READING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES (Guidelines for the ESL/EFL Teacher) By William Grabe and Fredericka L.

Stoller (Michael John B. Ancheta) READING identifying of written or printed words: the process of identifying and understanding the meaning of the characters and words in written or printed material an activity characterized by the translation of symbols, or letters, into words and sentences that have meaning to the individual.

READING COMPREHENSION - a series of subskills, such as understanding word meanings in context, finding the main idea, making inferences about information implied but not stated, and distinguishing between fact and opinion. READING (FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES) is assumed to be the central means for learning new information and gaining access to alternative explanations and interpretations in the academic settings. provides the foundation for synthesis and critical evaluation. is the primary means for independent learning, whether the goal is performing better on academic tasks, learning more about subject matter, or improving language abilities.

PURPOSES FOR READING ** The general purposes for us why we read are to: get the main idea of a text (e.g. skimming a newspaper story) locate specific information (scanning for a name, date or term) learn information , and synthesize these pieces of information afterwards have general comprehension be entertained and gain pleasure

** In academic settings, the purposes of English for Academic Purposes Reading Curriculum are to: search for information general comprehension learn new information synthesize and evaluate information

READING ABILITY requires the reader to draw information from a text and combine it with information and expectations that the reader already has.

READING PROCESSES AND ABILITIES Rapid word recognition Vocabulary development Text-structure awareness Strategic reading Use of Graphic Organizerss

FLUENCY able to speak with ease: able to speak a language effortlessly and correctly effortlessly expressed: spoken or expressed effortlessly and correctly smoothly flowing: flowing in a smooth graceful way (literary)

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUENT READERS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Read rapidly for comprehension. Recognize words rapidly and automatically. Draw on a very large vocabulary store. Integrate text information with their own knowledge. Recognize the purpose(s) for reading. Comprehend the text as necessary. Shift purpose to read strategically. Use strategies to monitor comprehension. Recognize and repair miscomprehension. Read critically and evaluate information.

IMPLICATIONS FOR EAP READING INSTRUCTION (in relation to fluent reading and L1 and L2 contexts) ** EAP teachers should address the academic reading needs of the students by doing the following: 1. Help students build a large recognition vocabulary. 2. Provide explicit language instruction to help students build a reasonable foundation in the L2. 3. Address the range of skills needed for successful comprehension. 4. Introduce students to discourse-organizing principles through the use of graphic representations and other practices. 5. Help students become strategic reading readers by focusing on metacognitive awareness and strategy learning. 6. Give students many opportunities to read so that they develop reading fluency and automacity. 7. Make extensive reading and broad exposure to L2 texts a routine practice, in and out of class. 8. Motivate students to read. 9. Integrate reading and writing instruction. 10. Develop effective content-based instruction for authentic integrated-skills tasks.

L2 READERS AS COMPARED TO L1 READERS: LINGUISTIC SKILLS AND VOCABULARY: L2 readers generally have weaker linguistic skills and a more limited vocabulary than do L1 readers. KNOWLEDGE ON STRUCTURES: L2 readers do not have an intuitive foundation in the structures of L2. CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE: L2 readers lack cultural knowledge that is sometimes assumed in texts. LANGUAGE PRESENTATION: L2 readers have some difficulties recognizing the ways in which texts are organized and information is presented, leading to possible comprehension problems. L1 KNOWLEGE INTERFERENCE: L2 readers, working on two languages, are able to rely on their L1 knowledge and L1reading abilities.

LANGUAGE SUPPORTS: L2 readers have certain resources for reading that are potentially strong supports (e.g. bilingual dictionaries, word glosses, mental translation skills, and the ability to recognize cognates).

SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS IN L2 READING: FAMILY FACTORS: L2 students come from a variety of families, in which some families read very little, have few reading materials available, and lack of encouragement for independent reading. SOCIAL FACTORS: Some social settings do not encourage reading (e.g. 1) prior schooling may not have emphasized reading; 2) community institutions may not have encouraged reading; 3) community libraries may have been scarce or inaccessible due to lack of reading materials) CULTURAL FACTORS: Some cultures or social groups place more emphasis on spoken communication for learning. Example: Educational and religious experiences may center on the unquestioned truth of powerful texts, leading to the memorization of key text information rather than evaluation of competing informational resources. INSTRUCTIONAL SETTING: It defines different goals for reading achievement, purposes for reading, and uses of text resources. It considers the nature of language learning (ESL or EFL).

GOALS FOR EFFECTIVE READING CURRICULUM 1. Conduct needs analyses to interpret institutional goals and expectations for leaning. It is especially important to examine students motivations and attitudes toward reading in general, L2 reading more specifically, and the particular goals of the curriculum. In some settings, certain amount of information can be collected by interviewing students previous teachers and by becoming acquainted with institutional guidelines, assessment expectations, and reading resources. Teachers have the responsibility to gather information about students goals, prior reading experiences, and attitudes toward L2 reading from other resources, most commonly the students themselves. One quick way to collect useful information is to conduct a short survey and have brief follow-up interviews with students. Questions can focus on: How much reading students have done? What students like to read? What they have read? When did the last time they read a book? What are the reasons why they read? How students feel about reading? How successful they perceive themselves to be as readers? 2. Plan (or fine-tune) reading curricula in relations to specific goals, topics, texts, and tasks. Curricular priorities need to be determined based on institutional goals, number of hours on instruction per week, available resources, and students abilities, needs, and interests. The reading curriculum should focus on: comprehension of key texts emphasis of extensive reading development of strategic reading

 increase in students recognition vocabularies greater fluency in reading systematic analyses of difficult material study of discourse-organization features Select the texts and topics after the priorities have been determined. Design the tasks, with an eye toward creating meaningful, motivating, and challenging curriculum. 3. Select appropriate text materials and supporting resources. A reading curriculum is heavily dependent on the reading material used. The choice of primary texts and textbooks, supporting resources, and classroom library materials has a major impact on students motivations to read and their engagement with texts. Text materials should complement students intellectual levels and be at appropriate levels of difficulty. Potential sources of difficulty for L2 readers: assumed background knowledge cultural assumptions demanding topics grammatical complexity length of texts new conceptual knowledge organization, unusual formatting vocabulary Text materials selected for EAP settings should be interesting and coherently linked by topics, tasks, and overall themes. Free-reading materials should be easily accessible, plentiful, attractive, and available for learner use beyond class time. 4. Diversify students reading experiences. Effective reading instruction should not be limited to activities done in the classroom. An ideal reading curriculum comprises reading in class, in a lab, in a library, and at home, in addition to reading for different purposes. Reading can develop successfully only if students read a large amount of material. A major task of a reading curriculum is to guide students in doing as much reading as possible in the amount of available time. Silent reading should be a part of every reading lesson; extended silent reading should be a major component of reading labs and library visits, and student must be encouraged to read at home. 5. Work with texts by means of pre-, during-, and postreading framework. The heart of reading instruction is the set of tasks that students are engage into to achieve learning goals. General Framework for Reading Instruction Pre-reading instruction - helps students access background information that can facilitate subsequent reading - provides specific information needed for successful comprehension - stimulates students interest - sets up student expectations - models strategies that students can later use on their own. - Example activities:

 Previewing the text (examining distinguishing features of the text such as the title, subheadings, illustrations, captions, and sections) Skimming the text or portion of the text Answering motive questions Exploring key vocabulary During-reading instruction - guides students through the text, often focusing on understanding difficult concepts, making sense of complex sentences, considering relationships among ideas or characters in the text, and reading purposely and strategically. - Example activities: Outlining or summarizing key ideas Examining emotions and attitudes of key characters Determining sources of difficulty and seeking clarification Looking for answers to questions posed during pre-reading activities Writing down predictions of what will come next Postreading instruction - typically extends ideas and information from the text while also ensuring that the major ideas and supporting information are well understood - enrichment activities such as reading to write - example activities: completing a graphic organizer answering questions that demonstrate comprehension of the text expanding or changing a semantic map or any other organizer listening to a lecture and comparing information from the text and the lecture ranking the importance of information 6. Recognize the complex nature of reading through meaningful experience. Meaningful EAP reading instruction can account for the complex nature of reading skill by addressing the following aspects: Vocabulary development - There is overwhelming evidence that vocabulary knowledge is closely related to reading abilities (Schoonen, Hultsjin, and Bossers 1998). - Students need to recognize a large number of words automatically if they are to be a fluent reader. - Rapid word recognition also provides an avenue for learning new words while reading as they are benefited from being exposed to new words through explicit instruction, learning how to learn words on their own, familiarizing themselves with their own word-learning process, and becoming word collectors. - Teachers must select key words for instruction. Some inexperienced teachers cannot identify what key words to take. - Teachers can also use graphic organizers such as semantic maps, tables and word families, providing synonyms, context clues, analysis of word parts, associations, dictionary games, flashcards, word games, illustrations and pictures, matching meanings, and mnemonic strategies. Careful Reading of Texts It is a common task that requires readers to demonstrate a good understanding of details in the text, to learn information from it, and to use that information in other tasks. Careful reading activities typically center on questions that ask students to recognize main ideas and analyze supporting information, and arguments. Other activities include determining embedded meanings, identifying the attitude of the writer, the intended audience, and the goals of the writer. Guidelines in carrying out careful reading activities:

If a text is too difficult for students, additional support from the teacher should be provided. Provide some answers or hints to lead the students to a better understanding. Allow students to build their own understanding and let them explain and elaborate it later on.

Awareness of Text Structure L2 learners should be familiar with the larger organizations of the texts such as comparison-contrast, problem-solution, narrative sequences, and classification; and the different features of other genres such as news stories, letters to editor, and exposition. Some of the activities include: Identifying transitional phrases Pointing out words that signal patterns of text organization Identifying sentences that convey the main idea of the text Reorganizing a scrambled paragraph Use of Graphic Organizers The use of G.O. is an effective way to carry out reading instruction that focuses on careful reading comprehension and discourse organization. These are visual representations of text information whose main goal is to assist students in comprehending difficult texts. Strategic Reading A major goal for academic reading instruction is the development of strategic readers. Strategic readers understand the goals of reading activity, have a range of well-practice reading strategies at their disposal, apply them in efficient combinations, monitor comprehension appropriately, recognize miscomprehension, and repair miscomprehension problems effectively. It is entwined with the teaching approaches: Transactional Strategies Instruction (TSI by Pressley 1998) an instructional approach that is particularly effective as it is typically characterized by the following tenets:

Long-term commitment from the teacher Effective explanation and modelling of comprehension strategies Coaching students to read strategically Continuous emphasis of what reading strategy they are using, the benefits of the strategy, and its essential uses.

SIncludes discussion on text comprehension Questioning the Author (QTA) centers on the internalization of comprehension strategies through discussion focused on text and meaning, elaborative interrogation that asks why-questions.

Other aspects involve: Fluency Development Extensive reading Student motivation Integrated-skills Instruction