction help for space travel as if relativistic speeds can be achieved then the length needed to travel will become less and as time slows people can travel further in their lifetime, however if they return to Earth people would have aged much more. For length contraction, it is best to use Einsteins Relativity Postulate that states, the laws of physics are the same for observers in all inertial reference frames. No frame is preferred. This means that the spaceship speeding though space could equally say that they in the spaceship are stationary and the rest of the space is speeding past the craft. In this respect, the space will contract in length and hence the spaceship will have less length to travel in order to reach the destination.

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