An Introduction To Z Transforms

11/10/11 An Introduction to Z Transforms
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Z Tronsforms
Why Are Z Tronsforms Used7
The Z Tronsform
SignoIs Wifh MuIfipIe PoIes
Imporfonf Focfs Abouf Z Tronsforms
ProbIems
You ore of: 8osi c Concepfs - 8ockground From Li neor Sysfems/Tronsforms - Z-Tronsforms - AppIi cofi on To Sysfems
CIi ck here fo refurn fo fhe TobIe of Confenfs
Why Are Z Tronsforms Used7
You shouId know fhof LopIoce fronsform mefhods ore wideIy used for onoIysis in Iineor
sysfems. LopIoce fronsform mefhods ore used when o sysfem is described by o Iineor
differenfioI equofion, wifh consfonf coefficienfs. However:
There ore numerous sysfems fhof ore described by difference equofions - nof
differenfioI equofions - ond fhose sysfems ore common ond differenf from fhose
described by differenfioI equofions.
Sysfems fhof sofisfy difference equofions incIude fhings Iike:
Compufer confroIIed sysfems - sysfems fhof foke meosuremenfs wifh digifoI I/O
boords or 0PI8 insfrumenfs, coIcuIofe on oufpuf voIfoge ond oufpuf fhof voIfoge
digifoIIy. FrequenfIy fhese sysfems run o progrom Ioop fhof execufes in o fixed
infervoI of fime.
Ofher sysfems fhof sofisfy difference equofions ore fhose sysfems wifh DigifoI FiIfers
- which ore found onywhere digifoI signoI processing - digifoI fiIfering is done. Thof
incIudes:
DigifoI signoI fronsmission sysfems Iike fhe feIephone sysfem.
Sysfems fhof process oudio signoIs. For exompIe, o CD confoins digifoI signoI
informofion, ond when if is reod off fhe CD, if is inifioIIy o digifoI signoI fhof con
be processed wifh o digifoI fiIfer.
Af fhis poinf, fhere ore on incredibIe number of sysfems we use every doy fhof hove
digifoI componenfs which sofisfy difference equofions.
In confinuous sysfems LopIoce fronsforms pIoy o unique roIe. They oIIow sysfem ond
circuif designers fo onoIy;e sysfems ond predicf performonce, ond fo fhink in differenf
ferms - Iike frequency responses - fo heIp undersfond Iineor confinuous sysfems. They ore o
ver powerful tool that shapes how engineers think about those sstems. Z-transforms pla
the role in sampled sstems that Laplace transforms pla in continuous sstems.
In continuous sstems, inputs and outputs are related b differential equations and
Laplace transform techniques are used to solve those differential equations.
In sampled sstems, inputs and outputs are related b difference equations and Z-
transform techniques are used to solve those differential equations.
In continuous sstems, Laplace transforms are used to represent sstems with transfer
functions, while in sampled sstems, Z-transforms are used to represent sstems with
transfer functions.
There are numerous sampled sstems that look like the one shown below.
An analog signal is converted to a digital form in an A/D.
The digital signal is processed somehow.
The processed digital signal is converted to an analog signal for use in the analog world.
The processing can take man forms.
In a voice transmission situation, the processing might be to band-limit the signal and
filter noise from the signal.
In a control situation, a measurement might be processed to calculate a signal to
control a sstem.
And there are man other situations.
Goals
In sampled sstems ou will deal with sequences of samples, and ou will need to learn
Z-transform techniques to deal with those signals. In this lesson man of our goals relate
to basic understanding and use of Z-transform techniques. In particular, work toward these
goals.
Given a sequence of samples in time,
Be able to calculate the Z-transform of the sequence for simple sequences.
Given a Z-transform,
Be able to determine the poles and eroes of the Z-transform.
Be able to locate and plot the poles and eroes in the -plane.
Lofer you wiII need fo Ieorn obouf fronsfer funcfions in fhe reoIm of sompIed sysfems. As
you move fhrough fhis Iesson, fhere ore ofher fhings you shouId Ieorn.
0iven o Z-fronsform of o signoI, ond fhe poIe Iocofions,
8e obIe fo reIofe disfonce from fhe origin fo decoy rofe.
8e obIe fo reIofe ongIe off fhe hori;onfoI fo fhe number of sompIes in o cycIe of
signoI osciIIofion.
Whof Is A Z Tronsform7
You wiII be deoIing wifh sequences of sompIed signoIs. Lef us ossume fhof we hove o
sequence, y
k
. The subscripf "k" indicofes o sompIed fime infervoI ond fhof y
k
is fhe voIue of
y(f) of fhe k
h
sompIe insfonf.
y
k
couId be generofed from o sompIe of o fime funcfion. For exompIe:
y
k
~ y(kT), where y(f) is o confinuous fime funcfion, ond T is fhe sompIing
infervoI.
We wiII focus on fhe index voriobIe, k, rofher fhon fhe exocf fime, kT, in oII fhof
we do in fhis Iesson.
Ifs eosy fo gef o sequence of fhis sorf if o compufer is running on A/D boord, ond
meosuring some physicoI voriobIe Iike femperofure or pressure of some prescribed infervoI,
T seconds. A sompIed sequence Iike fhis pIoys fhe some roIe fhof o confinuous signoI pIoys in
o confinuous sysfem. If corries informofion jusf Iike o confinuous signoI.
The Z fronsform, Y[;], of o sequence, y
k
is defined os:
We wiII use fhe foIIowing nofofion. A Iorge ";" denofes fhe operofion of foking o Z-
fronsform (i.e., performing fhe sum obove) ond fhe resuIf is usuoIIy denofed wifh on upper-
cose version of fhe voriobIe used for fhe sompIed fime funcfion, y
k
.
Z[y
k
] ~ Y[;]
The definifion is simpIe. Toke fhe sequence, ond muIfipIy eoch ferm in fhe sequence by
o negofive power of ;. Then sum oII of fhe ferms fo infinify. Thofs if.
Lefs Iook of fhe fronsform of some simpIe funcfions fo show how fhis definifion works.
ExompIe
EI We ore going fo coIcuIofe fhe Z-fronsform of o simpIe sequence. So fhof you con see
fhe sequence in oII ifs gIory, we hove o sequence coIcuIofor for you. The expression for fhe
sequence is:
y
k
~ y
o
k
To use fhe coIcuIofor, inpuf o in fhe fexf box ond cIick fhe Sforf buffon. If you wonf fo see
fhe sequence for o differenf voIue of o, cIick fhe CIeor buffon fo cIeor fhe pIof, enfer o new
voIue for o ond cIick fhe Sforf buffon fo repIof. We hove used o voIue of I.0 for fhe
sforfing voIue.
The simuIofor Iefs you see fhe sequence for differenf voIues of o. We wonf fo gef fhe Z-
fronsform of fhe sequence for o generoI voIue of o. To do fhof we coIcuIofe fhe sum obove.
8uf, we know fhof y
k
~ y
o
k
. Puf fhof expression info fhe sum fo gef.
If o do he la m, o hold find.Then e ge:
Y[] = 1/[1 - a/] = /[ - a]
And e ee ha hi fncion ha a pole a = a, and a eo a = 0.
The pole i in he igh half of he -plane.
Depie ha, hi i he anfom of a ignal ha deca o eo!
Thing ok diffeenl in he -plane. I' no he ame a he -plane hee a pole
m be in he lef half of he -plane o epeen a fncion ha deca o eo. Hee,
fo a fncion o deca o eo, he pole m be inide he ni cicle - hon in ed on he
plo. Hee i an eample.
Eample
E2 Yo hae a decaing ampled ignal. The ignal i 2.0*(.9)
k
. The Z-anfom of he
ignal i:
2/( - 0.9)
We can plo he pole and eo fo hi fncion, and ha plo i hon belo.
Le' hink abo hi ignal a lile bi moe.
Thi ignal deca o eo, j like a decaing eponenial (like e
-/
)
Thi ignal cold, conceiabl, hae been geneaed b ampling a decaing eponenial.
In fhe sompIed worId, fhis signoI is probobIy going fo pIoy fhe some roIe os fhe
decoying exponenfioI pIoys in fhe confinuous worId.
In fhe sompIed worId, fhe fronsform of fhis signoI hos o poIe of ; ~ o. In fhe confinuous
worId, fhe fronsform of e
-/
hos o poIe of s ~ -I/.
Mow, Iefs Iook of onofher signoI. WeII jusf chonge fhings by moking o negofive. Thof
wonf chonge fhe oIgebro fhof we do, buf if wiII chonge how fhe funcfion Iooks.
ExompIe
E3 We ore going fo coIcuIofe fhe Z-fronsform of onofher sequence. The onIy difference
from fhe Iosf sifuofion is fhof we ore going fo consider negofive voIues for o. We didnf Iook
of negofive voIues before, buf we did ignore fhe possibiIify. Ifs fime fo recfify fhof.
We sfiII hove fhe some expression for fhe sequence.
y
k
~ y
o
o
k
In fhe coIcuIofor, you con inpuf negofive voIues for bofh fhe sforfing voIue. You shouId
nofice ond fhink obouf fhe foIIowing poinfs. Try bofh of fhose possibiIifies, ond fhen ponder
fhe foIIowing.
When o is negofive, successive poinfs in fhe pIof oIfernofe sign. In ofher words, fhere
ore osciIIofions, buf fhey onIy foke fwo sompIe periods. Pemember fhof behovior.
WeII revisif if Iofer when we consider muIfipIe reoI poIes.
When you take the Z-transform, this function has a single pole at z = -a.
Can you sketch where the pole is when a = -0.5?
The simulator still works when a is larger than 1.0 or less than -1.0 (like a = -2.5).
However, the response is not well behaved for those values.
Where is the pole for a larger than 1.0 or less than -1.0?
Observations & Comments
When we do the algebra for the sequence in the example above, we have
y
k
= y
o
a
k
That's what we have been working with.
The transform is given by: Y[z] = y
o
z/(z - a),
We still have a pole at z = a.
If a is positive, that pole is in the right half of the z-plane, but that doesn't bother us
in the z-plane like it does in the s-plane. If a is positive, as long as a < 1, the response
settles out. If a > 1, the response grows without limit.
If a is negative, the pole is in the left half plane, and it is on the negative real axis.
Interestingly that leads to oscillations that decay. You can't get oscillations in
continuous systems unless you have at least two poles, so that's something you might not
have expected.
Again, it pays to compare our results to continuous signal results and to sum up.
A decaying signal, y
k
= y
o
a
k
, has a pole at z = a. However, unlike a decaying
exponential, if a is negative, we can have oscillations in the decaying signal.
For the oscillations to decay, we must have a < 1. However, a can be either positive
or negative, and that leads to the possibility of oscillations when a is negative.
There is one other interesting correlation we can make with analog signals. In analog
signals, decaying exponentials are important. Note the following.
Say you have a decaying exponential. We can represent that with a time constant
description:
Y(t) = y
o
e
-/
Now, consider sampling that decaying exponential. Assume that you sample every T
seconds. Then the k
h
sample (taken a t = kT) is given by:
Y(kT) = y
k
= y
o
e
-kT/
= y
o
e
(-T/)k
= y
o
[e
(-T/)k
]
Mow, you con fhink of fhis os y
k
~ y
o
k
wifh:
o ~ [e
(-T/)
]
This is o preffy inferesfing correspondence befween sompIed ond onoIog signoIs. CIeorIy, if
you sompIe o decoying exponenfioI you gef fhe kind of sequence we hove been discussing
eorIier. ConverseIy, ony fime you hove o decoying sequence you mighf wonf fo fhink of fhe
decoying sequence os o sompIed decoying exponenfioI - ond fhere moy weII be fimes when fhof
is odvonfogeous.
Ofher SompIed SignoIs
As wifh LopIoce fronsforms fhere ore o number of simpIe signoIs fhof ore imporfonf.
8esides decoying signoIs, fwo imporfonf signoIs ore fhe unif impuIse ond fhe unif sfep.
8efore we go much furfher we wiII Iook of fhe Z-fronsforms of fhose fwo signoIs becouse
fhey ore imporfonf.
We wiII firsf exomine fhe unif impuIse in fhe sompIed worId. WeII coII fhof impuIse D
k
.
D
k
is one for n ~ 0.
In fhe confinuous worId fhe impuIse is infinife for f ~ 0.
Thofs o big difference.
D
k
is ;ero for oII ofher ks - Iike fhe confinuous impuIse is ;ero for fimes fhof ore nof
;ero.
Here is o picfure of fhe sompIed impuIse, D
k
.
Pemember fhof fhis is o sompIed signoI so if is nof defined excepf for infeger voIues of
k.
Ifs preffy eosy fo compufe fhe Z-fronsform of fhe unif impuIse.
EorIier, we defined fhe Z-fronsform of o sequence, y
k
os o sum of fhe sequence
muIfipIed by negofive powers of ;.
k
is ;ero for k0, so oII fhose ferms ore ;ero.
k
is one for k ~ 0, so fhof is fhe onIy ferm in fhe sum.
Thof meons fhof we hove:
Z[
k
] ~
~ I
We con see fhof fhe sequence,
k
, is going fo pIoy fhe roIe fhof fhe unif impuIse (Diroc
ImpuIse) pIoys in confinuous signoIs ond sysfems. Jusf Iike fhe unif impuIse, fhe fronsform of
k
is I.
Anofher imporfonf signoI is fhe unif sfep. Here is o unif sfep in fhe sompIed signoI
domoin.
u
k
is one for oII k.
We use fhe some expression fo compufe fhe Z-fronsform of fhe unif sfep. Since oII
sompIes ore one, we gef:
U[;] ~ I + ;
-1
+ ;
-2
+ ;
-3
+ ;
-4
+ . . .
U[;] ~ ;/(; - I)
8rush up on sums of infinife series if youre nof wifh if for fhis.
To gef fhe expression, U[;] ~ ;/(; - I), fhe series con be summed using sfondord
fechniques from coIcuIus. Or, you con divide ouf fhe resuIf - ;/(; - I) - fo generofe fhe
series. Eifher woy, you shouId convince yourseIf fhof fhe series is, in focf, correcf.
To fhis poinf we hove considered some simpIe funcfions in fhe sompIed fime domoin.
They incIude fhe foIIowing:
The unif impuIse,
k
,
The unif sfep, u
k
,
ExponenfioIIy decoying sequences, y
k
~ y
o
k
AIfernofing decoying sequences, which ore exponenfioIIy decoying sequences wifh o 0.
There ore ofher inferesfing signoIs. The ones considered fo fhis poinf ore omong fhe
simpIesf ond mosf fundomenfoI signoIs. There ore more compIex signoIs.
We hovenf considered signoIs wifh more fhon one poIe. Mexf, we wiII consider o signoI
wifh fwo poIes.
There ore fooIs fhof you hove ovoiIobIe from work wifh LopIoce fronsforms.
For exompIe, wifh fwo reoI poIes you shouId be obIe fo divide fhe fronsform info
fwo porfs, eoch wifh one reoI poIe, using porfioI frocfions. Then you con onoIy;e
eoch porf seporofeIy.
ConverseIy, o sequence wifh fwo decoying exponenfioI sequences shouId give fwo
poIes. Thof shouId generoIi;e fo more compIex signoIs.
SignoIs Wifh MuIfipIe PoIes
CIeorIy fhere ore Iofs of inferesfing sifuofions wifh muIfipIe poIes, ond we need fo
exomine some sifuofions fhere. Lefs Iook of o cose wifh fwo reoI poIes.
Here is fhe ;-funcfion:
And, fhe porfioI frocfion exponsion for fhe ;-funcfion is:
Toking fhe inverse Z-fronsform, we find fhe foIIowing sequence. Mofe
is o unif
impuIse of k ~ 0.
And, you shouId observe fhof we couId, in focf, hove performed fhese sfeps in fhe
opposife order, i.e.
We couId hove sforfed wifh fhe expression obove, wifh fwo decoying ferms (.7
ond.9
), ond odded in o unif impuIse, fhen

We couId hove foken fhe fronsform of bofh ferms, incIuding fhe
ferm, ond
fhen,
We couId hove combined ferms fo gef fhe funcfion we sforfed wifh obove
I0/[(; - 0.7)(; - 0.9)]
Eample/Simlaion
E4 Hee i a imlao ha ill compe he inee anfom of:
Y[] = 1/[( - p
)( - p
)]
Ene he pole in he e boe indicaed, and click he Sa bon.
Do he folloing ih hi imlao.
Inp he ale aboe, i.e.
p
= 0.7
p
= 0.9
Obee he el, and, in paicla, noe he folloing feae.
The fncion a a eo, eache a peak and deca back o eo.
Yo hold epec he epone o die back o eo. Boh pole hee aif he
cieion fo abili a e noed aboe fo ingle pole.
The fncion doe no a immediael. Thee i no eo a = 0 a e had
ealie, and hi dela he a of he ignal. Tha ill be diced in moe
deail lae.
Inp one negaie ale fo a pole and obee he el, inclding he folloing
feae.
Thee ae no ocillaion in he epone. Thoe ocillaion ake onl o
ample peiod. a noed aboe fo a ingle negaie pole.
Inp o negaie ale fo he pole and obee he el, inclding he folloing
feae.
The ocillaion ill ake onl o ample peiod.
The ocillaion ae moe pononced (ilde?).
No, a hi poin o hae een eeal ignal.
The ni imple - ih a anfom ha i a conan.
The ni ep - ih a anfom ih a pole a he oigin.
The decaing "eponenial" - ih a anfom ih a ingle eal pole
To eponenial - ih o pole.
Thee ignal hae ome ineeing popeie, and e can make a fe obeaion.
The nmbe of decaing em (a
em) deemine he nmbe of pole.

In he cae e conideed, he pole ee eal.
Wih eal pole an ocilaion e enconeed ee of he pe hee he ccle
peiod a j o ample peiod, i.e. he ignal en p, hen i en don, hen
back p, ec.
We kno ha hee ae ohe kind of ignal ih ocillaion. We epeciall kno
ha hee ae pobabl ignal ha ake man ample peiod o complee an ocillaion.
Think of meaing empeae ee ho ding he da. If o hae o idenical da
in a o, o old hae 24 ample in a peiod. In he ne ecion e ill eamine ignal
ih hoe popeie.
Sampled Decaing Sinoid
A ignal ih o eal pole i a imple cae of a moe geneal iaion. In conino
ignal e ofen encone decaing inoid. Thoe ignal hae a ime epeenaion
gien belo.
f() = e
-aT
in(b)
Noe, hi ignal a a eo fo = 0. A plo of a ignal of hi o i hon belo.
Eample
E5 Imagine ha e hae a decaing inoid - a aboe - and ha e ample he inoid a
ineal of T econd. We old hae a ampled ignal:
f
= f(kT) = e
-T
in(kT)
The decaing inoid i imila o he alenaing decaing ignal, b i ha ignifican
diffeence:
The ignal doe no alenae fom poiie o negaie.
The ignal look like ample fom a decaing inoid.
No, le conide he Z-anfom of o decaing inoid ignal.
f
= f(kT) = e
-T
in(kT)
No, e hae o eallae he mmaion. Tha doen' look ea. Thee i anohe
a.
We can ecognie ha in(kT) can be epeened ih a m of o eponenial.
We can e he epanion fo he ine o gie
We con foke eoch ferm in fhis exponsion seporofeIy. Lefs sforf wifh fhe firsf porf of fhis
exponsion. Define o new funcfion for fhis firsf porf. CoII fhof funcfion fI
k
.
fI
k
~ [e
-kT+jkT
]
EorIier in fhis Iesson we considered o sequence:
y
k
~ y
o
k
We found fhe fronsform of fhis sequence fo be
Y[;] ~ y
/(; - o),
Mow we hove o new sequence:
fI
k
~ [e
-kT+jkT
]/Zj ~ [(e
-T-jT
)
k
]/Zj
This new sequence is reoIIy o generoIi;ofion of fhe simpIe sequence obove, so we
con oppIy our previous resuIf - wifhouf hoving fo reinvenf fhe wheeI.
There is o simiIor sequence for fhe ofher porf of fhe sompIed sine funcfion.
fZ
k
~ -[e
-kT-jkT
]/Zj ~ -[(e
-T-jT
)
k
]/Zj
We con rewrife fhe new sequence os:
f
k
~ fI
k
+ fZ
k
f
k
~ [(e
-T+jT
)
k
]/Zj - [(e
-T-jT
)
k
]/Zj
f
k
~ f
[(o)
k
- (o
*
)
k
]
Mofe, o
*
is fhe compIex conjugofe of o, ond o ~ e
-T+jT
.
f
~ I/Zj
We know how fo foke fhe ; fronsform of fhe sequence, f
k
. Thof sequence is jusf fhe sum of
fwo of fhe decoying signoI sequences - even fhough we now hove compIex voIues for "o". So,
Iefs foke fhe Z-fronsform of fhe sequence.
Z[f
k
] ~ f
[;/(; - o) + ;/(; - o
*
)]
We con combine fhese fwo ferms, if fhof is desired. The resuIf is:
Z[f
k
] ~ f
[;/(; - o) - ;/(; - o
*
)]
Z[f
k
] ~ f
[ZIm(o);/(; - o)(; - o
*
)]
We know:
f
~ I/Zj
o ~ e
-T-jT
~ e
-T
[cos(T) + jsin(T)]
So, we hove:
Z[f
k
] ~ f
[ZIm(o);/(; - o)(; - o
*
)]
Z[f
k
] ~ (I/Zj)[Ze
-T
sin(T);/(; - e
-T-jT
)(; - e
-T+jT
)]
And, fhof is fhe Z-fronsform of fhe sequence:
f
k
~ f(kT) ~ e
-kT
sin(kT)
There ore fwo poIes for fhis signoI. Those poIes ore of:
;
1
~ e
-T-jT
;
2
~ e
-T+jT
Here is on exompIe pIof for fhe fwo poIes. Poromefers ore:
~ 0.0b,
~ .3
T ~ I.0
The fwo poIes ore shown in fhe pIof beIow. The poIes ore morked wifh xs, ond we hove
shown o unif circIe. The fwo poIes Iie jusf sIighfIy wifhin fhe unif circIe.
These poIes ore inferesfing.
The poIes ore compIex conjugofes - much Iike we find compIex conjugofe poIes for
confinuous sysfems wifh decoying osciIIofions.
The poIes ore in fhe righf hoIf of fhe ;-pIone, buf fhey sfiII represenf decoying
osciIIofions - confrosfing wifh poIes in confinuous sysfems in fhe Ieff hoIf of fhe s-
pIone.
The poIes ore inside fhe unif circIe.
The unif circIe is fhe sfobiIify boundory for sompIed sysfems, Iike fhe imoginory
oxis is for confinuous sysfems.
Jusf os in confinuous sysfems, proximify fo fhe sfobiIify boundory impIies Iow reIofive
sfobiIify. PoIes in fhe ;-pIone fhof ore cIose fo fhe unif circIe wiII produce sIowIy
decoying osciIIofions jusf Iike poIes in fhe s-pIone do when fhey ore cIose fo fhe j-
oxis.
ExompIe/SimuIofion
Eo Lefs Iook of fhe numbers we used obove. Here fhey ore repeofed.
a ~ 0.0b,
b ~ .3
T ~ I.0
These ore fhe voIues in fhe expression for fhe sequence, f
~ f(kT) ~ e
-aT
sin(bkT), used
obove. Wifh fhese voIues we con compufe fhe poIe Iocofion ond fhe reoI ond imoginory porf
of fhe poIe Iocofion. Here is fhe compufofion.
The poIe is given by:
;
1
~ e
-aT+bT
;
1
~ e
-aT
[cos(bT) + jsin(bT)]
So, fhe reoI ond imoginory porfs ore:
Pe(;
1
) ~ e
-aT
cos(bT) ~ 0.909
Im(;
1
) ~ e
-aT
sin(bT) ~ 0.Z8I
The pIof obove, repeofed here, shows fhe poIe Iocofions. The pIof is consisfenf wifh our
coIcuIofions.
E7 Here is o simuIofor in which you con enfer fhe reoI ond imoginory porfs for o poir of
compIex poIes in fhe ;-pIone. In fhis simuIofor, do fhe foIIowing.
Check fhe voIues used obove, i.e. PeoI Porf ~ 0.909 ond Imoginory Porf ~ +/-0.Z8I.
AcfuoIIy, fhe simuIofor shouId hove fhese voIues presef.
Defermine if fhe period is correcf. You wiII need fo figure ouf whof fhe period shouId
be, ond remember fhof fhe sompIe period, T, is one second for fhis simuIofion.
Defermine if fhe number of sompIes in o period is correcf.
An Observofion Abouf Decoy Pofe
In o sompIed sysfem, decoy rofe is oIso imporfonf, jusf os if is in onoIog sysfems. In o
sompIed sysfem we wiII need fo discuss fhings in ferms of decoy fo o cerfoin percenfoge
offer o number of sompIe periods, ond fhen reIofe number of sompIe periods fo fime using
fhe sompIe period, T.
To gef o hondIe on decoy rofe remember fhof fhe poIes of o sompIed sysfem wifh fwo
compIex poIes ore:
;
1
~ e
-T-T
;
2
~ e
-T+T
The crificoI observofion fo be mode is fhof fhe response hos ferms Iike fhe expression beIow,
which is repeofed from fhe moferioI obove.
f
~ f(kT) ~ e
-T
sin(kT)
Then, we shouId reoIi;e fhof fhe crificoI ferm is fhe enveIope of fhe response, ond fhof is
defermined by:
EnveIope
~ e
-T
~ (e
-T
)
Or, in ofher words, fhe mognifude of fhe poIes (And since fhey ore compIex conjugofes,
fhey bofh hove fhe some mognifude.) defermines fhe decoy rofe per sompIe period.
Thof decoy rofe/sompIe period id:
Decoy Pofe/SompIe Period ~ e
-T
We con nofe fhe foIIowing crificoI observofion obouf fhese poIes.
If fhe mognifude of fhe poIe(s) is Iess fhon one, fhe response wiII evenfuoIIy seffIe ouf
fo o consfonf voIue (possibIy ;ero) becouse fhe fronsienf porf of fhe response wiII
evenfuoIIy die ouf.
If fhe mognifude of fhe poIe(s) is greofer fhon one, fhe response wiII grow indefinifeIy.
Thofs why fhe unif circIe is fhe sfobiIify boundory for sompIed sysfems. PoIes oufside
fhe unif circIe represenf signoIs fhof grow in fime, whiIe poIes inside fhe unif circIe
represenf signoIs fhof evenfuoIIy decoy fo ;ero.
If is possibIe fo gef even more insighf info how poIe posifion is reIofed fo response.
If we sforf wifh o sequence,f
~ f(kT) ~ e
-T
sin(kT)
In one sompIe period, fhe bounding enveIope of fhe sinusoid, e
-T
oIwoys
becomes smoIIer by o focfor e
-T
.
In one sompIe period, fhe ongIe in fhe orgumenf of fhe sinusoid oIwoys increoses
by T rodions.
We con reIofe fhese feofures of fhe response fo fhe poIe posifion. Lefs Iook of fhe
exompIe sequence we Iooked of eorIier. Heres fhe sequence ond fhe poIe posifions ore shown
in fhe figure of fhe righf beIow.
~ 0.0b,
~ .3
T ~ I.0
Mow, nofe fhe foIIowing for fhis exompIe.
The decoy focfor, e
-T
~ e
-0.05
, so eoch sompIe
infervoI, fhe bound on fhe sinusoid wiII decreose fo e
-
0.05
of fhe voIue fhe preceding sompIe period. Thofs
opproximofeIy o b7 decreose fo 0.9bI fimes fhe preceding voIue.
The magnitude of the pole - the distance of the pole from the origin - determines the decay
rate. That distance is shown on the plot, and it is equal to e
-T
. That's the amount the
envelope of the response decays each sample period. Remember, the poles are at:
z
1
= e
-T-T
z
2
= e
-T+T
The magnitude of both poles is e
-T
. The factor, e
T
, only changes the angle of the
first pole - and the factor, e
-T
, changes the angle of the second pole - but in the opposite
direction.
The same angle, T, appears in both poles - once positively, and once negatively. That
angle determines how much the angle of the sinusoidal signal (which is also decaying!) changes
each sample period since the response is given by:
f
= f(kT) = e
-T
sin(kT)
We will call T the angular rate.
Example
E8 Now, consider the example we have been using.
= 0.05,
= .3
T = 1.0
With = .3 and T = 1.0, we have T = .3 radians or about 17.2 degrees. That means
that the sinusoidal part of the response will move through a complete cycle in a little over 21
sample periods. Check that using the simulator.
ExompIe
E9 Here is o simuIofor which oIIows you fo inpuf fhe decoy rofe ond fhe ongIuIor chonge
befween sompIes.
ProbIem
PI Soy fhof you wonf fhe response fo decoy fo wifhin b7 of fhe sforfing voIue in Z0 sompIe
periods. Whof shouId fhe decoy focfor be7
Enfer your onswer in fhe box beIow, fhen cIick fhe buffon fo submif your onswer. You wiII
gef o grode on o 0 (compIefeIy wrong) fo I00 (perfecfIy occurofe onswer) scoIe.
Check M Answer
Your grode is:
The poIe posifion defermines fhe significonf feofures of fhe response.
The disfonce from fhe origin defermines fhe rofe of decoy. The cIoser fo fhe origin fhe
quicker fhe decoy - os meosured in sompIe periods.
The ongIe off fhe hori;onfoI - meosured from fhe origin - defermines fhe number of
sompIe periods in o period of fhe sinusoid.
Lefs Iook of some porficuIor coses. In fhe process we shouI come fo o beffer
undersfonding of how poIe posifion offecfs response.
One inferesfing porficuIor cose is when fhe poIes ore on fhe imoginory oxis. Here is o
copy of fhe simuIofor we used eorIier.
ExompIe
EI0 Here is fhe simuIofor. Do fhe foIIowing.
Use voIues of Ib
, 30
, 4b
, . . . up fo I80
, for fhe ongIe.

Use voIues of I.0, 0.9, 0.8, . . . for fhe decoy focfor.
Observe resuIfs ond see whof concIusions you con drow. Moke sure fhof fhe resuIfs
moke sense fo you.
Ae he el ha o epeced?
Noice ho he ignal i ndamped hen i i on he ni cicle.
Noice ho he appaen damping inceae a he pole moe oad he cene
(oigin) of he ni cicle.
The aio eample ho behaio ha i mch like he behaio o old ge in a
conino em b changing he damping aio.
Wha i ineeing abo he epone fo a nine degee angla ae i ha hee
ae a lo of poin ha ae eo. To eplain ha conide he folloing:
Fo a nine degee angla ae, he pole ae a +90
and -90
.
The angle of he pole deemine he nmbe of ample in a peiod of ocillaion.
Fo an angle of 90
, hee ae fo ample in a peiod.

Wih fo ample in a peiod, in hi cae hee i:
one p,
one a eo,
one don, and
one a eo, ec.
We can m p ha o hold hae obained fom hi pa of he leon.
Yo hold be able o elae he diance of a pole fom he oigin of he -plane o
he deca ae.
You should be able to relate the angle of the pole off the horiontal - measured from
the origin - to the number of samples in an oscilation period.
And these were part of the set of goals enumerated earl in this lesson.
Some Important Facts & Z-Transform Theorems
When dealing with sampled signals, there are some relationships ou need to know. In
continuous sstems, multiplication b s comes about b taking the transform of a derivative.
That's important in continuous sstems because that's what eventuall lets ou appl Laplace
transforms to differential equations and develop concepts like the transfer function.
In sampled sstems, multiplication b is what helps ou solve difference equations,
and eventuall that will let us develop equivalent transfer function concepts for sampled
sstems. Some simple facts are the results for multiplication b a constant and the linearit
theorem. In what follows, we assume that we have a signal sequence,
, and the transform of

that signal sequence is Y[].
Z(a
) = a Y[] Multiplication b a constant

Z(a
+ b w
) = a Y[] + b W[] Linearit

Linearit Theorem
These two theorems are fairl eas to show, and the first is reall a special case of the
second - the linearit theorem - so we will just show how the second one comes about. Here
is a statement of the linearit theorem again:
Z(a
+ b w
) = a Y[] + b W[] Linearit

Now, we can follow the following steps, starting with the definition

and ha' he heoem.
Delaed Signal - Shifing Theoem
The mo impoan heoem fo Z-anfom i he eal anlaion heoem - alo
knon a he hifing heoem. The hifing heoem a:
Z(a
-1
) =
-1
Y[]
Yo need o ndeand ha
-1
i. If o hink abo i, hen k i 3, fo eample, he
ale of he fncion i
2
. In ohe od, he ignal
-1
i he ame a he ignal
ecep ha i ake on pecific ale one ample peiod lae han
.
Thi one ake a lile moe effo o demonae. Fi, le' look a he hifed
fncion.
Shifing he inde b -1 (changing k o k-1) dela he fncion b one ample poin.
A fncion i hon o he igh in ed. The ame fncion - delaed b one ample peiod -
i hon in ble on he plo.
No, le look a he Z-anfom of he hifed fncion. Hee i he mmaion e
an o pefom.
The firsf ferm in fhe sum, for k ~ 0, is y
-1
. We wiII ossume fhof fhe signoIs we deoI
wifh - incIuding y
here - oII sforf of ;ero so fhof y

-1
~ 0.
Mofing fhof, we con Ief m ~ k - I, ond subsfifufe fhof in fhe sum. Then fhe sum wiII run
from m ~ -I fo infinify. Here is fhof expression.
Mow, evoIufe fhe sum. Thof Ieods fo fhe foIIowing expression.
UIfimofeIy, we concIude fhof fhe fronsform of fhe deIoyed signoI is jusf ;-I fimes fhe
fronsform of fhe undeIoyed signoI, i.e.:
Z[y
-1
] ~ ;
-1
Y[;] ~ Y[;]/;
FinoI VoIue Theorem
There ore ofher imporfonf resuIfs you wiII need fo know for confroI sysfems. One of
fhose is fhe finoI voIue fheorem. Here is o sfofemenf of fhe resuIf of fhe fheorem.
Porophrosing fhe resuIf, we soy fhof fhe Iimif of fhe sequence os fime (k) becomes Iorge
is fhe Iimif in fhe ;-domoin of (; - I)/; fimes fhe fronsform of fhe funcfion, Y[;]. (Mofe
fhof (I - ;
-1
) is fhe some os (; - I)/;.)
Consider fhe fronsform of o sequence, y
.
Mow, oIso consider fhe fronsform of fhe some sequence deIoyed by one sompIe period.
Then, consider foking fhe difference befween fhese fwo fronsforms.
Mow, foke fhe Iimif of fhis difference os ; opprooches I. The sums on fhe righf hond side of
fhis equofion con be wriffen os:
[y
- y
-1
] + [y
1
- y
0
] + [y
2
- y
1
] + . . .
Mofice how y
-1
~ 0, ond how every ferm gefs conceIIed excepf fhe very Iosf. In whof is
shown y
2
is Ieff. In fhe Iimif, fhe "finoI voIue" is Ieff. So, we hove fhe finoI voIue fheorem
os o resuIf.
ProbIems
ProbIem SompIedIA0I - 0effing fhe fronsform of o decoying sequence.
ProbIem SompIedIA0b - 0effing fhe fronsform of o doubIe deIoyed signoI
Links To PeIofed Lessons
Ofher Lessons On SompIed Sysfems
Infroducfion fo Z Tronsforms
AppIicofion To Sysfems - Tronsfer Funcfions
Moving AIong - More Advonced MoferioI
Send us your commenfs on fhese Iessons.

An Introduction To Z Transforms

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11/10/11 An Introduction to Z Transforms

), ond odded in o unif impuIse, fhen

em) deemine he nmbe of pole.

, for fhe ongIe.

, hee ae fo ample in a peiod.

, and the transform of

) = a Y[] Multiplication b a constant

) = a Y[] + b W[] Linearit

) = a Y[] + b W[] Linearit

11/10/11 An Introduction to Z Transforms

ecep ha i ake on pecific ale one ample peiod lae han

here - oII sforf of ;ero so fhof y

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