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BACKUP EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES

What is an earthquake?
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking and shifting of large sections of Earths rocky outer shell. Earthquakes are among the most powerful events on earth, and their results can be terrifying. A severe earthquake may release energy 10,000 times as great as that of the first atomic bomb. Rock movements during an earthquake can make rivers change their course. Earthquakes can trigger landslides that cause great damage and loss of life. Large earthquakes beneath the ocean can create a series of huge, destructive waves called tsunamis (tsoo NAH meez)that flood coasts for many miles. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes almost never kill people directly. Instead, many deaths and injuries result from falling objects and the collapse of buildings, bridges, and other structures. Fire resulting from broken gas or power lines is another major danger during a quake. Spills of hazardous chemicals are also a concern during an earthquake. The force of an earthquake depends on how much rock breaks and how far it shifts. Powerful earthquakes can shake firm ground violently for great distances. During minor earthquakes, the vibration may be no greater than the vibration caused by a passing truck. On average, a powerful earthquake occurs less than once every two years. At least 40 moderate earthquakes cause damage somewhere in the world each year. Scientists estimate that more than 8,000 minor earthquakes occur each day without causing any damage. Of those, only about 1,100 are strong enough to be felt. How an earthquake begins Most earthquakes occur along a fault a fracture in Earths rocky outer shell where sections of rock repeatedly slide past each other. Faults occur in weak areas of Earths rock. Most faults lie beneath the surface of Earth, but some, like the San Andreas Fault in California, are visible on the surface. Stresses in Earth cause large blocks of rock along a fault to strain, or bend. When the stress on the rock becomes great enough, the rock breaks and the stresses are released and snaps into a new position, causing the shaking of an earthquake. Earthquakes usually begin deep in the ground. The point in Earth where the rocks first break is called the focus, also known as the hypocenter, of the quake. The focus of most earthquakes lies less than 45 miles (72 kilometers) beneath the surface, though the deepest known focuses have

been nearly 450 miles (700 kilometers) below the surface. The point on the surface of Earth directly above the focus is known as the epicenter of the quake. The strongest shaking is usually felt near the epicenter. From the focus, the break travels like a spreading crack along the fault. The speed at which the fracture spreads depends on the type of rock. It may average about 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) per second in granite or other strong rock. At that rate, a fracture may spread more than 350 miles (560 kilometers) in one direction in less than three minutes. As the fracture extends along the fault, blocks of rock on one side of the fault may drop down below the rock on the other side, move up and over the other side, or slide forward past the other. How an earthquake spreads When an earthquake occurs, the violent breaking of rock releases energy that travels through Earth in the form of vibrations called seismic waves. Seismic waves move out from the focus of an earthquake in all directions. As the waves travel away from the focus, they grow gradually How earthquakes cause damage Earthquakes can damage buildings, bridges, dams, and other structures, as well as many natural features. Near a fault, both the shifting of large blocks of Earths crust, called fault slippage, and the shaking of the ground due to seismic waves cause destruction. Away from the fault, shaking produces most of the damage. Undersea earthquakes may cause huge tsunamis that swamp coastal areas. Other hazards during earthquakes include rockfalls, ground settling, and falling trees or tree branches. Structural hazards Tsunamis Fault slippage source. Structural hazards Structures collapse during a quake when they are too weak or rigid to resist strong, rocking forces. In addition, tall buildings may vibrate wildly during an earthquake and knock into each other. Picture San Francisco earthquake of 1906 A major cause of death and property damage in earthquakes is fire. Fires may start if a quake ruptures gas or power lines. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake ranks as one of the worst disasters in United States history because of a fire that raged for three days after the quake. Other hazards during an earthquake include spills of toxic chemicals and falling objects, such as tree limbs, bricks, and glass. Sewage lines may break, and sewage may seep into water supplies.

Drinking of such impure water may cause cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and other serious diseases. Loss of power, communication, and transportation after an earthquake may hamper rescue teams and ambulances, increasing deaths and injuries. In addition, businesses and government offices may lose records and supplies, slowing recovery from the disaster. Reducing earthquake damage In areas where earthquakes are likely, knowing where to build and how to build can help reduce injury, loss of life, and property damage during a quake. Knowing what to do when a quake strikes can also help prevent injuries and deaths. Where to build Earth scientists try to identify areas that would likely suffer great damage during an earthquake. They develop maps that show fault zones, flood plains (areas that get flooded), areas subject to landslides or to soil liquefaction, and the sites of past earthquakes. From these maps, land-use planners develop zoning restrictions that can help prevent construction of unsafe structures in earthquake-prone areas. How to build Engineers have developed a number of ways to build earthquake-resistant structures. Their techniques range from extremely simple to fairly complex. For small- to medium-sized buildings, the simpler reinforcement techniques include bolting buildings to their foundations and providing support walls called shear walls. Shear walls, made of reinforced concrete (concrete with steel rods or bars embedded in it), help strengthen the structure and help resist rocking forces. Shear walls in the center of a building, often around an elevator shaft or stairwell, form what is called a shear core. Walls may also be reinforced with diagonal steel beams in a technique called cross-bracing. Builders also protect medium-sized buildings with devices that act like shock absorbers between the building and its foundation. These devices, called base isolators, are usually bearings made of alternate layers of steel and an elastic material, such as synthetic rubber. Base isolators absorb some of the sideways motion that would otherwise damage a building. Skyscrapers need special construction to make them earthquake-resistant. They must be anchored deeply and securely into the ground. They need a reinforced framework with stronger joints than an ordinary skyscraper has. Such a framework makes the skyscraper strong enough and yet flexible enough to withstand an earthquake. Earthquake-resistant homes, schools, and workplaces have heavy appliances, furniture, and other structures fastened down to prevent them from toppling when the building shakes. Gas and water lines must be specially reinforced with flexible joints to prevent breaking.

Safety precautions are vital during an earthquake. People can protect themselves by standing under a doorframe or crouching under a table or chair until the shaking stops. They should not go outdoors until the shaking has stopped completely. Even then, people should use extreme caution. A large earthquake may be followed by many smaller quakes, called aftershocks. People should stay clear of walls, windows, and damaged structures, which could crash in an aftershock. People who are outdoors when an earthquake hits should quickly move away from tall trees, steep slopes, buildings, and power lines. If they are near a large body of water, they should move to higher ground. Where and why earthquakes occur Scientists have developed a theory, called plate tectonics, that explains why most earthquakes occur. According to this theory, Earths outer shell consists of about 10 large, rigid plates and about 20 smaller ones. Each plate consists of a section of Earths crust and a portion of the mantle, the thick layer of hot rock below the crust. Scientists call this layer of crust and upper mantle the lithosphere. The plates move slowly and continuously on the asthenosphere, a layer of hot, soft rock in the mantle. As the plates move, they collide, move apart, or slide past one another. The movement of the plates strains the rock at and near plate boundaries and produces zones of faults around these boundaries. Along segments of some faults, the rock becomes locked in place and cannot slide as the plates move. Stress builds up in the rock on both sides of the fault and causes the rock to break and shift in an earthquake. There are three types of faults: (1) normal faults, (2) reverse faults, and (3) strike-slip faults. In normal and reverse faults, the fracture in the rock slopes downward, and the rock moves up or down along the fracture. In a normal fault, the block of rock on the upper side of the sloping fracture slides down. In a reverse fault, the rock on both sides of the fault is greatly compressed. The compression forces the upper block to slide upward and the lower block to thrust downward. In a strike-slip fault, the fracture extends straight down into the rock, and the blocks of rock along the fault slide past each other horizontally. Most earthquakes occur in the fault zones at plate boundaries. Such earthquakes are known as interplate earthquakes. Some earthquakes take place within the interior of a plate and are called intraplate earthquakes. Interplate earthquakes occur along the three types of plate boundaries: (1) mid-ocean spreading ridges, (2) subduction zones, and (3) transform faults. Mid-ocean spreading ridges are places in the deep ocean basins where the plates move apart. As the plates separate, hot lava from Earths mantle rises between them. The lava gradually cools, contracts, and cracks, creating faults. Most of these faults are normal faults. Along the faults, blocks of rock break and slide down away from the ridge, producing earthquakes. Near the spreading ridges, the plates are thin and weak. The rock has not cooled completely, so it is still somewhat flexible. For these reasons, large strains cannot build, and most earthquakes near spreading ridges are shallow and mild or moderate in severity.

Subduction zones are places where two plates collide, and the edge of one plate pushes beneath the edge of the other in a process called subduction. Because of the compression in these zones, many of the faults there are reverse faults. About 80 per cent of major earthquakes occur in subduction zones encircling the Pacific Ocean. In these areas, the plates under the Pacific Ocean are plunging beneath the plates carrying the continents. The grinding of the colder, brittle ocean plates beneath the continental plates creates huge strains that are released in the worlds largest earthquakes. The worlds deepest earthquakes occur in subduction zones down to a depth of about 450 miles (700 kilometers). Below that depth, the rock is too warm and soft to break suddenly and cause earthquakes. Transform faults are places where plates slide past each other horizontally. Strike-slip faults occur there. Earthquakes along transform faults may be large, but not as large or deep as those in subduction zones. One of the most famous transform faults is the San Andreas Fault. The slippage there is caused by the Pacific Plate moving past the North American Plate. The San Andreas Fault and its associated faults account for most of Californias earthquakes. Intraplate earthquakes are not as frequent or as large as those along plate boundaries. The largest intraplate earthquakes are about 100 times smaller than the largest interplate earthquakes. Intraplate earthquakes tend to occur in soft, weak areas of plate interiors. Scientists believe intraplate quakes may be caused by strains put on plate interiors by changes of temperature or pressure in the rock. Or the source of the strain may be a long distance away, at a plate boundary. These strains may produce quakes along normal, reverse, or strike-slip faults. When the earth shakes due to the movements of plates below the earths crust it is known as Earthquake. Earthquakes are natural disasters, which kill thousands of people in an instant and can destroy cities and countries- human habitation across miles. The vibration during an earthquake has the potential to wreak havoc and destruction, which is beyond imagination. The destruction is the maximum near the epicenter, the place from where the vibrations arise and spread. Of late there have been many such natural disasters, which can be associated with earthquakes like the Tsunami that hit the shores of India, Thailand and razed down buildings and annihilated many lives. It seemed like Mother Nature was avenging herself on us who have used all her endowments to the fullest extent without caring to rejuvenate them. Here we would try to find out the causes of earthquakes so that we can all contribute to the prevention of such things in our own small ways. Individual awareness would definitely lead to mass awareness. Causes of earthquakes If seen broadly we can say that earthquakes are caused due to two major reasons. The first reason is the eruption of volcanoes, which are sudden, and as is known volcanoes are seat of inner disturbance and can affect the plates which is the second cause of earthquakes. Earthquakes are caused due to disturbance in the movement of plates, which again can be caused due to various

reasons like under crust waves or cracks in the plates. Plate Tectonic Theory The outer layer of the earth is divided into many sections known as plates, which are floating on the molten magma beneath the earths crust. Now the movement of these plates is determined by the convection current in the molten magma. The heat makes these plates rise and vice versa. Therefore after intervals there are plates that get submerged in the molten magma and there plates that rise upwards and at times even new crust is formed from the molten magma which in turn forms a new plate until it connects itself with the already existing ones. At times these plates and can be pushed up to form mountains and hills and the movement is so slow that it is really hard to comprehend that there is any movement at all. The movement and the results come out to be visible suddenly. Now these plates are the bases on which the continents stand and when these plates move the continents also move. Most of the earthquakes occur on the edges of the plates where a plate is under one or across. This movement disrupts the balance and position of all plates, which leads to tremors, which are called earthquakes. Volcanic Eruptions When volcanoes erupt it is because the molten magma under the crust of the earth is under enormous pressure and to release that pressure it looks for an opening and exerts pressure on the earths crust and the plate in turn. A place, which is the seat of an active volcano, is often prone to earthquakes as well because the pressure that is exerted by the magma exceeds the limit these plates move and that causes earthquakes. Earthquakes are also caused after a volcanic eruption since the eruption also leads to a disturbance in the position of plates, which either move further or resettle and can result into severe or light tremors. The excessive exploitation of earths resources for our own benefits like building dams to store large volumes of water and blasting rocks and mountains to build bridges and roads is also the reason behind such natural disruptions.
The cause of earthquakes has been the subject of much speculation over the centuries, geologists now agree that earthquakes can be divided into two categories: 1. Tectonic earthquakes are those associated with faulting or other structural processes. 2. Volcanic earthquakes are those associated with volcanic eruptions. The major portion of observed seismic activity is

Tectonic in origin.

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